BERK  BlEY 

LIBRARY 

UNIVERSITY  OF 
CALIFORNIA 


Ecclesiastical  Dictionary 


CONTAINING,  IN  CONCISE  FORM, 
INFORMATION   UPON 


ECCLESIASTICAL,  BIBLICAL,  ARCH^OLOG- 
ICAL,  AND  HISTORICAL  SUBJECTS 


BY 

RBV.  JOHN    THEIN 

Priest  of  the  Diocese  of  Cleveland 

Author  ofCHKISriAN  ANTHROPOLOGY,*  ''ANSWER  TO  DIFFICULTIES 
OF  THE  BIBLE*  "THE  CATECHISM  OF  RODEZ*  etc. 


New  York,  Cincinnati,  Chicago 
BKNZIGE^R     BROTHERS 

Printers  to  the  Holy  Apostolic  See 
1900 


Copyright,  1900, 

BY 

REV.    JOHN  THEIN 


IDAN  STACtC 


T3I 


llmprtmatur 


^     MICHAEL    AUGUSTINE 

Archbishop  of  New  York 

New  York 
March  21,  1900 


•Wtbtl  ®b0tat 

►^     IGN.  F.  HORSTMANN 

Bishop  of  Cleveland 


Cleveland,  Ohio 
March  9,  1900 


509 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2008  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/ecclesiasticaldiOOtheirich 


(iii) 


PREFACE 


[HE  closing  century  has  been  a  century  of  Dictionaries  of  all 
kinds.  Many  of  these  works  comprisG  several  large  volumes 
and  are  quite  expepsive.  Very  fevv^  can  aflFord  to  make  an  out- 
lay of  fifty  or  one  hundred  dollars  in  order  to  procure  an  Encyclopedia. 
Hence,  it  has  been  the  object  of  the  author  of  the  present  Ecclesias- 
tical Dictionary  to  furnish,  in  concise  form,  information  upon  eccle- 
siastical, biblical,  archaeological,  and  historical  subjects,  and  bring  the 
work  within  reach  of  everybody  by  making  a  small  outlay  of  money. 

The  more  than  three  thousand  articles,  contained  in  our  Dictionary, 
have  been  culled  from  various  standard  and  up-to-date  works.  In  order 
not  to  render  the  work  too  bulky,  by  always  giving  credit  to  the  au- 
thors and  their  works  throughout  the  text  of  the  book,  it  was  deemed 
best  to  confine  them  to  a  separate  list,  as  can  be  seen  on  page  v.  The 
quotations  of  Scripture  are  mostly  made  from  the  Latin  Vulgate.  As 
it  was  later  decided  to  make  the  size  of  the  pages  somewhat  longer  and 
wider,  in  order  to  give  the  book  a  nicer  form,  the  total  number  of  pages 
has  not  quite  reached  the  original   number  as  advertised. 

The  subjects  treated  in  the  Ecclesiastical  Dictionary,  may  be 
classified  under  the  three  following  heads  :  — 

Mixed  Theology 

Historic  Theology 

Pure  Theology 

Mixed  Theology  answers  especially  to  the  wants  of  our  time.  It 
consists  of  articles  whose  characteristics  are  philosophical,  scientific, 
artistic,  and  literary.  This  class  of  articles  has  for  object  to  urge  our 
contemporary  adversaries,  with  the  help  of  demonstrative  resources  that 
are  offered  by  philosophy,  the  sciences,  arts,  and  belles-lettres,  to  admit 
the  great  truths,  continually  attacked  by  them.  They  address  them- 
selves to  all  kinds  of  readers,  and,  by  studying  them  carefully,  may  they 
put  into  practice  the  declared  proposition  of  Pope  Pius  IX.,  before  it 
was  taken  up  again  and  embodied  into  the  decrees  of  the  Vatican  Coun- 
cil: "The  use  of  reason  precedes  faith  and  leads  man  to  it  with  the 
help  of  revelation  and  grace";  Rationis  usus  jidem  prcecedit,  et  ad  earn 
kominem  ape  revelationis  et  gratice  conducit.  If  some  of  the  articles 
appear  to  have  been  given  too  much  space,  then  the  importance  of  the 
subjects  makes  up  for   this. 


iv  PREFACE 

Historical  Theology  has  for  its  object,  as  the  name  implies,  Theologico- 
Historic  Generalities  and  Varieties.  It  comprises  Popes,  Councils, 
Particular  Churches,  Religious  Orders,  Famous  Schools,  Biographies  and 
Bibliographies,  Religious  Sects,  Ecclesiastical  Dignities,  etc. 

Finally,  Pure  Theology  consists  of  Theological  and  Exegetical  Gen- 
eralities and  Varieties ;  God  and  the  Creation ;  Christ  and  all  that  is 
directly  connected  with  Our  Lord ;  the  Church  and  the  Ecclesiastical 
Hierarchy ;  Grace  and  the  Sacraments  ;  Ecclesiastical  Morals  and  Pre- 
cepts, etc. 

These  are,  in  great  outlines,  the  subjects  treated  in  the  Ecclesias- 
tical Dictionary.  We  shall  be  judged  in  the  future.  For  to-day,  our 
only  ambition  is  to  be  appreciated  in  the  simple  exposition  of  the  sub- 
jects contained  in  our  work  ;  and  we  trust  that  the  book  will  find  many 
readers,  who  are  solely  animated  by  the  love  of  truth. 

The   Author. 

On  the  Feast  of  St.  Joseph,  March  19th,  1900. 


WORKS  USED   IN   COMPILING  THE 

ECCLESIASTICAL  DICTIONARY 


A    Catholic  Dictionary^   by  Addis  and  Arnold. 

American   Ecclesiastical  Review^   New  York. 

Catholic  Doctrine  atid  Discipline  Explained,   by  Philip  Bold. 

Christian  Apology  (English  translation),  by  Paul  Schanz,  D.D.D.Ph. 

Concise  Dictionary  of  Religious  Knowledge,  by  Rev.  Samuel  M.  Jackson. 

Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  3  vols.  (1860-63),  ^y  Sir  William  Smith. 

Dictionnaire  de  la  Bible,  by  F.  Vigouroux. 

Dictionnaire  des  Dictionnaires,  6  vols.  (1886),  by  P.  Guerin. 

Dictionnaire  de  Theologie,  12  vols.  (1876),  by  Bergier. 

Elements  of  Ecclesiastical  Latu,  by  Rev.  S.  B.  Smith,  D.D. 

Encyclopedia  Britannica,  with  Revised  Atnerican  Supplement  (1899). 

Grand     Catechisme    de    la     Perseverance     Chretienne,    14    vols,     by    P. 

D'  Hauterive. 
Handbook  of  the  Christian  Religion  (1891),  by  Rev.  W.  William  Wil- 

MERS,  S.J. 
Histoire   Universelle  de  V  Eglise  Catholique,  12   vols.  (1872),  by  Rohr- 

BACHER. 

History  of  the    Catholic    Church,    2    vols.   (English    translation),   by    Dr. 

Heinrich  Brueck. 
History  of  the  Church  (fifth  edition),  by  Rev.  J.  A.  Birkhaeuser. 
Hoffmann'' s  Catholic  Directory  of  1899. 

Introduction  to  the  Scriptures  (1889),  by  Rev.  John  MacDevitt,  D.D. 
Kir chen- Lexicon   (second  edition),   by  Wetzer  and  Welte. 
Manual  of   Catholic    Theology,  by  Joseph  Wilhelm,   D.D.,  Ph.D.,  and 

Thomas  B.  Scannell,  B.D. 
Origine  du  Culte  Chretien  (1898),  by  L'  Abbe  L.  Duchesne. 
Outlines  of  Church  History  (English  translation  1894),  by  Rev.  H.  Wed- 

EWER,  D.D. 
Outlines  of  Dogmatic  Theology,  3  vols,  by  Sylvester  Jos.  Hunter,  S.J. 
The  Century  Dictionary,  7  vols. 
Universal    Church  History,  3   vols.  English   translation    (1876),    by   Dr. 

John  Alzog. 


(V) 


Ecclesiastical  Dictionary 


Aachen  (Lat.  Aquis-granum;  Fr.  Aix- 
la-Chafelle).  —  City  in  Rhenish  Prussia; 
population  in  1890,  103,470.  It  was  a 
Roman  city,  favorite  abode  of  Charle- 
magne, and  crowning-place  of  the  Ger- 
man emperors  (803-1558).  Its  cathedral 
consists  of  the  famous  polygonal  monu- 
ment founded  by  Charlemagne  in  796-804, 
and  a  beautiful  Gothic  choir  of  the  four- 
teenth century.  Charlemagne's  structure 
was  inspired  by  St.  Vitale  at  Ravenna, 
which  he  had  seen  in  his  expedition  into 
Italy.  The  cathedral  of  Aachen  possesses 
a  very  rich  treasure  of  precious  objects, 
magnificent  reliquaries  and  numerous 
relics,  particularly  relics  of  our  Lord,  the 
Blessed  Virgin,  and  St.  John  the  Baptist: 
a  robe  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  of  yellow- 
white  wool,  the  swaddling-clothes  of  the 
Child  Jesus  of  dark-yellow  wool,  the  blood- 
stained winding-sheet  of  our  Saviour,  and 
the  fine  linen  into  which  the  body  of 
St.  John  the  Baptist  had  been  infolded. 
Among  the  so-called  smaller  relics  are 
pieces  of  the  Cross  and  the  Passion- 
instruments,  girdle  and  hair  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin,  remains  of  many  Apostles,  martyrs 
and  other  saints.  The  most  of  these  relics 
had  been  given  to  Charlemagne  by  Eastern 
princes.  They  are  solemnly  exposed,  to 
the  veneration  of  the  faithful,  every  sev- 
enth year.  Several  ecclesiastical  synods 
were  held  in  Aachen  :  that  of  798,  in  which 
Felix  of  Urgel  renounced  anew  his  Adop- 
tionism  ;  that  of  809,  which  acknowledged 
the  doctrine  and  practice  of  the  Frankish 
Church,  approved  the  insertion  of  the 
Filioqne  in  the  Symbol  of  Faith  and  the 
custom  of  singing  it  at  Mass;  that  of  817 
decreed  regulations  for  canons  and  female 
congregations. 

Aaron  (Hebr.  enliffhtened)  (1574-1452 
B.C.). —  First  high-priest  of  the  Jews,  of  the 
tribe  of  Levi  and  elder  brother  of  Moses. 


He  assisted  the  latter  in  the  work  of  deliv- 
ering the  Israelites,  and  was  the  spokes- 
man before  Pharao.  Guilty  of  weakness, 
during  the  sojourn  of  Moses  on  Sinai,  by 
permitting  the  people  to  cast  and  adore  a 
golden  calf,  he  soon  acknowledged  his 
fault  and  God  preserved  to  him  the  priest- 
hood, which  became  hereditary  in  his 
family.  In  punishment  for  not  having 
shown  sufficient  confidence  in  the  Lord, 
when  He  told  him  to  strike  the  rock  at 
Cades,  like  Moses,  he  did  not  enter  the 
Promised  Land,  and  died  on  Mount  Hor. 

Abaddon  (Hebr.  extermination,  destruc- 
tion).—  In  the  New  Testament,  Abaddon 
is  the  angel  of  the  abyss  (Apoc.  ix.  11),  or 
Satan,  and  this  name  designates  his  power 
of  destruction,  his  zeal  of  extermination. 

Abarbanel.  —  Rabbinic  Doctor,  of  Lis- 
bon, Spain  (1437-1508).  Minister  of 
finances  of  Alphonso  V.  of  Portugal  and  of 
Ferdinand  of  Aragon.  Banished  in  1492; 
he  died  at  Venice.  Besides  commentaries, 
he  wrote  in  Hebrew,  The  Herald  of  Sal- 
vation, which  is  an  examination,  in  a 
bitter  tone,  of  the  principal  Messianic 
prophecies,  in  order  to  refute  the  Christian 
doctrine  df  the  Messiasship  of  Christ. 

Abarim.  —  A  mountainous  region  of 
lofty  table- lands  in  Palestine,  east  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  on  the  northern  border  of  Moab 
and  within  the  limits  of  the  tribe  of  Ruben, 
The  mountains  Nebo,  Pisga  and  Peor  are 
summits  of  the  Abarim  (Num.  xxvii.  12; 
xxxiii.  47,  48;  Deut.  xxxii.  49). 

Abasement  of  Christ.  —  The  state  of 
abasement  of  Christ  consists  in  the  as- 
sumption of  humanity  and  the  simul- 
taneous occultation  of  the  Divinity.  The 
assumption  of  our  nature  by  the  Logos,  if 
accompanied  by  a  complete  manifestation 
of  His  power  and  glory,  would  not  be  an 

(I) 


Abba 


Abbot 


abasement,  but  an  act  of  gracious  con- 
descension. But  He,  to  whom  perfect 
glory  was  due  from  the  beginning,  chose 
to  lower  Himself  not  only  to  the  position 
of  our  first  parents  before  the  Fall,  but  to 
the  condition  of  "  the  sons  of  man."  He 
began  life  as  an  infant,  lowly,  weak,  and 
dependent  on  others,  and  only  gradually 
attained  the  ripeness  of  manhood  in  which 
Adam  was  created.  Placed  by  His  birth 
among  sinners.  He  renounced  some  of  the 
privileges  of  His  original  justice  and  in- 
tegrity, and  submitted  —  as  far  as  consis- 
tent with  His  dignity  and  conducive  to  the 
salvation  of  man  —  to  the  imperfections  of 
human  nature,  and  to  the  ordinances  and 
laws  to  which  human  nature  is  subject. 
He  thus  did  homage  to  God  sufficient  to 
redeem  His  brethren ;  He  ennobled  lowli- 
ness and  showed  its  value  in  the  service  of 
God ;  He  set  us  a  perfect  example  of  all 
virtues,  but  especially  of  humility,  pa- 
tience, and  mercy;  He  acquired  a  perfect 
title  to  our  love. 

Abba(aChaldaicwordsignifyingyrt///er). 
— When  the  Jews  began  to  speak  Greek, 
this  word  was  probably  retained  from  their 
ancient  language,  being  easier  to  pro- 
nounce, especially  for  children,  than  the 
Greek  pater.  Our  Lord  used  it  in  His 
prayer  in  the  Garden  of  Gethsemane 
(Mark  xiv.  36).  St.  Paul  uses  it  twice 
(Rom.  viii.  15;  Gal.  iv.  6)  in  referring  to 
our  adoption  as  Sons  of  God  through  the 
Holy  Ghost. 

Abbadie  (James). — A  noted  French  Prot- 
estant theologian  (1654-1727).  He  went 
to  Berlin  about  1680  as  minister  of  the 
French  Church  there,  and  thence  to  Eng- 
land and  Ireland  ;  was  for  a  time  minister 
of  the  French  Church  in  the  Savoy;  and 
finally  settled  in  Ireland  as  Dean  of  Killaloe 
in  1699.  His  chief  work  is  the  Traite  de 
la  Verite  de  la  Religion  Chretienne  (1684), 
with  its  continuation,  Traite  de  la  Divin- 
ity de  notre  Seigneur  Jesus  Christ  (1689). 

Abb6. — A  purely  honorary  title,  given 
in  France  for  about  two  centuries  to  all  the 
clerics  from  tonsure  to  the  vicar-general. 
This  custom,  abusive  in  principle,  is  de- 
rived from  the  royal  courts.  As  most  of 
the  clerics  who  frequented  the  courts  were 
richly  provided  with  abbeys,  one  would 
have  considered  it  an  insult  to  appear  there 
vested  in  an  ecclesiastical  garment  and  not 
in  possession  of  some  abbatial  title.  Since 
that  time,  French  politeness  required  the 


cleric  to  be  called  Monsieur  V Abbe.  As  a 
rule,  to-day,  all  the  clerics  in  France  are 
called  Abbe.    See  Abbot. 

Abbess. —  The  mother  superior  of  a  nun- 
nery. According  to  the  Council  of  Trent, 
the  abbess  should  be  elected  by  the  secret 
votes  of  the  religious.  She  should  belong, 
as  much  as  possible,  to  the  monastery 
where  she  was  elected,  be  forty,  or  at  least 
thirty  years  old,  and  have  made  profession 
eight  or  at  least  five  years  before.  Should 
a  case  of  doubtful  election  arise,  the  ordi- 
nary intervenes  and  selects  from  among 
the  nuns  the  one  whom  he  thinks  best 
qualified  for  the  office.  Without  the  bish- 
op's sanction,  the  abbess  cannot  select  a 
father  confessor,  neither  for  herself  nor  for 
her  nuns;  nor  can  she  dispense  a  nun 
from  the  obligations  of  the  Rule  by  her 
own  authority;  neither  suspend  nor  dis- 
miss any  one. 

Abbey  signifies  both  the  corporate  body 
of  monks  or  nuns  under  an  abbot  or  ab- 
bess, and  the  building  in  which  they  live 
and  worship.  There  were  royal  abbeys, 
which  were  under  the  patronage  of  kings, 
and  episcopal  abbeys,  directly  controlled 
by  bishops.  In  the  course  of  time  their 
wealth  often  became  very  great.  In  Eng- 
land, in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.,  there 
were  190  of  them.  Henry  suppressed  them 
all,  and  confiscated  their  property,  which 
was  valued  at  £2,850,000.  See  Monas- 
tery. 

Abbo  of  Fleury(ST.)  (945-1004).^ — Abbot 
of  Fleury,  born  near  Orleans.  One  of  the 
most  learned  religious  of  his  time,  who 
founded  the  famous  Abbey  of  Fleury. 
His  most  remarkable  work  is  an  Epitome 
de  vitis  Romanorum  Pontijicum,  first  pub- 
lished at  Mayence,  1602.  F.Nov.  13th. 

Abbot  (Lat.  abbas).— This  title,  which 
is  equivalent  to  that  of  father  (chief  of  a 
family),  was  given  in  early  days  to  every 
superior  of  a  monastery,  in  both  the  East 
and  the  West.  Later  on,  in  the  East,  this 
title  gave  way  to  that  of  Hegumen  (guide, 
chief  of  a  house).  In  the  West,  since  the 
tenth  century,  the  name  is  more  strictly 
reserved  in  certain  monasteries  or  religious 
orders  to  the  superior  of  the  principal 
monasteries,  or  to  those  who  enjoy  a  more 
or  less  unlimited  autonomy  and  independ- 
ence. The  new  orders,  the  Carthusians, 
Dominicans,  Franciscans,  and  those  which 
have  been  founded  since,  do  not  assume- 
this  title. 


Abbreviator 


Ab^lard 


The  abbots  have  taken  an  important 
part  in  Church  matters  and  also  in  the 
progress  of  European  civilization.  The 
respect  and  veneration  which  their  posi- 
tion inspired,  the  confiding  trust  reposed 
in  them  by  the  weak  and  lowly,  and  their 
great  influence  among  all  ranks  of  society, 
enabled  them  to  become  the  ordinary  pro- 
tectors of  the  people  against  the  inroads 
of  Feudalism  and  Barbarism.  The  gifts 
and  privileges  bestowed  on  them  by  the 
Holy  See,  the  right  to  wear  the  crosier, 
miter  and  ring,  to  sit  in  councils  and 
synods,  also  in  the  counsels  of  the  Sover- 
eign Pontiff,  bishops,  kings,  and  vassals, 
surrounded  them  with  enlarged  advantages, 
which  greatly  added  to  their  influence. 
Though  the  number  and  influence  of  ab- 
bots have  greatly  diminished  in  our  time, 
there  are  still  many  in  Europe  as  well  as  in 
America,  whose  zeal  for  good  works  and 
religion  are  no  less  marked. 

Abbreviator. —  One  who  abbreviates  or 
reduces  to  a  smaller  compass ;  specifically, 
one  who  abridges  what  has  been  written 
by  another.  Abbreviators  is  also  the 
name  by  which  we  designate  a  number 
of  secretaries  in  the  chancery  of  the  Pope 
who  abbreviate  petitions  according  to 
certain  established  and  technical  rules, 
and  draw  up  the  minutes  of  the  apostolic 
letters.  Their  number  is  now  reduced 
to  eleven.  They  sign  the  apostolic  Bulls 
in  the  name  of  the  cardinal  vice-chan- 
cellor. The  abbreviator  of  the  curia  is 
a  prelate  not  belonging  to  the  above  col- 
lege, but  attached  to  the  oflSce  of  the  apos- 
tolic datary;  he  expedites  bulls  relating  to 
pontifical  laws  and  constitutions,  such  as 
for  the  canonization  of  saints,  and  the  like. 

Abdenago.  —  Babylonian  name  which 
signifies  servant  of  Nago,  sun  or  morning 
star,  given  by  an  officer  of  the  Babylonian 
king  to  Azarias,  one  of  the  three  compan- 
ions of  Daniel,  who  was  thrown  into  a  fiery 
furnace  and  miraculously  delivered,  in  the 
year  600  b.  c. 

Abdias. —  i.  Steward  of  the  house  of 
Achab,  king  of  Israel.  Secreted  the  proph- 
ets whom  queen  Jezabel  wished  to  put  to 
death.  2.  The  fourth  of  the  twelve  minor 
prophets ;  lived  during  the  captivity  of  the 
Jews  and  foretold  their  return ;  wrote  one 
single  chapter  against  the  Idumeans.  3. 
Famous  impostor  of  Babylon  who  wrote 
the  life  of  the  Apostles  and  wished  to  pass 
as  one  of  the  72  disciples  of  Jesus  Christ. 


Abdon  and  Sennen. —  Noble  Persians, 
martyrs,  at  Rome,  under  the  persecution 
of  Decius.  F.  July  30th.  Their  veneration 
is  very  ancient.  In  the  third  room  of  the 
Pontica  Cemetery  at  Rome  a  painting 
can  be  seen,  which  goes  back  at  least  to 
the  seventh  century.  It  represents  the 
Saviour  enfolded  to  the  waist  in  a  cloud  and 
deposing  from  each  hand  a  crown  upon  the 
head  of  St.  Abdon  and  St.  Sennen,  who 
are  in  Persian  costume,  wearing  the  Phryg- 
ian bonnet. 

Abecedarians. —  Anabaptists,  who 
claimed  that  in  order  to  be  saved,  we  must 
ignore  even  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  be- 
cause, according  to  Luther,  each  Christian 
will  be  judged  about  the  meaning  of 
Scripture,  for  God  instructs  all  men  im- 
mediately and  by  Himself. 

Abecedarian  Psalms. — The  name  ap- 
plied to  those  Psalms,  which,  according  tO' 
the  proceeding  of  the  119th  Psalm,  are  sa 
arranged  that  the  letters  of  each  verse  fol- 
low the  alphabetical  order. 

A  Becket  (Thomas).  See  Thomas  A 
Becket. 

Abel.     See  Cain. 

Abelard  (Peter)  (1079-1142). —  French 
scholar,  born  near  Nantes.  After  study- 
ing under  Roscelin,  betook  himself  to 
Paris,  and  became  the  pupil  of  the  learned 
William  of  Champeaux,  founder  of  the 
celebrated  Abbey  of  St.  Victor,  and  after- 
ward Bishop  of  Chalons.  His  progress 
was  so  rapid,  that  he  soon  outstripped  his 
master.  In  two  public  disputations,  which 
he  held  with  William,  he  came  off  trium- 
phant. Abelard,  though  then  only  twenty- 
two  years  old,  opened  a  school  of  his  own, 
at  Melun,  and  subsequently  at  Paris,  Cor- 
beil,  and  at  "the  Paraclete,"  a  monastery 
founded  by  him  near  Troyes.  Everywhere 
large  numbers  of  scholars  thronged  to  his 
lectures,  as  his  eloquence  was  indeed  won- 
derful. He  surprised  his  contemporaries 
by  the  brilliancy  of  his  genius,  the  ready 
flow  of  his  language,  and  the  subtlety  of  his 
reasoning.  Among  those  who  sought  his 
instructions  was  feloise,  the  niece  of  Canon 
Fulbert.  But  the  acquaintance  with  this  • 
accomplished  lady  proved  fatal  to  his 
honor.  To  cover  his  ignominy,  the  un- 
happy man  retired  to  the  monastery  of  St. 
Denis,  and  became  a  monk,  while  filoise 
took  the  veil  at  Argenteuil.  Abelard 
opened  a  school  at  St.  Denis,  which  was 


Abelites 


Abimelech 


soon  frequented  by  crowds  of  eager  stu- 
dents from  all  parts.  But  his  novel  views 
on  the  subject  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  brought 
him  into  conflict  with  the  Church.  His 
foremost  opponent  was  St.  Bernard.  Of  the 
novel  doctrines  advanced  by  Abelard,  we 
quote:  i.  The  Father  alone  is  all-power- 
ful; the  Son  is  inferior  in  power  to  the 
Father,  and  the  Holy  Ghost  is  inferior  to 
the  Son.  2.  The  Holy  Ghost  proceeds 
from  the  Father  and  the  Son;  but  He  is 
not  of  their  substance;  He  is  the  soul  of 
the  world.  3.  God  cannot  accomplish 
more  than  He  has  accomplished  and  in- 
tends yet  to  accomplish.  4.  Christ  as- 
sumed flesh,  not  to  redeem  man  from  the 
bondage  of  the  devil,  but  to  instruct  him 
by  word  and  example.  5.  Not  the  guilt, 
but  only  the  punishment  of  the  sin  com- 
mitted by  Adam,  is  propagated  in  his  pos- 
terity. 6.  Man  can  do  good  by  his  own 
free  will,  and  without  the  assistance  of 
divine  grace.  7.  No  sin  is  committed 
through  concupiscence  or  ignorance.  His 
errors  were  condemned  by  the  Council  of 
Sens,  in  1140.  Abelard  appealed  to  the 
Pope,  but,  on  his  way  to  Rome,  he  took 
sick  and  sought  refuge  with  Peter  the 
Venerable,  Abbot  of  Clugny.  Here  he 
spent  his  last  days,  and  died  peacefully, 
reconciled  with  St.  Bernard  and  the 
Church. 

Abelites. —  Heretics  of  Africa,  in  the 
time  of  St.  Augustine,  who  condemned 
marriage  and  kept  continence  in  order  not 
to  bring  forth  creatures  soiled  with  original 
sin.  They  founded  themselves  on  the  be- 
lief that  Abel  had  never  been  married. 
Each  couple  adopted  a  boy  and  a  girl,  and 
made  them  heirs  on  condition  that  they 
married  each  other,  but  likewise  restrained 
themselves. 

Abgar. —  A  name,  like  Pharao  or  Caesar, 
borne  by  the  kings  of  Edessa,  a  small  king- 
dom in  the  southwest  of  Mesopotamia. 
Eusebius  (Ch.  Hist.  i.  13),  gives  the  re- 
puted correspondence  between  (the  fif- 
teenth) Abgar  and  our  Saviour,  relative  to 
the  cure  of  a  former  leprosy.  Christ 
promises  to  send,  after  His  crucifixion, 
one  of  His  disciples  to  heal  him.  Thad- 
deus  was  sent,  and  Abgar  and  his  subjects 
were  converted  to  Christianity.  A  later 
legend  is  that  Christ  sent  Abgar  his  por- 
trait. 

Abia. —  King  of  Juda,  son  of  Roboam 
(958-955  B.  c).  Abia  is  a  proper  noun  and 
frequently  mentioned  in  Holy  Scripture. 


Abiathar. —  Son  of  Achimelech,  and 
high-priest  of  the  Jews.  When  Saul  sent 
his  emissaries  to  Nob,  to  destroy  all  the 
priests  there,  Abiathar,  who  was  young, 
fled  to  David  in  the  wilderness,  with  whom 
he  continued  in  the  function  of  high- 
priest.  Saul,  it  would  appear,  transferred 
the  dignity  of  the  high-priesthood  from 
Ithamar's  family  to  that  of  Eleazar,  by 
conferring  the  office  upon  Sadoc.  Thus, 
there  were,  at  the  same  time,  two  high- 
priests  in  Israel;  Abiathar  with  David, 
and  Sadoc  with  Saul.  This  double  priest- 
hood continued  from  the  death  of  Achim- 
elech till  the  reign  of  Solomon,  when 
Abiathar,  attaching  himself  to  Adonias, 
was  deprived  by  Solomon  of  his  priest- 
hood. 

Abib. —  The  first  month  of  the  ecclesias- 
tical year  of  the  Hebrews ;  afterward 
called  N'tsan.  It  answered  to  our  March 
and  April.  Abib  signifies  green  ears  of 
grain,  or  fresh  fruits.  It  was  so  named 
because  corn,  particularly  barley,  was  in 
ear  at  that  season. 

Abigail. —  Formerly  the  wife  of  Nabal 
of  Carmel,  and  afterward  of  David.  Upon 
receiving  information  of  Nabal's  ingrati- 
tude to  the  king  (I.  Ki.  xxv.  14,  etc.), 
she  loaded  several  asses  with  provisions, 
and,  attended  by  some  of  her  domestics, 
went  out  to  meet  David.  Her  manners 
and  conversation  gained  for  her  his  esteem, 
and,  as  soon  as  the  days  of  mourning  for 
Nabal's  death  were  over,  he  made  her  his 
wife. 

Abilene. —  The  name  of  a  district  of 
country  on  the  eastern  declivity  of  Antili- 
banus,  from  twelve  to  twenty  miles  north- 
west of  Damascus.  So  called  from  the  city 
Abila,  and  also  called  Abilene  of  Lysanias, 
to  distinguish  it  from  others.  This  terri- 
tory had  formerly  been  governed  as  a 
tetrarchate  by  a  certain  Lysanias ;  after- 
ward it  fell  to  Herod  the  Great. 

Abimelech. —  Name  of  three  personages 
in  the  Old  Testament :  i.  King  of  Gerara 
of  the  Philistines,  who  took  Sara  into  his 
harem ;  but  being  warned  by  God  in  a 
dream,  he  restored  her  to  Abraham  (Gen. 
XX.).  2.  Another  king  of  Gerara,  prob- 
ably son  of  the  former,  and  contemporary 
with  Isaac  (Gen.  xxvi.  6-31).  3.  Son  of 
Gedeon,  by  a  concubine;  made  himself 
king  of  Sichem  after  his  father's  death, 
and  slew  his  father's  seventy  sons  on  one 
stone,  only  Joatham,  the  youngest,  being 


Abiu 


Abortion 


left.  Joatham  reproached  the  Sichemites 
for  their  conduct  in  his  celebrated  fable  of 
the  trees.  Three  years  afterward  they 
rose  against  Abimelech  ;  he  defeated  them, 
and  destroyed  their  city,  but  as  he  was  at- 
tacking Thebes,  a  woman  threw  a  piece 
of  a  millstone  on  his  head,  which  so  in- 
jured him,  that  he  called  to  his  armor- 
bearer  to  slay  him  (Judg.  ix.). 

Abiu. —  Levite,  son  of  Aaron,  devoured 
by  fire  from  heaven  for  having  offered  in- 
cense with  a  profane  fire,  instead  of  taking 
it  from  the  altar  of  holocausts. 

Abjuration. —  A  solemn  act  of  renounc- 
ing all  false  or  heretical  doctrines  which  a 
person  had  formerly  held.  There  is  an 
authorized  form  of  abjuration  in  use  in  the 
Catholic  Church. 

Ablution. —  This  word,  in  Catholic  lit- 
urgy, has  several  meanings.  Baptism,  as- 
persion with  blessed  water,  the  washing  of 
feet,  that  of  the  altars  in  Holy  Week,  the 
washing  of  hands  at  Mass  after  the  OflFer- 
tory,  are  ablutions.  We  speak  here  only  of 
those  that  take  place  after  communion.  The 
word  ablution  is  now  in  use  in  liturgy  to 
designate  the  wine  and  water  received  by 
the  priest  into  the  chalice  and  upon  his 
fingers  to  purify  them.  After  the  receiv- 
ing of  the  most  precious  Blood,  the  cel- 
ebrant presents  the  chalice  to  the  Mass 
servant,  saying  the  words:  '^ ^uod  ore 
stimpsimus,'^  etc.  While  the  priest  recites 
these  words,  the  servant  pours  wine  into 
the  chalice.  Properly  speaking,  this  first 
ablution  is  only  that  of  the  cup.  The  ablu- 
tion of  the  fingers  of  the  priest  takes  place 
only  after  he  has  taken  the  wine,  and  when 
he  presents  the  chalice  to  the  servant.  He 
extends,  over  the  opening  of  the  chalice, 
the  thumb  and  index  finger  of  each  hand, 
with  which,  only,  he  has  touched  the  sacred 
Eucharist,  and  pronounces  the  following 
words:  '*  Corpus  tuum  Domine  quod 
sumpsi,'^  etc.,  while  the  servant  pours  wine 
and  water  into  the  chalice.  In  the  first  ten 
centuries  of  the  Church,  they  threw  the 
wine  and  water  of  the  ablutions  into  the 
piscina.  About  the  year  1200,  priests, 
guided  by  a  sentiment  of  respect,  judged 
it  becoming  to  take  the  ablution,  and  this 
practice  soon  became  a  general  law. 

Abner. —  General  of  Saul ;  embraced  the 
party  of  David,  and  was  treacherously  slain 
by  Joab,  either  to  avenge  the  death  of 
Asael,  Joab's  brother,  whom  Abner  had 
formerly  killed,  or  more  probably  from 
jealousy. 


Abortion. —  The  premature  expulsion  of 
the  foetus  by  criminal  means.  Direct  and 
voluntary  abortion  is  always  a  grievous 
sin,  a  criminal  act.  No  distinction  is  made 
between  the  animated  and  inanimated 
foetus,  hence  the  condemnation  by  Pope 
Innocent  XI.  of  the  following  proposition: 
"  It  is  permitted  to  procure  the  abortion 
before  the  animation  of  the  foetus,  in  order 
to  avoid  that  a  young  girl,  taken  unaware 
with  child,  might  be  killed  or  disgraced." 
Such  is  the  principle.  Now  behold  the 
application :  — 

A  woman  dangerously  sick  is  permitted 
to  take  a  remedy,  with  the  view  of  being 
cured,  and  at  the  risk  of  an  abortion,  when 
the  sickness  is  mortal,  and  when  the  remedy 
is  judged  necessary  for  her  cure.  A 
woman  is  not  permitted  to  take  a  remedy 
with  the  view  of  being  delivered  from  her 
pregnancy,  except  in  such  case  where  the 
foetus  is  corrupted.  A  physician,  treating 
a  sick  pregnant  woman,  must,  if  he  has 
the  choice  between  two  remedies,  employ 
the  one  which  will  heal  the  mother  with- 
out hurting  the  child ;  if  there  be  only  one 
remedy  at  his  disposition,  then,  he  can 
employ  it,  even  at  the  risk  of  hurting  the 
child ;  that  is,  supposing  the  mother's 
sickness  is  a  grave  one,  and  that  the  rem- 
edy employed  does  not  tend  directly  to- 
ward the  death  of  the  child,  and,  con- 
sequently, that  the  abortion,  if  it  take 
place,  is  only  an  indirect  accident  to  be 
deplored,  and  far  from  having  been  held  in 
view,  was  judged  only  probable  or  possi- 
ble. The  direct  abortion,  under  whatever 
circumstances  it  may  have  taken  place,  be- 
ing an  actual  or  anticipated  homicide,  is 
always  guilty.  It  is  clear  that  all  those 
who  co-operate  thereto,  like  physicians, 
surgeons,  druggists,  or  midwives,  sin  mor- 
tally. But  in  exceedingly  grave  cases, 
when  both  mother  and  child  incur  an  equal 
danger,  and  when  it  can  save  the  one  only 
by  killing  the  other,  which  has  to  be  sacri- 
ficed .?  The  child,  according  to  the  opinion 
of  a  certain  class  of  savants. 

This  reasoning,  however,  is  not  accepted 
by  theology,  which  says:  "The  foetus  is 
a  living  human  being.  Now,  it  is  never 
permitted  to  take  the  life  of  any  one  in 
order  to  preserve  that  of  another;  there- 
fore, the  child  cannot  be  killed  to  save  the 
mother. " 

On  this  point  we  will  add,  that  the  child 
would  be  unduly  deprived  of  the  spiritual 
regeneration  and  supernatural  advantages 
resulting  therefrom,  and  to  which  it  has 


Abraham 


Absolution 


received  a  right  through  redemption. 
One  must  not,  in  palliation  of  a  crime,  say 
that,  "  between  two  evils  we  must  choose 
the  lesser  one."  The  principle  or  moral, 
which  is  applicable  here,  is,  that  it  is  never 
permitted  to  do  evil  in  order  to  obtain  the 
good.  Now,  to  kill,  willingly  and  directly, 
a  human  being  is  an  evil. 

Several  Doctors  of  the  Theological  Fac- 
ulty of  Paris,  in  1733,  consulted  on  this 
question,  answered:  "That,  if  one  only 
regards  justice,  one  can  sacrifice  the  child 
in  order  to  save  the  mother,  each  one 
having  the  right  to  defend  his  life  against 
the  one  that  wishes  to  deprive  him 
thereof." 

This  answer  has,  since  then,  beerj  fre- 
quently refuted ;  and  the  Sacred  Congre- 
gation has  forbidden  it  to  be  taught  in  the 
seminaries.  Hence,  one  has  to  follow  the 
principle  laid  down  by  St.  Ambrose  (3  De 
Offic.  c.  q.)  Si  alteri  subvenire  non  potest, 
nisi  alter  laedatttr,  comtnodius  est  neutrum 
adjuvare,  Paris,  April  24, 1648.  The  ques- 
tion, however,  points  toward  a  solution, 
which  may  bring  harmony  between  the  two 
opinions,  namely,  to  surgery,  to  which  we 
must  look  for  the  best  results.  Three  op- 
erations promise  the  possibility  of  saving 
both  mother  and  child :  the  Caesarean 
operation,  Symphysectomy,  and  premature 
artificial  birth. 

Abraham  (Hebrew  word,  which  signi- 
fies Father  of  Nations). —  Son  of  Thare 
and  eleventh  descendant  of  Sem,  was  born 
at  Ur,  in  Chaldea,  about  the  year  2000 
B.C.,  and  died  in  Palestine,  at  the  age 
of  175  years.  He  is  surnamed  the  Father 
of  the  Faithful,  because  having  been  the 
man  whom  God  separated  from  the  com- 
mon mass,  to  make  him  the  father,  through 
generation,  of  the  people  of  Israel,  Jesus 
Christ  Himself  is  a  descendant  of  his,  and 
consequently  all  the  Christians  are  re- 
garded as  having  come  forth  from  Abraham 
in  a  spiritual  manner.  The  burial  place  of 
Abraham,  at  Hebron,  honored  by  both 
Jews  and  Christians,  is  to-day  in  the  hands 
of  the  Turks.  The  Greek  Church,  built 
over  the  sepulchre,  was  turned  into  a 
mosque. 

Abraham  a  Sancta-Clara. — Augustinian 
monk  of  Germany  (1644-1709);  one  of  the 
most  popular  preachers  of  his  time.  He 
mingled  everything  in  his  imaginative 
style:  fables,  stories  of  all  kinds,  pedantic 
quotations,  jocose  traits,  picturesque,  triv- 
ial, and  burlesque  plays  on  words.     Aside 


from  all  this,  he  was  a  man  of  great  piety 
and  had  a  profound  knowledge  of  men. 
One  can  judge,  by  the  titles,  of  the  caprice 
of  his  sermons  :  "  Judas  the  Archrascal  "  ; 
"  Kek,  Kek,  Kek,  Kek,  e  Ke,  or,  The 
Wonderful  Chicken  of  Bavaria." 

Abrahamites. —  i.  Heretics  of  the  ninth 
century,  innovators  of  the  Paulinianist 
doctrines,  under  the  empire  of  Nicephorus 
in  the  East  and  of  Charlemagne  in  the 
West.  2.  Bohemian  peasants,  who,  about 
the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  admit- 
ted no  other  dogma  than  the  divinity  of 
God,  and  adopted  Abraham  as  the  father 
of  their  belief. 

Abraxas. —  A  sort  of  stone  upon  which 
were  engraved  cabalistic  characters  and 
which  were  worn  as  amulets.  This  word 
signifies  God  in  Persian. 

Absalom.— Son  of  David, revolted  against 
his  father;  was  conquered ;  in  fleeing,  re- 
mained suspended  by  his  long  hair  in  the 
branches  of  a  tree,  and  was  killed  by  Joab, 
commander  of  the  armies  of  David, 1030  b.c. 

Absolon  or  Axel. —  Born  on  the  Isle  of 
Seeland,  archbishop  of  Lund,  primate  of 
Denmark, Sweden,  and  Norway ;  statesman, 
minister  under  Waldemar  I.  and  Canute 
IV.  (1128-1201).  He  converted  the  Riigen 
Islanders. 

Absolution  (  action  to  absolve) . —  In  re- 
gard to  the  sacraments,  the  absolution 
designates  the  action  by  which  the  Cath- 
olic priest  remits  the  sins  in  the  name 
of  God,  to  the  sinner  that  is  before  him 
and  who  comes  to  make  the  avowal  of  his 
faults.  It  is  always  given  individually; 
however,  in  imminent  and  unforeseen  dan- 
gers, for  instance,  before  a  battle,  the 
priest  can  give  a  general  absolution,  which 
benefits  all  those  who  are  well  disposed. 
— Absolution  /w  articulo  mortis,  we  call 
t,he  action  by  which  a  priest,  finding  him- 
self in  the  presence  of  a  dying  person  that 
has  lost  the  use  of  his  senses,  supposes 
him  well  disposed  by  the  desire  which  he 
has  to  save  his  soul,  and  applies  to  him 
the  plenitude  of  the  reparative  graces, 
whose  dispensation  Jesus  Christ  has  left  to 
His  Church. — Absolution  in  Liturgy,  we 
call  the  prayers  and  ceremonies  which  end 
the  office  of  the  dead  and  are  performed 
round  the  coffin  or  catafalque, — The  priest's' 
absolution  in  the  sacrament  of  Penance  has 
been  defined  to  be  a  judicial  act,  and  not  a 
mere  pronouncing   or  declaring  that  the 


Abstainers 


ACACIANS 


penitent's  sins  are  forgiven  (Council  of 
Trent,  sess.  xiv.  chap.  6,  can.  9).  This  is 
clear  from  the  words  of  Christ:  "Whose 
sins  ys  shall  forgive,"  etc.;  "Whatsoever 
ye  shall  loose,"  etc.  The  exact  formula  of 
absolution  to  be  used  was  not  expressly 
stated  by  Christ  or  His  Apostles.  It  is 
certain  that  for  upward  of  a  thousand  years 
a  precatory  form  ("May  Christ  absolve 
thee,"  or  similar  words)  was  in  general 
use,  as  indeed  is  still  the  case  in  the  East. 
The  indicative  form  ("I  absolve  thee") 
came  into  vise  in  the  Western  Church  dur- 
ing the  early  Middle  Ages,  and  gradually 
supplanted  the  other.  At  the  present  day, 
a  priest  of  the  Western  Church  using  the 
precatory  form  alone  would  grievously 
sin,  and  would  expose  the  sacrament  to 
the  danger  of  nullity. 

Abstainers. —  By  this  word  we  under- 
stand those  persons  who  have  a  repugnance 
for  wine,  and  cannot  drink  it.  In  the 
primitive  Church,  the  abstainers  received 
holy  communion  only  under  the  species  of 
bread. 

Abstinence, —  Among  Catholics,  a  reli- 
gious practice  which  consists  in  abstaining 
from  flesh-meat  on  Friday,  in  Lent,  and 
on  various  other  days  of  the  year.  The 
abstinence  of  Friday  and  Saturday  was  in- 
stituted in  the  first  centuries  of  the  Church, 
in  honor  of  the  death  and  burial  of  Jesus 
Christ,  and  to  prepare  for  the  Sunday. 
Abstinence  is  a  virtue  which  assists  the 
spirit  not  to  be  the  slave  of  matter,  to  sub- 
due the  senses,  and  the  disordinate  appe- 
tites. Finally,  it  is  a  practice  of  penance 
for  the  expiation  of  sins  committed.  See 
Lent;  Fast. 

Abstinents. —  Gnostic  or  Manichean 
heretics,  who  appeared  in  Gaul  and  in 
Spain,  about  the  end  of  the  third  century. 
They  proscribed  marriage  and  the  use  of 
flesh-meat. 

Abucara  (Theodore).  —  Metropolitan 
of  the  province  of  Caria,  in  the  eighth  cen- 
tury. Wrote  :  Treatises  against  the  yeivs, 
the  Mohammetans  and  Heretics,  translated 
into  Latin  by  Genebrard  and  the  Jesuit 
Gretzer;  De  unione  et  incarnatione. 

Abuna. —  (Ethiopic  or  Ar.  our  father'). 
Title  of  the  head  of  the  Christian  Church, 
in  Abyssinia. 

Abyssinia. —  The  evangelization  of  an- 
cient Ethiopia,  called  Abyssinia,  was  com- 


menced by  St.  Frumentius  and  his  fellow- 
laborer  ^desius,  though  some  writers 
attribute  that  honor  to  the  chamberlain  of 
the  Ethiopian  queen,  Candace,  whose  bap- 
tism by  Philip  the  Deacon  is  recorded  in 
the  Acts  (viii.  38).  In  316,  Frumentius 
and  his  companion  were  taken  captives  into 
Abyssinia  while  accompanying  Meropius 
of  Tyre  on  a  journey,  and  were  presented 
to  the  king  as  slaves.  They  eventually 
rose  to  influential  positions  at  court,  and 
were  permitted  to  practice  and  announce 
their  religion  without  restraint.  After  the 
death  of  the  king,  Frumentius  became  tlie 
instructor  of  the  hereditary  prince  Aizana 
and  administered  the  government.  When 
the  prince  became  of  age,  .^desius  re- 
turned to  Tyre,  and  was  ordained  priest. 
St.  Frumentius  went  to  Alexandria,  where 
St.  Athanasius  consecrated  him  bishop  of 
Abyssinia  (328).  Returning  to  that  coun- 
try, Frumentius  baptized  the  king,  together 
with  a  great  portion  of  the  people,  and 
firmly  established  the  Abyssinian  Church, 
whereof  Axom  became  the  metropolitan  see. 
The  Abyssinian  Church  continues  to  the 
present  day,  though  deformed  by  heresy  and 
Judaism.  Cut  off  for  ages  from  the  Cath- 
olic communion,  it  presents  a  curious  and 
almost  unique  amalgam  of  religious  senti- 
ments. Customs  analogous  to  the  Jewish 
rites  still  prevail  among  the  Abyssinians. 
Of  these  customs  we  mention  circumci- 
sion, the  observance  of  the  Jewish  Sabbath, 
the  distinction  of  clean  and  unclean  food, 
and  even  the  Levirate  law.  When,  in  the 
seventh  century,  the  Mohammedans  took 
possession  of  Egypt,  their  rulers  supported 
the  Jacobite  or  Monophysite  party,  against 
the  Melchites  or  Catholics,  and  contributed 
strength  and  permanence  to  the  Abyssinian 
schism.  Great  efforts  have  been  made,  in 
the  last  fifty  years,  to  convert  the  Abys- 
sinians, and  the  labors  of  the  Catholic 
missionaries  were  attended  with  the  best 
results,  in  spite  of  almost  incessant  perse- 
cutions.    See  Oriental  Rites. 

Acacians. —  Followers  of  -^cac«'«.s .bishop 
of  Csesarea.  In  turn  Catholic,  Arian  un- 
der the  Emperor  Constantius,  Catholic 
under  Jovian,  he  became  Arlan  again  un- 
der Valens.  After  having  caused  the  depo- 
sition of  St.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  and  the 
banishment  of  Pope  Liberius,  he  estab- 
lished the  antipope  Felix. — There  were 
several  other  bishops  by  the  name  of  Aca- 
citis,  whom  we  must  not  confound  with 
the    above:    Acacius   of    Constantinople, 


ACARON 


ACHAB 


follower  of  Eutyches  (died  363) ;  Acacius  of 
Amida,  famous  for  his  charity  toward  the 
poor  (sth  century) ;  and  Acacius  of  Berea 
opponent  of  St.  Chrysostom  (died  432). 

Acaron.— City  of  Palestine,  where  they 
kept  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant  taken  by  the 
Philistines. 

Acceptants. — The  term  applied  to  French 
bishops  and  clergy  who  accepted  the  Bull 
Unigenitus,  issued  in  1713  by  Pope  Cle- 
ment XI.  against  the  Jansenists. 

Access  (Jhe  approach). —  i.  The  tenor  of 
those  prayers  which  are  recommended  to 
the  priest  to  be  said  before  saying  Mass.  2. 
In  canoti  law,  a  right  to  a  certain  benefice  at 
some  future  time,  now  in  abeyance,  through 
lack  of  required  age  or  some  other  condi- 
tions :  if,  in  abeyance  through  actual  pos- 
session of  another,  it  is  equivalent  to  the 
right  of  succession.  Ingress  is  a  right,  of 
some  previous  stipulation,  to  a  benefice 
resigned  before  entered  upon ;  regress,  to 
a  benefice  actually  renounced.  The  Coun- 
cil of  Trent  and  succeeding  Popes  abol- 
ished such  titles,  as  tending  to  make 
benefices  hereditary;  since  then  they  have 
existed  in  Roman  Catholic  countries  only 
in  particular  instances  and  by  a  special 
Pontifical  privilege. 

Accidents  {Eucharistic). —  Name  given 
by  theologians  to  the  sensible  species 
that  remain  of  the  bread  and  wine  after 
the  words  of  consecration,  when  the  sub- 
stance of  the  bread  and  wine  is  destroyed 
and  changed  into  the  body  and  blood  of 
Jesus  Christ. 

Accho. —  A  city  of  the  tribe  of  Aser,  in 
Palestine.  In  the  New  Testament  Accho 
is  called  Ptolemais  (Acts  xxi.  7)  from  one 
of  the  Ptolemies,  who  enlarged  and  beau- 
tified it.  The  Crusaders  gave  it  the  name 
of  Acre,  or  St.  John  of  Acre.  It  is  still 
called  Akka  by  the  Turks.  It  sustained 
several  sieges  during  the  Crusades,  and 
was  the  last  fortified  place  wrested  from 
the  Christians  by  the  Turks.  Population, 
8,000. 

Accolti  (PiETRo)  (1455-1532). —  Born  at 
Florence.  An  Italian  Cardinal  and  legate 
in  Ancona  commonly  called  *'  Cardinal  of 
Ancona."  He  drew  up,  in  1519,  the  Bull 
of  condemnation  of  Luther. 

Accommodation. —  In  Exegesis,  accom- 
modation gives  rise  to  the  accommodating 
meaning,  which  is  opposed,  first :  to  the 
literal  (historic  or  prophetic)  sense;  sec- 


ondly, to  the  spiritual  (mystic,  moral  or 
allegoric)  sense,  and  consists  in  accommo- 
dating, individually,  the  words  of  Scripture 
to  their  proper  meaning,  though  profiting 
to  this  effect  by  a  real  accidental  resem- 
blance. This  accommodative  sense  not 
being  desired  by  the  sacred  authors,  has, 
consequently,  no  proving  or  demonstrative 
value  in  theology  and  controversy;  it 
would  not  be  praiseworthy  to  use  it  too 
frequently,  even  in  profane  subjects,  but 
in  itself  it  is  legitimate,  and  we  can  invoke 
in  its  favor  the  example  of  the  Apostles 
and  saints. 

Accommodation  {Controversy  of). — 
By  this  term  we  understand  a  controversy 
which  arose  in  the  seventeenth  century,  be- 
tween the  Jesuits  and  other  missionaries  of 
China,  in  relation  to  certain  allowances 
and  rites  practiced  by  the  natives  of  the 
Celestial  Kingdom  from  time  immemorial, 
in  honor  of  the  memory  of  their  ancestors 
and  of  Confucius.  The  Jesuits  held  the 
opinion  that  these  usages,  identified 
with  national  customs,  should  be  tolerated 
in  order  to  avoid  greater  evil;  that  they 
were  purely  civil  or  political  and  had  noth- 
ing religious  or  sacred  in  their  perform- 
ance. On  the  other  hand,  the  Dominicans 
held  that  these  rites  are  superstitious  and 
idolatrous,  and  could  not  be  tolerated 
without  sinning.  The  Holy  See  reserved 
to  itself  the  decision  of  such  a  perplexing 
controversy.  After  having  carefully  ex- 
amined the  case  in  all  its  bearings,  a  defi- 
nite decision  was  given  by  Clement  X.,  in 
1715,  whereby  the  Chinese  ceremonies 
in  question,  were  condemned,  as  being 
tainted  with  idolatry.  This  decision  gave 
rise  to  a  bloody  persecution  of  the  mis- 
sionaries, but  the  evil  consequences  which 
followed  were  justly  attributed  to  the  mal- 
ice of  men.  The  Church  and  her  Chief 
fulfilled  their  mission  and  duty,  which  is 
to  guard  the  deposit  of  truth,  faith,  and 
morals. 

Acephali  (literally,  those  who  have  no 
head  or  chief). —  In  Church  history,  those 
members  of  the  Council  of  Ephesus,  who 
refused  to  follow  either  St.  Cyril  or  John 
of  Antioch. 

Achab. —  King  of  Israel,  whose  crimes 
and  those  of  his  wife  Jezabel,  as  cruel  as 
himself,  are  related  in  tVie  First  Book  of 
Kings ;  persecuted  the  Prophet  Elias,  and 
caused  the  death  of  Naboth,  to  get  posses- 
sion of  his  vineyard.  Achab  was  killed  in  a 


ACHAIA 


Acts  of  the  Saints 


combat  and  the  dogs  came  to  lick  his  blood, 
according  to  the  prediction  of  the  Prophet 
(889  B.  c). 

Achaia. —  Taken  in  the  largest  sense, 
included  the  whole  region  of  Greece, 
or  Hellas,  now  called  Livadia.  Achaia 
proper,  however,  was  a  province  of  Greece, 
of  which  Corinth  was  the  capital,  and  em- 
braced the  whole  western  part  of  the 
Peloponnesus. 

Achaz.— King  of  Juda  (737-723  »•  c-), 
famous  on  account  of  his  cruelties,  his 
profanations  and  crimes ;  was  detested  dur- 
ing his  life,  and  deprived,  after  his  death, 
of  royal  burial.  He  was  a  contemporary 
of  the  Prophet  Isaias. 

Achimelech.— High-priest  of  the  Jews, 
was  falsely  accused  of  conspiracy  and  put 
to  death  by  Saul.  He  gave  to  David,  who 
was  fleeing  from  Saul,  the  sacred  bread 
and  the  sword  of  Goliath  from  the  taber- 
nacle. 

Achitophel. —  Friend  and  counselor  of 
David,  and,  later,  of  Absalom  in  his  revolt 
against  his  father.  He  was  famous  for  his 
political  wisdom,  and  his  defection  caused 
David  great  apprehension. 

Acoemeti. — An  order  of  monks  and 
nuns  in  Constantinople,  under  the  Eastern 
Empire,  so  named  because  they  divided 
their  communities  into  relays  for  keeping 
up  perpetual  worship.  In  the  sixth  cen- 
tury, the  monks  embraced  Nestorianism, 
and  the  order  became  extinct.  The  order 
of  nuns,  however,  existed  till  the  conquest 
of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks,  in  the 
fifteenth  century. 

Acolyte  (from  the  Latin  acolythus, 
formed  from  the  Greek  akolouthos,  folloiv- 
ing,  one  who  accompanies'). —  Thus  were 
called,  after  the  third  century,  in  the  Latin 
Church,  and  after  the  fifth,  in  the  Greek 
Church,  the  young  men  who  aspired  to  the 
ecclesiastical  ministry  and  who  accom- 
panied and  generally  followed  the  bishops, 
either  to  serve  them,  or  to  be  witnesses  of 
their  conduct.  St.  Cyprian  himself  tells 
us  that  he  had  acolytes.  To-day,  the  func- 
tions of  acolytes  are  of  a  very  different 
character  from  their  first  institution. 
Acolyte  is  the  name  now  given  to  the 
one  who  has  received  the  first  and  most 
considerable  of  the  four  Minor  Orders. 
Their  employment  is  to  light  the  candles, 
an  office  formerly  performed  by  the  accens- 


ores.  In  processions  and  ceremonies  at 
the  altar,  the  acolyte  carries  the  lights; 
this  was  formerly  done  by  the  ceroferrarii. 
He  holds  the  censer  and  incense-box,  pre- 
pares the  wine  and  water  for  the  sacrifice 
of  the  Mass  and  renders  other  services  at 
the  altar.  These  services  to-day  are  often 
performed  by  seminarists  or  others  who 
have  not  received  Minor  Orders.  Also, 
at  present,  it  is  customary  to  confer  con- 
secutively the  four  Minor  Orders  at  the 
same  ordination. 

Acre.     See  Accho. 

Actor  Ecclesiae.— This  was  formerly 
the  name  of  an  officer  charged  to  adminis- 
ter the  revenues  of  the  church ;  he  is  often 
confounded  with  Advocatus  ecclesice. 

Acts  of  the  Apostles. —  The  Acts  of  the 
Apostles  contain  the  history  of  the  rising 
Church  during  the  space  of  twenty-nine  to 
thirty  years ;  that  is,  from  the  Ascension  of 
Christ  until  the  end  of  the  first  captivity 
of  St  Paul  at  Rome,  in  the  year  63  of  the 
Christian  era.  They  were  written  in 
Greek,  by  St.  Luke,  the  author  of  the 
third  Gospel.  The  book  is  divided  into 
two  parts.  In  the  first,  the  author  depicts 
the  wonderful  morals  of  the  first  Chris- 
tians, and  all  that  passed  in  the  primitive 
Church  until  the  dispersion  of  the  Apos- 
tles. The  second  commences  with  the 
appearance  of  St.  Paul.  Then  omitting  the 
history  of  the  other  Apostles,  from  whom 
he  was  too  far  away,  St.  Luke  relates  the 
apostolic  labors  of  St.  Paul,  of  which  he 
has  been  an  eye-witness,  having  been 
chosen  by  the  great  Apostle  to  be  his  dis- 
ciple and  companion.  With  right,  this 
book  is  called  the  first  history  of  the 
Church. 

Acts  of  the  Martyrs,  are  works  wherein 
we  find  inscribed,  ordinarily,  according  to 
the  official  records,  the  heroic  confession 
and  death  of  those  who  gave  their  life's 
blood  for  the  sake  of  Christ.  There  are 
several  Acts  of  the  Martyrs ;  the  best 
known  are  those  of  Ruinart,  in  Latin,  and 
of  the  Benedictines  of  Solesmes,  in  French. 
See  Martyrology. 

Acts  of  the  Saints  or  Bollandists. —  By 
this  collective  title  we  understand  a  gigan- 
tic collection,  which  leaves  far  behind  all 
other  analogous  collections  and  in  which 
we  find,  first :  condensed, — day  by  day,  and 
according  to  the  order  of  the  months,  then 
verified    and    approved    by    diligent    and 


Adalbert 


lO 


Adam 


learned  criticism,  —  all  the  original  docu- 
ments regarding  the  lives  of  the  Saints  of 
the  whole  world.  This  collection, —  pre- 
pared by  the  Jesuit  Rosweyde  (died  1629), 
then  by  his  confreres,  Bollandus,  whose 
name  it  carries,  and  Henschenius, —  counts 
not  less  than  61  volumes  in  folio.  The  first 
appeared  in  1643,  the  last  in  1881,  and 
finishes  the  month  of  October. 

Adalbert  (St.). —  Apostle  of  the  Prus- 
sians, born  in  955.  Received  his  education 
at  Magdeburg.  Archbishop  of  Prague  in 
983,  resigned  in  order  to  devote  himself  to 
the  evangelization  of  the  pagan  Prussians ; 
was  murdered  April  23,  997.  His  remains, 
buried  first  at  Gnesen,  were  transferred  to 
Prague. 

Adalbert  of  Bremen. —  Appointed  by  the 
Emperor  Henry  III.  Archbishop  of  Bre- 
men and  of  Hamburg  in  1043;  legate  of 
the  Pope  in  1050.  He  was  a  man  of  gen- 
ius, but  domineering  and  violent.  After 
the  death  of  Henry  III.,  he  was  for  some 
time  tutor  of  Henry  IV.,  whom  he  wished 
to  acquire  absolute  power,  in  order  that 
he  might  obtain  the  patriarchate  of  the 
North.  The  opposition  of  the  German 
princes  hindered  him  from  attaining  this 
double  end.  He  died  at  Goslar,  May  i6th, 
1072. 

Adam  (from  a  Hebrew  word,  signifying 
earth,  as  in  Latin  homo,  from  humus). — 
God  formed  the  body  of  the  first  man  from 
matter,  and  communicated  life  to  this 
body,  by  giving  to  it  an  intelligent  and 
reasonable  soul,  or  rather  an  immortal 
spirit ;  for  the  reasonable  soul  created  by 
God  is  the  principle  of  the  life  of  the  body 
(Gen.  i.  and  ii.).  Thus,  the  first  man  was 
created.  Then  God  formed  from  him  the 
companion  which  He  wished  to  give  to 
him  for  life.  Adam,  beholding  in  Eve 
flesh  of  his  flesh,  realized  the  intimate 
union  which  ought  to  reign  between  hus- 
band and  wife.  The  Bible  fully  accords 
with  science  on  this  point,  as  it  establishes 
the  unity  of  the  human  species.  All  men 
arise  from  one  single  marriage,  in  order  to 
be  forever,  however  dispersed  and  multi- 
plied they  may  be,  one  unique  and  the 
same  family.  God,  who  appointed  man  to 
be  the  complement  and  the  king  of  earthly 
creation,  created  him  to  His  image  and 
likeness.  By  his  body,  man  is,  so  to  say, 
the  abridgment  of  the  triple  physical 
world  :  animal,  vegetable  and  mineral.  By 
the  nature  of  his  soul  and  the  natural  and 
supernatural  gifts  with  which  God  endowed 


him,  he  shares  the  characteristics  of  the 
angels,  of  the  pure  spirits,  and  even  carries 
within  himself  the  image  and  resemblance 
of  God.  The  natural  gifts,  the  proper,  es- 
sential attributes  of  the  reasonable  nature 
of  the  human  spirit,  are  immortality, 
and  the  sublime  faculties,  reason  and  lib- 
erty. The  supernatural  gifts,  which  God 
was  pleased  to  bestow  also  upon  man, 
were  the  enlightenment  of  his  understand- 
ing by  a  divine  light,  and  the  raising  of 
his  will,  by  the  divine  assistance,  to  the 
state  of  justice  and  holiness,  the  harmony 
between  the  faculties  and  the  natural  in- 
stincts, through  the  subordination  of  the 
inferior  powers  of  the  soul  to  its  superior 
powers.  This  supernatural  state  compre- 
hended also  the  incorruptibility  of  the  cor- 
poral existence,  that  is,  the  exemption  of 
pains  and  sufferings.  The  preservation  of 
this  primitive  state  of  perfection,  inno- 
cence, peace,  and  blessedness,  were  con- 
ditioned by  God  to  the  observance  of 
His  law  or  will.  This  trial  was  neces- 
sary in  order  that  the  reasonable  and  free 
man  might  unite  himself  freely,  with  the 
help  of  grace,  to  God  the  supreme  good. 
"  Thou  who  hast  created  me.  Thou  couldst 
not  save  me  without  Thee."  Eve,  seduced 
by  the  cunning  of  the  rebellious  angel, 
who  himself  had  fallen  during  the  period 
of  trial  of  the  angels  through  the  tempta- 
tion of  pride  in  presuming  to  become  equal 
to  God.  Adam,  seduced  by  his  spouse,  dis- 
obeyed God  grievously  in  wishing,  in  spite 
of  His  formal  forbidding,  to  know  too 
much  and  elevate  themselves  by  them- 
selves. Thus  man  lost  the  peace  and 
blessedness  which  he  enjoyed  until  then, 
and  which  were  the  consequences  of  his 
faithfulness.  He  became  subject  to  suffer- 
ings, to  the  death  of  the  body,  to  the  re- 
bellion of  the  flesh  against  the  spirit,  to 
all  kinds  of  miseries,  of  which  he  had  been, 
until  then,  a  stranger  through  the  grace  of 
God.  He  lost  both  his  holiness  and  jus- 
tice. This  great  fall  from  his  supernatural 
state  extended  itself,  also,  over  his  natural 
faculties,  which  were  deteriorated  ;  his  rea- 
son become  obscured,  his  will  weakened 
and  inclined  toward  evil.  But,  since  the 
day  of  our  loss,  God  discovered,  also,  our 
future  deliverance ;  He  announced  to  man- 
kind, that  the  woman  would  crush  the 
head  of  the  infernal  serpent,  by  the  divine 
offspring  that  she  would  produce. — Jesus 
Christ,  the  incarnate  Word,  the  Redeemer. 
The  state  of  the  primitive  man,  a  state  of 
perfection  and  happiness  (Golden  Age), the 


Adamites 


II 


Adoptionism 


state  of  degradation  which  followed,  the 
efTect  of  sin  or  of  the  revolt  of  man  against 
God,  the  idea  of  a  redemption,  are  found  in 
the  traditions  of  all  nations  of  antiquity ; 
all  the  religious  books  contain,  in  a  more 
or  less  altered  manner,  the  antique  tradi- 
tions, the  primitive  revelation,  which  we 
find  more  precise  and  more  complete  in  the 
Bible.  The  mixture  of  the  good  and  the 
evil  upon  earth,  and  especially  in  man,  is 
an  insoluble  problem  without  the  accounts 
which  revelation  furnishes  to  us.  After 
their  fall,  Adam  and  Eve  had  several  chil- 
dren, sons  and  daughters.  The  Bible  has 
preserved  us  the  names  of  three  sons  :  Cain, 
Abel,  and  Seth.  Adam  lived  930  years. 
See  Man. 

Adamites.  —  Gnostic  heretics  of  the 
second  century,  who  pretended  to  have 
shared,  in  an  inadmissible  manner,  the 
original  innocence  of  our  first  parents. 
They  practiced  all  kinds  of  turpitudes  and 
among  others  that  of  the  community  of 
women. — Adamites  was  also  the  designa- 
tion of  a  sect  of  Manicheans,  which  appeared 
in  France,  Holland  and  Bohemia,  about  the 
end  of  the  fourteenth  century,  and  revived 
the  errors  and  immoralities  of  the  Gnostics 
of  the  second  century.  This  society  has 
maintained  itself  until  our  time,  especially 
in  Bohemia,  in  a  more  or  less  latent  state. 

Adalbert  or  Aldebert. —  A  sadly  famous 
episcopus  vagus  of  the  eighth  century  in  the 
Prankish  kingdom.  This  enthusiast  assem- 
bled the  people  for  divine  worship  in  the 
fields  and  in  the  open  air,  and  imposed  upon 
their  credulity  by  pretending  to  have  re- 
ceived relics  from  the  hands  of  an  angel, 
and  distributed  among  them  copies  of  a  let- 
ter which,  he  said,  had  fallen  from  heaven 
and  alighted  in  the  center  of  the  city  of 
Jerusalem.  With  empty  vanity  he  com- 
pared himself  to  the  Apostles,  whose  equal 
he  pretended  to  be;  caused  houses  of 
prayer  to  be  dedicated  to  his  honor,  be- 
cause, as  he  claimed,  God  would  infallibly 
grant  a  request  made  in  his  name ;  and  as- 
serted that,  as  he  knew  by  intuitive  vision 
the  secrets  of  every  man's  conscience,  con- 
fession was  wholly  useless.  Confession 
was,  therefore,  abolished  by  him,  venera- 
tions of  saints  reprobated,  and  pilgrimages 
to  holy  shrines  discontinued.  St.  Boni- 
face, the  apostle  of  Germany,  used  every 
available  means  to  counteract  the  influence 
of  this  visionary.  He  preached  against 
him,  drew  the  attention  of  the  First  Coun- 
cil of  Soissons  (744),  and  of  a  council  held 


at  Rome  the  following  year,  to  his  doc- 
trines, and  finally  caused  his  imprison- 
ment at  Fulda.  Having  escaped  from  this 
place  of  confinement,  he  was  seized  by 
shepherds,  robbed,  and  murdered. 

Adelm  or  Aldhelm*  (St.). —  Abbot  of 
Malmesbury  and  first  bishop  of  Sherborne, 
in  England.  Died  May  25,  709.  He  was 
a  near  relative  of  Ina,  East-Saxon  king. 
Abbot  during  30  years,  he  was  consecrated 
bishop  in  705.  His  poetical  and  prose 
works  were  published  by  J.  A.  Giles 
(Oxford),  1844. 

Adelheid  (St.)  (931-999). —  Widow  of 
Lothaire,  king  of  Italy.  She  married  the 
Emperor,  Otho  the  Great  and  governed 
the  empire  with  great  success  during  the 
minority  of  her  nephew,  Otho  III.  F- 
Dec.    16. 

Adelphians.     See  Euchites. 

Ademar  of  Chabannes. —  Monk  of  St. 
Cybard  of  Angouleme,  then  of  St.  Martial 
of  Limoges  (9S8-1030) ;  author  of  a  his- 
tory of  the  Franks,  published  for  the  first 
time  by  Labbe,  and  which  extends  to  the 
year  1029. 

Adeodat  (A  Deo  datus),  Pope  (672- 
676). —  He  was  a  monk  of  Rome,  fought 
zealously  for  the  Catholic  faith  against  the 
Monothelites.  Since  some  call  a  former 
Pope,  Deusdedit  (615-618)  also  Adeodat, 
he  is  sometimes  called  Adeodat  II. 

Adiaphorists. —  Name  given  in  the  six- 
teenth century  to  those  Lutherans,  who 
ranked  themselves  on  the  side  of  Melanch- 
thon,  whose  opinions,  more  mitigated  than 
those  of  Luther,  approached  nearer  the 
Catholic  belief. 

Adonai  (Hebr.  lord,  sovereign,  mas- 
ter).—  Habitual  name  of  which  the  Jews 
made  use  to  designate  God,  not  daring  to 
pronounce  his  proper  name  which  is  Je- 
hovah. They  claim  that  the  latter  name 
was  pronounced  only  once  a  year,  on  the 
day  of  expiation,  by  the  high-priest,  in 
the  Holy  of  Holies. 

Adoptionism.  —  Theological  doctrine. 
Adoptionists  was  the  name  given  to  the 
followers  of  Elipandus,  archbishop  of 
Toledo,  and  of  Felix,  bishop  of  Urgel 
(about  770),  according  to  whom  Christ,  in 
His  humanity,  is  only  the  adoptive  Son  of 
God,  and  not  His  real  Son.  The  Adop- 
tionists  of   the  eighth  century  attributed 


Adoration 


12 


Adultery 


natural  Sonship  to  the  Logos  alone,  the 
Man  Christ  being  only  son  by  adoption. 
Their  doctrine,  a  badly  disguised  form  of 
Nestorianism,  was  condemned  by  Pope 
Adrian  I.  and  the  Council  of  Frankfort 
(792),  defining  that  Christ  as  man  is,  by 
reason  of  His  personality,  which  is  the 
personality  of  the  Word  Incarnate,  the 
true  and  natural,  and  not  the  adopted,  Son 
of  God. 

Adoration.     See  Worship. 

Adoration  (Perpetual). — Permanent  ex- 
position of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  in  the 
same  Church,  or  successively,  in  several 
Churches. 

Adoration  {Religious  of  The). — Anne 
of  Austria,  mother  of  Louis  XIV.,  desir- 
ous of  promoting  the  perpetual  adoration 
of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  tried  to  found, 
with  the  assistance  of  Catharine  of  Bar, 
surnamed  Sister  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament 
and  Abbess  of  the  Benedictines  of  Ram- 
bersillers,  in  Lorraine,  a  distinct  con- 
gregation (1654).  With  the  cooperation  of 
the  king  and  prelates  it  was  erected,  ap- 
proved at  first  by  Papal  legates  and  finally 
by  Pope  Innocent  XI.  (1676).  Clem- 
ent XI.  drew  up  its  constitution  in  1705, 
and  called  from  France  some  religious  to 
Rome,  where  they  established  a  convent. 
The  religious  of  the  Adoration  (adorici) 
wore  the  emblem  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament 
upon  their  breasts. 

Adramelech. — i.  Son  of  Sennacherib,king 
of  Assyria,  who,  upon  returning  to  Ninive, 
after  his  fatal  expedition  against  Ezechias, 
was  killed  by  his  two  sons,  Adramelech 
and  Sarasar,  who  fled  to  the  mountains 
of  Armenia,  713  B.C.  2.  Adramelech,  one 
of  the  gods  adored  by  the  inhabitants  of 
Sepharvaim,  who  settled  in  Samaria,  whose 
inhabitants  had  been  banished  beyond  the 
Euphrates. 

Adrian  (name  of  six  Popes). —  Adrian 
J.  (772-795). —  Appealed  to  Charlemagne 
against  Desiderius,  king  of  the  Lombards; 
received  Charlemagne  at  Rome,  named  him 
Patrician  and  obtained  from  him  the  con- 
firmation of  the  donations  made  by  Pepin 
the  Short  to  the  Holy  See.  He  presided 
by  his  legates  over  the  Second  Council  of 
Nice,  in  787.'  Adrian  II.  (867-872).— He 
deposed  Photius,  but  could  not  hinder  the 
Schism  of  the  East.  Adrian  III. —  Pope 
only  one  year  (884-885).  Adrian  IV. 
(1154-1159).  —  He    was    a    man    of    great 


virtue,  famed  for  learning  and  re- 
markable eloquence.  He  had  to  flee  from 
Rome  to  escape  the  adherents  of  Arnold 
of  Brescia;  returned  thither  under  the 
protection  of  Frederick  Barbarossa,  after 
the  death  of  Arnold ;  successively  upheld 
a  legitimate  war  against  William  of  Sicily. 
The  supposed  Bull  of  Adrian  IV.,  purport- 
ing to  grant  the  investiture  of  Ireland  to 
Henry  II.,  of  England,  from  the  latest 
researches  on  the  subject,  must  be  pro- 
nounced a  forgery.  Adrian  V. —  A  na- 
tive of  Genoa ;  was  Pope  only  one  month 
(1276).  Adrian  VI.  (1522-1523).  —  A 
humble,  but  learned  and  holy  priest  of 
Utrecht,  who  had  formerly  been  the  pre- 
ceptor of  Charles  V.  He  took  up,  with 
great  earnestness,  the  subject  of  reform 
wnthin  the  Church,  and  devoted  all  his 
energy  to  the  religious  pacification  of 
Germany.  Seeing  all  his  cherished  pro- 
jects frustrated  by  human  malice,  Adrian 
died,  it  is  said,  of  excessive  grief. 

Adollam. — The  name  of  the  cave  in 
which  David  and  his  followers  found  ref- 
uge from  the  vengeance  of  Saul  (I.  Ki. 
xxii.  1,  2). 

Adultery. — Violation  of  the  conjugal 
union.  The  punishments  for  this  grave 
offense  have  been  severe  or  moderate  in 
various  countries  and  ages,  mainly  de- 
pending on  the  state  of  morality  of  society. 
Among  the  Jews  the  adulteress  was  pun- 
ished more  severely  than  the  adulterer;  the 
guilty  one  was  stoned  to  death.  In  India, 
the  Code  of  Manu,  enjoined  the  severest 
punishments;  the  woman  was  cast  to  the 
dogs  and  the  man  was  burned  on  a  bed  of 
hot  iron.  At  Athens,  the  laws  of  Solon  de- 
clared it  legitimate  on  the  part  of  the  hus- 
band to  kill  the  paramour  if  found  in  the 
act ;  the  husband  should  repudiate  his  wife, 
and  she  could  not  again  appear  in  public 
except  when  dressed  in  the  coarsest  gar- 
ments,and  her  entering  the  temples  was  for- 
bidden. In  Rome,  under  the  Republic,  the 
husband,  in  certain  cases,  was  permitted 
to  kill  the  paramour,  and  the  father  might 
sometimes  kill  both.  The  corruption  of 
morals  at  the  end  of  the  Republic  prompted 
Augustus  to  publish  a  special  edict  for  the 
suppression  of  adultery,  the  famous  law, — 
'^ulia,  de  adulteriis  coercendis,  which  for 
the  first  time  in  Rome,  considered  adultery 
a  public  crime, —  imposed  special  penalties, 
consisting  of  forfeiture  of  goods  and  ban- 
ishment, both  on  the  adulteress  and  the 
paramour.     Among  the  Barbarians,  in  the 


Advent 


13 


Aegidius  Colonna 


Middle  Ages,  adultery  was  sometimes  pun- 
ishable by  death,  or  ignominious  chastise- 
ments. In  modern  times,  the  legislation 
on  adultery  is  more  lenient.  The  adul- 
teress was  often  condemned  to  be  locked 
up  in  a  convent  and  wear  secular  garments 
for  two  years,  during  which  time  the 
husband  could  receive  her  back,  but  if 
the  time  passed  and  the  husband  deter- 
mined not  to  receive  her,  she  was  con- 
demned to  be  shorn  of  her  hair  and  veiled 
for  life.  In  English  law,  the  act  is  punish- 
able only  by  ecclesiastical  censure.  A 
civil  action  for  damages  by  the  common 
law  may  be  brought  by  the  husband 
against  the  adulterer.  This  is  called  an 
action  for  "criminal  conversation,"  and  is 
also  a  ground  for  divorce.  In  some  of  the 
States,  adultery  is  a  crime,  while  in  others 
it  is  the  same  as  in  the  English  law,  only 
civil  proceedings  being  allowed.  Adultery, 
proved  before  an  ecclesiastical  court,  ap- 
pointed by  the  bishop,  the  latter  may  decree 
continual  separation  from  bed  and  board. 
The  Greek  Church,  as  well  as  the  Protes- 
tant, may  dissolve  the  marriage  union,  so 
that  the  parties  are  individually  at  liberty 
to  marry  again.     See  Marriage. 

Advent  (Lat.  Adventus — arrived). — 
The  time  appointed  by  the  Catholic  Church 
to  prepare  for  the  feast  of  Christmas  —  the 
coming  of  Christ  the  Son  of  God.  The 
season  of  Advent  is  as  ancient  in  the 
Church  as  is  the  feast  of  Christmas.  This 
-we  know  by  a  decree  of  the  Council  of 
Saragossa  (380).  It  is  a  time  during 
-which  we  should  prepare  ourselves  through 
prayer,  fasting,  etc.,  for  the  spiritual  arri- 
val of  Jesus  Christ;  hence,  the  word  Ad- 
vent. This  season  is  also  known  as  the 
Lent  of  Christmas,  for,  indeed,  in  former 
times,  the  faithful  fasted  forty  days.  In 
certain  Churches  they  fasted  every  day, 
from  the  day  following  the  feast  of  St. 
Martin(Nov.  11),  on  which  they  rejoiced, — 
as  they  still  do  in  many  countries  the  day 
before  Lent.  In  others,  Advent  began  in 
the  month  of  November,  but  they  fasted 
only  three  times  a  week,  which  did  not 
always  comprise  forty  days  of  fast.  There 
are  yet  other  differences  regarding  the 
duration  and  manner  of  spending  the  time 
of  Advent,  as  we  can  see  from  the  ancient 
commentaries.  It  is  many  years  since  the 
season  of  Advent  has  ceased  to  be  a  time 
of  fast  and  abstinence  for  all  the  members 
of  the  Church  throughout  the  world. 
To-day,  only  certain  religious  orders  follow 


the  ancient  custom.  For  the  Catholics  in 
the  United  States,  the  general  rule  for 
fast  and  abstinence  during  the  time  of 
Advent  is  only  on  Friday.  All  nuptial 
solemnities  or  festivals  are  prohibited  dur- 
ing Advent. 

Adventists. —  A  Protestant  sect  chiefly 
found  in  the  United  States.  It  was  founded, 
in  1833,  in  New  York  and  Boston,  by 
William  Miller  (born  at  Pittsfield,  Massa- 
chusetts, in  1782).  The  distinctive  char- 
acteristic of  the  sect  is  the  belief  in  the 
speedy  advent  or  second  coming  of  Christ. 
At  first,  most  of  them  believed  in  various 
dates  fixed  for  the  second  coming  of  Christ 
from  1843  to  1861,  but  afterward  aban- 
doned the  attempt  to  determine  the  date. 
There  are  several  divisions  or  sects  of  Ad- 
ventists, the  principal  of  which  are :  the 
Advent  (or  Second-Advent)  Christians, 
the  most  numerous ;  the  Seventh-Day  Ad- 
ventists not  so  numerous,  but  better  organ- 
ized ;  and  the  Evangelical  Adventists,  the 
least  numerous.  The  members  of  the  first 
believe  in  the  final  annihilation  of  the 
wicked,  which  those  of  the  other  two  reject. 
The  second  observe  the  seventh  day  as  the 
Sabbath,  and  believe  in  the  existence  of  the 
spirit  of  prophecy  among  them ;  they 
maintain  missions  in  various  parts  of  the 
world,  and  a  large  institution  at  Battle 
Creek,  Michigan,  their  headquarters. 
William  Miller  died  in  1849. 

Advocates  of  St.  Peter. — The  name  of 
a  society  of  Jurists  and  Counselors-at-law, 
formed  on  the  occasion  of  the  Golden 
Jubilee  of  Pope  Pius  IX.  as  Bishop.  The 
object  of  this  union  is  to  combat  the  at- 
tacks against  the  Catholic  religion,  to 
defend  the  rights  of  the  Church  and  es- 
pecially those  of  the  Holy  See.  Pope  Leo 
XIII.  confirmed  the  statutes  of  the  society 
by  a  Brief  dated  July  5,  1878. 

Advocate  of  the  Devil. —  A  phrase  ap- 
plied in  the  Church  to  a  person  whose 
business  it  is  to  magnify  the  faults,  or  de- 
tract from  the  merits,  of  those  who  are 
proposed  for  canonization  as  saints.  He 
is  opposed  to  "God's  Advocate."  An 
Advocate  of  the  Devil  nearly  succeeded  in 
preventing  the  canonization  of  St.  Charles 
Borromeo. 

yEdesius.     See  Frumentius. 

.^gidius  Colonna. —  Died  in  1316.  A 
monk  of  the  Augustinian  Order  and  a  dis- 
tinguished disciple  of  St.  Thomas  Aqui- 
nas. He  taught  philosophy  in  Paris  and  was 


Aelana 


14 


Agag 


preceptor  to  the  sons  of  Philip  III.  Gen- 
eral of  his  Order  from  1292  to  1295  ;  Arch- 
bishop of  Bourges,  in  1296.  Surnamed 
"Doctor  Fundatissimus."  He  left  quite 
a  number  of  philosophical  and  theological 
works. 

^lana. —  Ancient  city  of  Arabia,  on  the 
Red  Sea,  whence  the  vessels  of  Solomon 
departed  for  Ophir,  about  20  miles  north 
of  Sinai. 

JEneas  Sylvius.     See  Pius  II. 

Brians. —  Heretics  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, who  derived  their  name  from  ^rius, 
an  Arian  priest  of  Sebaste.  He  main- 
tained the  equality  of  bishops  and  priests, 
rejected  prayers  for  the  dead  and  observ- 
ance of  Easter,  and  all  appointed  feasts, 
as  Jewish  superstitions. 

.£tlus. —  Heretic  of  the  fourth  century; 
was  a  deacon  of  Antioch.  His  followers 
were  called  ^tians.  From  his  denial  of 
the  Divinity  of  Christ,  ^tius  was  sur- 
named the  "Atheist."  At  the  instigation 
of  the  Semi-Arians,  he  was  banished  under 
Constantius,  but  recalled  under  Julian,  and 
made  bishop,     ^tius  died  in  370. 

Affinity. —  According  to  the  laws  of  the 
Church,  affinity  is  a  relationship  con- 
tracted between  a  man  and  his  wife's 
kindred  and  between  a  wife  and  her  hus- 
band's kindred.  Baptism  establishes  a 
spiritual  affinity  between  the  godfather 
and  the  godmother  on  the  one  hand,  and 
their  godchildren  on  the  other,  and  the 
parents  of  the  latter.  See  Marriage, 
Matrimony. 

Afifre  (Denis-Augustk)  (1793-1848). — 
Archbishop  of  Paris,  a  man  of  benevo- 
lence and  learning,  who  did  much  to  im- 
prove education  in  his  country.  While 
endeavoring  to  mediate  in  the  disturbances 
of  1848,  he  was  mortally  wounded  by  the 
insurgents. 

Africa  {Evangelization  of). —  The 
Christian  faith  was  carried  into  Africa, 
during  the  first  century,  probably,  by  St. 
Matthew,  who  passes  for  having  evangel- 
ized Ethiopia,  but  certainly  by  St.  Mark, 
who  founded  the  great  Church  of  Alexan- 
dria. As  to  Carthage  and  the  northern 
coast  of  the  African  continent,  they  re- 
ceived the  faith  through  the  intermediary 
of  Rome  in  the  course  of  the  second  cen- 
tury, if  not  sooner.  During  the  years  200- 
230  the  Christian  religion  was  extremely 


flourishing  in  those  countries.  Unfortu- 
nately, the  venom  of  heresy  was  early  spread 
there  by  the  Donatists,  the  Pelagians,  the 
Arians,  etc.  Afterward  came  Mohammed- 
anism. However,  Christianity  always 
preserved  some  disciples  there,  and  espe- 
cially since  the  conquest  of  Algiers,  Rome 
has  sent  there  numerous  missionaries, 
founded  bishoprics  and  apostolic  prefec- 
tures, who  powerfully  second  the  civiliza- 
tion carried  there  by  France.  Algeria,  the 
largest  and  most  important  of  the  colonial 
possessions  of  France,  contains  upward  of 
380,000  Catholics,  nearly  all  French,  Span- 
ish and  Italian  emigrants,  distributed 
among  three  sees  —  the  Archdiocese  of 
Algiers,  and  the  sufiFragan  sees  of  Oran 
and  Constantine.  The  ancient  Archbishop- 
ric of  Carthage,  which  was  re-established 
in  1884,  and  includes  the  former  vicariate 
of  Tunis,  has  a  Catholic  population  of 
50,000,  while  the  prefectures  of  Tripoli  and 
Morocco  count  together  some  1 1,500  Cath- 
olics. The  rest  of  Africa  is  fringed  around 
on  both  coasts  with  Catholic  missions, 
which  are  rapidly  developing  and  extend- 
ing over  the  whole  of  the  "Dark  Conti- 
nent." Where  forty  years  ago  existed 
only  two  bishoprics  (Loanda  and  the  Two 
Guineas),  there  are  to-day  fifteen  vicariates 
and  fourteen  prefectures  apostolic,  man- 
aged by  missionaries  of  Algiers,  Fathers  of 
the  Holy  Ghost,  Jesuits,  Lazarists,  and  other 
religious  Orders.  Adding  to  these  the 
bishoprics  of  Northern  Africa  (including 
Egypt),  and  those  of  the  islands  of  Ma- 
deira and  St.  Thomas,  the  Azores,  Canaries, 
and  Cape  de  Verde  islands,  we  obtain 
thirty-two  dioceses  or  vicariates,  and  seven- 
teen prefectures  apostolic,  with  a  Catholic 
population  of  over  2,642,000.  This  includes 
the  prefectures  of  Madagascar  and  May- 
otta,  the  vicariate  of  the  Seychelles,  and 
the  bishoprics  of  St.  Denis  and  Port  Louis 
in  the  islands  of  Bourbon  and  Mauritius, 
respectively,  which  together  have  a  Cath- 
olic population  of  more  than  400,000.  The 
mission  of  Madagascar,  which  dates  from 
1855,  contains  some  42,000  Catholics  in 
charge  of  French  Jesuits.  With  a  view  to 
supplying  the  African  missions  with  native 
priests,  colleges  have  been  founded  at 
Cairo,  Brussels,  Louvain,  and  in  Malta,  in 
which  young  negroes  are  educated  for  the 
clerical  state. 

Agag. —  King  of  the  Amalecites,  con- 
quered by  Saul,  who  spared  him,  in  spite 
of  the  order  of  the  Lord ;  but  put  him  to 


Agapae 


15 


Agnes 


death  when  Samuel  reproached  him  for  his 
disobedience. 

Agapae. —  The  Agapae  were  feasts  or 
repasts  held  by  the  early  Christians  before 
the  celebration  of  the  mystery  of  the 
Blessed  Eucharist,  in  which  the  rich  sat 
with  the  poor  at  the  same  table,  in  com- 
memoration of  the  Last  Supper  when 
Christ  instituted  the  Blessed  Eucharist. 
The  Agapae,  however,  gave  rise  to  some 
abuses  from  the  beginning,  as  St.  Paul 
points  out  in  his  First  Epistle  to  the  Cor- 
inthians (xi.  20-21.)  Later,  on  account  of 
the  disorders  which  they  occasioned,  the 
Council  of  Carthage  (397)  suppressed  them 
altogether.  The  Agapae  owed  their  ori- 
gin to  the  fact,  that  all  the  faithful,  who 
wished  to  partake  of  the  Sacrament  of  the 
Eucharist,  brought  bread  and  wine  into 
the  assembly.  They  consecrated  only 
what  was  needed,  the  remainder  being 
distributed  among  those  who  assisted.  A 
trace  of  this  custom  still  lingers  in  some 
countries,  that  is,  in  the  distribution  of 
blessed  bread,  after  the  Offertory. 

Agapetae. —  In  the  primitive  Church, 
virgins,  who,  without  making  any  vows, 
lived  in  common  or  assisted  the  ecclesias- 
tics in  the  service  of  the  Church  and  the 
relief  of  the  poor.  Some  scandal  arose 
from  these  communities  and  the  Councils 
abolished  the  Agapetae  about  the  fourth 
century. 

Agapetae. —  A  sect  of  Gnostics  which 
appeared  about  a.d.  395,  and  was  princi- 
pally composed  of  women,  who  went  as- 
tray on  an  exaggerated  interpretation  of 
the  principle,  that  "to  the  pure  all  things 
are  pure." 

Agapetus  (name  of  two  Popes). —  Sf. 
Agapetua  I.  Pope,  successor  to  John  IL 
in  535,  died  in  536.  To  obtain  peace  ac- 
cording to  the  request  of  Theodat,  king  of 
the  Ostrogoths,  he  went  to  see  Emperor 
Justinian;  refused  to  ordain  Anthimus  for 
the  bishopric  of  Constantinople,  because 
he  was  Eutychian;  consecrated  Mennas, 
with  the  title  of  patriarch. —  Agafetus  II. 
Successor  to  Martin  IL  from  946  to  956. 

Agareneans. —  Name  given  in  the  sev- 
enth century  to  the  apostate  Christians  in 
Arabia  who  had  embraced  the  religion  of 
Mohammed;  also,  to  the  Arabians,  de- 
scendants of  Ismael,  son  of  Agar. 

Agatha  (St.). —  Born  at  Palermo,  Sicily, 
was  martyred  on  Feb.  5th,  251,  at  Catanea, 


during  the  persecution  of  Decius.  Quin- 
tianus,  the  governor  of  Sicily,  seeing  his 
love  for  her  repudiated,  took  revenge  by 
accusing  her  of  being  a  Christian,  and 
caused  her  to  suffer  most  cruel  torments. 
She  was  scourged,  burned  with  hot  irons, 
torn  with  hooks,  and  then  placed  on  a  bed 
of  live  coals  and  glass.  From  all  these 
tortures  St.  Agatha  went  forth  triumphant, 
and  finally  died  in  her  prison.  The  in- 
habitants of  Catanea  invoke  her,  especially 
during  an  outbreak  of  Mount  ^tna.  F. 
Feb.  5th. 

Agatho  (St.)  Pope  (678-681).— Born  at 
Palermo,  Sicily.  His  legates  presided  at 
the  Sixth  Ecumenical  Council  (Constanti- 
nople), which  condemned  Monothelism,  in 
the  year  680,  and  which  had  assembled  at 
the  request  of  Constantine  I V.  (Pogonatus), 
to  whom  the  Pope  had  written  a  re- 
markable letter  to  refute  the  new  heresy. 
F.  Jan.  loth. 

"Age  {cajtoniral). — The  canonical  age  is 
the  number  of  years  attained  by  a  person 
from  birth  and  required  by  Canon  Law,  to 
be  eligible  for  certain  duties,  responsi- 
bilities, callings  and  sacred  offices.  Such, 
as  for  instance,  the  age  of  reason ;  the  age 
at  which  a  person  may  receive  the  sacra- 
ments ;  to  observe  such  or  such  precept ;  to 
exercise  a  certain  function. 

Agelli  (Anthony). —  Hellenist,  and 
Theatine  religious  ;  director  of  the  Vatican 
printing  institute.  Bishop  of  Acerno,  in 
1693 ;  but  soon  resigned  his  office  and  re- 
turned to  his  monastery,  where  he  died 
in  1608.  Author  of  esteemed  commen- 
taries on  Holy  Scripture. 

Agenda  {dispute  concerning  the). —  In 
i8i6,  the  king  of  Prussia  introduced  a  new 
Agenda  for  the  Protestant  divine  service 
which  gave  rise  to  a  general  opposition  in 
Prussia  and  in  Baden,  and  which,  instead 
of  uniting,  only  spread-.the  discord  among 
the  different  factions  of  Protestantism. 

Aggeus  {Yi^hr.  feast,  solemnity) —One 
of  the  twelve  minor  Prophets;  prophesied 
520  B.  c.  Was  born  during  the  Babylonian 
captivity.  At  the  return,  he  exhorted  the 
people  to  rebuild  the  temple,  whose  glory 
he  foretold  in  announcing  that  the  Messias 
would  enter  therein. 

Agnes  (St.). —  A  Roman  virgin  and 
martyr,  12  or  13  years  of  age,  beheaded 
during  the  reign  of  Diocletian.  She  was 
slain   after  having   been   exposed   to   the 


Agnoetae 


i6 


AlLERANUS 


vilest  outrage  in  a  brothel.  F.  Jan.  aist. 
A  magnificent  Church  was  erected  in  her 
honor,  at  Rome,  by  Constantine  the  Great. 
There,  every  year  on  the  feast  of  the  saint, 
they  bless  two  lambs,  which  Religious  have 
carefully  raised.  The  lambs'  wool  serves 
to  make  the  f  alliums  which  the  sovereign 
Pontiff  sends,  as  a  sign  of  their  jurisdic- 
tion, to  all  the  patriarchs  and  all  the  met- 
ropolitans. 

Agnoets  (from  the  Gr.  agncein,  to  be 
ignorant). —  i.  Name  given  to  heretics 
of  the  fourth  century,  followers  of  Theo- 
phronius  of  Cappadocia,  who  attacked 
God's  science  on  future,  present  and  past 
things.  2.  Sect  of  Eutychians  in  the 
sixth  century,  of  which  Themistius  was 
the  author.  They  maintained  that  Jesus 
Christ,  as  man,  ignored  certain  things, 
and  especially,  the  hour  of  the  last  judg- 
ment. 

Agnus  Dei  {Lamb  of  God). — i.  Any 
image  or  representation  of  a  lamb,  which 
represents  meekness.  Symbolic  name  of 
Christ,  the  Redeemer  of  the  world.  2.  A 
prayer  at  Mass,  before  Communion.  3. 
A  figure  of  a  lamb  stamped  on  the  wax 
which  remains  from  the  paschal  candles, 
and  solemnly  blessed  by  the  Pope  on  the 
Thursday  after  Easter,  in  the  first  year 
of  his  Pontificate  and  then  every  seventh 
year.  4.  A  heart-shaped  article  of  de- 
votion, covered  with  woolen  cloth  or  silk, 
to  be  worn  about  the  person.  5.  Part  of 
the  Mass  between  the  Pater  Noster  and 
Communion  where  the  celebrant  says 
three  times  the  words  which  St.  John  the 
Baptist  said,  when  he  pointed  out  Christ. 
This  part  of  the  Mass  was  introduced 
therein  about  the  end  of  the  seventh  cen- 
tury or  the  beginning  of  the  eighth. 
Before  this  time,  only  the  choir  sang  it. 

Agobard  (St.). — Archbishop  of  Lyons, 
born  very  probably  in  Spain,  in  779.  We 
have  esteemed  treatises  by  him  against  the 
ordeals  and  judicial  duels,  against  idola- 
try, witchcraft,  on  the  priesthood,  etc. 
See  his  works  in  Migne's  Pat.  Lat.,  civ. 
Died  in  840.     F.  June  6th. 

Agonistici  (from  the  Gr.  agonistika; 
agonidzein,  to  combat). —  Name  by  which 
Donatus  and  his  followers  designated 
the  preachers  which  they  sent  to  spread 
their  doctrine. 

Agricius  (Agrcecius,  St.). —  Bishop  of 
Treves  in  the  fourth  century ;  died  about 
332.     He  was  a  cleric   of   the   Church   of 


Antioch,  whom  Pope  St.  Sylvester,  at  the 
request  of  the  Empress  St.  Helena,  sent  to 
assure  the  conquests  of  Christianity  at 
Treves.  Agricius  turned  the  palace  of  St. 
Helena  into  a  metropolitan  basilica  and 
deposited  therein  precious  relics  which 
his  illustrious  protectress  had  intrusted  to 
him.  He  rooted  out  the  remainder  of 
paganism  at  Treves  and  made  the  Chris- 
tian religion  flourish  around  him  in  Gaul, 
Belgium,  and  Germany.     F.  Jan.  19th. 

Agricola  (John).      See  Antinomians. 

Agrippa. — Name  of  two  of  the  Herodian 
family.  i.  A  grandson  of  Herod  the 
Great,  was  raised  by  Caligula  from  a  prison 
to  a  throne,  and  ultimately  became  king 
of  all  Palestine.  He  affected  to  be  a  Phari- 
see, and  to  please  the  Jews  he  caused  St. 
James  to  be  beheaded,  and  threw  St.  Peter 
into  prison,  whence  he  was  miraculously 
delivered.  But  the  king,  shortly  after- 
ward, died  a  miserable  death  (Acts  xii., 
etc.).  2.  A  son  of  the  former,  who  several 
years  after  his  father's  death  was  made 
tetrarch  of  northern  Palestine  with  the 
title  of  king.  It  was  before  him  that 
St.  Paul  made  his  famous  defense  (Acts 
xxvi.).  After  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  he  re- 
tired to  Jerusalem,  where  he  died  about 
100  A.  D.,  the  last  of  the  race  of  Herod 
commemorated  in  history.     See  Herod. 

Aguirre (Joseph  S^nz). — Spanish  Bene- 
dictine, professor  of  theology  at  Sala- 
manca, then  cardinal ;  born  at  Logrono, 
1630;  died  at  Rome,  1699.  The  most  im- 
portant of  his  works  is  the  Collection  of 
the  Councils  of  Spain,  Rome,  (4  vol.  in  fol. 
1693-1694).  Bossuet  called  him  "the  light 
of  the  Church,  the  model  of  morals,  the 
example  of  piety." 

Aidan  (St.).— Irish  monk  of  Hy  or  lona, 
then  Bishop  of  Lindisfarne  (Holy  Island). 
By  his  prudence,  conciliating  disposition, 
and  affable  manners,  he  won  the  hearts  and 
gained  the  souls  of  his  barbarous  people. 
Aidan,  following  the  practice  of  his 
country,  erected  a  monastery  by  the  side 
of  his  cathedral,  on  the  island  of  Lindis- 
farne. Between  Aidan  and  King  Oswald, 
there  always  existed  the  warmest  sympathy 
and  the  most  intimate  friendship.  Aidan 
died  in  651.  The  Church  reveres  him  as 
a  martyr,  and  the  English  nation,  as  one  of 
its  most  glorious  saints.     F.  Aug.  31st. 

Aileranus. — Irish  monk  and  ecclesias- 
tical  writer   of    the   eighth   century.     He 


AlLLY 


17 


Alb 


was  superior  of  the  convent  school  at 
Cluainerard,  which  was  visited  by  thou- 
sands of  scholars ;  on  account  of  his  extra- 
ordinary erudition  they  surnamed  him 
"  The  Wise."  Of  his  writings,  under  which 
Gesta  S.  Patritii  are  mentioned,  the  only 
one  extant  is  his  Interfretatio  mystica 
de  frogenitoribus  Christi ;  it  was  pub- 
lished together  with  the  writings  of  St. 
Columban  by  Patricius  Flemming  (Ord. 
Minor.,  Louvain  1667,  in  fol.)  and  is  also 
found  in  Biblioth.  PP.  Lugd.  xii.  37; 
Migne,  PP.  Lai.  Ixxx.  337. 

Ailly  (Peter  d')  (i 350-1 420) .—  French 
prelate  and  theologian.  Born  at  Com- 
piegne  of  a  poor  family.  Chancellor  of 
the  University  in  1389 ;  confessor  of  Charles 
VI. ;  Bishop  of  Puy,  in  1395,  then  of 
Cambrai,  in  1397.  He  did  all  in  his  power 
to  extinguish  the  schism  which  then  des- 
olated the  Church.  In  the  Council  of 
Pisa  he  energetically  declared  himself 
against  the  Hussites  as  well  as  for  certain 
reforms.  In  regard  to  the  latter  subject 
he  published  his  views  in  a  work  entitled, 
Libellus  de  emendatione  EcclesicB.  His 
philosophical  and  theological  doctrines 
are  especially  found  in  a  Commentary  on 
the  Book  of  Sentences,  and  in  his  work 
De  Anima,  which  indicates  a  mitigated 
Nominalism.  His  vigorous  logic  caused 
him  to  be  surnamed  "  The  Eagle  of 
France"  and  "The  Hammer  of  Heretics." 

Aix-Ia-Chapelle.     See  Aachen. 

A-Kempis  (  Thomas  )  ( 1380-1471  ).  — 
Canon  regular,  born  at  Kempen,  diocese 
of  Cologne,  died  in  the  convent  of  Mount 
St.  Agnes,  near  Zwoll,  in  the  Upper 
Yssel.  His  principal  occupation  was  to 
copy  works  of  piety,  and  particularly  the 
Bible.  They  have  also  attributed  to  him 
the  incomparable  work,  which  has  for 
title  Imitation  of  fesus  Christ.  Critics 
have  claimed  this  honor  for  John  Gerson, 
chancellor  of  the  University  of  Paris, 
others  for  John  Gerson,  Abbot  of  Verceil. 
The  Benedictine  Celestin  Wollsgriiber, 
in  his  work  Giovanni  Gersen  (1880), 
brings  forth  a  peremptory  argument 
against  Thomas  a  Kempis;  it  is  a  manu- 
script bearing  the  date  of  1384,  a  time 
when  Thomas  a  Kempis  was  4  years  old. 
Hence,  he  would  be  only  a  copyist  and  not 
the  author  of  the  Imitation. 

Akiba-Ben-Joseph. —  Jewish  rabbi ;  died 
in     the    year     135    a.  d.      During     forty 
years  he  directed  the  Israelitic  College  of 
2 


Jasne  or  Tiberiades.  Gave  in  a  book  the 
explanation  of  the  tables  of  the  law,  and 
the  first  compilation  of  the  Jewish  tra- 
ditions. It  is  to  be  regretted  that  he 
falsified  some  sacred  texts,  to  prove  that 
the  Messias  had  not  yet  come.  H,e  em- 
braced the  cause  of  Barchochebas  who 
passed  himself  for  the  Messias,  was  cap- 
tured by  the  troops  of  Emperor  Hadrian 
and  flayed  alive. 

Alanus-ab-Insulis(^/rt/»  de  Lille){iiiJ^- 
1203). —  Learned  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Lille, 
France;  Abbot  of  Bivoux  of  the  Order  of 
Citeaux;  Bishop  of  Auxerre,  theologian, 
philosopher,  literator  and  poet.  His  prin- 
cipal tvorks  are :  Regtilae  de  sacra  theo- 
logia  ars  catholicae  fidei  ;  Anticlaudianus 
(encyclopaedia);  Liber farabolartim.  Ac- 
cording to  some  authors,  Alanus  ab  Insulis 
would  not  have  been  Bishop  of  Auxerre. 

Alanus  (Anglicus). —  An  English  can- 
onist at  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  compiled  a  collection  of  Papal 
Decrees  of  the  twelfth  century,  which  com- 
pleted that  of  Gilbert,  his  countryman,  and 
was  also  soon  united  with  it. 

Alb.  —  Church  vestment.  The  alb  is 
an  ample  linen  tunic  reaching  to  the  feet, 
and  so  called  from  the  Latin  word  alba, 
■white.  Long  garments  were  usually  worn 
not  merely  in  the  States  of  ancient  Greece 
and  by  the  separate  nations  of  the  East, 
but  throughout  the  Empire  of  Rome. 
Some,  however,  were  plain  and  made  of 
common  stuff,  as  they  were  employed  for 
ordinary  use;  others  were  more  costly, 
and  used  exclusively  on  days  of  religious 
ceremony  and  on  state  occasions.  The 
priests  and  Levites,  under  the  Mosaic  dis- 
pensation, were  undistinguished  in  ordi- 
nary life  from  the  rest  of  society  by  any 
particular  garments.  They  assumed,  how- 
ever, a  different  and  official  attire  to 
distinguish  them  while  discharging  the 
functions  of  their  sacred  ministry.  This, 
no  doubt,  the  Church  of  Christ,  together 
with  several  other  things,  borrowed  from 
the  synagogue.  The  Church  has  now 
consecrated  the  alb  or  linen  tunic  for  the 
use  of  her  priests,  her  deacons  and  her 
subdeacons,  who  are  ministering  at  the  al- 
tar. The  lower  edge  of  the  alb  and  the 
wrist  bands  were  anciently  ornamented 
with  stripes  of  scarlet  attached  to  them. 
A  remnant  of  the  scarlet  border  is  still  pre- 
served by  some  of  the  religious  orders,  that 
trim  the  bottom  and  the  sleeve-cuflfs  of  the 


Alban 


i8 


Albigenses 


alb  with  lace,  under  which  they  attach 
scarlet  silk.  In  the  Middle  Ages  the  alb 
was  adorned  with  emblems  embroidered  in 
silk  and  gold,  sometimes  enriched  with 
pearls  and  precious  stones,  or  with  four 
pieces  of  rich  silken  stuff,  t«o  at  the 
wrists  and  two  at  the  bottom,  one  in  front 
and  one  behind.  Still  later  the  custom  of 
contracting  the  alb,  bv  plating  it  in  long 
folds,  was  introduced  and  is  still  observed. 
This  long  linen  garment,  which  is  called 
the  alb  in  the  Latin  or  Western  Church,  is 
also  used  among  the  Oriental  Christians 
by  priests,  deacons,  and  subdeacons  in  the 
celebration  of  Mass. 

Alban  (St.)- — First  English  martyr, 
scion  of  a  noble  Roman  family  and  lived 
as  a  highly  esteemed  citizen  at  Verulam  in 
Britain  (now  St.  Albans  in  Hertfordshire). 
St.  Amphibalus,  a  learned  and  pious 
ecclesiastic,  who  had  come  to  England  at 
the  beginning  of  the  Diocletian  persecu- 
tion, and  whom  he  had  received  in  his 
house,  gained  him  for  Christ.  When  it 
became  known  that  St.  Alban  concealed 
a  messenger  of  the  faith  in  his  house,  he 
exchanged  clothing  with  him,  in  order 
to  assure  his  flight  and  life.  Hereupon 
our  Saint  was  brought  before  the  court, 
and  as  he  refused  to  sacrifice  to  the  idols, 
he  was  first  scourged,  then  imprisoned 
and  after  half  a  year  executed  by  the 
sword.  Miracles  glorified  his  death  and 
moved  many  to  accept  the  faith.  These 
new  converts,  as  well  as  St.  Amphibalus, 
soon  also  died  for  the  faith.  After  ten 
years  (313)  a  Church  was  erected  over  the 
tomb  of  St.  Alban,  which  became  a  much 
frequented  place  of  pilgrimage.  Alban 
died  in  the  year  303.    F.  June  22d. 

Albanians  {Conversion  of  the'). —  See 
Iberians. 

Albanians.  — Heretics  of  the  seventh  cen- 
tury, who  appeared  principally  in  Asiatic 
Albania  and  in  the  eastern  part  of  Georgia. 
They  had  borrowed  their  doctrine  from 
the  Manicheans. 

Albert  the  Great  (i  193-1280). —  Born  at 
Lauingen  on  the  Danube ;  died  at  Cologne. 
The  most  remarkable  man  of  his  time  for 
varied  acquirements  was  Albertus  Magnus, 
the  celebrated  master  of  St.  Thomas 
Aquinas.  Born  of  a  noble  family,  he  stud- 
ied at  Paris,  Padua  and  Bologna.  Upon 
entering  the  Dominican  Order,  he  was  em- 
ployed as  teacher  in  various  places, 
especially  at  Cologne.     In  1260,   he  was 


unwillingly  promoted  to  the  bishopric  of 
Ratisbon,  which  he  relinquished  after  two 
years,  when  he  returned  to  public  teach- 
ing. His  contemporaries,  marvelling  at 
his  extensive  learning,  called  him  the 
"Universal  Doctor"  and  the  "Second 
Aristotle."  He  left  numerous  works,  which 
fill  twenty-one  folio  volumes. 

Albigenses.  —  Noted  heretics  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  who  multiplied  rapidly 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Albi  and  in  the 
country  of  Lower  Languedoc,  France, 
and  named  Albigenses  by  contemporary 
writers.  Their  doctrine  was  of  Oriental 
origin,  a  mixture  of  Manicheism,  Gnos- 
ticism and  Christianity.  This  heresy 
seems  to  have  spread  first  in  the  Slav  coun- 
tries, then  passed  into  Lombardy,  from 
whence  it  penetrated  into  the  southern 
parts  of  France,  where  it  took  deep  root 
among  the  ignorant  people.  They  called 
themselves  Cathares,  that  is,  the  pure,  and 
were  condemned  in  the  Council  of  Lom- 
bez,  1 176,  under  the  name  Bans  Hommes, 
and  again  in  the  Lateran  Council,  1179. 
However  absurd  their  doctrines  and  pre- 
tensions, they  found  protectors  among 
many  of  the  lords  of  the  South,  particu- 
larly Raymond  VI.,  Count  of  Toulouse, 
his  nephew  Raymond-Roger,  vice-Count 
of  Beziers  and  Carcassonne.  After  the  as- 
sassination of  the  papal  legate,  Peter  de 
Castelnau  (1208),  Pope  Innocent  HI.  or- 
dered a  crusade  in  which  the  people  of 
northern  France  took  part.  The  crusaders, 
led  by  Simon  de  Montfort,  took  Beziers 
and  then  Carcassonne,  in  1209.  And  in 
1213,  they  defeated  the  army  of  the  Count 
of  Toulouse  and  his  ally  Peter  of  Aragon, 
at  Murat.  But,  in  1218,  Simon  de  Mont- 
fort, to  whom  was  given  the  earldom  of 
Toulouse,  was  killed  in  the  siege  of  that 
city,  and  Raymond  VII.  reconquered  a 
part  of  the  earldom  of  his  father.  In  1226, 
Louis  VIII.  directed  a  new  expedition 
against  the  South,  but  he  died  after  taking 
Avignon.  Finally,  in  1229,  the  Treaty  of 
Manx  put  an  end  to  these  long  wars ;  the 
Count  of  Toulouse  ceded  to  the  king  of 
France  the  senechals  of  Beaucaire  and 
Carcassonne,  and  betrothed  his  daughter, 
heiress  of  most  of  his  domains,  to  Al- 
phonse  of  Poitiers,  brother  of  Louis  IX. 
From  this  time  little  was  said  or  done  by 
the  Albigenses,  except,  in  1243,  at  the  siege 
of  the  Castle  of  Montsegur,  in  the  diocese 
of  Toulouse,  where  some  of  the  sect  had 
retreated.     See  Bogomilbs. 


Alcantara 


19 


Alexander 


Alcantara  {Knights  of). —  One  of  the 
three  religious  and  military  orders  of 
Spain.  It  was  founded  in  1156.  In  1218, 
King  Alphonse  VI.  gave  to  it  the  city  of 
Alcantara;  hence  its  name.  The  order 
was  suppressed  in  1835 ;  and  to-day  it  is 
only  an  order  of  military  merit. 

Alcuin  (Lat.  Albinus). —  Famous  Anglo- 
Saxon  scholar  (725  or  735-804),  born  at 
York  in  England ;  made  the  most  brilliant 
studies  in  the  Episcopal  School  of  that  city. 
He  had  for  teachers  the  learned  Aelbert,  a 
disciple  of  the  Venerable  Bede,  who  taught 
all  the  branches  of  literature,  science,  and 
the  fine  arts,  explained,  simultaneously, 
the  Greek  and  Latin  authors.  Holy 
Scripture  and  the  Fathers  of  the  Church. 
Alcuin,  after  having  accompanied  Aelbert 
in  a  voyage  to  Rome,  became  his  successor. 
In  782,  he  became  master  of  the  school  of 
the  palace  of  Charlemagne  and  served  as 
his  general  superintendent  in  educational 
affairs.  At  the  Council  of  Frankfort,  in 
794,  he  led  the  opposition  to  Adoptionism, 
which  the  council  condemned;  and  at  the 
synod  of  Aachen,  in  799,  he  persuaded 
Felix,  the  leader  of  the  Adoptionists,  to 
recant  (his  second  recantation).  Alcuin 
wrote  on  a  great  variety  of  subjects,  in- 
cluding theology,  history,  grammar,  rhet- 
oric, orthography,  dialectics,  etc.  The 
doctrine  of  Alcuin  is  very  sound. 

Alexander  (name  of  eight  Popes). —  Al- 
exatider  I.  (109-117). —  Successor  of  Evar- 
istus,  is  counted  among  the  martyrs. 
Alexander  II.  (1061-T073).  —  Formerly 
Anselm,  bishop  of  Lucca.  He  had  given 
proof  of  his  virtue,  and  of  his  zeal  for 
clerical  celibacy,  while  yet  only  a  priest 
at  Milan,  where  the  practice  of  simony 
and  marriage  was  quite  general  among 
the  clergy.  He  boldly  denounced  clerical 
corruptions,  especially  against  the  anomaly 
of  a  married  clergy.  He  had  to  wrestle 
with  the  anti-pope  Honorius  II.,  upheld  by 
Henry  IV.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  and 
opposed  himself  to  the  persecutions  of 
the  Jews,  in  France.  Alexander  III. 
(1159-1181). —  Formerly  Cardinal  Roland 
of  Siena.  He  was  opposed  by  three  anti- 
popes  :  Victor  IV.,  Pascal  III.,  and  Calix- 
tus  III.,  willing  instruments  of  Emperor 
Frederick's  ambitious  designs.  He  pro- 
nounced excommunication  against  the 
emperor,  the  anti-popes,  and  their  adher- 
ents. Strict  Catholics  no  longer  regarded 
Frederick  Barbarossa  as  emperor,  and 
looked  upon  Alexander  III.  as  the  only  se- 


cure asylum  of  the  liberties  of  the  Church. 
The  contest  between  the  Pope  and  the 
emperor  ended  in  the  decisive  defeat  of 
the  latter  at  the  battle  of  Legnano,  May 
29th,  1 176.  In  1 177  a  reconciliation  took 
place  at  Venice,  and  in  1178  the  anti-pope, 
Calixtus  III.  abdicated.  Pope  Alexander 
III.,  in  order  to  remedy  the  evils  produced 
by  the  late  schism,  convoked,  in  1179,  the 
Third  Lateran,  or  Eleventh  Ecumenical 
Council.  Alexander  IV.  (1254-1261). — 
Formerly  Bishop  of  Ostia;  opposed  him- 
self to  the  encroachments  in  Italy  of  Man- 
fred, natural  son  of  Barbarossa,  and  made 
efforts  for  the  reunion  of  the  Greek  and 
Latin  Churches.  Alexander  V.  (1409- 
1410). —  Formerly  Archbishop  of  Milan; 
he  was  elected  by  the  Council  of  Pisa, 
after  the  deposition  of  Benedict  XIII.  and 
Gregory  XII.,  with  the  understanding 
that  he  would  reform  the  abuses  of  the 
Church.  Alexander  VI.  (1492-1503). — 
The  Pontificate  of  Alexander  VI.  was  a 
time  of  degradation  for  the  Holy  See,  and 
a  calamity  to  the  Church.  This  Pope  was 
of  the  Borgia  family,  and  his  mother  was  a 
sister  of  Calixtus  III.  When  he  became 
Pope  he  made  his  nephew,  then  a  military 
officer,  Bishop  of  Valencia,  and  shortly 
after  created  him  cardinal  and  vice-chan- 
cellor of  the  Roman  Church.  Before  his 
elevation  to  the  Papacy,  he  became  the 
father  of  four  children,  by  a  Roman  lady 
of  noble  family.  His  election  to  the  Pa- 
pacy was  accomplished  by  bribery.  Alex- 
ander possessed,  indeed,  all  the  qualities 
of  an  able  and  valiant  ruler,  but  utterly 
lacked  the  virtues  of  a  Pontiff.  When 
raised  to  the  Papacy,  he  availed  himself  of 
every  means  to  enrich  and  elevate  his  fam- 
ily. He  formed  a  league  with  the  King 
of  Naples,  against  Charles  VIII.  of  France, 
who  laid  claim  to  the  Neapolitan  Crown. 
It  was  under  the  reign  of  this  Pope  that 
the  eloquent,  but  eccentric  Dominican, 
Jerome  Savonarola,  made  war  upon  tem- 
poral rulers,  including  the  Pope,  de- 
nouncing their  corruption  and  excesses. 
Alexander's  Pontificate  was  contemporary 
with  the  Discovery  of  America,  by  Chris- 
topher Columbus,  and  one  of  the  Pope's 
first  acts  was  the  publication  of  a  Bull, 
known  as  the  "Bull  of  Partition,"  which 
provided  for  the  propagation  of  the  Chris- 
tian faith  in  the  recently  discovered  re- 
gions, or  regions  to  be  discovered  in  the 
future,  between  Spain  and  Portugal.  A 
Bull  of  this  Pontiff,  forbidding  the  publica- 
tion of  new  books,  without  the  approbation 


Alexander  of  Alexandria     20 


Alexandria 


of  the  ecclesiastical  authority,  tended  to 
check  the  spread  of  heretical  and  other 
obnoxious  writings. 

The  hatred  entertained,  for  the  rule  of 
Alexander  VI.  led  men  to  charge  him  with 
imaginary  crimes,  and  to  greatly  exagger- 
ate his  real  failings.  The  horrible  crimes 
of  which  this  Pope  and  his  children,  es- 
pecially Lucretia,  stand  accused  were  but 
the  inventions  of  malice;  these  atrocious 
calumnies,  as  W.  Roscoe,  an  eminent  Pro- 
testant historian,  has  shown,  are  traceable 
to  the  revengeful  journalists  of  the  day. 
The  implacable  hostility  of  the  Reformers, 
and  the  resentment  of  France,  because  of 
the  political  attitude  of  Alexander  VI.  to 
that  country,  have  contributed,  not  a  little, 
to  blacken  his  memory.  Besides,  the 
deeds  of  violence  committed  by  Caesar 
Borgia  in  the  Pope's  name,  added  much 
to  bring  disgrace  on  his  father's  Pontifi- 
cate. Yet  enough  is  known,  which  com- 
pels us  to  acknowledge  that  the  elevation 
of  Alexander  VI.  was  disgraceful,  and  his 
government  calamitous.  But  the  errors 
of  his  private  life  never  affected  his  con- 
duct as  Pope.  He  made  several  wise  de- 
crees and  patronized  learning;  in  his 
many  constitutions,  he  never  taught  or 
commanded  anything  contrary  to  faith 
and  morals.  Alexander  VII.  (1655-1667). 
—  Formerly  Cardinal  Chigi,  was  a  man  of 
great  talents  and  virtues.  The  arbitrary 
proceedings  of  Louis  XIV.  of  France 
against  the  Holy  See,  gave  Alexander 
much  annoyance  and  greatly  embittered 
his  life.  It  was  in  his  Pontificate  that  the 
Swedish  Queen,  Christina,  daughter  of 
Gustavus  Adolphus,  abjured  Lutheranism, 
and,  sacrificing  her  crown,  embraced  the 
Catholic  faith.  Alexander  confirmed  the 
Bull  of  his  predecessor.  Innocent  X.,  against 
the  five  propositions  of  Jansenius.  Alexan- 
der VIII.  (168^1691).— A  Pontiff  highly 
extolled  for  his  moderation  and  prudence, 
obtained  from  Louis  XIV.  the  restoration 
of  Avignon,  which  had  been  occupied  by 
the  French  under  the  preceding  Pontificate. 
Published  the  Bull  "  Intermultiplices" 
against  the  four  articles  of  the  French  clergy 
of  1682,  which  proclaimed  Gallicanism. 

Alexander  of  Alexandria  (St.). — Patri- 
arch of  Alexandria,  combated  the  heresy 
of  Arius,  whom  he  caused  to  be  con- 
demned in  the  Council  of  Nice  (325),  and 
died  in  the  year  328.     F.  Feb.  26th. 

Alexander  of  Hales. — Bom  in  Glouces- 
tershire, England ;    was  one  of  the  great- 


est theologians  that  the  Middle  Ages 
produced.  He  was  reared  in  the  monas- 
tery of  Hales,  where  he  derived  his  sur- 
name, while  he  received  his  higher 
education  at  Oxford  and  Paris.  In  1222 
he  became  a  Franciscan  monk,  and  was 
the  first  of  his  order  that  lectured  in  the 
University  of  Paris,  where  he  taught  phi- 
losophy and  theology  with  great  success. 
Of  the  Schoolmen,  Alexander  was  the 
earliest  acquainted  with  all  the  works  of 
Aristotle,  whose  philosophy  he  was  also 
the  first  to  apply  to  the  treating  and  solv- 
ing of  theological  questions.  Besides  his 
commentary  on  the  Metaphysics  of  Aris- 
totle, the  first  of  the  kind  on  that  work,  he 
constructed,  by  order  of  Pope  Innocent 
IV.,  a  Sum  of  Theology,  which,  having 
been  examined  by  a  committee  of  seventy 
doctors,  was  recommended  by  the  Pope 
as  a  complete  manual  to  all  masters  and 
students  of  theology.  On  account  of  his 
extensive  and  deep  erudition,  his  contem- 
poraries called  him  the  "Irrefragable 
Doctor"  and  the  "  Monarch  of  the  Theolo- 
gians."    He  died  in  1245. 

Alexander  (St.). —  Surnamed  the  "coal- 
seller"  ;  lived  poor  at  Comana,  Italy,  was 
named  bishop  of  that  city  about  the  year 
248.  He  discharged  his  office  with  as 
much  zeal  as  prudence,  and  died  for  the 
faith.  The  year  of  his  death  is  unknown. 
F.  Aug.  nth. 

Alexander  (St.)  (317-337  or  340). — 
Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  had  to  wrestle 
against  Arianism.  He  was  the  first  that 
insisted  on  the  convocation  of  a  General 
Council.  In  the  year  336,  when  it  was  ex- 
pected that  Arius  with  his  followers  would 
be  solemnl}'  introduced  into  the  Church  of 
Constantinople,  Alexander  prayed  to  God 
either  to  let  him  die  or  hinder  such  a  scan- 
dal from  his  Church.  God  listened  to  his 
prayers ;  Arius  died  suddenly  during  the 
procession.  Alexander  occupied  the  See 
of  Constantinople  during  23  years.  F. 
Aug.  28t'h. 

Alexander  (St.)  . —  Bishop  of  Jerusalem  ', 
he  left  to  that  city  a  beautiful  library,  was 
the  defender  of  Origen,  and  died  in  prison, 
under  the  Emperor  Decius,  in  251.  F. 
March  18th. 

Alexandria  ( Councils  of) . —  The  Church 
held  several  Councils  at  Alexandria 
(Egypt)  in  the  early  ages  of  Christianity. 
The  first  two  (230  and  231)  condemned 
Origen.     The  Council  of  320  condemned 


Alexandria 


21 


Alexandrian  Schools 


Arianism,  one  hundred  bishops  uniting  in 
judgment.  In  that  of  339,  the  Egyptian 
bishops  declared  themselves  in  favor  of  St. 
Athanasius,  driven  away  by  the  Eusebians. 
The  Council  held  about  the  end  of  430  by  St. 
Cyril,  condemned  Nestorianism.  Finally, 
in  that  of  633,  the  Patriarch  Cyrus  tried  to 
reconcile  the  Theodosians,  a  sect  of  the 
Monophysites,  with  the  Church. 

Alexandria  (^Patriarchate  of). —  The 
Alexandrian  patriarchate  is  held  by  the 
Monophysite  heretics  (Copts),  since  the 
dominion  of  the  Saracens,  in  the  seventh 
century.  The  schismatic  Greeks  have  a 
patriarchate  of  Alexandria  at  Cairo.  In 
November,  1895,  Pope  Leo  XIII.  created  a 
patriarch  styled  "  Patriarch  of  Alexandria 
of  the  Copts,"  to  govern  the  Catholics  of 
that  country.     See  Copts. 

Alexandrian  Christian  School. —  This 
School  was  one  that  shed  a  luster  on  the 
early  Christians  of  the  East.  Amidst  the 
storms  of  persecution,  the  Christian  youth 
thronged  its  academic  halls  to  drink  the 
teaching  which  fell  from  the  eloquent  lips 
of  Origen  or  St.  Clement.  The  teachers, 
in  order  to  meet  the  votary  of  Plato 
or  Aristotle  on  his  own  ground,  were 
compelled  to  study  the  subtilities  of  both ; 
they  were  obliged  to  mingle  with  the 
elementary  and  catechetical,  teaching 
more  scientific  lessons  on  Christianity, 
and  ended  in  giving  a  complete  doc- 
trine on  the  whole  of  the  philosoph- 
ical sciences.  The  latter  was  made  to 
shine  from  light  borrowed  chiefly  from  the 
former.  Side  by  side  with  theology,  they 
taught  the  Platonic  and  Aristotelian  philo- 
sophies. At  that  period,  Plato  was  in  the 
ascendant,  and  exclusive  partiality  for 
Plato  betrayed  the  eloquent  Origen  into 
some  errors  and  extravagances.  Besides 
these,  geometry,  rhetoric,  grammar,  etc., 
were  amongst  the  regular  courses  of  in- 
struction, and  all  molded  to  the  Christian 
standard.  The  Christian  School  of  Alex- 
andria did  produce  illustrious  represent- 
atives: Athenagoras,  Clement,  Origen, 
Dionysius,  Peter  the  Martyr,  Didymus  the 
Blind,  Athanasius,  Cyril,  etc.  One  dis- 
tinguishes between  the  ancient  (St.  Clem- 
ent, Origen)  and  the  later  school  of 
Alexandria  (Sts.  Athanasius,  Cyril) ;  the 
first  had  to  combat  Gnosticism,  the  second 
Nestorianism. 

Alexandrian  Library. —  History  and  tra- 
dition   assures    us    that    the     Alexandria 


Library  was  the  most  famous  and  valuable 
one  of  antiquity.  It  was  founded  by 
Ptolemy  Soter,  and  during  its  most  flour- 
ishing period,  it  is  said  to  have  contained 
400,000,  or,  according  to  another  authority, 
700,000  volumes  or  rolls.  During  the  siege 
of  Alexandria  by  Julius  Caesar  (48  b.  c.) 
a  great  deal  of  the  library  was  destroyed 
by  fire ;  but  it  was  partly  restored  by  Mark 
Antony.  A  second  library  of  43,000  vol- 
umes was  kept  in  the  Serapeum,  the 
temple  of  Jupiter  Serapis,  which  for  the 
most  part  were  ordinary  works ;  the  most 
valuable  collection  was  stored  in  the  Mu- 
seum, in  the  quarter  called  Brucheium. 
During  a  revolt  in  391,  a  portion  of  the 
library  was  destroyed,  but  at  the  taking  of 
Alexandria  by  the  Arabians,  under  the 
Calif  Omar  (641),  the  remainder  was  com- 
pletely ruined.  Orosius,  a  writer  of  the 
fourth  century,  and  some  modern  infidel 
writers,  would  fain  accuse  the  Christians 
under  Archbishop  Theophilus  of  destroy- 
ing the  library,  but  if  this  were  the  case, 
the  library  would  have  ceased  to  exist  two 
hundred  and  fifty  years  before  the  Arabs 
fired  and  sacked  Alexandria,  which  was 
not  the  case. 

Alexandrian  Schools. — After  the  decline 
of  literature  and  art  in  Greece,  Alexandria 
in  Egypt  became  one  of  the  most  brilliant 
centers  of  antique  civilization.  Under  the 
Ptolemies,  founders  of  the  Library,  Mu- 
seum, and  other  munificent  improvements, 
a  vast  field  of  intellectual  wealth  arose 
from  this  center.  The  first  school  of 
Alexandria  (323-30  b.c.)  consisted  prin- 
cipally of  savants,  grammarians,  and  poets. 
There  it  was  that  the  first  inquiries  were 
made  about  human  anatomy,  in  which  the 
illustrious  names  of  Erasistratus  and 
Herophilus  shine  forth.  From  these  halls 
Galen  went  forth  equipped  to  practice  the 
healing  art.  Euclid  founded  the  school 
of  mathematics  which  produced  an  Ar- 
chimedes, Eratosthenes,  Aristarchus  of 
Samos,  and  later  on  Claudius,  Ptolemaeus, 
Diophantus,  and  Pappus.  The  school  of 
grammarians,  were  both  philologists  and 
literateurs,  in  the  sense  that  they  ex- 
plained things  as  well  as  words;  they 
devoted  themselves  to  the  critical  study  of 
the  texts  of  antiquity,  particularly  to  re- 
vising the  poems  of  Homer  and  preserving 
corrected  texts  of  the  earlier  Greek  poetry 
for  future  generations.  The  most  noted 
of  this  school  were  Philetas,  Zenodotus, 
Aristophanes   of   Byzantium,  Aristarchus 


Alexians 


22 


Alleluia 


of  Samothracia,  Crates  of  Mallus,  Diony- 
sius  the  Thracian,  etc. 

In  the  second  century  of  the  Christian 
era,  Apollonius  Dyscolus  summed  up,  in 
a  series  of  treatises,  the  grammatical 
science  such  as  it  was  understood  in  his 
time.  From  the  attention  paid  to  the 
study  of  language,  correctness,  purity  and 
elegance  of  expression  followed.  Of  the 
poetic  school,  may  be  mentioned  Philetas, 
Aratus,  Callimacus,  Asclepiades  of  Samos, 
Apollonius  of  Rhodes,  Euphorion,  Lyco- 
phron,  and,  before  all,  Theocritus.  The 
second  School  of  Alexandria,  which  ex- 
tended from  the  fall  of  the  Ptolemies 
(30  B.  c),  to  the  Arab  conquest  (a.  d.  640), 
was  especially  one  of  philosophers,  who 
undertook  to  unite  the  mystic  doctrines  of 
the  Orient  with  the  principles  of  Greek 
philosophy,  particularly  to  the  ideas  of 
Pythagoras  and  Plato.  The  distinguished 
names  of  this  eclectic  or  syncretic  school 
were  Ammonius  Saccas,  Philo  the  Jew, 
Photinus,  Porphyry,  Jamblicus,  and 
Proclus.  The  amalgamation  of  the  reli- 
gious notions  of  the  East  with  Greek 
dialectics,  represent  the  struggle  of  an- 
cient civilization  with  Christianity,*  and 
gave  rise  to  the  system  of  the  Gnostics 
which  was  elaborated  in  Alexandria, 
against  which  the  Christian  Fathers  of 
the  Church  of  Alexandria  had  to  con- 
tend. 

Alexians  or  Cellites. —  A  religious  Con- 
gregation, who  have  chosen  for  their  pa- 
tron St.  Alexius,  distinguished  for  his 
great  charity  and  self-denial.  They  are 
also  called  Cellites,  from  cella  (tomb),  be- 
ing disposed  and  often  destined  to  fill  an 
early  tomb.  Owing  to  the  nature  of  their 
vocation,  they  are  called  to  care  for  the 
victims  of  all  kinds  of  diseases,  even  the 
most  loathsome  and  contagious.  In  many 
cities  of  Europe  as  well  as  in  the  United 
States,  the  Alexians  have  houses  wherein 
they  care  for  the  sick  and  all  that  apply, 
without  distinction  of  creed  or  nationality. 
The  Alexians  came  to  the  United  States  in 
1867,  and  have  now  several  houses  in  this 
country. 

Alfred  the  Great. —  King  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  from  871-901 ;  was  born  in  849, 
in  the  Villa  Wanading,  in  Berkshire. 
He  was  the  youngest  son  of  Ethelwulf, 
king  of  the  West  Saxons,  succeeded  on 
the  death  of  his  brother  Ethelred  to  a 
throne  threatened  by  invasion  from  with- 
out    and     dissension    within.      His     first 


care  was  to  drive  off  the  Danes,  whom 
he  is  said  to  have  encountered  in  fifty- 
six  battles  by  land  and  sea.  The  great 
victory  of  Edington  (878)  led  to  the  peace 
of  Wedmore,  and  Alfred  was  thus  for  a 
time  free  to  devote  himself  to  the  peaceful 
reform  for  which  his  name  is  renowned. 
Prominent  among  these  are  the  establish- 
ment of  social  order,  the  encouragement 
of  learning,  and  the  founding  of  a  national 
fleet.  Alfred  was  highly  esteemed  as  a 
religious  and  industrious  man,  and  a  wise 
and  learned  king.  He  himself  composed 
several  works,  among  others  a  Collection 
of  Chronicles  ;  translated  into  Anglo- 
Saxon  the  Church  History  of  Bede,  the 
Epitome  of  Paul  Orosius,  the  Pas- 
toral and  the  Dialogues  of  St.  Gre- 
gory, etc.  Under  him,  England  had 
become,  by  its  clergy  and  monasteries,  a 
center  of  Christian  civilization. 

Algiers  {The  Church  in). —  See  Africa; 
Australia. 

Allatius  (Leo)  (1586-1669).  —  Born  on 
the  island  of  Scio ;  died  in  Rome.  Scholar 
in  the  Greek  College  at  Rome,  he  became 
a  Catholic  and  Librarian  of  the  Vatican  in 
1661.  Has  left  numerous  and  learned 
works  on  theology,  archaeology  and  phil- 
ology. His  principal  works  are:  JDe 
Ecclesiae  occidentdlis  et  orientalis  perpetua 
consensione, — wherein  he  proposes  to  prove 
that  the  Roman  Church  and  the  Greek 
Church  have  always  been  united  in  the 
same  faith, — De  Libris  ecclesiasticis  Grce- 
corum. 

Allegorical. — Theologians  generally  dis- 
tinguish two  kinds  of  meaning  in  Holy 
Scripture  :  the  literal  and  mystical  mean- 
ings. They  subdivide  the  mystic  sense 
into  allegorical,  tropological  and  anagogi- 
cal.  The  allegorical  sense  is  that  which 
results  from  the  explanation  of  a  thing 
accomplished  literally,  but  which  is,  how- 
ever, only  a  figure  of  another  thing:  thus 
the  brazen  serpent  raised  by  Moses  in  the 
desert  to  heal  the  Israelites  from  their 
wounds,  represented  in  an  allegorical 
sense,  Jesus  Christ,  raised  up  on  the  Cross 
for  the  redemption  of  mankind. 

Alleluia,  is  a  Hebrew  word  which  means 
Praise  God!  but  at  the  same  time  ex- 
presses an  emotion,  a  joyous  transport, 
that  no  Greek  or  Latin  word  is  found 
capable  of  conveying.  Wherefore  it  has 
been  left  unchanged.  From  the  time  of 
Pope  Damasus,  this  word  was  introduced 


Allen 


23 


Alms 


from  the  Jerusalem  Church  into  the  Latin 
Church,  and  not  from  the  Greek  Church, 
as  some  authors  falsely  affirm. 

Allen  (Cardinal)  (1532-1594). — Born 
at  Rossall ;  died  in  Rome.  To  prevent 
the  dying  out  of  the  true  faith  in  England, 
Dr.  William  Allen,  formerly  principal  of 
St.  Mary's  Hall,  Oxford,  opened,  in  1568, 
a  seminary  in  the  new  University  of 
Douay,  in  order  to  train  priests  for  Eng- 
land. Aided  by  liberal  contributions,  he 
was  enabled  to  send  thither,  in  the  course 
of  five  years,  no  fewer  than  a  hundred 
missionaries.  He  was  created  cardinal, 
in  1587,  and  two  years  later,  Archbishop  of 
Malines,  Belgium,  but  he  never  left  Rome. 

Allies  (Thomas  William). —  English 
ecclesiastical  writer,  born  at  Bristol  in  1813, 
became  a  convert  to  the  Catholic  Church 
in  1850.  His  principal  works  are :  The 
Efiglish  Church  Purified  from  the  Sin  of 
Schism  (before  his  conversion) ;  The  See 
of  St.  Peter  (1850) ;  Dr.  Pusey  and  the 
Ancient  Church;  The  Formation  of  Chris- 
tendom . 

Allioli  (  Joseph  Franz)  (1793-1873). — 
Theologian  and  Catholic  scholar,  born  at 
Sulzbach,  in  Bavaria;  died  at  Augsburg. 
Priest  and  doctor  in  theology  at  Landshut, 
1816;  professor  ol  Holy  Scripture  in  the 
University  of  Munich,  1825;  Provost  of 
the  Chapter  of  Augsburg.  We  have  of 
him  a  German  translation  and  a  Com- 
mentary on  the  Bible;  Biblical  Antiqui- 
ties; Manual  of  Biblical  Archceolog-y;  On 
the  Internal  Motives  of  the  Canonical 
Hours,  etc. 

All-Saints'  Day  (in  old  English  All 
Halloivs). —  The  feast  of  All  Saints;  is  al- 
ways held  on  the  ist  of  November.  This 
feast  was  instituted,  not  only  to  honor  the 
Saints,  as  the  friends  of  God,  but  also  to 
return  thanks  to  Him  for  the  benefits  He 
has  deigned  to  bestow  upon  them  —  the 
reward  of  eternal  happiness, —  in  order  to 
animate  us  to  imitate  their  virtues,  and  to 
obtain  their  intercession  with  God  ;  to  ren- 
der veneration  to  all  the  Saints  we  do  not 
know  in  particular,  but  whose  lives  were 
consecrated  to  God  alone.  On  the  cessa- 
tion of  the  persecutions  of  the  Christians, 
Pope  Boniface  IV.,  in  607,  dedicated  the 
Pantheon,  at  Rome,  to  the  Invocation  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary  and  all  the  Mar- 
tyrs which  caused  this  ancient  temple  of 
idols  to  be  called :  Our  Lady  of  the 
Martyrs    or    of    the    Rotunda.     Boniface 


appointed  tIW!l|ft|h  of  May  for  the  observ- 
ance of  this  tea^t.  About  the  year  731, 
Gregory  III.,  consecrated  a  chapel  in 
the  Church  of  St.  Peter,  in  honor  of 
all  the  saints,  which  increased  the  sol- 
emnity of  the  feast  from  that  time  on. 
Gregory  IV.,  in  837,  instituted  the  feast 
in  France,  under  the  reign  of  Louis  the 
Kind,  and  appointed  the  ist  of  November 
for  the  celebration  of  the  feast,  which  be- 
came generally  adopted.  Father  Men- 
ard has,  however,  proved  that  the  observ- 
ance had  already  taken  place  in  several 
Churches,  though  there  had  not  been  a  de- 
cree published  to  that  effect.  The  Greeks 
celebrate  this  festival  on  the  Sunday  after 
Pentecost.     See  Pantheon. 

All-Souls'  Day. —  A  day  of  devotion  on 
which  the  Church  solemnly  commemo- 
rates and  prays  for  all  the  souls  in  purga- 
tory, that  they  may  be  speedily  released 
from  their  sufferings,  and  which  takes 
place  on  the  2d  of  November.  Amalarius, 
Deacon  of  Metz,  has  placed  the  Office  of 
the  Dead,  in  a  work  of  the  Ecclesiastical 
Offices,  dedicated  to  Louis  the  Kind,  in 
827.  But  it  seems  that  this  office  was  not 
performed  for  the  dead  in  particular  in 
the  ninth  century.  St.  Odilo,  Abbot  of 
Cluny,  in  998,  instituted  in  all  the  monas- 
teries of  his  congregation,  the  feast  of  all 
the  faithful  departed,  an  Office  for  all  in 
general.  This  devotion,  approved  by  the 
Popes,  soon  spread  all  over  the  West. 

Almoner. — i.  An  ecclesiastic  attached 
to  the  personage  of  kings,  princes,  and 
bishops,  to  perform  service  in  their  chapels 
and  distribute  their  alms. — 2.  An  ecclesi- 
astic charged  with  the  religious  service  in 
certain  bodies  and  certain  establishments  : 
Almoner  of  a  regiment,  of  a  hospital,  of  a 
college,  etc.  They  are  also  called  Chap- 
lains. 

Alms. — The  records  of  pagan  antiquity 
will  be  searched  in  vain  for  any  institution 
to  support  those  who  are  unable  to  main- 
tain themselves.  But  the  words  of  Christ, 
that  he  that  gives  a  cup  of  cold  water 
should  not  lose  his  reward  (Matt.  x.  42), 
that  what  was  done  to  one  of  His  least 
brethren  was  done  to  Him  (Matt.  xxv.  40), 
sank  deep  into  the  hearts  of  His  disciples, 
and  led  in  some  cases  to  the  community  of 
goods  described  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apos- 
tles (ii.  44-46).  The  administration  of 
relief  was  not  without  its  difficulties  (Acts 
vi.  i),  but  the  system  was  persevered  in, 


A  LOG  I 


24 


Altar 


and  became  a  regular  part  of  the  polity 
of  the  Church.  St.  Ambrose,  in  the  sec- 
ond of  his  three  Books  on  the  Duties  of 
the  Ministers  of  the  Church,  argues  that 
even  the  consecrated  vessels  that  serve  for 
the  use  of  the  altar  must  be  sold,  when 
money  is  needed  for  the  redemption  of 
captives  {De  Off.  2,  28),  and  he  tells  the 
famous  story  of  St.  Lawrence,  the  deacon, 
who,  being  required  to  surrender  the  treas- 
ures of  the  Church  to  the  tyrant,  pointed 
to  the  poor,  by  whose  hands  all  his  wealth 
had  been  carried  to  the  storehouses  of 
Heaven. 

Alogi. — Heretics  in  the  early  Church. 
The  Alogi  denied  the  doctrine  of  St.  John 
with  regard  to  the  Word  {Logos),  as  well 
as  the  active  co-operation  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  in  all  gratuitous  gifts,  but  partic- 
ularly that  of  prophecy.  Not  satisfied 
with  unwarranted  denials,  the  Alogi  also 
changed  the  Biblical  canon  to  suit  their 
own  purposes. 

Alpha  and  Omega. — ^The  first  and  last 
letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet.  Thus 
united,  they  are  employed  by  St.  John  in 
the  Apocalypse  (i.  8;  xxii,  13;  xxi.  6)  to 
designate  the  divine  wisdom,  origin,  and 
end  of  all  things.  The  Alpha  and  Omega, — 
the  first  and  the  last,  the  beginning  and 
the  end.  These  two  letters  were  also  used 
by  the  early  Christians,  as  symbols  of 
faith,  and  are  sometimes  found  on  coins, 
tombs,  and  Church  vestments. 

Altar  (Lat.  altare,  from  altutn,  elevated, 
and  ara,  altar,  a  place  for  sacrifice) . — In 
ancient  times,  the  altar  was  a  sort  of 
pedestal  or  table  of  stone,  whereon  offer- 
ings were  laid  by  both  Jews  and  heathen. 
With  the  pagans,  an  altar  was  a  hearth  of 
stone,  raised  in  a  place  before  a  temple  or 
before  an  idol,  but  always  in  the  open  air, 
destined  to  burn  thereon  the  flesh  of  the 
victims,  and  pour  out  wine,  milk,  honey 
ancl  other  kinds  of  libations. 

With  the  Christians,  the  altar  is  the 
table  whereon  is  celebrated  the  sacrifice 
of  the  Mass.  If  we  examine  the  various 
monuments  of  antiquity,  we  shall  discover, 
that  everywhere  throughout  the  Christian 
world,  from  the  apostolic  era  down  to  the 
present  time,  the  same  idea  has  prevailed 
that  the  temples  of  the  Christian  faith 
were  erected  for  the  express  purpose  of 
offering  up,  in  their  sanctuaries,  the  sac- 
rifice of  the  body  and  blood  of  Jesus  Christ, 
and  that  the  table  on  which  this  offering 


was  made  became  a  true,  a  hallowed  altar, 
while  the  spot  on  which  it  stood  was  re- 
garded as  a  consecrated  sanctuary,  the  holy 
of  holies,  of  the  New  Testament,  sacred 
from'the  tread  of  an^-  other  save  the  priest 
of  God  and  his  lawfully  appointed  minis- 
ters. If  we  turn  to  the  several  liturgies  in 
use  throughout  the  universal  Church  we 
shall  find  that  they  clearly  demonstrate 
both  the  existence  and  the  necessity  of  an 
altar,  for  the  purpose  of  the  true  and 
proper  sacrifice  peculiar  to  the  Christian 
dispensation.  With  regard  to  the  liturgy  in 
use  throughout  the  Latin  Church,  the  cor- 
rectness of  this  assertion  is  so  conspicuous, 
and  such  pbvious  proofs  present  them- 
selves in  every  page  of  the  Roman  Missal, 
that  we  do  not  need  to  stop  to  discuss  this 
question.  We  will  proceed  at  once  to  the 
Oriental  liturgies.  That  which  passes  un- 
der the  denomination  of  St.  James's  is  re- 
markable for  its  antiquity.  In  this  liturgy 
the  priest  is  frequently  instructed  to  speak 
of  the  holy,  the  divine  altar,  and  the  sacri- 
fice which  he  is  going  to  offer  upon  it.  It 
would  be  impossible  to  select  clearer  or 
more  expressive  terms  of  insistence  upon 
the  obligation  of  erecting  an  altar  for  the 
purpose  of  sacrifice  than  those  employed 
in  their  respective  liturgies  by  the  Oriental 
Christians  in  general, —  whether  Greeks, 
Copts,  Syrians,  Jacobites,  Maronites,  Nes- 
torians,  or  Armenians. 

For  the  first  three  centuries,  the  altar 
was  generally,  though  not  always,  of 
wood,  as  is  evident  from  a  variety  of  testi- 
monies. Tradition  has  handed  down  the 
altar  in  the  form  of  a  wooden  table,  upon 
which  St.  Peter,  as  it  is  said,  was  accus- 
tomed to  offer  up  the  Eucharistic  sacrifice 
of  the  Mass,  in  the  house  of  the  Patrician 
Pudens,  at  Rome,  where  it  is  still  pre- 
served with  much  respect  in  the  Church 
of  St.  Pudentiana.  From  the  earliest 
times,  however,  it  is  certain  that  it  was 
customary  to  celebrate  Mass  in  the  cata- 
combs upon  the  tombs  of  the  Apostles  and 
martyrs,  not  only  in  Rome,  but  in  every 
other  portion  of  the  Church  of  Christ. 
The  slab  of  marble  which  covered  the 
sepulchre  was  made  to  ser\'e  as  the  altar- 
table,  and  the  low-browed  arched  recess 
that  spanned  it  merely  left  sufficient  space 
for  the  priest  to  perform  the  sacred  Eucha- 
ristic mysteries.  When  the  altar  was  not 
the  tomb  of  a  martyr,  it  was  sometimes 
an  oblong,  cubic  figure ;  at  others,  it  re- 
sembled a  quadrangular  table,  supported 
in  the  center  by  a  single  column,  or  upheld 


Altar  Bread 


25 


Altar  of  Holocausts 


at  its  extremities  by  two,  or  at  its  angles 
by  four  low  columns.  For  more  than 
fourteen  centuries  it  has  been  a  universal 
custom  to  have  the  table  of  the  altar  of 
stone  or  marble.  It  should  be  one  piece, 
judging  from  the  piety  of  the  primitive 
Christians,  it  is  more  than  probable  that, 
from  the  apostolic  times  no  altar  was  ever 
used  for  offering  up  the  holy  sacrifice  of 
the  Mass  without  having  been  previously 
consecrated  by  a  solemn  rite  peculiar  to 
that  holy  purpose.  We  have  the  most 
authentic  documents  to  prove  the  use  of 
such  a  rite  at  the  commencement  of  the 
fourth  century.  The  ceremony  of  dedica- 
tion, which  must  have  been  performed  in 
secrecy  during  the  times  of  persecution, 
began  to  be  celebrated  with  much  public 
magnificence  during  the  tranquil  reign  of 
£;onstantine.  It  was  then  a  gratifying 
spectacle,  as  Eusebius  informs  us,  "to 
witness  how  the  ceremony  of  consecration 
and  dedication  of  the  recently  erected 
Churches  was  solemnized  in  every  city." 
St.  Ambrose  has  left  us  a  prayer  which  he 
employed  in  the  dedication  of  Churches 
and  altars  which  he  erected.  According 
to  Genesis  (xxviii.  17,  18),  not  only  did 
the  Church  bear  in  mind  the  divine  com- 
mand issued  to  Moses  (Ex.  xxx.  23,  24)  of 
celebrating  the  dedication  of  the  altar,  but 
she  also  remembered  that  the  holy  table 
was  more  particularly  consecrated  to  the 
purposes  of  religious  worship  by  being 
anointed  with  rich  and  precious  unguents. 
The  Church  conceived  that  the  anointing 
of  her  altars  was  an  emblematical  cere- 
mony which  she  could  appropriately  bor- 
row from  the  Old  Law.  At  what  precise 
period  the  Church  adopted  the  ceremony 
of  anointing  the  altar  at  its  consecration  is 
uncertain.  It  is  certain  that  toward  the 
commencement  of  the  sixth  century  it  be- 
came an  ordinance  enacted  by  several 
councils.  It  is  a  firmly  established  law 
not  to  consecrate  an  altar  without  placing 
some  relics  therein. 

Altar  Bread. —  The  matter,  as  it  is  called, 
of  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass  is  composed  of 
wheaten  bread,  and  wine  of  the  grape. 
Whether  the  bread  employed  be  leavened 
or  unleavened,  is  a  circumstance  of  pure 
discipline,  which  does  not  touch  the  essence 
of  the  Eucharist.  That  our  Divine  Re- 
deemer, however,  used  unleavened  bread 
at  its  institution,  is  a  fact  concerning  which 
no  doubt  can  be  for  a  moment  entertained  ; 
for    the     Evangelists    particularly    notice 


that  Christ  instituted  the  Blessed  Eucharist 
on  the  first  day  of  the  Azymes,  or  of  the 
unleavened  bread  (Matt.  xxvi.  17;  Mark 
xiv.  12;  Luke  xxii.  7),  and  after  He  had, 
with  his  Apostles,  partaken  of  the  paschal 
lamb,  at  which  sacrifice  it  was  unlawful  to 
make  use  of  any  other  than  unleavened 
bread.     See  Host. 

Altar  Cards. —  These  cards  contain  a 
printed  copy  of  a  certain  portion  of  the 
prayers  of  Mass,  which  the  priest  cannot 
conveniently  read  from  the  Missal.  They 
are  placed  at  the  center  and  at  each  end  of 
the  altar.  They  are  of  modern  introduction 
and  are  not  at  all  essential  to  the  service. 

Altar  Cloths. —  Anciently,  as  now,  the 
table  of  the  altar  was  overspread  with 
linen  cloths.  Throughout  the  Latin 
Church,  the  altar  is  at  all  times  covered 
with  a  cere  or  waxed  cloth  and  three  linen 
cloths,  the  uppermost  of  which  should 
reach  to  the  ground.  Over  this  is  laid, 
at  the  celebration  of  the  man,  a  second 
species  of  altar  cloth,  called  the  corporal, 
and  is  used  for  such  a  purpose,  not  only  in 
the  Western  but  throughout  the  Greek  and 
all  the  Oriental  Churches.  The  corporal, 
in  the  Latin  Church,  continued  for  many 
ages  of  such  dimensions  that  it  completely 
covered  the  table  of  the  altar;  but  the 
gradual  curtailments  through  which  it 
passed,  reduced  it  to  its  present  size  of 
about  eighteen  inches  square,  merely  suffi- 
cient to  cover  the  spot  more  immediately 
before  the  priest  upon  which  he  consecrates 
the  Eucharist. 

Altar  {Main  or  High  A/iar.)— The 
altar  placed  in  the  sanctuary  or  choir  of 
the  Church. 

Altar  (Mosaic). — Before  the  time  of 
Moses,  the  Jews  sacrificed  upon  altars, 
constructed  from  rough  stones  unsoiled  by 
fire,  which  they  raised  in  localities  where 
they  sojourned  or  temporarily  resided. 
But  the  law  of  Moses  ordained  that  there 
should  be  only  one  place  of  sacrifice,  which 
at  first  was  the  Tabernacle  and  afterwards 
the  Temple  of  Jerusalem. 

Altar  of  Holocausts. —  That  which  Moses 
built  in  the  desert  was  a  kind  of  chest,  of 
setim  wood,  overlaid  with  plates  of  copper, 
five  cubits  (eight  feet)  square,  and  three 
cubits  (five  feet)  high.  It  had  a  horn  at 
each  corner,  and  was  carried  about  by 
means  of  staves.  Upon  this  altar  they 
kept  up  a  perpetual  fire,  and  burned  the 


Altar  of  Incense 


26 


Amalecites 


victims  thereon.  It  was  placed  in  the  east, 
and  before  the  entrance  of  the  Tabernacle, 
in  the  open  air,  in  order  that  the  smoke 
might  not  damage  the  interior  of  the  Tab- 
ernacle. This  portable  altar  was  replaced 
in  the  temple  of  Solomon  by  an  altar  of 
holocausts  of  much  larger  dimensions.  It 
was  10  cubits  square,  or  about  18  feet  high, 
and  in  the  first  temple  20  cubits  square, 
and  in  the  second  24  cubits.  The  tradition 
of  the  Jews  is,  that  it  was  32  cubits  (about 
50  feet)  square  at  the  base,  contracting  to 
24  cubits  at  the  top,  by  several  steps  en- 
circling it  at  different  heights,  each  step 
a  cubit  broad.  The  highest  of  these  steps 
was  three  feet  below  the  top  of  the  altar, 
so  that,  standing  upon  it,  the  priest  was 
able  to  arrange  the  sacrifice  upon  the  fire,  to 
supply  it  with  fuel,  and  remove  the  ashes. 
The  lower  steps  were  to  enable  him  to 
sprinkle  the  blood  on  the  sides  of  the  altar. 
The  lowest  step  had  a  raised  ledge  on  the 
outside, by  which  the  blood  poured  upon  the 
altar,  was  confined  till  it  ran  through  an 
aperture  into  a  subterranean  pipe.  It  must, 
therefore,  have  been  an  immense  structure, 
and  though  called  "  an  altar  of  brass," 
was  probably  built  of  stone,  and  merely 
covered  with  plates  of  that  metal. 

Altar  of  Incense. —  In  the  old  Testament, 
this  is  described  as  a  small  altar  of  setim 
wood,  overlaid  with  gold  plates,  one  cubit 
in  length,  one  in  width  and  two  in  height. 
In  the  morning  and  evening,  the  priest  of 
the  week,  chosen  by  lot,  offered  upon 
this  altar  a  perfume  of  a  particular  com- 
position. For  this,  he  entered  with  the 
smoking-censer,  filled  with  fire  from  the 
altar  of  holocausts,  into  the  Holy,  where 
this  altar  was  placed  opposite  the  altar  of 
the  "loaves  of  proposition."  After  hav- 
ing placed  incense  in  the  censer,  the  priest 
retired  outside  the  Holy. 

Altar  of  the  Show  Breads. —  In  the  Old 

Testament  a  table  of  setim  wood,  overlaid 
with  gold  plates,  being  two  cubits  long, 
one  cubit  wide,  and  one  and  one-half  cub- 
its high.  It  was  placed  in  the  Holy  and 
on  the  northern  side  of  this  receptacle. 
Upon  this  table  were  placed  twelve  loaves 
of  bread  renewed  every  week,  with  incense 
and  salt. 

Altar  {Portable). — This  is  a  square  plate 
of  stone,  generally  of  marble,  blessed  or 
consecrated  according  to  the  ordinary 
forms  of  the  Church,  to  celebrate  Mass 
thereon,  anywhere,  as  for  instance,  in  pri- 


vate houses,  public  halls,  camps,  etc.  Most 
of  the  altars  in  this  country  contain  simply 
this  plate  of  stone  or  marble,  which  is 
placed  in  the  middle  of  the  wooden  altar. 
Travels  to  the  Holy  Land,  the  wars  of 
the  Middle  Ages,  and  the  constant  jour- 
neys, in  missionary  countries,  have  neces- 
sarily given  rise  to  this  kind  of  altar. 

Altar  {Privileged). —  By  privileged  al- 
tar, we  understand  an  altar  to  which  the 
Apostolic  See  has  attached,  as  a  special 
favor,  a  plenary  indulgence  applicable  only 
to  the  souls  in  purgatory  by  way  of  suf- 
frage {per  modum  .<!uffragii),  which  indul- 
gence is  gained  if  the  celebrant  offers  upon 
this  altar  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass  for  these 
souls.  This  privilege  is  a  double  one : 
local  and  personal,  and  both  may  be  either 
perpetual  {ad  perpetcum)  or  for  only  a 
limited  time  {ad  quinquennium,  septeti- 
nium,  decennium,  etc.).  According  to  a 
decree  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of 
Rites  (Sept.  2d,  1741),  all  the  altars  pos- 
sess the  foregoing  privilege  on  All  Souls' 
Day. 

Altar  Stone. —  The  portable  altar,  upon 
which  the  celebrant  places  the  chalice  and 
host  during  the  Mass.  It  can  be  used  only 
after  it  has  been  consecrated  by  the  bishop. 

Alvarez  (Diego). — Spanish  Dominican 
of  the  seventeenth  century.  Professor  of 
theology  in  Spain  and  in  Rome;  Arch- 
bishop of  Trani  (kingdom  of  Naples) ; 
zealous  defender  of  the  cause  of  the  Thom- 
ists  against  the  Molinists.  His  principal 
works  are  :  De  auxiliis  divinae  gratiae; 
Concordia  liberi  arbitrii  cum  praedestina- 
tio7te.     Died  in  1635. 

Alzog  (J.  Baptist)  (1808-1878). — 
Learned  German.  Born  at  Ohlau,  Silesia; 
died  at  Freiburg,  Baden.  Studied  in  the 
College  of  Brieg,  and  in  the  Universities 
of  Breslau  and  Bonn.  Priest  at  Cologne, 
1834;  doctor  of  theology;  professor  in  the 
great  seminary  of  Posen ;  Canon  of  Hilde- 
sheim  (Hanover) ;  professor  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Freiburg-in-Breisgau  (1853) ; 
called  to  Rome  for  the  Vatican  Council. 
Has  written  the  following  works  :  Univer- 
sal History  of  the  Church;  Compendium 
of  Patrology,  etc. 

Amalecites. — Ancient  Arabic  people  of 
Arabia  Petrsea,  in  the  south  of  Palestine. 
They  were  at  continual  war  with  the  Jews, 
who  conquered  them  under  Josue  (1491 
B.C.),   under    Saul   (1079),    under    David 


Aman 


27 


Amice 


(1058-1056).  They  were  entirely  subdued 
only  by  the  Simeonites,  under  Ezechias 
(715  B.  c). 

Aman. — Amalecite ;  minister  and  favor- 
ite of  Assuerus,  king  of  Persia.  Impious, 
proud,  and  cruel,  he  desired  to  destroy 
Mardochai  and  the  Jews.  Queen  Esther 
saved  her  uncle  and  all  her  compatriots, 
and  Aman  was  hung  (510  b.  c.)  on  the  very 
scaffold  which  he  had  erected  for  Mardo- 
chai. 

Amasa.  —  Son  of  Abigail,  sister  of 
David.  He  commanded  the  troops  of 
Absalom,  during  his  revolt ;  was  conquered 
by  Joab,  general  of  David.  The  latter 
pardoned  Amasa,  and  even  promised  to 
give  to  him  the  command  of  his  army, 
instead  of  Joab,  whom  he  detested  on  ac- 
count of  his  insolence,  and  the  murder  of 
Absalom.  But  Joab  treacherously  mur- 
dered him. 

Amasias  (839-810  b.  c.) — Eighth  king 
of  Juda,  son  and  successor  of  Joas.  He 
reigned  twenty-nine  years.  He  did  good 
in  the  sight  of  the  Lord,  but  not  with  a 
perfect  heart  (IV.  Ki.  xiv.  1-20). 

Ambo. — In  the  early  Christian  churches 
and  basilicas,  a  raised  desk  or  pulpit  from 
which  certain  parts  of  the  service  were 
read  or  chanted  and  sermons  preached. 
It  was  often  an  oblong  inclosure  with 
steps  at  both  sides,  and  was  generally 
richly  decorated.  It  was  very  common 
to  place  two  ambos  in  a  church,  from 
one  of  which  was  read  the  Gospel,  and 
from  the  other  the  Epistle.  A  tall,  or- 
namental pillar  for  holding  the  paschal 
candle  is  sometimes  associated  with  the 
ambo. 

Ambrose  (St.). —  Father  and  Doctor  of 
the  Church,  born  at  Treves  in  340;  died 
Archbishop  of  Milan  in  397.  Was  Roman 
governor,  when,  upon  the  death  of  the 
Arian  Auxentius,  he  was,  though  then 
only  a  Catechumen,  chosen  Bishop  of 
Milan,  in  374.  Rising  at  once  to  the  full 
height  of  his  office,  Ambrose  distributed 
all  his  goods  among  the  poor,  and  with 
unwearied  zeal,  devoted,  himself  to  the 
performance  of  his  pastoral  duties.  With 
great  mildness  and  moderation,  he  united 
a  wonderful  firmness  and  inflexibility 
wherever  the  divine  law  was  concerned. 
He  resisted  the  attempts  of  the  Arian 
Emperor  Justinian  to  obtain  from  him  one 
of  the  churches  of  Milan  for  the  use  of 


the  Arians;  and  with  fearless  zeal,  he 
compelled  Emperor  Theodosius  I.  to  a 
humilating  penance  for  the  indiscriminate 
massacre  of  about  seven  thousand  persons, 
which,  in  a  moment  of  irritation,  he  had 
ordered  at  Thessalonica,  in  390.  Such 
was  his  zeal  and  success  in  rooting  out 
heresy  and  propagating  the  orthodox 
faith,  that  it  caused  St.  Jerome  to  write, 
that,  when  Ambrose  became  Bishop  of 
Milan,  all  Italy  was  converted  to  the  faith. 
To  him,  also,  in  part,  is  to  be  ascribed  the 
conversion  of  the  great  St.  Augustine. 
The  writings  of  Ambrose  are  numerous 
and  various,  comprising  dogmatical,  ex- 
egetical,  and  ascetic  treatises,  besides  a 
number  of  letters  and  hymns.  See  Migne, 
Pat.  Lat.  XIV— XVII.  The  best  edition 
of  his  works  is  that  of  the  Benedictines 
(Paris  1686-1690).     F.  April  4th. 

Ambrosian  Chant.     See  Plain  Chant. 

Amen.  —  At  Mass,  the  acolyte  in  the 
name  of  the  people  answers  "Amen"  at 
the  end  of  the  Collect,  Secret  and  Post- 
Communion,  and  thus  ratifies  what  the 
priest  has  been  saying,  according  to  the 
custom  of  the  Jews  and  primitive  Chris- 
tians. Amen  is  a  Hebrew  word,  employed 
to  confirm  what  has  been  announced,  and, 
according  to  the  tenor  of  the  discourse  to 
which  it  is  appended,  signifies  either 
that  is  true,  or  may  it  be  so,  or  / 
agree  to  that.  It  is,  in  reality,  a  form  of 
speech  indicative  of  an  assertion,  a  desire, 
or  a  consent.  i.  When  the  Amen  is 
uttered  after  a  declaration  of  the  truths 
of  faith,  as  for  instance  the  Creed,  it  is  a 
simple  assertion,  and  signifies  "That  is 
true."  2,  When  it  follows  a  prayer  for 
some  blessing  or  spiritual  good,  such  as 
the  conversion  of  nations,  health  of  soul 
and  body,  or  rest  to  the  souls  of  departed 
brethren,  the  Amen  expresses  a  wish. 
3.  After  a  prayer  pledging  us  to  the  per- 
formance of  anything,  the  Amen  declares 
our  determination  to  comply  with  the 
engagement. 

America  ( The  Church  in).  See  Church  ; 
Missions  ;  Christianity  in  America. 

Amice  {^ecclesiastical  vestment).  —  The 
amice  is  an  oblong  piece  of  fine  white  linen. 
The  priest  places  it  for  a  moment,  like  a 
veil,  upon  the  crown  of  his  head,  and  then 
adjusts  it  around  his  neck  so  that  it  hangs 
down  over  his  shoulders,  reciting,  mean- 
while, the  prayer  recommended  for  this 


Ammonites 


28 


Ampulla 


purpose.  The  amice  is  not  without  a  mys- 
tic signification.  The  act  of  resting  it  for 
a  moment  on  the  head,  as  well  as  the 
prayer  which  the  priest  is  directed  to  pro- 
nounce on  assuming  it,  render  it  strikingly 
illustrative  of  that  helmet  of  salvation  with 
which  each  Christian  warrior  should  arm 
himself  to  extinguish  and  repel  the  fiery 
darts  of  the  wicked  one.  Formerly  the 
amice  was  worn  upon  the  head  in  the  man- 
ner of  a  hood  while  vesting,  and  until  the 
priest  arrived  before  the  altar,  when  it  was 
lowered  and  thrown  back  upon  the  shoul- 
ders, a  custom  which  is  still  retained  in 
some  churches  of  Europe,  as  well  as  by  the 
Dominican  and  Capuchin  friars.  The  cor- 
responding vestment  in  the  Coptic  liturgy 
of  St.  Basil  is  called  efomis  and  the  ancient 
liturgies  termed  it  anabolagitim.  Amices 
were  formerly  richly  embroidered  with 
gold  and  silk,  or  adorned  with  an  oblong 
piece  of  silken  material  called  an  apparel. 
Appareled  amices  were  in  use  until  the 
end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  since  which 
time  they  have  gradually  dropped  out  of 
use.  The  term  amice  is  derived  from  the 
Latin  verb  amicire,  to  cover;  being  intro- 
duced in  the  eighth  century  as  a  covering 
for  the  neck,  which  until  that  period  was 
usually  bare. 

Ammonites. —  People  descended  from 
Ammon,  son  of  Lot.  They  dwelt  east  of 
the  Dead  Sea  and  the  Jordan,  and  north  of 
the  Moabites.  Allied  with  the  latter,  they 
were  almost  always  at  war  with  the  Israel- 
ites. Their  capital  was  Rabbath-Ammon. 
They  were  reduced  to  bondage  and  trans- 
ported from  their  country  by  Nabuchod- 
onosor,  in  the  year  583  b.  c. 

Ammonius  Saccas.  —  This  philosopher 
received  his  surname  on  account  of  having 
been  a  sack-carrier.  Born  at  Alexandria, 
taught  philosophy  in  that  city,  about  the 
end  of  the  second  century  or  the  beginning 
of  the  third.  It  is  said  that  he  abandoned 
Christianity,  in  which  he  had  been  raised, 
for  the  pagan  philosophy.  It  is  believed 
that  he  had  Pantaenus  for  teacher.  He  en- 
trusted his  principles  to  only  a  few  of  his 
disciples,  and  under  the  veil  of  mystery. 
He  is  looked  upon  as  the  founder  of  Neo- 
Platonism.  Longinus,  Erennius,  Plotinus, 
and  Origen  the  pagan  were  his  disciples. 
Ammonius  died  about  243. 

Ammonius  (St.). —  Cenobite  of  the 
fourth  century.  He  was  a  friend  of  St. 
Anthony,    and,    like   him,   he   established 


monastic  communities  in  the  Nitrian  des- 
erts in  Upper  Egypt,  where  5,000  Ceno- 
bites  soon  assembled  under  his  direction. 

Amorites. —  People  of  Palestine,  of  gi- 
gantic stature,  descendants  of  Amor  or 
Amorrheus,  son  of  Chanaan.  They  lived 
west  and  northeast  of  the  Dead  Sea. 
They  were  driven  away  from  their  country 
by  Moses,  and  their  territory  was  divided 
among  the  tribes  of  Gad,  Ruben  and 
Manasses. 

Amort  (EusEBius)  (1692-1775). —  Born 
near  Tolz,  Bavaria;  died  at  Polling. 
Canon  of  St.  Augustine;  entered  the  or- 
der of  Canons  Regular  and  taught  the- 
ology in  his  convent.  He  composed,  in 
Latin,  a  great  number  of  works  on  differ- 
ent subjects. 

Amos. —  The  third  of  the  minor  proph- 
ets, was  a  herdsman  of  Thecue,  a  small 
town  of  Juda,  about  twelve  miles  southeast 
of  Jerusalem.  His  prophecies,  contained 
in  nine  chapters,  are  distinguished  for  their 
poetic  simplicity.  We  remark,  therein, 
the  employment  of  Aramaic  forms  ap- 
proaching the  popular  language.  He  re- 
ceived his  mission  about  the  year  785  b.  c, 
and  prophesied  at  Bethel,  the  principal 
seat  of  idolatry. 

Amphilochius. —  Bishop  of  Iconium  in 
375.  He  proved  his  brilliant  talents  in  sev- 
eral Councils;  held  a  Council  at  Iconium, 
against  the  Macedonians,  in  376.  He  as- 
sisted in  381  at  the  Council  of  Constanti- 
nople and  presided  over  that  of  Sida  in  388 
or  390,  in  Pamphylia,  wherein  the  rising 
heresy  of  the  Messalians  was  condemned. 
We  do  not  know  the  date  of  his  death. 
All  the  works,  carrying  the  name  of  St. 
Philochius,  are  contained  in  the  Biblioth. 
Gallandii;  in  Migne,  Pat.  gr.  XXXIV. 
F.  Nov.  23d. 

Amphipolis. —  A  city  of  Macedonia,  situ- 
ated a  short  distance  from  the  mouth  of 
the  river  Strymon,  which  flowed  around 
the  city,  and  thus  occasioned  its  name. 
The  village,  which  now  stands  upon  the 
site  of  the  ancient  city,  is  called  Empoli 
or  Yamboli,  a  corruption  of  Amphipolis. 
(Acts  xvii.  I.) 

Ampulla. —  I.  In  Roman  antiquities,  a 
vessel  with  a  narrow  neck  and  a  body  more 
or  less  nearly  globular  in  shape,  usually 
made  of  glass  or  earthenware, —  rarely  of 
more  valuable  materials, —  and  used,  like 


Amri 


29 


Anabaptists 


the  Greek  aryballos,  bombylios,  etc.,  for 
carrying  oil  for  anointing  the  body  and  for 
many  other  purposes. —  2.  In  the  Catholic 
Church  a  cruet,  generally  made  of  trans- 
parent glass,  for  holding  the  wine  and 
water  used  at  Mass. —  3.  A  vessel  for  hold- 
ing the  consecrated  oil  or  chrism  used  in 
various  Church  rites  and  at  the  coronation 
of  kings.  The  ampulla  used  at  the  coro- 
nations in  England  is  in  the  form  of  an 
eagle,  of  pure  gold,  richly  chased.  The 
famous  ampulla  formerly  used  at  the  coro- 
nation of  the  French  kings,  was  kept  at 
Rheims,  and  which  tradition  reported  as 
having  been  brought  from  heaven  by  a 
dove  for  the  baptism  of  Clovis  I.,  was 
broken  in  the  Revolution;  but  a  portion 
of  its  oil  is  said  to  have  been  preserved  and 
to  have  been  used  at  the  coronation  of 
Charles  X. —  4.  In  the  Middle  Ages  a  small 
bottle-shaped  Hask,  often  of  glass,  used  by 
travelers  and  especially  by  pilgrims. 

Amri. —  Commander  of  the  army  of  Ela, 
king  of  Israel;  but,  being  at  the  siege  of 
Gabaon,  and  hearing  that  his  royal  master 
had  been  assassinated  by  Zambri,  who  had 
usurped  his  kingdom,  he  raised  the  siege, 
and,  being  elected  king  by  his  army, 
marched  against  Zambri,  attacked  him  at 
Thersa,  and  forced  him  to  burn  himself 
with  his  whole  family  in  the  palace  in  which 
he  had  shut  himself  up.  After  his  death, 
half  of  Israel  acknowledged  Amri  as  king, 
the  other  half  adhered  to  Thebni,  son  of 
Gineth  ;  this  division  continued  four  years. 
When  Thebni  died,  the  people  united  in 
acknowledging  Amri  as  king  of  all  Israel, 
and  he  reigned  twelve  years, —  six  years  at 
Thersa,  and  six  years  at  Samaria. 

Amsdorfians. —  Lutheran  sect  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  so  called  from  Nicholas 
Amsdorf  (1484-1565).  In  1542,  Amsdorf 
forcibly  obtruded  himself  into  the  bishop- 
ric of  Naumburg,  in  place  of  Julius  Pfiug, 
the  lawfully  elected  bishop.  Luther  as- 
sumed to  consecrate  his  friend  Amsdorf, 
and  profanely  boasted  of  the  uncanonical 
manner  in  which  he  had  performed  that 
rite,  as  he  said,  "without  lard,  or  tar,  or 
grease,  or  incense,  or  coals."  Amsdorf 
denied  the  necessity  of  good  works,  and 
even  maintained  that  they  were  a  hind- 
rance to  salvation.  He  combated,  ener- 
getically, the  attempts  made  to  modify  the 
Lutheran  doctrine  of  the  Last  Supper  in 
the  Calvinistic  sense. 

Amula.     Same  as  Ampulla. 


Amulets. —  Something  worn  about  the 
person  to  ward  off  disease  or  other  evils. 
The  superstitious  character  of  Oriental 
nations  led  them  to  the  use  of  charms  of 
this  nature,  sometimes  in  the  form  of 
carved  gems,  or  in  that  of  words  on  parch- 
ment tightly  rolled  up.  Christianity, 
which  is  opposed  to  all  superstitious  prac- 
tices, could  not  destroy  these  customs 
completely.  In  all  ages,  certain  Christian 
sects  have  preserved  the  use  of  amulets, 
and  we  find  that  many  Councils  condemned 
them. 

Anabaptists. —  Heretics  who  believe  in 
rebaptism ;  specifically,  those  who  hold 
baptism  in  infancy  to  be  invalid,  and  re- 
quire adults,  who  have  received  it,  to  be 
baptized  on  joining  their  communion. 
The  name  is  best  known,  historically,  as 
applied  to  the  followers  of  Thomas  Miinzer,' 
a  leader  of  the  peasants'  war  in  Germany, 
and  who  was  killed  in  battle  in  1525 ;  and 
also  to  those  of  John  Mathias  and  John 
Bockhold,  or  John  of  Leyden,  who  com- 
mitted great  excesses  while  attempting  to 
establish  a  socialistic  kingdom  of  New 
Zion,  or  Mount  Zion,  at  Miinster,  in  West- 
phalia, and  were  defeated  in  1535,  their 
leaders  being  killed  and  hung  up  in  iron 
cages,  which  are  still  preserved  in  that 
city.  The  name  has  also  been  applied  to 
bodies  of  very  different  character  in  other 
respects.  It  is  most  frequently  applied  to 
the  Mennonites. 

History  of  the  Anabaptists. —  The 
principles  which  Luther  had  formulated 
and  caused  to  prevail  in  theory,  were  soon 
taken  up  and  put  in  practice  by  some  of 
his  disciples,  who  pushed  them  to  the  ex- 
treme limits  of  logic.  Luther  had  been 
teaching  that  the  Sacraments  were  effi- 
cacious only  through  faith.  Nicholas 
Stork,  of  Stolberg,  accepting  this  teach- 
ing, refused  the  sacrament  of  baptism  to 
children  and  rebaptized  the  adults ;  hence 
his  followers  were  called  Anabaptists. 

This  sect  soon  spread  among  the  com- 
mon people,  and  was  strengthened  by  the 
turbulent  and  fanatical  spirit  of  the  times ; 
their  leaders  exciting  the  peasants  against 
the  nobles,  so  that  the  history  of  the 
movements  of  this  sect  at  the  time  was  in 
a  certain  measure  a  repetition  of  the  revo- 
lutionary movement  begun  by  the  peas- 
ants, and  in  which  the  nobles  had  taken 
part.  The  religious  unrest  which  Luther 
and  his  followers  stirred  up,  was  fol- 
lowed by  every   species   of    excesses  and 


Anabaptists 


30 


Anabaptists 


aggression.  Ulrich  of  Hutten,  Goetz  of 
Berlichingen,  and  several  Protestant  min- 
isters, among  whom  Carlostadt  merits 
special  mention,  fired  the  passions  of  the 
people  and  led  them  to  combat  and 
slaughter.  During  the  same  period,  Pfeiffer 
stirred  up  the  people  of  Franconia  to  war, 
but  it  was  Thomas  Miinzer  of  Zwickau, 
in  Saxony,  who  styled  himself  the 
"Prophet  of  Zwickau,"  who  gave  ana- 
baptism  a  political  character  in  1520. 
Having  succeeded  in  penetrating  the  mines 
at  Mansfeld,  he  preached  to  the  miners 
and  dragged  them  into  the  movement. 
Soon  the  whole  people  of  Franconia  were 
in  the  throes  of  revolution,  and  had  taken 
a  white  cross  for  the  sign  of  gathering. 
Excited  to  bloodshed  by  the  fanatical 
Miinzer,  they  attacked  the  noblemen,  with 
the  resolve  not  to  spare  a  single  one  of 
these  "  lazy  fellows."  On  their  march  they 
destroyed  several  churches,  but  were  met 
by  the  regular  troops,  who  cut  them  down 
or  sent  them  to  the  gallows.  One  hundred 
thousand  perished  in  1524.  Miinzer,  how- 
ever, had  taken  possession  of  Miilhausen, 
in  Thuringia,  established  there  a  govern- 
ment, which  he  called  Theocracy,  based 
on  the  community  of  goods,  and  sum- 
moned princes  to  join  them,  on  pain  of 
losing  their  temporal  power.  The  bat- 
tle of  Frankenhausen  crushed  their  prog- 
ress in  Saxony  and  Franconia,  Miinzer 
was  captured  (May  15th,  1525)  and  tortured 
to  death. 

After,  these  reverses,  the  scattered  ad- 
herents of  the  new  doctrine  were  brought 
together  by  self-assumed  traveling  preach- 
ers. They  spread  themselves  in  Bavaria, 
Silesia,  Moravia,  Prussia,  Livonia,  Swe- 
den, along  the  Rhine,  especially  In  Swit- 
zerland and  the  Netherlands,  and,  though 
persecuted,  did  not  fail  in  making  pros- 
elytes. Since  their  general  defeat  in  1533, 
the  Anabaptists  concentrated  at  Miinster 
in  Westphalia.  This  city  had  already 
been  gained  for  Luther,  and  it  was  not  safe 
to  preach  Catholic  dogma,  even  in  the 
Cathedral,  for  fear  of  causing  revolt.  The 
religious  frenzy  of  these  deluded  people 
was  augmented  by  a  dry  goods'  merchant 
named  Knipperdolling,  who,  after  a  lively 
opposition  against  the  Bishop  of  Miinster, 
destroyed  the  churches  and  appointed 
twelve  judges  over  the  tribes,  as  among 
the  Israelites ;  and  one  Bockhold,  a  tailor 
of  Leyden,  had  himself  crowned  king  of 
the  "  New  Zion,"  under  the  name  of  John 
of  Leyden. 


The  Anabaptist  madness  in  Miinster 
now  went  beyond  all  bounds.  The  city 
became  the  scene  of  the  wildest  licen- 
tiousness and  turbulence.  The  scattered 
fanatics  flocked  to  the  city  to  hear  the 
Lutheran  minister  Rottmann,  who  had 
adopted  the  new  doctrine.  When  suffi- 
ciently numerous,  they  began  to  preach  in 
public  "that  the  time  had  arrived  when 
the  elect  would  go  and  unite  themselves 
from  the  four  corners  of  the  world  to  lead, 
under  the  immediate  conduct  of  Christ, 
their  God,  a  happy  life,  without  laws, 
without  superiors,  without  marriage  ;  that 
everything  would  be  in  common  among 
them.  The  baptism  of  children,"  they 
added,  "is  an  abomination  before  God. 
Papists  and  Lvitherans  are  equally  impious 
We  must  have  no  relations  with  any  of 
them;  we  cannot  obey  pagan  authorities.' 

The  Lutheran  preachers  tried  in  vain  to 
crush  the  new  doctrine,  but  the  sect  still 
persevered  in  gaining  new  adherents,  and 
being  reinforced  by  the  Anabaptists  of 
Holland,  headed  by  their  'bishop,''  one 
John  Mathiesen,  a  baker  of  Haarlem,  in- 
stalled by  the  visionary  preacher  Melchior 
Hoffmann,  a  furrier  of  Swabia,  they  took 
entire  possession  of  Miinster,  by  the  elec- 
tion of  a  council  pledged  to  their  interests 
(Feb.  23d  1534).  Four  days  afterwards, 
they  drove  from  the  city  all  those  who 
refused  rebaptism,  compelling  them  to 
leave  all  their  property  and  goods  behind. 
Miinster  was  then  delivered  to  a  mob  of 
fanatics  who  pretended  they  were  inspired, 
and  giving  full  reins  to  the  most  shameful 
excesses.  Men  and  woinen  rolled  them- 
selves on  the  streets,  jumped  and  danced, 
with  hands  raised  toward  heaven ;  one 
moment  in  supplication,  and  the  next  in- 
voking maledictions  on  their  aggressors. 
Knipperdolling,  Rottmann,  and  Mathie- 
sen pretended  to  have  prophetic  visions, 
the  latter,  however,  was  killed  in  a  sally 
against  the  Bishop  of  Miinster  John  of 
Leyden  assumed  full  power;  selected  six- 
teen of  the  most  beautiful  women  of  Miin- 
ster for  his  wives,  instituted  a  kind  of 
Oriental  court,  and  named  Knipperdolling 
viceroy  and  sword-bearer,  that  is,  hang- 
man. Whoever  resisted  him  was  sent  to 
the  gallows.  Meanwhile  the  city  was  be- 
sieged, and  all  the  horrors  of  bloodshed 
and  famine  stared  them  in  the  face.  Moth- 
ers ate  their  own  children,  fiends  rioted 
on  the  blood  of  their  victims,  and  finally 
on  a  June  night  (1535)  Miinster  was  cap- 
tured in  spite  of  the  desperate  resistance 


Anabolagium 


31 


Ananias 


of  the  Anabaptists,  and  those  who  did  not 
perish  by  the  sword  were  tortured  to 
death.  The  final  disruption  of  the  new 
kingdom,  and  cessation  of  excesses  and  law- 
lessness, was  hailed  with  rejoicing  by  both 
Catholics  and  Lutherans. 

It  is  no  easy  task  to  point  out  the  real 
creed  of  the  Anabaptists.  Menno  Simons 
collected  the  scattered  adherents  of  the 
sect  and  expounded  their  principles.  He 
called  the  members  of  the  community 
"God's  Congregation,  poor,  unarmed 
Christians,  brothers"  ;  later  they  took  the 
name  of  Mennonites,  and  at  present  they 
call  themselves  in  Germany,  Taufgesinnte ; 
in  Holland,  Doopsgezinden.  However, 
their  principal  tenets  showed  they  were 
millenarians.  They  expected,  after  the 
destruction  of  the  impious,  a  perfect  com- 
munity without  any  exterior  law.  Holy 
Scripture  itself  would  become  useless, 
owing  to  the  fact  of  its  being  engraved  on 
the  hearts  of  the  children  of  God.  The 
community  should  compose  itself  of  pure 
members,  only  those  of  sanctified  lives 
being  worthy ;  proselytes  had  to  be 
baptized  with  the  new  baptism,  —  the 
baptism  of  fire  and  the  spirit  of  Christ, 
whilst  the  other  Christians  baptize  only 
with  the  baptism  of  St.  John.  The  Last 
Supper  with  them  had  only  a  symbolical 
meaning;  it  was  a  great  popular  feast  at 
which  they  ate  and  drank  to  satiety.  They 
opposed  the  Lutheran  doctrine  on  justifi- 
cation, and  held  that  good  works  were 
necessary  to  salvation.  For  fear  of  the  im- 
possibility of  keeping  themselves  in  a  state 
of  impeccability  before  God,  they  taught 
that  the  body  of  Christ  was  created  by  the 
Holy  Ghost  and  only  nourished  in  the 
womb  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary.  They 
attached  so  much  value  and  weight  to 
their  communications  with  God,  and  con- 
sequent inspiration,  that  often  when  fail- 
ing to  accord  with  Holy  Scripture,  they 
declared  the  latter  in  error.  They  op- 
posed the  erection  of  temples  for  wor- 
ship, declaring  the  custom  idolatrous. 
They  made  severe  use  of  excommunica- 
tion; no  brother  was  allowed  to  accept 
any  public  office;  they  rejected  the  taking 
of  oaths,  war,  and  every  kind  of  revenge. 
After  various  vicissitudes  and  persecu- 
tions, chiefly  by  the  Lutherans,  this  sect 
of  Anabaptists,  with  other  sects  more 
modified  in  doctrine  and  discipline,  still 
exist  in  Germany,  Switzerland,  Holland, 
England,  and  especially  in  the  United 
States.     See  Baptists. 


Anabolagium. —  One  of  the  ecclesiastical 
vestments  in  the  sacred  functions.  It  de- 
signates what  we  now  call  Amice,  which 
see. 

Anacletus  (St.). —  Pope,  died  about  the 
year  91.  Very  ancient  martyrologies  give 
him  the  title  of  martyr.  He  is  named,  by 
the  ancients,  among  the  first  successors  of 
St.  Peter  to  the  See  of  Rome.  But  they 
are  not  in  accord  about  the  order  which 
they  assign  to  him  in  this  succession. 
According  to  St.  Irenseus,  and  also  given 
by  Eusebius,  the  following  is  the  catalogue 
of  the  first  Popes :  Peter,  Linus,  Anacle- 
tus, Clement.  According  to  St.  Augustine, 
Clement  was  the  successor  of  Linus, 
and  Anacletus  succeeded  Clement.  There 
are  catalogues  which  mention  a  Cletus 
instead  of  Anacletus.  Others  name  Cletus 
and  Anacletus  as  two  different  personages. 
It  would  appear,  according  to  the  chronicle 
of  Damasus,  and  according  to  St.  Epiph- 
anius  and  Rufinus,  that  Linus  and  Clem- 
ent were  charged  by  St.  Peter,  as  his 
representatives,  to  govern  the  Church  of 
Rome, —  without  any  of  them  becoming 
Pope  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  word, —  as 
successor  of  Peter.  In  this  case,  Peter's 
immediate  successor  was  Clement,  who 
would  have  been  succeeded  by  Anacletus. 
As  to  the  distinction  between  Cletus  and 
Anacletus,  we  find  it  indicated  in  many 
old  catalogues  and  especially  in  a  notice 
of  the  "  Pontifical,"  according  to  which 
Cletus  was  a  Roman  by  birth,  and  Anacle- 
tus an  Athenian. 

Anagnost. — The  Greek  term  correspond- 
ing to  the  Latin  lector. 

Anamelech  and  Adramelech. —  Deities 
of  the  Sepharvaim,  a  people  who  settled  in 
Samaria,  instead  of  those  Israelites  who 
were  banished  beyond  the  Euphrates.  The 
Sephar\'aim  made  their  children  pass 
through  fire  in  honor  of  these  false  deities. 
The  general  opinion  is,  that  Adramelech 
represented  the  sun  and  Anamelech  the 
moon.  At  any  rate,  they  seem  to  have  been 
personifications  of  the  heavenly  bodies. 

Ananias. — Three  persons  of  this  name 
are  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament. 
I.  A  Jew  of  Jerusalem,  the  husband  of 
Saphira,  who  attempted  to  join  the  Chris- 
tians, but  died  instantly  on  being  convicted 
of  falsehood  by  St.  Peter  (Acts  v.  i,  3,  5). 
— 2.  A  Christian  of  Damascus,  who  re- 
stored the  sight  of  St.  Paul  after  his 
vision  (Acts  ix.  10-17). — 3-  A  high-priest 


Anaphora 


32 


Anathema 


of  the  Jews,  the  son  of  Nebedaeus.  He  was 
sent  as  a  prisoner  to  Rome  bj  Quadra- 
tus,  the  governor  of  Syria,  and  Jonathan 
was  appointed  in  his  place ;  but  being  lib- 
erated by  the  Emperor  Claudius,  he  re- 
turned to  Palestine,  and  Jonathan  being 
murdered,  through  the  treachery  of  Felix, 
Ananias  appears  to  have  performed  the 
functions  of  the  high-priest,  as  a  substitute, 
until  Ismael  was  appointed  by  Agrippa 
(Acts  xxiii.  2;  xxiv.  i). 

Anaphora  or  Prosphora. — Signifies,  in 
the  Greek  liturgy,  what  the  Latin  liturgy 
understands  by  cation,  that  is,  the  stable 
part  found  in  most  of  the  liturgies  of  the 
Mass,  and  wherein  the  words  of  conse- 
cration are  found.  In  antiquity  there  was 
a  special  book  containing  the  canon. 

Anastasia  (name  of  several  saints). —  i. 
Anastasia  the  Ancient. — Patrician  of 
Rome,  instructed  in  the  faith  by  St.  Peter 
and  St.  Paul,  suffered  and  died  for  the  faith 
together  with  her  friend  Basilissa.  F. 
April  15th.  2.  Anastasia  the  Younger. — 
Noble  Roman  lady,  persecuted  by  her 
husband  Publius  and  burned  alive  under 
Diocletian  on  the  island  Palmeria,  in  303 
or  304.  F.  Dec.  25th.  7,.  Anastasia. —  Mar- 
tyr at  Rome,  together  with  St.  Cyril,  in  303. 
We  have  preserved  to  our  time  some  letters 
written  by  her  in  prison  and  addressed  to 
Chrysogonus,  her  confessor.    F.  Oct.  28tb- 

Anastasius  (name  of  four  Popes). — 
St.  Anastasius  I.  (398-402).  Combated 
and  condemned  the  errors  of  Origen.  St. 
Jerome  calls  him  a  man  of  great  sanctity 
and  apostolic  solicitude. — Anastasius  II. 
(496-498).  Combated  Arianism,  and  made 
attempts  at  Constantinople  to  put  an  end  to 
the  Eastern  schism.  Sent  legates  to  Con- 
stantinople with  letters  to  the  Emperor 
Anastasius,  in  which  he  insisted  upon  the 
removal  of  the  name  of  Acacius  from  the 
diptychs,  and  the  recognition  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Chalcedon,  yet  declaring  valid  the 
sacraments  conferred  by  that  schismatic. 
Anastasius  III.  (911-913).  Anastasius 
I^-  (1153-1154)- — His  administration  was 
disturbed  by  the  movements  of  Arnold  of 
Brescia  and  his  followers. 

Anastasius  (surnamed  Bihliothecarius, 
The  Librarian). —  Died  886.  Librarian 
of  the  Vatican  and  Abbot  of  Sta.  Maria, 
Trans-Tiberim,  at  Rome.  Cardinal  in 
847.  He  assisted,  in  869,  at  the  Eighth 
Ecumenical   Council    of    Constantinople, 


wherein  Photius  was  condemned ;  and  he 
translated  the  acts  of  the  seventh  and 
eighth  Councils.  The  translation  of  the 
acts  of  the  sixth  Council  is  also  attributed 
to  him,  and  the  lives  of  the  Popes  from  St. 
Peter  to  Nicholas  I. 

Anastasius  of  Constantinople. —  Died 
753.  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  in  730. 
He  was  elected  by  the  influence  of  the 
Emperor  Leo  IH.,  and  favored  the  Icono- 
clasts, for  which  he  was  excommunicated 
by  Gregory  VIII. 

Anastasius  (St.). —  Patriarch  of  Antioch 
(559-599),  banished  for  a  time  under  the 
Emperor  Justinian,  because  he  defended 
the  right  doctrine  on  the  body  of  Christ, 
against  heretical  arbitrariness.  F.  April 
21st. 

Anastasius  Sinaita  (St.). —  A  priest  and 
monk  in  the  celebrated  monastery  on 
Mount  Sinai,  whence  his  surname.  Here 
he  passed  the  main  portion  of  his  life  from 
640  to  700.  At  times,  however,  he  would 
leave  his  solitude  and  traverse  Egypt  and 
Syria,  and  hold,  wherever  an  opportunity 
oflFered  itself,  disputations  with  heretics 
(Monophysites  and  Monothelites).  He  also 
wrote  in  defense  of  the  orthodox  doctrine 
of  the  Church.  He  lived  to  an  advanced 
age,  but  the  precise  dates  of  his  death  and 
birth  are  unknown. 

Anathema. —  The  word  anathema  is  of 
Greek  origin,  and  exists  in  that  language 
in  two  forms,  distinguished  by  a  very 
trifling  difference  of  spelling,  but  very 
distinct  in  use.  Both  are  derived  from  a 
verb  meaning  to  set  aside,  and  in  one  form 
the  word  is  used  to  denote  something  pre- 
cious, set  aside  for  the  service  of  God,  such 
as  the  gifts  with  which  the  Temple  in  Jeru- 
salem was  adorned  (Luke  xxi.  5;  see  also 
II.  Mach.  ix.  16).  But  the  word  occurs 
also  in  another  form,  and  is  employed  to 
signify  a  penal  setting  aside,  whether  of  a  , 
thing  which  has  been  used  as  the  instru- 
ment of  wickedness,  or  of  a  person  who 
has  lost  his  social  rights  by  crime.  It 
occurs  in  both  senses,  in  a  verse  of  Deuter- 
onomy (vii.  26).  St.  Paul  uses  the  word 
more  than  once  to  signify  that  a  person  is 
not  worthy  to  be  admitted  into  the  society 
of  Christians  (I.  Cor.  xvi.  22;  Galat.  i.  8,  9). 
In  the  language  of  the  Church  the  phrase, 
"Let  him  be  anathema,"  is  used  in  the 
same  manner  as  by  St.  Paul,  and  is  a  form 
of  assigning  the  penalty  of  excommuni- 
cation for  an  offense ;  when  used,  as  it  often 


Anatolius 


33 


Andrew  of  Crete 


is,  to  enforce  definitions  of  faith,  it  means 
no  more  than  this ;  but  sometimes  an 
Anathema  seems  to  mean  an  excommuni- 
cation pronounced  against  an  offender  with 
solemn  and  impressive  ceremonies,  which, 
however,  do  not  alter  the  nature  of  the 
punishment.  No  anathema  or  other  act  of 
human  judge  can  take  away  the  grace  of 
God  from  the  soul,  if  by  any  error  the 
judgment  has  been  pronounced  against  an 
innocent  man.  In  one  place  (I.  Cor.  xvi. 
22)  St.  Paul  adds  to  the  word  Anathema, 
"Maranatha,"  and  the  same  is  sometimes 
done  by  councils  of  particular  Churches, 
but  the  usage  has  not  passed  into  the 
general  Canon  Law.  It  has  been  supposed, 
but  wrongly,  that  the  addition  of  this  word 
signifies  that  the  censure  will  never  be 
relaxed.  Maranatha  is  in  truth  an  Aramaic 
word,  belonging  to  a  language  familiar  to 
St.  Paul  and  most  of  his  readers.  It  means 
the  Lord  is  at  hand,  and  has  the  same 
force  as  when  this  expression  is  used  in  its 
Greek  form  (Phil.  iv.  5).  The  phrase 
enhances  the  force  of  that  to  which  it  is 
appended,  by  solemnly  reminding  the 
reader  that  Christ  will  come  again,  to 
judge  the  world. 

Anatolius  (St.). —  Born  at  Alexandria, 
about  230 ;  died  in  283.  Was  named  Bishop 
of  Laodicea,  in  Syria,  about  the  year  270. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of 
his  age.  Of  his  works,  which  were  not 
numerous  but  very  valuable,  only  meager 
portions  have  been  preserved. 

Anchor. —  This  was  a  symbol  of  hope 
among  the  early  Christians.  St.  Clement 
of  Alexandria,  says  the  anchor  was  one 
of  the  principal  symbols  which  the  first 
Christians  engraved  upon  their  rings.  They 
considered  it  a  sign  of  hope,  of  firmness 
in  their  faith,  of  a  conscience  always  on 
the  lookout,  in  order  to  avoid  shipwreck, — 
may  it  be  during  the  storms  of  the  human 
passions,  or  may  it  be  during  the  tempests  of 
persecution.  To  show  that  their  hope  was 
anchored  in  Jesus  Christ,  the  first  Chris- 
tians (as  we  can  see  by  the  inscriptions  on 
tombs  and  in  cemeteries),  associated  the 
figure  of  the  anchor,  with  the  fish  or 
dolphin,  which  was  the  symbol  of  the  Son 
of  God.     See  Fish. 

Anchorite. —  A  religious  hermit  who 
seeks  the  solitude  of  the  desert,  in  prefer- 
ence to  living,  like  the  monk  or  cenobite, 
in  communities.  Anchorites  began  to  ap- 
pear in  the  Christian  Church  about  the 
3 


second  century.  The  hermits  of  Thebaid 
were  renowned  for  their  sanctity,  absti- 
nence and  austerity.  In  the  two  following 
centuries,  anchorites  became  numerous  and 
peopled  the  deserts  of  Egypt  and  Syria. 
The  most  renowned  were  Paul  the  Hermit, 
or  Thebean,  A.  d.  250,  whose  example  was 
followed  by  St.  Anthony,  St.  Pachomius, 
St.  Simeon  Stylites,  and  many  others  famed 
in  legend  and  song.  The  fame  of  their 
sanctity  drew  many  to  visit  them,  become 
their  disciples  and  live  under  their  direc- 
tion. This  was  the  origin  of  the  cenobitic 
life,  but  it  was  not  till  the  end  of  the  fourth 
century,  that  the  hermitical  life  began  in 
Italy  and  Gaul.  The  persecutions  to  which 
Christians  were  subjected,  and  the  desire 
to  withdraw  from  amusements  and  the 
general  corruption  of  society,  caused  many 
pious  and  earnest  persons  to  seek  the  soli- 
tude of  deserts  where  they  could  more 
freely  give  their  thoughts  to  God;  after- 
ward the  glory  of  a  life  spent  in  loneliness 
and  austerity  became  a  substitute  for  that 
of  the  martyr's  death.  For  further  infor- 
mation, see  MoNASTiciSM. 

Ancient. —  A  title  of  dignity  bestowed 
on  aged  persons,  because  they  were  chosen 
from  among  men  to  fill  important  func- 
tions. Among  the  Jews,  the  ancients  of 
the  people  of  Israel  were  the  chiefs  of  the 
tribes  and  of  the  great  families  who,  at  the 
beginning,  formed  a  kind  of  government, 
and  had  authority  over  the  whole  people 
as  well  as  that  of  their  family.  Moses  es- 
tablished seventy  Ancients  of  Israel  (Num. 
xi.  16-17),  whose  government  perpetuated 
itself  until  the  time  of  Josue,  and  even 
Judges. 

Ancyra. —  An  ancient  town  of  Galatia 
(originally  of  Phrygia),  in  Asia  Minor, 
founded,  according  to  the  legends,  by 
Midas,  son  of  Gordius, — the  modern  An- 
gora. An  ecclesiastical  council  was  held 
here  in  the  year  314,  which  passed  twenty- 
five  canons  relating  chiefly  to  the  treat- 
ment of  those  who  had  betrayed  their 
faith  or  delivered  up  the  sacred  books 
during  the  Diocletian  persecution. 

Andre'w  of  Crete. —  Born  at  Damascus, 
660 ;  died  720  or  723.  An  Archbishop  of 
Crete;  favored  for  some  time  the  error  of 
the  Monothelites ;  but  having  read  the 
acts  of  the  Sixth  Ecumenical  Council,  he 
found  himself  deceived  and  acknowledged 
in  Jesus  Christ  two  wills  and  two  oper- 
ations. 


Andrew 


34 


Angel 


Andrew  (St.). —  The  first  disciple  of 
Christ,  and  afterward  an  Apostle,  was,  like 
his  brother  Peter,  a  fisherman.  Previous 
to  his  recognition  of  Christ  as  the  Mes- 
sias,  he  had  been  numbered  among  the 
disciples  of  John  the  Baptist  (  John  i.  40, 
41).  The  career  of  Andrew,  as  an  Apostle 
after  the  death  of  Christ,  is  unknown. 
Tradition  tells  us  that  after  preaching  the 
Gospel  in  Scythia,  Northern  Greece,  and 
Epirus,  he  suffered  martyrdom  on  the 
cross  at  Patrse,  in  Achaia,  62  or  70  A.  D. 
A  cross  formed  of  beams,  obliquely  placed, 
is  styled  St.  Andrew's  cross.  St.  Andrew 
is  the  patron  saint  of  Scotland.  He  is 
also  held  in  great  veneration  in  Russia, 
and  according  to  a  tradition,  preached  the 
Gospel  in  that  country.  In  both  countries 
there  is  an  order  of  knighthood  named  in 
his  honor. 

Angel. —  This  word  is  from  the  Greek 
aggelos,  which  signifies  messenger,  a  word 
which  indicates  not  the  nature  of  the 
angels,  but  the  office  they  often  exercise. 
Angels  are  spiritual  creatures.  When 
angels,  according  to  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments,  have  appeared  under  sensible 
forms,  these  were  forms  which  they  had 
borrowed  to  put  themselves  into  relation 
with  men,  and  to  fulfill  the  purpose  of 
their  mission  to  them.  The  Fifth  Lateran 
Council  teaches:  "There  is  only  one 
principle  of  all  things, — Creator  of  all  that 
is  visible  and  invisible,  spiritual  and 
corporal;  which  at  the  beginning  of  time 
has  drawn  both  from  nothing,  through  its 
almighty,  powerful  virtue,  the  spiritual 
and  the  corporal  creation,  that  is,  the 
angels  and  matter;  and  afterward  the 
human  nature,  which  is  like  a  common 
nature,  composed  of  spirit  and  body. 
These  incorporal  beings  have  a  superior 
intelligence  and  a  well  regulated  will. 
Their  knowledge  of  the  divine  decrees  and 
of  the  government  of  Providence,  although 
very  extensive,  is,  however,  limited.  There 
are  mysteries  for  them,  and  the  future  is 
often  hidden  from  them.  They  were  created, 
not  only  in  a  great  natural  perfection,  but, 
also,  in  a  state  of  supernatural  justice  and 
holiness,  an  habitual  and  sanctifying  grace, 
subject  to  the  trial  of  liberty  for  the  good 
and  the  evil;  the  one,  with  the  help  of 
grace,  persevered  in  the  good  and  ac- 
quired thus  by  their  personal  activity  and 
decision,  with  God's  help,  the  definitive 
holiness  and  eternal  beatitude.  Others, 
succumbing  to   this  trial,  lost  themselves 


by  their  own  fault.  Lucifer,  who  became 
the  chief  of  the  rebellious  angels,  or  the 
first  of  the  demons,  did  not  wish  to  submit 
himself."  Speaking  of  this,  St.  Augustine 
says:  "They  turned  from  the  Sovereign 
Being  and  returned  toward  themselves." 
Our  Saviour  has  said  of  the  bad  angels, 
that  they  "did  not  remain  in  the  truth" 
(John  viii.  44). 

Scripture  makes  allusion  to  numberless 
hosts  of  angels,  but  gives  no  complete  and 
systematic  account  of  them.  The  belief 
of  the  Church  respecting  them,  except  in 
a  few  points,  has  never  been  exactly  de- 
fined. It  has  always  been  held  that  angels 
and  human  souls,  notwithstanding  the 
high  origin  of  the  latter,  are  distinct;  only 
Dionysius,  Areopagita,  and  a  few  modern 
speculators  have  maintained  the  contrary. 
The  Church  in  the  Second  Council  of 
Constantinople  (553),  has  expressed  her- 
self against  the  opinion  of  Origen,  after 
which  all  these  spirits  would  be  equal  in 
substance,  virtue,  attributes,  etc.  Indeed, 
Holy  Scripture  speaks  of  nine  classes  of 
choirs  of  angels,  whom  the  Fathers  and 
theologians  divide  into  three  hierarchies, 
and  these  are  again  subdivided  into  three 
classes  as  follows  :  first  hierarchy:  Choirs 
of  the  Seraphim,  Cherubim,  Thrones; 
second  hierarchy :  Choirs  of  the  Domina- 
tions, Virtues,  Powers;  third  hierarchy: 
Choirs  of  the  Principalities,  Archangels 
and  simple  Angels. 

Initiated  in  the  plan  of  Providence,  the 
angels  act  on  mankind  in  order  that  the 
designs  of  God  may  become  realized  and 
humanity  accomplish  its  destiny.  We  be- 
hold them  many  times  on  errands  of  great 
import,  and  often  interfering  in  the  great 
phases  of  humanity,  to  second  the  di- 
vine power;  they  will  appear  at  the  uni- 
versal Judgment  to  close,  in  the  name  of 
God,  the  history  of  the  world.  What  the 
angels  are,  and  do  for  all  mankind,  the 
angel  is  and  does  in  particular  for  each 
person,  like  the  Guardian  angel.  Each  of 
us  is  placed  under  the  auspices  of  an  angel ; 
angels,  also,  according  to  the  opinion 
of  the  most  ancient  theologians,  preside 
over  just  laws  which  rule  the  world, 
watch  over  the  diverse  kingdoms  of  na- 
ture, such  for  instance  as  plants,  animals, 
etc.  Nations  and  societies  are  under  the 
patronage  or  care  of  certain  angels. 
Whatever  is  great,  worthy,  holy,  in  a  min- 
istry consecrated  to  the  service  of  God 
and  to  the  happiness  of  mankind,  merits 
our    respect   and  veneration.     Therefore, 


Angela  de  Mericia 


35 


Anglicanism 


nothing  is  more  justified  than  the  honor 
rendered  the  angels,  and  the  invocation  of 
those  whose  names  are  so  familiar  in  Holy 
Writ,  special  bearers  of  tidings  of  great  joy 
to  all  people ;  defenders  of  the  majesty, 
power,  and  glory  of  God ;  instruments  of 
averting  danger,  disaster,  distress  and 
misfortune;  guardians  ever  ready  to 
prompt  to  good  actions,  and  to  avert  evil. 
We  can  present  them,  to  our  eyes,  only 
under  human  form.  They  give  them  the 
figure  of  man  instead  of  woman,  though 
they  are  sexless,  being  pure  spirits,  be- 
cause this  is  the  more  noble  and  powerful  of 
the  sexes.  They  are  usually  represented  as 
young,  because  youth  is  symbolic  of  grace 
and  beauty,  and  to  mark  their  innocence 
and  eternal  freshness.  The  rapidity  with 
which  they  fulfill  their  mission  is  symbol- 
ized by  the  wings.  When  they  wish  to 
represent  them  in  the  act  of  praising  God, 
harps  and  other  musical  instruments  are 
placed  in  their  hands. 

The  creation  of  the  angels  was  placed  by 
the  Platonizing  Church  Fathers  before 
that  of  the  material  world ;  others  assigned 
it  to  one  of  the  six  genetic  days,  and  not  a 
few  modern  theologians  see  in  the  primor- 
dial creation  the  wisdom  of  God,  in  mak- 
ing those  spiritual  beings  witnesses  of  all 
His  works  of  creation, —  their  matter  and 
development,  their  order  and  harmony, 
their  perfection  and  purposes,  all  proclaim- 
ing His  power,  wisdom  and  glory,  now 
and  forever. 

Angela  de  Mericia  (St.) — Foundress  of 
the  Order  of  the  Ursulines.  Born  at  Des- 
enzano,  in  the  diocese  of  Verona  (1511- 
1540).  To  this  woman,  hidden  in  God 
and  crucified  in  Jesus  Christ,  Heaven  pre- 
served the  high  mission  to  found  the  Insti- 
tute of  the  Ursulines,  Sisters  whose  lives 
are  devoted  to  the  education  of  young  girls. 
In  1537  she  laid  the  foundation  thereof,  and 
soon  it  spread  all  over  Europe.  Her  Life, 
the  most  complete,  was  published  by  Mgr. 
Postel  (1878,  2  vols.).      See  Ursulines. 

Angelicals. — Name  adopted  by  an  Order 
of  nuns,  following  the  Rule  of  St.  Augus- 
tine. Founded  in  Milan,  about  the  year 
1530,  by  Luigia  de  Forelli,  Countess  of 
Quastalla.  Each  nun  prefixes  to  her  fam- 
ily name  that  of  a  saint,  with  the  word 
Angelica,  which  when  uttered  is  to  remind 
her  of  angelic  purity.  Their  statutes,  re- 
vised by  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  were  ap- 
proved by  Pope  Urban  VIII.,  May  12th, 
1625. 


Angelics. — Sectarians  in  the  early  ages 
of  the  Church,  who  regarded  the  angels 
as  creatures  of  the  world,  to  whom  they 
rendered  worship  due  to  God  alone. 

Angelic  Salutation  (Lat.  Angelus  Dom- 
ini).— Words  which  the  Angel  Gabriel  ad- 
dressed to  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  when 
he  announced  to  her  that  she  would  be- 
come the  mother  of  the  Redeemer,  and 
the  prayer  which  is  composed  of  three 
verses,  each  one  followed  by  a  Hail  Mary 
and  an  oration.  The  Angelic  Salutation 
is  repeated  three  times  a  day :  at  sunrise, 
noon,  and  sunset,  when  the  so-called  "  An- 
gelus bell"  is  rung.  This  pious  practice 
can  be  traced,  we  are  assured  by  some  au- 
thors, to  Pope  Urban  II.    See  Ave  Maria. 

Angelites. — Heretics  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury, thus  named  from  Angelium,  their 
place  of  meeting  in  Alexandria.  They 
taught  that  none  of  the  Three  Divine  Per- 
sons was  God  by  nature.  The  Father  was 
one,  the  Son  another,  and  the  Holy 
Ghost  another;  that  none  of  the  Three  Di- 
vine Persons  was  God  by  His  nature,  but 
that  there  was  in  the  Three  the  divine  nature 
which  was  common  to  Them,  and  that  by 
partaking  of  this  divinity,  in  an  indivisible 
manner,  each  One  of  Them  was  God. 

Anglicanism  or  Anglican  Church. —  The 

official  and  established  religion  of  England! 
Anglicanism  embraces  the  Protestant  Epis- 
copal Church  in  Ireland,  the  Episcopal 
Church  in  Scotland,  and  all  the  colonial 
Episcopal  Churches,since  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. Anglicanism  is,  as  to  its  doctrines,  one 
of  the  forms  of  Protestantism,  but  in  its 
constitution  and  exterior  forms  of  worship, 
it  assumes  an  intermediary  state  between 
Catholicity  and  German  Protestantism.  It 
receives  the  general  appellations  :  Church 
of  England,  EstablishedChurch,  Episcopal 
Church  and  High  Church,  to  distinguish 
it  from  other  Protestant  Churches  of  Great 
Britain. 

The  Anglican  Church  was  founded  by 
Henry  VIII.  Wycliffe  had,  in  the  preced- 
ing century,  tried  to  draw  every  malcon- 
tent from  the  Church  by  his  abuse  of 
ecclesiastical  power  and  influence,  and  pre- 
tense of  reform,  but  sensible  people  seeing 
that  he  was  a  fire-brand  in  society,  and  that 
his  principles  led  directly  to  sedition,  and 
to  the  breaking  up  of  all  social  order,  of- 
fered him  no  encouragement  in  his  mad 
career.  But  when  Luther  forced  a  separa- 
tion  from  the  Church,   in  Germany,  the 


Anglicanism 


36 


Anglicanism 


principles  of  the  Reformation  soon  found 
sympathizers  in  England,  and  though 
Henry  wrote  a  book  against  Luther,  he 
soon  became  inoculated  with  the  same 
virus,  and  found  a  pretext  to  establish  him- 
self Pope  in  England.  Tired  of  an  aged 
and  virtuous  wife,  the  royal  founder  of 
Anglicanism  panted  for  new  nuptials  with 
another, —  Anne  Boleyn,  whose  youthful 
charms  had  already  captivated  his  sensual 
heart,  and  whose  wily  arts  had  rendered 
her  inexorable  to  his  wishes,  except  on  the 
condition  of  supplanting  the  lawful  queen, 
and  becoming,  herself,  his  queenly  con- 
sort. The  Pontiff  was  appealed  to,  to 
second  the  plan  of  the  English  king,  and 
to  grant  the  necessary  dispensation ;  but 
the  Popes  never  flattered  the  vices  of 
princes;  and  in  this  particular  instance, 
Clement  VII.  would  not  consent  to  sacri- 
fice his  consience,  to  trample  upon  the 
holy  laws  of  God,  and  to  be  recreant  to  his 
duty  toward  a  virtuous  and  much  injured 
woman,  who,  for  eighteen  long  years,  was 
the  most  faithful  of  wives.  After  pro- 
tracting the  affair  for  some  years,  during 
which  he  tried  every  possible  means  to  dis- 
suade Henry  from  his  purpose,  the  Pope 
was,  at  length,  compelled  to  decide  against 
the  divorce,  on  which  the  English  king 
had  already  resolved.  Henry  became  in- 
dignant ;  he  sacrilegiously  usurped  the  of- 
fice of  head  of  the  Church  in  England ; 
and  the  majority  of  the  English  bishops, 
won  over  by  intrigue,  worn  out  by  har- 
assing solicitations,  or  intimidated  by  men- 
aces, were  weak  enough  to  sanction  his 
wicked  conduct.  In  this  sacrilegious 
usurpation  of  the  office  of  Pope  in  Eng- 
land, and  seizing  on  the  first  fruits  of  the 
benefices  which  had  hitherto  been  paid 
to  the  Roman  Pontiffs,  he  was  ably  sec- 
onded by  the  sycophant  Thomas  Cranmer, 
whom  Lord  Macaulay  sketches  in  his 
history  of  the  English  Reformation: 
"They  (the  English  Reformers)  were, — 
a  king,  whose  character  may  be  best  de- 
scribed by  saying  that  he  was  despotism 
itself,  personified;  unprincipled  ministers; 
a  rapacious  aristocracy;  a  servile  parlia- 
ment. Such  were  the  instruments  by  which 
England  was  delivered  from  the  yoke  of 
Rome !  The  work,  which  had  been  begun 
by  Henry,  the  murderer  of  his  wives,  was 
continued  by  Somerset,  the  murderer  of 
his  brother;  and  completed  by  Elizabeth, 
the  murderer  of  her  guest. 

"  If  we   consider  Cranmer   merely  as  a 
statesman,   he   will   not    appear    a    much 


worse  man  than  Wolsey,  Gardiner,  Crom- 
well, or  Somerset ;  but  when  an  attempt  is 
made  to  set  him  up  as  a  saint,  it  is  scarcely 
possible  for  any  man  of  sense,  who  knows 
the  history  of  the  times  well,  to  preserve 
his  gravity.  The  shameful  origin  of  his 
history,  common  enough  in  the  scandalous 
chronicles  of  courts,  seems  strangely  out 
of  place  in  a  hagiology.  Cranmer  rose 
into  favor  by  serving  Henry  in  the  dis- 
graceful affair  of  his  first  divorce.  He 
promoted  the  marriage  of  Anne  Boleyn 
with  the  king.  On  a  frivolous  pretense 
he  pronounced  it  null  and  void.  On  a 
pretense,  if  possible,  still  more  frivolous, 
he  dissolved  the  ties  which  bound  the 
shameless  tyrant  to  Anne  of  Cleves.  He 
attached  himself  to  Cromwell,  while  the 
fortunes  of  Cromwell  flourished  ;  he  voted 
for  cutting  off  his  head,  without  a  trial, 
when  the  tide  of  royal  favor  turned. 
He  conformed,  backwards  and  forwards, 
as  the  king  changed  his  mind.  While 
Henry  lived,  he  assisted  in  condemning  to 
the  flames,  those  who  denied  the  doctrine 
of  transubstantiation ;  when  Henry  died, 
he  found  out  that  the  doctrine  was  false. 
He  was,  however,  not  at  a  loss  for  people  to 
burn.  The  authority  of  his  station,  and 
of  his  gray  hairs,  was  employed  to  over- 
come the  disgust  with  which  an  intelligent 
and  virtuous  child  regarded  persecution." 

Is  it  possible,  that  a  Church  which 
originated  under  these  circumstances,  was 
the  Church  of  Christ?  Is  it  credible, 
that  that  was  the  Church  of  Christ,  which 
came  into  existence  at  the  bidding  of  a 
man,  who  was  subsequently  the  murderer 
of  his  wives,  and  the  unmitigated  tyrant 
over  his  people?  The  man,  of  whom  it 
has  been  truly  said,  "that  he  never  spared 
man  in  his  anger,  nor  woman  in  his 
lust!"  Is  that  the  Church  which  unbiased 
Protestant  historians  say  was  engendered 
by  beastlv  lust,  brought  forth  by  hypocrisy 
and  perfidy,  and  cherished  by  national 
blood ! 

On  the  death  of  Henry  VIII.,  in  1547, 
and  the  accession  of  Edward  VI.,  many 
changes  had  taken  place  in  the  English 
liturgy.  First,  the  idea  of  the  real  pres- 
ence and  of  a  true  sacrifice,  which  had 
been  deemed  essential  to  every  previous 
liturgy,  whether  Latin,  Greek  or  Oriental, 
was  carefully  excluded ;  and,  secondly, 
the  liturgy  itself  was  studiously  amended, 
at  least  three  times,  just  as  the  English 
parliament  happened  to  become  more  en- 
lightened.     Here  is   presented   the    ludi- 


Angustia  Loci 


37 


Animals 


crous  spectacle  of  a  boy  king  and  Pope 
making  changes  in  the  ancient  liturgy  and 
discipline  of  the  Church,  and  subscribing 
to  forty-two  articles  of  faith  of  which  he 
had  not  the  slightest  knowledge.  It  was  a 
religion  of  the  crown  and  parliament,  and 
changed  to  suit  the  caprice  of  rulers  and 
ministers. 

After  the  fruitless  attempt  to  restore 
Catholic  unity  under  Mary,  Elizabeth  re- 
vived the  former  laws,  rejected  the  Papal 
supremacy  and  restored  the  Anglican 
ritual,  and  formulated  the  Act  of  Uni- 
formity, or  thirty-nine  articles  of  faith, 
which  was  approved  by  the  Synod  of 
London  in  1562.  As  a  natural  consequence 
of  this  separation  from  the  true  Church  of 
Christ,  and  rejection  of  her  ancient  liturgy, 
and  adoption  of  private  interpretation 
of  Holy  Scripture,  new  sects  sprung  from 
this  diseased  branch,  which  struggled  for 
place  and  power.  The  Puritans  triumphed 
for  a  moment  under  Cromwell,  who  was  a 
sort  of  theocratic  dictator.  The  Catholic 
dynasty  of  the  Stuarts,  re-established  in 
1660,  was  dethroned  anew  in  1668.  The 
new  king,  William  of  Orange,  published 
the  Act  of  Tolerance,  which  somewhat 
mitigated  the  rigors  of  previous  laws 
against  the  Catholic  and  Protestant  dis- 
senters ;  but  many  of  the  previous  statutes 
remained  in  force  until  1828  and  1829. 
The  repeal  of  those  odious  laws  that  in- 
terdicted the  Non-Conformists,  and  the 
Catholics  in  particular,  from  offices  of 
public  trust,  and  the  holding  of  certain 
property,  was  not  received  as  a  gracious 
and  voluntary  act  of  government,  but  as 
wrung  from  it  by  agitation  and  strong  ap- 
peals to  justice. 

The  Anglican  Church  has  a  temporal 
sovereign  for  its  head,  whether  it  be  man, 
woman,  or  child.  The  Act  of  Parliament 
empowers  the  sovereign  to  name  the  per- 
sons for  episcopal  sees,  but  the  dogmas, 
administration  and  discipline  of  the  clergy 
are  under  the  direction  of  the  archbishops. 
The  Anglican  Church  has  preserved,  al- 
most entire,  the  ancient  Catholic  hier- 
archy and  part  of  the  exterior  ceremonies 
of  the  worship.  There  are  two  arch- 
bishops, Canterbury  and  York.  The  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  carries  the  title  of 
Primate  of  the  United  Kingdom  and  First 
Peer  of  the  Realm.  He  crowns  the  sov- 
ereign, and  has  twenty-one  suffragan 
bishops.  The  Archbishop  of  York,  Primate 
of  England,  has  seven  suffragan  bishops. 
All  the  bishops,  with  the  exception  of  two. 


sit  in  the  House  of  Lords,  as  spiritual  lords. 
Besides  these,  there  are  fifty-three  bishops 
in  the  Colonies,  appointed  by  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury.  The  inferior  clergy 
comprises  the  Chapters  and  those  of  the 
parishes.  The  Church  of  Ireland  (sup- 
pressed as  Established  Church  by  Act  of 
July  26,  1869),  the  Episcopal  Church  of 
Scotland  and  that  of  the  United  States  are 
embraced  in  the  Anglican  Church,  and 
use  the  English  Book  of  Common  Prayer; 
in  America,  this  has  been  slightly  altered. 
Anglicanism  acknowledges  the  symbol 
of  the  Apostles'  Creed,  that  of  Nice  and 
also  that  of  St.  Athanasius.  It  admits  the 
Trinity,  the  Incarnation  of  Jesus  Christ, 
the  Resurrection,  the  divinity  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  the  sacrament  of  baptism,  the 
Eucharist,  purgatory,  indulgences,  the 
veneration  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  of 
the  saints  and  of  images.  Auricular  con- 
fession is  optional ;  the  communion,  which 
has  become  a  mere  symbol,  is  given  under 
two  kinds ;  celibacy  is  not  imposed  upon 
their  clergy.  The  Book  of  Common 
Prayer  contains  the  prayers  and  liturgical 
offices,  Puseyism  (see  Puseyism),  which 
arose  in  our  times  at  the  University  of 
Oxford,  promises  to  approach  more  closely 
to  the  Roman  liturgy,  as  it  has  re-estab- 
lished altars,  crosses,  stations  of  the  cross, 
veneration  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary, 
and  many  other  ceremonies  repudiated 
since  the  reign  of  Elizabeth. 

Angustia  Loci  {the  smallncss  of  the 
place). —  Is  one  of  what  theologians  call 
"  oonest  causes  for  dispensation,"  in  mar- 
riage. A  place  is  held  to  be  small,  when 
it  contains  no  more  than  three  hundred 
hearths, which  would  be  equivalent  to  about 
twelve  hundred  souls.  A  maiden,  who  is 
of  such  a  place,  can  ask  dispensation  from 
the  impediment  of  relationship,  if  she 
does  not  find,  outside  of  her  family  in  this 
place,  a  husband  suitable  to  her,  with  re- 
gard to  her  patrimony,  condition,  or  ^ge. 

Anicetus  (St.). —  Pope  from  157  to  168. 
Syrian  by  birth,  suffered  martyrdom  under 
Marcus  Aurelius.  He  was  visited  at 
Rome  by  St.  Polycarp  of  Smyrna.  These 
two  Saints  had  some  dispute  in  regard  to 
the  date  of  the  feast  of  Ea.ster,  a  dis- 
cussion which  did  not  alter  their  friend- 
ship.    F.  April  17th. 

Animals  {pure  and  impure). —  This  reg- 
ulation explains  itself  in  the  dietary  code 
of  Moses,  which  prescribed  the  pure  ani- 
mals for  food  for  the  Hebrew  people,  and 


Animism 


38 


Animism 


the  impure  animals,  which  they  were  to 
reject.  The  permission  to  eat  the  flesh  of 
certain  animals,  while  that  of  others  is 
strictly  forbidden,  has  been  a  subject  for 
ridicule  and  attacks  of  all  kinds.  Those 
who  have  judged  that  the  distinction  be- 
tween pure  and  impure  animals  had  no 
foundation  in  fact,  did  so  in  ignorance,  for 
this  law  was  made  by  Moses  for  well 
known  hygienic  reasons. 

Animism'  (Lat.  anima,  soul.) — By  this 
word  we  designate  the  doctrine  which  ad- 
mits the  identity  in  man  with  the  thinking 
soul  and  vital  principle.  The  real  ani- 
mism has  been  taught  in  antiquity  only  by 
Aristotle.  The  lonians  and  other  philoso- 
phers before  Plato,  recognized,  it  is  true, 
that  the  soul  is  the  principle  of  life,  but 
according  to  them,  the  soul  was  a  subtile 
matter — air,  fire,  etc.  Plato  supposed 
that  there  were  in  the  same  body  several 
souls  having  different  operations  and  seats. 
The  nutritive  soul  was  seated  in  the  liver, 
the  concupiscent  soul  in  the  heart,  and  the 
cognitive  soul  in  the  brain.  Galen  ad- 
mits the  Platonic  distinction  of  three  souls ; 
attributes  only  to  the  inferior  soul  the 
principle  of  life,  and  does  not  consider  the 
reasonable  soul  immaterial  and  immortal. 
The  Pantheistic  animism  of  the  Stoics 
was  materialistic,  like  that  of  the  lonians ; 
Parcelsus,  Robert  Fludd,  Van  Helmont, 
approach  Plato  a  good  deal. 

Aristotle  distinguishes  four  kinds  of 
souls  :  the  nutritive  soul,  the  sensible  soul, 
the  locomotive  soul,  and  the  reasonable 
soul.  They  are  not  different  substances 
which  superadd  themselves  in  the  same 
living  being,  but  are  diverse  and  hier- 
archal  functions,  of  which  the  soul  of  a 
vegetable  fulfills  the  first,  the  soul  of  a 
zoophyte  the  first  and  second,  the  soul  of 
an  animal  the  first  three,  and  the  soul  of  a 
man  all  four  at  once. 

We  regain  this  real  animism  in  the 
scholastic  philosophy  of  which  St.  Thomas 
is  the  most  illustrious  and  most  exact 
representative.  According  to  him,  man  is 
composed  of  a  body  and  soul.  The  first 
principle  of  life  of  the  body  is  the  soul, 
since  life  manifests  itself  through  diverse 
operations  in  the  various  degrees  of  the 
living  beings ;  the  first  principle  by  which 
we  operate  each  of  these  vital  works  is  the 
soul.  The  soul  is  the  first  principle  by 
which  we  nourish  ourselves,  we  feel,  we 
go  from  one  place  to  another,  just  as  she 
is  also  the  first  principle  of  the  intellectual 


operations.  The  soul,  being,  not  only 
united  with  the  body  as  its  motor,  such  as 
Plato  believed,  but  as  its  substantial  form, 
it  is  impossible  that  in  one  sole  man  there 
are  several  essentially  distinct  souls ;  there 
is  in  man  no  other  substantial  form  but 
the  intellective  soul;  as  it  contains,  virtu- 
ally, the  sensitive  soul  and  nutritive  soul, 
so  also  it  contains,  virtually,  all  the 
inferior  forms  and  produces  in  it  alone 
what  more  imperfect  forms  produce  in 
the  other  beings.  We  have  to  say  the 
same  of  the  sensitive  souls  in  beasts, 
and  the  nutritive  souls  in  plants,  and  uni- 
versally of  all  the  most  perfect  and  im- 
perfect forms. 

The  doctrine  of  St.  Thomas,  which  is 
cited  here,  is  also  that  of  the  Church. 
The  Ecumenical  Council  of  Vienne  (1312), 
in  Dauphine,and  Pope  Clement  V.,  in  131 1, 
decided  against  Peter-John  of  Oliva,  and 
Ubertin  of  Casal,  successively  superiors  of 
the  "  Spiritual  Franciscans,"  that  the  prop- 
osition "  the  reasonable  or  intellective  sub' 
stance  is  not  really  and  by  itself  the  form 
of  the  human  body,"  is  erroneous,  con- 
trary to  Catholic  truth;  they  classed  as 
heretics,  those  who  uphold  it  with  stub- 
bornness. In  our  days  the  Holy  See  has 
recalleci  to  mind  and  confirmed  this  article 
of  faith,  June  15th,  1857.  Pius  IX.,  in  his 
letter  to  the  Archbishop  of  Cologne,  speak- 
ing of  the  writings  of  the  German  priest 
Giinther,  censured  and  condemned  by  the 
Congregation  of  the  Index,  with  the  ap- 
probation of  the  Pope,  says:  "We  know 
that  it  is  a  blow  to  the-  Catholic  sentiment 
and  doctrine,  touching  the  nature  of  man, 
which  is  composed  of  a  body  and  soul,  but 
of  a  rational  soul,  which  is  by  itself  the 
real  and  immediate  form  of  the  body." 

Among  modern  philosophers,  Stahl  has 
adopted  the  most  precise,  and  we  might 
add,  the  most  complete  exposition  of  ani- 
mism. He  tells  us  that  the  soul,  even  in 
physiological  operations,  knows  what  she 
is  doing.  This  appears  to  be  a  too  hasty 
conclusion  and  bold  assertion.  To-day, 
animism  holds  first  place  among  spiritual- 
istic philosophers,  but  they  are  not  willing 
to  grant  to  the  soul,  like  Stahl,  the  knowl- 
edge of  what  she  does,  as  vital  principle ; 
it  is  in  virtue  of  an  instinct  which  ignores 
that  the  thinking  soul  accomplishes  its 
functions  as  principle  of  life.  The  physi- 
ologists and  philosophers  opposed  to  ani- 
mism are :  those  who  pretend  that  the 
vital  phenomena  are  explainable  by  the 
play  of  the  sole  forces  which  govern  brute 


Annas 


39 


Anomoeans 


matter  without  having  to  recur  to  any 
principle  of  life  (they  are  the  Anti-Vital- 
ists).  And  among  the  Vitalists,  those 
who  explain  the  principle  of  life,  by  either 
the  double  Dynamism,  or  by  the  Organ- 
icism  (see  these  two  terms) ;  finally, 
those  who  affirm  life  as  a  special  phenome- 
non, and  in  so  affirming  pretend  that  sci- 
ence is  yet  powerless  to  refer  it  to  its  real 
cause. 

Anna  (St.). — According  to  old  tradi- 
tions, the  saintly  mother  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin,  whose  name,  Anna,  signifies 
grace,  was  descended  on  her  father's  side 
from  the  tribe  of  Levi,  and  on  her  mother's 
side  from  the  tribe  of  Juda.  She  was 
born  in  Bethlehem  and  was  married, 
while  still  a  pure  and  pious  virgin,  to 
Joachim,  a  man  of  position,  with  whom 
she  lived,  occupied  in  pious  works,  and 
patiently  conforming  to  the  will  of  God  in 
all  things.  When  the  pious  couple  had 
reached  a  very  advanced  age,  in  which 
they  could  scarcely  expect  to  have  chil- 
dren, an  angel  announced  to  them  that 
they  were  to  be  blessed  with  a  daughter 
whom  they  were  to  name  Mary.  And  it 
occurred  as  foretold.  In  the  fall  (Sept. 
8th)  following  the  announcement  was 
born  the  holiest  of  God's  creatures,  the 
Queen  of  angels  and  of  men,  the 
chosen  Mother  of  the  Son  of  God,  not  so 
much  the  fruit  of  the  body  as  she  was  the 
fruit  of  grace.  Joachim  and  Anna  brought 
this  child  Mary,  at  a  very  tender  age,  to 
Jerusalem,  presenting  her  to  the  high- 
priest  as  an  ofTering  to  God,  to  be  brought 
up  in  the  service  of  the  temple.  How 
long  Anna  lived  after  this  sacrifice  is  not 
known,  but  she  is  now  enthroned  among 
the  elect  in  heaven  with  her  beloved  child 
in  glory.  F.  July  26th.  The  devotion 
towards  St.  Anna  is  very  great  among  the 
faithful.  Her  remains,  first  buried  at 
Bethlehem,  in  the  tomb  of  her  parents, 
then  transferred  by  the  faithful  into  the 
Church  of  the  Sepulchre  of  Notre-Dame, 
in  the  valley  of  Josaphat,  were,  finally, 
transferred  into  the  Church  of  Apt,  in 
Provence.  From  the  city  of  Apt,  all  the 
relics  of  St.  Anna  are  derived. 

Annas. —  A  high-priest  of  the  Jews.  He 
is  mentioned  in  St.  Luke  as  being  high- 
priest  along  with  Caiphas,  his  son-in-law. 
He  was  first  appointed  to  that  office  by 
Cyrenius,  or  Qiiirinus,  proconsul  of  Syria, 
about  A.  D.  7  or  8,  but  was  afterwards  de- 
prived of  it.     After  various  changes,  the 


office  was  given  to  Joseph,  also  called 
Caiphas,  the  son-in-law  of  Annas,  about 
A.  D.  27  or  28,  who  continued  in  office  until 
A.  D.  35.  In  St.  Luke  iii.  2,  therefore,  it  is 
apparent  that  Caiphas  was  the  only  actual 
and  proper  high-priest ;  but  Annas,  being 
his  father-in-law,  and  having  been  for- 
merly high-priest  himself,  and  being,  also, 
perhaps,  his  substitute,  had  great  influence 
and  authority,  and  could,  with  propriety, 
be  still  termed  high-priest  along  with 
Caiphas. 

Annats. —  The  first  fruits,  consisting  of 
a  year's  revenue,  or  a  specific  portion  of 
the  revenues  of  vacant  benefices  which 
ought  to  be  paid  to  the  Pope,  but  which 
now  form  a  scarcely  appreciable  portion  of 
the  papal  revenues.     See  Peter's  Pence. 

Anna  the  Prophetess.  —  Daughter  of 
Phanuel,  of  the  tribe  of  Aser,  became 
widow  after  a  marriage  of  seven  years, 
and  consecrated  her  life  to  God  in  the 
temple.  She  received  the  Saviour  when 
He  was  presented  there  by  His  mother. 

Anniversary, —  Feast  or  ceremony  which 
takes  place  every  year  on  a  certain  day. 
The  dedication  of  a  church  is  an  anniver- 
sary festival. —  An  anniversary  service  is 
the  yearly  commemoration  of  th#  day  of 
a  person's  death,  by  a  Mass  offered  for  his 
soul. 

Annunciade. —  Literally,  the  Annunci- 
ate, that  is,  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary  as 
the  receiver  of  the  Annunciation.  A  name 
which  designates  several  religious  orders 
founded  in  honor  of  Mary. 

Annunciation  {Feast  of  the). —  The  an- 
nunciation of  the  Angel  Gabriel  to  the 
Blessed  Virgin. — Festival  which  the  Church 
celebrates  in  honor  of  this  mystery,  March 
25th.  The  institution  of  this  feast  dates 
back  to  the  first  centuries  of  Christianity. 
St.  Athanasius  mentions  it  in  one  of  his 
sermons.  For  a  long  time  they  com- 
menced the  civil  year  with  the  feast  of  the 
Annunciation.  The  custom  of  commencing 
the  year  on  the  ist  of  January  was  intro- 
duced in  France  in  1564,  in  Scotland  in 
1579,  in  England  in  1752. 

Anomoeans.  —  Members  of  an  extreme 
sect  of  Arians,  in  the  fourth  century,  who 
held  that  the  Son  is  of  an  essence  not 
even  similar  to  that  of  the  Father  (whence 
their  name),  while  the  more  moderate 
Arians  held  that  the  essence  of  the  Son  is 
similar  to  that  of  the  Father,  though  not 


Anscharius 


40 


Anthem 


identical   with   it.      Also   called   .titans, 
JSudoxians,  and  Eunomians. 

Anscharius  (St.)  (surnamed  the  Apostle 
of  the  North). —  Born  near  Amiens,  in 
Picardv,  in  801.  In  829  he  accom- 
panied the  imperial  embassy  to  Sweden, 
where  he  made  many  converts  and  built 
several  churches.  In  832,  Pope  Gregory 
made  him  Archbishop  of  Hamburg  and 
apostolic  delegate  for  the  North ;  to  this 
appointment  the  See  of  Bremen  was  added 
in  849.  Anscharius,  with  immense  toil 
and  privations,  and  amidst  many  dangers, 
succeeded  in  firmly  establishing  Christian- 
ity in  Denmark  and  Sweden.  After  an 
apostolate  of  thirty-four  years,  he  died  in 
865.     F.  Feb.  3d. 

Anseltn  (St.). — Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury ;  born  at  Aosta,  Italy,  in  1033.  "Wil- 
liam II.,  during  a  dangerous  illness,  re- 
solved to  restore  the  estates  which  he  had 
taken  from  the  different  churches;  and, 
urged  by  his  nobles,  he  nominated  the 
learned  Anselm,  Abbot  of  Bee,  in  Nor- 
mandy, to  the  See  of  Canterbury.  Only 
on  the  king's  promise  to  resign  the  tem- 
poralities belonging  to  the  See  of  Canter- 
bury, to  follow  his  counsels  in  things 
spiritual,  and  to  acknowledge  Urban  II.  as 
rightful  Pope,  did  Anselm,  at  last,  consent 
to  receive  consecration,  in  1093.  But, 
when  restored  to  health,  the  king,  by  his 
renewed  rapacity  and  despotism,  soon  gave 
much  trouble  to  the  new  Primate.  The 
refusal  to  acknowledge  Urban  II.  and  per- 
mit Anselm  to  receive  the  pallium  from 
the  Pontiff,  led  to  a  complete  rupture.  In 
his  struggle  with  the  king,  Anselm  was 
forsaken  by  the  bishops,  whilst  the  nobles 
of  the  realm  earnestly  supported  him. 
Shortly  after,  William  acknowledged 
Urban,  and  was  reconciled  with  Anselm. 
But  fresh  aggressions  compelled  Anselm 
to  have  recourse  to  the  Holy  See.  He  set 
out  for  Rome,  in  1097,  and  was  received 
by  Urban  with  signal  marks  of  respect; 
but  his  resignation,  the  Pope  refused  to 
accept.  While  in  Italy,  Anselm  took  part 
in  the  Councils  of  Lateran  and  Bari.  At 
the  latter  Council,  he  defended,  in  a 
masterly  oration,  the  "  Procession  of  the 
Holy  Ghost"  against  the  Greeks.  Anselm 
remained  a  voluntary  exile,  living  chiefly 
at  Lyons,  till  the  year  iioo,  when,  upon 
the  sudden  death  of  William  and  the  acces- 
sion of  Henry  I.,  he  repaired  to  England. 
Although  the  new  king  had  promised  to 
respect  the  liberties  and  immunities  of  the 


Church,  he  was  engaged  in  a  sharp  con- 
flict with  Anselm  concerning  the  right  of 
investiture.  As  Henry  would  not  give  up 
his  pretensions,  Anselm  went  into  exile  a 
second  time.  Pope  Paschal  II.  threatened  to 
excommunicate  Henry;  but,  at  the  instance 
of  Anselm,  the  Pontiff  contented  him- 
self with  pronouncing  excommunication 
against  the  venal  prelates  who  had  re- 
ceived investiture  from  the  king.  At  last, 
the  good  sers'ices  of  Henry's  sister,  Adela, 
led  to  a  compromise.  Anselm  returned  to 
England  in  1106,  and  henceforth  lived  in 
peace  till  his  death,  in  1109.  Anselm  is 
regarded  as  the  earliest  of  the  Scholastic 
theologians,  and  is  sometimes  called  the 
"Father  of  Scholasticism."  He  did  not, 
indeed,  construct  a  complete  sum,  or  sys- 
tem of  theology,  but  his  various  works  are 
so  many  formal  treatises  on  the  principal 
parts  of  theological  science.  He  composed 
elaborate  tracts  On  the  Freedom  of  the 
Will,  On  Original  Sin,  On  the  Fall  of 
Satan,  On  the  Procession  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  and  On  the  Agreement  of  Divine 
Fore-knoiulcdge,  Predestination,and  Grace 
with  Free  Will.  His  Monologium  and 
Prosologium,  respectively,  treat  of  the 
Existence  of  God,  and  of  the  Holy  Trinity 
and  the  Divine  Attributes,  while  his  work, 
entitled  Why  God  ivas  made  Man,  is  a 
learned  exposition  of  the  Incarnation  and 
Redemption.  Against  the  Nominalistic 
theory  of  Roscelin,  he  wrote  his  work  On 
the  Belief  in  the  Trinity,  and  the  Incar- 
nation of  the  Word.  In  the  works  of  St. 
Anselm  is  found  the  celebrated  Ontolog- 
ical  argument  for  the  existence  of  God, 
deduced  from  the  idea  of  an  infinitely  per- 
fect Being.  His  extraordinary  erudition 
won  for  him  the  surname  of  "the  Augus- 
tine of  the  Middle  Ages,"  and,  in  1720,  the 
honor  of  being  numbered  among  the  Doc- 
tors of  the  Church,  by  Pope  Clement  XI. 
F.  March  i8th. 

Antependium. — The  hanging  by  which 
the  front  of  an  altar  is  covered.  It  is 
frequently  made  of  silk  or  velvet,  and 
ornamented  with  embroidery. 

Anterus  (St.). —  Greek  by  birth,  elected 
Pope  after  the  death  of  Pontianus,  on 
November  21,  238.  Occupied  the  Holy 
See  only  one  month  and  a  few  days.  He 
died  on  January  3,  239,  and  had  for  suc- 
cessor St.  Fabian. 

Anthem. — Originally,  a  hymn  sung  in 
alternate  parts ;  in  modern  usage,  a  piece 


Anthonists 


41 


Anthropophagy 


of  sacred  music,  set  to  words,  usually 
taken  from  the  Psalms  or  other  parts  of 
the  Scriptures.     See  Antiphon. 

Anthonists. —  Members  of  a  religious 
Community.  This  Congregation  was 
founded  on  the  occasion  of  the  visitation 
of  the  "Sacred  Fire,"  or  "St.  Anthony's 
Fire,"  a  terrible  plague  which  was  brought 
into  Europe  from  the  East  in  the  eleventh 
century.  Among  those  attacked  by  this 
disease  was  one  Guerin,  the  son  of  a 
wealthy  nobleman  by  the  name  of  Gaston, 
who  had  also  been  stricken  by  it.  Both 
had  recourse  to  St.  Anthony,  the  Hermit, 
and  obtained  their  recovery.  Out  of  grati- 
tude for  this  blessing,  the  two  made  a 
pilgrimage  to  Didier-la-Mothe,  where  the 
saint  was  particularly  venerated,  and  there 
consecrated  their  entire  fortune  to  the 
foundation  of  an  order  whose  work  was  to 
consist  in  serving  and  caring  for  those 
who  were  stricken  with  that  and  similar 
maladies.  They  were  approved  in  1096 
by  Pope  Urban  II.,  after  which  they  took 
the  name  of  Anthonists,  or  Hospitalers. 
The  order,  which  was  at  first  entirely  of 
laymen,  but  subsequently,  by  permission 
of  Boniface  VIII.,  included  canons,  ob- 
served the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine,  under 
the  direction  of  a  superior  called  a  Master 
{mag-ister). 

Anthony  (St.). — Founder  of  Monasti- 
cism.  Born  in  Egypt,  of  rich  and  virtuous 
parents,  in  251,  he,  after  dividing  all  his 
possessions  among  the  poor,  retired  into 
the  desert,  where  he  lived,  for  twenty 
years,  the  life  of  a  hermit.  The  fame  of 
his  miracles,  and  still  more  the  power 
of  his  words  and  example,  drew  about  him 
many  followers,  who,  under  his  guidance, 
desired  to  devote  themselves  to  this  new 
life.  He  became  the  director  of  a  number 
of  anchorites  who  dwelt  in  detached  cells, 
forming  a  community  called  a  "Laura." 
This  venerable  patriarch  of  the  Cenobites, 
died  in  356,  at  the  age  of  one  hundred  and 
five.  There  are  extant,  seven  authentic 
letters  and  an  "Exhortation  to  the  Monks" 
by  St.  Anthony.  His  life  was  written  by 
St.  Athanasius.     F.  Jan.  17th. 

Anthony  of  Padua  (St.).— Born  at  Lis- 
bon, in  1195;  died  at  Padua,  in  1231. 
Entered  the  order  of  St.  Francis,  who  was 
still  alive,  and  who  gave  him  the  mission 
to  preach.  He  preached  with  wonderful 
success  in  Italy,  France,  and  Spain.  "His 
sermons,"    says    his    biographer,    "  were 


flames,  impossible  to  withstand,  which 
aroused  numbers  of  sinners  and  criminals 
to  penance."  He  died  at  the  age  of  only 
thirty-six.    F.  June  13th. 

Anthropomorphism.  —  In  theology,  the 
conception  or  representation  of  God  with 
human  qualities  and  affections,  or  in  a 
human  shape.  Anthropomorphism  is 
founded  in  man's  inability  to  conceive 
beings  above  himself  otherwise  than  in 
his  own  likeness.  It  determines  the  growth 
and  form  of  all  human  religions,  from  the 
lowest  up  to  the  highest :  as  where  the 
Scriptures  speak  of  the  eye,  the  ear,  and 
the  hand  of  God,  of  His  seeing  and  hear- 
ing, of  His  remembering  and  forgetting,  of 
His  making  man  to  His  own  image,  etc. 

Anthropophagy. —  The  habit  of  eating 
human  flesh.  This  horrible  and  repulsive 
habit  may  be  traced  to  many  tribes  and 
peoples  of  the  Old  and  New  World,  though 
it  does  not  appear,  however,  that  the  cus- 
tom was  general  or  practiced  at  all  among 
the  primitive  races,  as  we  learn  from  the 
attentive  study  of  the  bones  which  have 
been  preserved  from  remote  times,  and 
which  G.  de  Mortillet  seems  to  have  es- 
tablished. Everything  goes  to  prove  that 
primitive  man  was  a  vegetarian ;  the  or- 
ganization and  the  form  of  his  teeth,  the 
length  and  structure  of  the  digestive  tube, 
are,  indeed,  more  in  his  favor  as  a  vegeta- 
rian than  as  a  carnivore.  This  is  also  cor- 
roborated by  the  fact  that  the  taste  for 
flesh  meat  is  rather  acquired  than  natural, 
and  in  general  man  shows  repugnance  to 
raw  food  and  will  relish  it  when  cooked. 

The  depraved  taste  for  human  flesh  is 
due  to  several  causes,  the  principal  one  is 
the  want  of  religious  ideas  and  a  gross 
conception  of  the  same.  Man,  after  hav- 
ing become  accustomed  to  slay  animals 
and  use  them  for  food,  finds  himself  at 
certain  times  without  game  or  other  sub- 
stitute, and  none  immediately  in  prospect, 
may  hunger  for  human  flesh  and  become 
a  cannibal.  In  tales  of  shipwreck  and 
destitution,  even  in  modern  times,  the  sad 
spectacle  is  presented  of  hunger  forcing  one 
person  to  eat  another.  On  the  other  hand, 
we  find  most  of  the  heathen  forms  of  wor- 
ship agreeable  to  the  deities  by  sacrifices 
of  animals,  and,  in  grave  circumstances,  of 
human  victims,  which  they  ate,  as  it  was 
the  custom  for  the  ordinary  victims.  They 
usually  selected  enemies  and  those  cap- 
tured in  battle  for  sacrifices,  and  from  this 
idea  grew  the  general  immolation  of  the 


Antichrist 


42 


Antimensium 


conquered  for  the  occasion  of  feasts  and 
special  gratification  of  the  deities. 

Whatever  may  have  been  the  origin  of 
cannibalism,  it  has  been  in  practice  with 
most  of  the  people  in  a  savage  state,  and 
in  some  instances  with  people  already 
civilized,  but  in  the  latter  case,  it  is  true, 
only  so  far  as  isolated  facts  show.  Every 
student  of  ancient  history  remembers  the 
account  of  Josephus  concerning  the  Jewish 
woman  who,  during  the  memorable  siege 
of  Jerusalem  by  Titus,  cooked  and  ate  her 
own  child.  In  France,  in  the  year  1030, 
during  a  terrible  famine,  some  of  those  in 
want  took  to  hunting  men  to  appease  their 
hunger,  and  even  human  flesh  was  for  sale 
at  Tournay.  In  1590,  during  the  siege  of 
Paris  by  Henry  IV.,  a  rich  lady,  if  we 
may  credit  the  story  of  Peter  de  I'Estoile, 
salted  and  ate  her  two  children  who  died 
of  hunger.  Numerous  cases  of  shipwreck 
go  to  prove  the  old  adage  that  hunger  will 
break  through  stone  walls,  and  that  civi- 
lized people  will  sometimes,  when  pressed 
by  hunger,  and  no  other  alternative  before 
them,  devour  their  companions. 

The  facts  of  anthropophagy  do  not  refer 
strictly  to  victims  intentionally  strangled 
for  nourishment  of  others.  There  are 
people  who  have  at  times  devoured  the 
corpses  of  individuals  who  died  a  natural 
death,  and  to  bury  within  one's  self,  as  it 
were,  the  bodies  of  old  parents,  is  looked 
upon  as  something  praiseworthy.  The  mor- 
bid desire  to  eat  corpses  goes  sometimes  so 
far  with  some  of  the  native  races  of  Austra- 
lia, that,  as  we  are  assured  by  Mgr.  Sal- 
vado,  who  resided  many  years  among  the 
Australians,  they  unearth  the  bodies  and 
use  them  for  nourishment.  Certain  facts 
could  be  brought  forward  of  isolated  cases 
of  a  similar  kind  which  have  taken  place 
in  civilized  countries,  but  as  a  rule,  these 
could  be  traced  to  a  morbid  taste  for  human 
flesh,  the  consequence  of  aberration  of 
mind. 

Among  the  people  most  addicted  to 
cannibalism,  we  will  mention  the  New 
Caledonians,  who  regard  human  flesh  as 
the  greatest  of  delicacies,  and  were  continu- 
ally at  war  to  procure  a  supply.  In  1868, 
the  fact  became  known  that  a  tribe  of 
Basuto-CafTres  lived  mostly  by  hunting 
men  for  food.  The  Fans  of  Africa  buy 
from  their  neighbors  those  who  die  from 
disease,  and  the  Niam-Niam  treat  them- 
selves to  the  flesh  of  their  prisoners  and 
at  times  those  who  are  useless  and  indigent 
among  their  own  people.     The  New  Zea- 


landers  and  Noukahivians  have  practiced 
cannibalism  to  a  great  extent.  In  America 
the  practice  had  been  spread  among  the 
Moxos;  the  Guaranis  fattened  their  pris- 
oners in  cages  before  eating  them,  and 
the  Mexicans  made  human  flesh  an  article 
of  commerce.  In  Asia,  the  accounts  of 
cannibalism  are  far  from  being  rare.  The 
Battas  of  Sumatra,  through  filial  love,  it  is 
said,  eat  their  aged  parents,  and  the  crimi- 
nals through  a  desire  to  satisfy  vengeance. 
Ancient  historians  attest  the  presence  of 
cannibalism  in  parts  of  Europe  at  an  early 
day.  St.  Jerome  tells  of  having  seen  in 
Gaul,  Scotchmen  addicted  to  this  habit. 

Thus  it  is  seen  that  the  causes  which 
have  led  to  the  eating  of  human  flesh  are 
many ;  notably,  pressing  hunger,  religious 
ideas,  captured  enemies  of  battle,  respect 
for  aged  parents,  and  finally  an  aberration 
of  mind  approaching  the  bestial  state. 

Antichrist.  —  It  is  the  belief  of  the 
whole  Church,  that  before  our  Lord  comes 
again,  a  real  individual  being  will  appear  in 
the  world,  who  will  become  an  evil  power, 
persecute  the  Church,  and  lead  many  into 
apostasy.  The  general  notion  of  anti- 
christ, as  a  power  opposing  itself  to  the 
reign  of  the  Messias,  may  be  traced  back 
be^'ond  the  Christian  era.  Its  origin  is, 
perhaps,  to  be  found  in  the  prophecy  of 
Ezechiel,  concerning  the  doom  of  Gog 
and  Magog.  The  ancient  Jews  conceived, 
that  immediately  before  the  Messias's' 
reign,  national  adversity  must  be  experi- 
enced in  an  extreme  degree,  and  that  an 
angel  of  Satan  would  appear,  who  must  be 
overcome  before  prosperity  could  be  re- 
stored. This  was  antichrist.  The  idea  is 
adopted  in  the  New  Testament,  although 
the  term  antichrist  occurs  in  no  place  of 
Scripture,  except  in  the  First  and  Second 
Epistles  of  St.  John. 

Antidicomarianites. —  Name  given  about 
the  end  of  the  fourth  century  to  the  adver- 
saries of  the  divine  maternity  and  of  the 
perpetual  virginity  of  Mary.  They  include 
in  their  number  the  following:  Helvidius, 
Jovinian,  Bonosus,  and  Paul  of  Samosata. 
At  all  times  they  were  looked  upon  as 
heretics. 

Antidoron. — Name  given  by  the  Greeks 
to  blessed  bread  which  they  distribute  to 
those  who  do  not  communicate. 

Antimensium  is  in  the  Greek  Church  a 
silk  cloth  blessed  by  the  bishop  for  use 
where    there   is   no   altar,   corresponding. 


Antinomians 


43 


Antipas 


therefore,    to    the    portable    altar    of    the 
Latin  Church. 

Antinomians.  —  Sectarians  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  who  pretended  to  reject 
all  moral  law  through  motives  founded 
apparently  on  Christian  truths.  They 
made  use,  for  the  first  time,  of  this  name, 
in  the  discussion  of  Luther  against  John 
Agricolaof  Eisleben  (died  1566).  The  latter 
passes  for  the  chief  of  the  sect.  He  taught 
that  the  law,  whatever  it  might  be,  has 
no  share  in  justification,  for  the  Holy 
Ghost  is  given  without  it;  that  the  law 
has  no  longer  any  sense  for  the  just,  nor 
for  those  who  desire  to  become  just.  It 
was  a  simple  consequence  of  Luther's 
doctrine;  however,  the  latter  tried  to  de- 
fend himself  and  wrote  against  Agricola. 

Antioch. — Name  of  two  cities  mentioned 
in  the  New  Testament.  The  first  in  im- 
portance is  situated  on  the  river  Orontes, 
and  was  the  metropolis  of  all  Syria.  It  was 
founded  by  Seleucus  Nicanor  and  named 
after  his  father  Antiochus.  It  was  a  noted 
city  at  an  early  day.  Cicero  says  it  was 
opulent  and  abounding  in  men  of  taste 
and  letters,  hence  it  became  a  great  resort 
for  the  Jews  and  afterwards  for  the  Chris- 
tians, as  encouragements  and  invitations 
were  held  out  by  Seleucus  Nicanor  to 
worthy  settlers.  The  distinctive  name 
Christian  was  first  applied  to  the  fol- 
lowers of  Christ  at  Antioch  (Acts  xi.  19- 
26;  xiii.  i;  Gal.  ii.  2).  It  is  now  called 
Antaliieh.  Ten  Church  councils  were 
held  in  this  city  from  252  to  380;  in  the 
sixth  century,  it  became  the  seat  of  a 
patriarchate,  which  extended  over  Syria, 
Mesopotamia  and  Cilicia. 

The  other  city  was  named  Antioch  of 
Pisidta,  because  it  was  attached  to  that 
province  although  situated  in  Phrygia. 
It  was  also  founded  by  Seleucus  Nicanor 
(Acts  xiii.  14;  xiv.  19-21 ;  II.  Tim.  iii.  11). 

Antiochus. —  The  name  of  twelve  kings 
of  Syria,  of  whom  several  have  connection 
with  the  Old  Testament.  Antiochus  IT. 
(261-246  B.  c.) — He  is  supposed  to  be  the 
king  of  the  North  whom  Daniel  mentions 
(xi.  6)  as  forming  a  marriage  connection 
with  the  king  of  the  South  (Egypt).  An- 
tiochus TIT.,  the  Great  (224-187). —  After 
being  defeated  at  first  (Dan.  xi.  11),  he 
conquered  Palestine  and  the  adjacent  coun- 
tries, but  afterwards  advancing  into  Europe 
was  defeated  by  the  Romans,  and  obtained 
peace  only  on  hard  terms  (Dan.  xi.   18). 


After  his  death,  which  soon  followed,  he  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother,  Antiochus  IV., 
Epiphanes  {illustrious)  (176-164),  a  man  of 
overweening  pride  (Dan.  xi.  36),  who  en- 
gaged in  an  insane  attempt  to  supplant 
Jewish  institutions  and  usages  by  Hellenic 
arts  and  culture,  and  was  guilty  of  the  most 
cruel  tyranny  and  the  foulest  sacrilege.  At 
first  he  succeeded,  and  set  up  the  abomina- 
tion that  maketh  desolate  in  the  temple 
(Dan.  xi.  31),  but  in  the  end  he  roused  the 
Jews  to  a  successful  insurrection  under 
Mattathias,  Judas  Machabeus,  and  the 
other  members  of  that  heroic  family.  The 
nation  achieved  its  independence,  and 
retained  it  until,  with  the  rest  of  Western 
Europe,  it  became  subject  to  Rome.  The 
prominence  given  to  Antiochus  Epiphanes 
in  Daniel  is  due  to  the  fact  that  his  attempt 
was  the  turning  point  in  Jewish  history, 
deciding  whether  Greek  worldly  refine- 
ments were  to  stifle  Israel's  true  faith. 
Persecution  was  God's  method  of  saving 
His  people  from  seductions  which  had 
well-nigh  made  them  compromise  their 
witness  of  His  truth. 

Antiochus. —  Monk  of  St,  Sabas,  in  Pal- 
estine. At  the  request  of  Eustathius,  Abbot 
of  the  monastery  Attalina  near  Ancyra,  he 
composed  in  Greek  an  abridgment  of 
Holy  Scripture,  entitled  :  PandectcE  divince 
Scriptures,  in  130  moral  discourses  which 
contain  precepts  and  maxims  on  the  prin- 
cipal duties  of  a  Christian,  founded  upon 
various  passages  of  Scripture  and  ancient 
Doctors  of  the  Church ;  it  is,  so  to  speak, 
a  code  of  moral  theology.  The  work  com- 
mences with  an  account  of  the  martyrdom 
of  44  religious  of  St.  Sabas,  put  to  death 
by  the  Arabs  in  the  time  of  the  taking  of 
Jerusalem  by  the  Persians  (614).  The 
PandectcB  have  been  published  by  Timan- 
nus  (Paris,  1543),  and  inserted  since  into  all 
the  Libraries  of  the  Fathers. 

Antipaedo-Baptists. —  A  term  designat- 
ing one  who  objects  to  infant  baptism. 
In  this  sense,  the  term  has  been  sometimes 
applied  to  the  sect  known  as  Baptists, 
in  this  country  and  elsewhere. 

Antipas  (St.) — Suffered  martyrdom  at 
Pergamum,  of  which  city  he  was  bishop, 
under  the  reign  of  Domitian.  He  had 
been  one  of  the  first  disciples  of  the  Sav- 
iour. He  was  burned  alive,  and  in  the 
Apocalypse  he  is  called  the  faithful  wit- 
ness of  Jesus  Christ  (xi.  13),  F.  April 
nth. 


Antipatris 


44 


Antitrinitarian 


Antipatris. —  The  name  of  a  city  of  Pal- 
estine, situated  about  three  miles  distant 
from  the  coast,  in  a  fertile  and  well  watered 
plain  between  Caesarea  and  Jerusalem,  on 
the  site  of  a  former  city,  Cafar-Saba.  It 
was  founded  by  Herod  the  Great,  and 
called  Antipatris,  in  honor  of  his  father 
Antipater  (Acts  xxiii.  31). 

Antiphon. — An  alternate  chant,  sung  in 
the  Church  at  vespers  and  on  feast  days. 
I.  In  the  Liturgy  of  both  the  Eastern  and 
Western  Churches,  as  well  as  in  the  daily- 
hours  and  other  Offices,  a  series  of  verses 
from  the  Psalms  or  other  parts  of  Scrip- 
ture, either  in  their  original  sequence  or 
combined  from  various  passages,  are  sung 
as  a  prelude  or  conclusion  to  some  part  of 
the  service.  It  is  sometimes  especially 
applicable  to  the  verse  sung  before  or  after 
the  Psalms  of  the  office,  the  tones  of  which 
are  determined  by  the  musical  mode,  ac- 
cording to  the  Gregorian  Chant  of  their 
respective  antiphons.  — 2.  A  kind  of  hymn 
in  honor  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  which 
is  sung  at  the  end  of  the  Compline :  the  A  Ima 
Redemptoris  Mater  is  the  antiphon  from 
Advent  to  Purification;  the  Ave  Regina 
is  sung  after  Purification  and  during  Lent ; 
the  Regina  Coeli  during  the  Paschal 
time,  and  the  Salva  Regina  from  Trinity 
Sunday-  until  the  time  of  Advent. 

Antiphonarium. —  Book  of  the  Church 
which  contains  the  anthems  of  the  Breviary, 
with  the  notes  of  Plain  Chant,  according  to 
which  they  should  be  sung ;  the  verses  and 
hymns  are  added  thereto.  The  most  an- 
cient Antiphonarium  known  is  that  of  Pope 
Gregory  the  Great.  At  the  time  of  John 
the  Deacon,  called  Abbe  Fleury,  300  years 
after  St.  Gregory,  it  was  yet  preserved  in 
St.  John  Lateran,  but  the  original  was  de- 
stroyed by  fire. 

Antipope. —  A  pontiflF  elected  in  opposi- 
tion to  one  canonically  chosen ;  one  who 
pretends  to  assume  the  Pontificate  to  the 
prejudice  of  the  Pope  legitimately  elected, 
and  who  causes  by  this  pretension  a 
schism  in  the  Church.  The  following  is 
the  list  of  Antipopes:  Novatian,  251; 
Felix,  356;  Ursicinus,  356;  Eulalius,  418; 
Laurentius,  498 ;  Dioscorus,  530 ;  Vigilius, 
537;  Paschal,  687;  Theodorus,  687; 
Theophylactus,  757;  Constantin,  767; 
Zizimus,  824;  Anastasius,  855;  Sergius, 
891;  Christophorus,  904;  Franco  or 
Bonifacius  VII.,  973 ;  Philagathus  or  John 
XVI.,  997;  Gregory,  1012;  John  or  Syl- 
vester III.,  1044;  John,  Bishop  of  Velletri, 


or  Benedict,  1058;  Cadalons  or  Honorius 
II.,  1061 ;  Guibert  or  Clement  III.,  1080; 
Albert,  Theodoric,  and  Maginulf,  iioo; 
Maurice  Bourdin  or  Gregory  VIII.,  1118; 
Peter  of  Leon  or  Anaclet,  1130;  Gregory 
or  Victor,  1138;  Octavian  or  Victor  III., 
1 159;  Guy  of  Cremoa  or  Paschal  III.,  1164; 
John,  Abbot  of  Strume,  or  Calixtus  III., 
1 168 ;  Lando  Sitinos  or  Innocent  III.,  1 178 ; 
Peter  of  Corbieres,  1328;  Gilles  Munias  or 
Clement  VIII.,  1424;  Amedeus  of  Savoy 
or  Felix  V.,  1439. 

The  power  which  the  rulers  of  Europe 
exercised  in  the  temporal  affairs  of  the 
Church,  together  with  appointments  en- 
trusted to  their  judgment  and  interest, 
were  very  often  used  to  further  their  am- 
bition and  influence,  or  to  resent  some 
real  or  fancied  reprimand  from  the  Pontiff 
or  prelate  in  whose  kingdom  or  principal- 
ity he  exercised  spiritual  authority.  Sev- 
eral emperors  of  Germany  set  up  Popes 
against  those  who  were  legitimately 
elected.  After  the  death  of  Honorius 
III.  France  began  to  intermeddle  in  the 
strifes.  Sicily  and  Savoy  followed  with 
rival  Popes.  The  Council  of  Constance 
in  1415,  after  nearly  three  years  of  patient 
labor  and  mature  deliberation  to  compel 
the  three  claimants  to  resign,  disposed  of 
the  three  rival  claimants,  and  proceeded 
to  the  election  of  a  new  and  undoubted 
Pope.  On  the  nth  of  November,  141 7, 
the  choice  fell  upon  a  noble  Roman,  Otto 
di  Colonna,  who  took  the  name  of  Martin 
V.  The  schism  was  at  an  end  ;  — both  the 
Church  and  the  Papacy  came  out  much 
stronger  than  they  went  into  it. 

Antisabbatarian. —  One  who  denies  the 
perpetual  obligation  of  observing  the 
Sabbath  (Sunday),  and  maintaining  that 
it  was  a  part  of  the  ceremonial,  not  of 
the  moral  law,  and  abolished  by  Christ. 
Hence,  the  word  is  applied  to  those  who 
oppose  strict  observance  of  the  Sabbath. 

Antitactes. —  A  sect  of  Gnostics  who 
appeared  in  the  second  century,  and  re- 
garded God  as  the  involuntary  author  of 
evil,  though  in  Himself  He  was  good  and 
holy,  but  had  delivered  the  world  to  an 
evil  genius  that  deceived  men,  and  repre- 
sented to  them  as  good  what  was  evil,  and 
everything  to  the  contrary.  Hence,  in 
order  to  do  good,  one  must  do  the  contrary 
of  that  which  is  prescribed  by  the  law. 

Antitrinitarian.— One  who  denies  the 
dogma  of  the  Trinity.  Theologians  gen- 
erally agree  that  the  Samosatians,  who  do 


Antitype 


45 


Apocalypse 


not  admit  the  distinction  between  the  Di- 
vine Persons,  the  Arians,  who  deny  the 
divinity  of  Christ,  the  Macedonians,  who 
contest  that  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  the 
Socinians  or  modern  Unitarians,  who  ob- 
ject to  the  Trinity  on  theological  grounds, 
and  the  Mohammedans,  who  are  charac- 
terized by  the  intensity  of  their  monothe- 
ism, are  antitrinitarians  in  the  general 
sense  of  the  term. 

Antitype  (Gr.  Anti,  instead  of  ttifos 
figure).  —  Literally  signifying  a  type  or 
figure.  In  its  theological  sense  it  denotes 
that  which  is  pre-figured  or  represented 
by  a  type,  the  person  in  whom  any  pro- 
phetic type  is  fulfilled ;  thus,  the  paschal 
lamb  is  called  the  antitype  of  Christ; 
the  offering  of  bread  and  wine  by  Mel- 
chisedech  was  an  antitype  of  the  sacrifice 
of  the  Mass. 

Antoninus  (St.). — 1389-1459.  Born  at 
Florence;  Dominican,  and  then  Arch- 
bishop of  Florence;  distinguished  himself 
by  his  piety  and  learning.  Has  left: 
Siimma  confessionalis;  Stimma  tlieologtca, 
great  compilation  of  moral  extracts  from 
the  works  of  the  Fathers,  scholastics,  and 
councils ;  Summa  historialis,  the  greatest 
chronicle  of  the  Middle  Ages,  rich  in 
notices  on  Church  history,  commencing 
with  the  creation  of  the  world  and  ending 
with  the  last  year  of  the  saint's  life.  Best 
edition  of  his  complete  works  is  that  by 
Mamachi  and  Remedelli,  Florence. 

Aod. — Son  of  Gera,  of  the  tribe  of  Ben- 
jamin, was  judge  of  Israel  after  Othoniel 
and  before  Samgar.  Charged  to  bring 
Eglon,  king  of  Moab,  the  tribute  which 
the  Israelites  had  paid  him  for  eighteen 
years,  he  profited  by  this  occasion  to  free 
his  country.  He  feigned,  therefore,  to 
have  a  secret  to  communicate  to  the 
king,  and  when  they  were  alone  he  mur- 
dered him.  Before  the  guards  of  Eglon 
could  learn  of  the  death  of  their  master, 
Aod  had  time  to  assemble  an  army  with 
which  he  occupied  the  passes  by  which 
the  Moabites  could  fly  to  their  country. 
Ten  thousand  were  killed,  1496  b.  c.  The 
Bible  adds  that  this  victory  procured 
eighty  years  of  peace  to  God's  people. 
Aod  was  chosen  Judge  by  his  grateful  com- 
patriots. We  do  not  know  the  date  of  his 
death. 

Apelles. —  A  Gnostic  of  the  second  cen- 
tury, the  most  famous  disciple  of  Marcion ; 
spread  his  errors  about  the  year  145  b.  c. 


Apelles. — A  Roman  Christian,  to  whom 
St.  Paul  sends  greetings  as  virum  frobum 
in  Christo  (Rom.  xvi.  10).  He  became 
Bishop  of  Smyrna  and  died  by  martyrdom. 

Aphec. —  1.  City  of  the  tribe  of  Aser, 
undoubtedly  the  same  as  Aphaca  spoken 
of  by  Eusebius  and  Sozomenus,  situated 
near  the  Libanon,  famous  for  having  a 
temple  of  Venus ;  known,  to-day,  under 
the  name  of  Afka. —  2.  Royal  city  of  the 
Chanaanites,  whose  king  was  killed  by 
Josue;  situated  south  of  Jerusalem,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Hebron. —  3.  City  situ- 
ated east  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  where  the 
Syrian  Benadad  lost  a  battle  against  the 
Israelites,  and  where  there  is  still  a  place 
called  Pheik. — 4.  City  of  the  tribe  of 
Isachar,  in  the  neighborhood  of  which 
Saul  lost  against  the  Philistines  a  last 
battle,  and  his  life. —  5.  City  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Eben-Ezer,  where,  in  Samuel's 
time,  the  Philistines  came  to  camp  in  face 
of  the  Israelites,  south  of  Palestine,  be- 
tween Masphat  and  Sen. 

Aphraates  (James). —  Syrian  writer  of 
the  fourth  century.  We  have  from  him  23 
treatises  or  homilies  about  questions  on 
dogma  and  morals. 

Aphthartodocetae. — A  Monophysite  sect, 
which  existed  from  the  sixth  to  the  ninth 
centuries,  or  later.  They  taught  that  the 
body  of  Christ  was  incorruptible  even 
before  the  resurrection,  and  that  He  suf- 
fered death  only  in  a  phantasmal  appear- 
ance. From  this,  they  are  sometimes 
called  Phantasiasts,  a  name  more  properly 
belonging  to  the  Docetce,  who  denied  even 
the  reality  of  Christ's  body. 

Apis.  —  The  bull  worshiped  by  the 
ancient  Egyptians,  who  regarded  it  as  a 
symbol  of  Osiris,  the  god  of  the  Nile,  the 
husband  of  Isis,  and  the  great  divinity  of 
Egypt. 

Apocalypse. —  A  Canonical  book  which 
contains  the  revelations  of  St.  John  the 
Evangelist,  while  on  the  Island  of  Pat- 
mos.  The  Apocalypse  treats  of  the  pro- 
gressive development  of  the  Kingdom  of 
the  Messias  upon  earth,  its  victory  over 
its  two  enemies,  Judaism  and  Paganism, 
and  of  its  transformation  into  the  eternal 
Kingdom  of  heaven,  after  the  second  com- 
ing of  Christ  at  the  end  of  time.  The  in- 
structions contained  in  this  book,  on  all 
these  points,  are  not  given  to  us  in  the  or- 
dinary prophetic    style,    which   describes 


Apocalypse  of  Moses 


46 


Apocrypha 


future  events  almost  under  the  form  of  a 
simple  narrative,  often  without  any  figura- 
tive expression,  but  in  a  series  of  symbolic 
visions,  which  interlink  themselves  with 
the  greatest  art,  by  wonderful  transitions, 
and  oflfer  a  complete  and  perfect  tableau  of 
the  ordeals  of  God's  Church  upon  earth, 
from  her  first  combats  to  her  final  triumph. 
After  the  exposition  of  the  subject  in  a 
vision,  which  serves  as  a  preamble,  the 
book  divides  itself  into  two  chief  parts, 
the  first  of  which  comprises  information 
about  the  state  of  the  seven  Churches  of  Asia 
Minor,  figure  of  the  entire  Church  (Apoc. 
ii. — iii.) ;  the  second  about  what  is  to  come, 
that  is,  a  prophecy  concerning  the  com- 
bats of  the  Church  and  her  victories  over 
her  enemies  (Apoc.  iv. —  xxii.).  In  this 
prophecy  the  first  representation  is  the 
combat  of  the  Kingdom  of  Jesus  against 
Judaism,  and  the  defeat  of  the  latter. 
A  series  of  symbolic  visions  make  known 
and  describe  the  swift  chastisement  which 
will,  by  and  by,  fall  upon  the  country,  upon 
the  city,  and  upon  the  Temple  to  its  total 
ruin  (Apoc.  iv. —  xii.). 

After  the  victory  over  Judaism,  the 
prophecy  passes  to  the  triumph  which  the 
Church  will  achieve  over  Paganism,  though 
an  unequal  contest  in  the  beginning;  dis- 
playing greater  hatred  and  rage  since  the 
fall  of  Jerusalem.  Paganism — with  power 
and  opulence,  commanding  the  world's 
conquering  armies  —  tries,  by  every  device 
to  annihilate  the  small  body  of  Christians. 
Heaven  declares  in  favor  of  the  Christian 
army  —  the  army  of  saints  and  martyrs  — 
and  in  a  series  of  symbolic  visions  the 
destruction  of  the  Roman  Empire  is 
pointed  out  and  that  of  Rome,  its  capital  — 
designated  under  the  name  Babylon,  the 
great  prostitute,  seated  upon  the  seven 
hills  —  is  shown  to  be  on  the  point  of  f  ulfill- 
ing  itself  (xiii. — xix.) ;  an  event  after  which 
Christianity  reigns  for  a  long  time  (a 
thousand  years)  the  Empire  of  the  world 
(xx.  1-6).  Satan  having  lost  power, 
during  this  long  period,  to  seduce  man, 
as  in  the  days  of  Paganism,  receives 
fresh  power,  about  the  end  of  time,  and 
renews  his  combat.  The  enemies  of  the 
Christian  religion  make  every  effort  to 
annihilate  the  faith  in  God,  and  in  His 
Christ,  but  in  vain.  Jesus  Christ  appears ; 
Satan  and  all  his  followers  are  cast  into  hell ; 
the  dead  arise ;  they  are  judged,  and  the 
Church,  that  was  earthly  until  now,  trans- 
forms herself  into  the  heavenly  Kingdom. 
Thus  is  the  end  which  this   sublime  and 


mysterious  book  has  revealed  to  us.  It 
has  been  proven  that  the  Apocalypse  was 
written  in  Greek. 

Apocalypse  of  Moses. —  An  apocryphal 
book,  under  this  name,  which  some  have 
confounded  with  the  small  Genesis.  It  is 
a  revelation  made  to  Moses  by  the  Arch- 
angel Michael,  when  the  tables  of  the 
law  were  given  to  him.  It  contains  the 
history  of  Adam  and  Eve  and  their  chil- 
dren. Tischendorf  places  its  composition 
about  the  time  of  our  Lord.  The  Assump- 
tion and  the  Ascension  of  Moses  is  of  the 
same  epoch,  and  can  be  regarded  as  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  Book  of  the  Jubilees.  It 
is  a  prophecy  about  Israel,  placed  in  the 
mouth  of  Moses  and  addressed  to  Josue. 

Apocalyptic  Number. —  The  mystical 
number,  666,  spoken  of  in  the  book  of 
Apocalypse  (xiii.  18).  As  early  as  the  sec- 
ond century,  the  Church  had  found  that 
the  name,  Antichrist,  was  indicated  by  the 
Greek  characters  expressive  of  this  num- 
ber; while  others  believed  it  to  express  a 
date.  The  most  probable  interpretation, 
and  the  one  that  has  been  most  generally 
accepted,  is  that  which  found  the  number 
in  the  word  Lateinos  {Latinus) — the  Ro- 
man nation,  the  mightiest  pagan  power  on 
earth.     See  Antichrist. 

Apocrisarius. —  A  title  formerly  given 
to  certain  ecclesiastical  agents  or  deputies; 
but  in  modern  times  it  has  been  changed 
to  that  of  nuncio  or  ablegate.  At  Con- 
stantinople and  other  European  courts, 
they  represented  the  Holy  See  and  the  in- 
terests of  the  Church. 

Apocrypha  or  Apocryphal  Writings. — 
This  word  is  now  employed  to  mean  a 
number  of  writings  which  were  sometimes 
considered  as  an  appendage  to  Holy  Scrip- 
ture, and  sometimes  as  a  portion  of  it, 
and  which  the  Church  does  not  receive  as 
Canonical.  The  Apocryphal  writings  of 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments  form  quite  a 
considerable  literature  for  the  Biblical 
scholar.  The  principal  works  are,  for  the 
Old  Testament:  —  The  3rd,  4th  and  5th 
book  of  Esdras;  the  book  of  Enoch,  the 
Small  Genesis;  the  Ascension  of  Isaias; 
the  Testament  of  the  twelve  Patriarchs; 
the  letter  of  Baruch  to  the  twelve  tribes 
of  Israel ;  the  3rd  book  of  the  Machabees ; 
the  eighteen  Psalms  of  Solomon,  etc.  For 
the  New  Testament :  —  The  Gospel  of  the 
Twelve  Apostles ;  the  Gospel  of  Cerinthus 
and  Carpocrates ;  the  Gospel  of  St  Peter ; 


Apodipne 


47 


Apollonius  of  Tyana 


the  Gospel  of  the  Four;  besides  numerous 
Epistles  and  Acts  and  apocryphal  Apoca- 
lypses. 

Apodipne. —  In  the  Greek  Church,  that 
part  of  the  divine  office  which  we  call 
Compline. 

Apokatastasis. —  In  theology,  accord- 
ing to  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  (iii.  3),  the 
word  signifies  the  re-establishment  of  all 
things,  through  the  work  of  Redemption, 
conformably  to  the  divine  promises.  To 
Origen  is  attributed  the  teaching  of  a 
more  radical  and  more  absolute  apokatast- 
asis, in  virtue  of  which  everything  that 
comes  from  God,  must  be  restored  to  its 
former  state.  This  would  imply  the  sup- 
pression of  the  eternal  hell,  so  clearly 
taught  in  the  Gospel.  This  error  was  re- 
vived in  the  ninth  century  by  John  Eri- 
gena,  and  in  the  sixteenth  by  Petersen. 

Apollinaris  (St.).— First  Bishop  of  Ra- 
venna and  the  only  one  of  this  Church 
who  suffered  martyrdom,  was,  it  is  be- 
lieved a  disciple  of  St.  Peter.  He  is  fa- 
mous in  Church  History,  although  the  acts 
of  his  life,  such  as  we  have  them,  are  not 
authentic.  His  panegyric  was  pronounced 
by  St.  Peter  Chrysologus,  one  of  his  suc- 
cessors. Hungary  claims  him  as  its  apos- 
tle. His  remains,  formerly  kept  at  Closse 
(ancient  sea  harbor  four  miles  from  Ra- 
venna), were  transferred  in  549  into  a  vault 
of  the  same  Church.  Pope  Honorius 
founded  a  Church  at  Rome  in  honor  of  St. 
Apollinaris  about  the  year  630.  We  read 
his  name  in  the  Martyrologies;  the  Ro- 
man Martyrology  commemorates  him  on 
July  23rd. 

Apollinaris  the  Apologist.— Bishop  of 
Hierapolis  in  Phrygia  about  the  year  160. 
He  addressed  to  the  Emperor  Marcus 
Aurelius  an  Apology  in  favor  of  the  Chris- 
tians. He  reminded  this  prince  of  the  mi- 
raculous rain  which  saved  his  army,  a  rain 
obtained  through  the  prayers  of  the  12th 
legion,  and  a  miracle  of  which  the  emperor 
himself  had  been  a  witness.  This  Apology 
is  lost.  According  to  Eusebius,  Apollin- 
aris also  wrote  five  books  against  the 
pagans,  two  on  truth,  two  against  the 
Jews,  and  one  against  Montanism.  All  of 
these  works  are  lost.  Fragments  thereof 
can  be  found  in  Routh's  Reliquice  Sacrce 
(vol.  i.),  and  in  Migne's  Greek  Patrology 
(vol.  v.). 

Apollinarists.— Heretics  of  the  fourth 
century.     Their  founder  was  Apollinaris, 


Bishop  of  Laodicea  in  Syria.  Adopting 
the  psychological  trichotomy  of  Plato, 
the  doctrine  affirming  three  component 
parts  of  man, —  spirit,  soul,  and  body  — 
he  maintained  that  Christ  had,  indeed,  a 
human  body  and  human  passions,  or  a 
sensitive  soul,  but  not  a  spirit,  or  rational 
soul.  This  was  supplied  in  Him  by  the 
Divine  Word ;  consequently,  Christ  had  no 
human  will,  which  would  mean  that  He 
was  not  impeccable.  The  Apollinarists 
denied  that  Christ  assumed  flesh  from  the 
Virgin  Mary;  His  body,  which  was  heav- 
enly and  divine,  as  they  maintained, 
merely  passed  through  her  virginal  womb. 
This  heresy  was  ably  refuted  by  St.  Athan- 
asius,  and  condemned  by  the  Synods  of 
Alexandria  in  362 ;  of  Rome  in  368,  under 
Pope  Damasus ;  and  lastly,  by  the  Second 
Ecumenical  Council  of  Constantinople  in 
381,  which  proclaimed  "  Christ  is  true  God 
and  true  Man."  After  the  death  of  Apol- 
linaris, which  occurred  about  393,  his  fol- 
lowers were  divided  into  two  parties  —  the 
Timotheans  and  Valentinians.  During 
the  fifth  century  they  were  absorbed  by 
the  Monophysites. 

Apollo. —  A  Jewish  Christian,  born  at 
Alexandria,  distinguished  for  his  eloquence 
and  success  in  propagating  the  Christian 
religion.  His  history  and  character  are 
given  in  Acts  xviii.  24,  etc. 

Apollonia. —  A  city  of  Macedonia,  situ- 
ated between  Amphipolis  and  Thessa- 
lonica,  about  a  day's  journey  from  the 
former  place.     (Acts  xvii.  i.) 

Apollonius. —  A  very  eloquent  Church 
writer  and  opponent  of  the  Montanists. 
He  lived  in  the  second  century.  He  is  the 
author  of  an  extensive  and  celebrated 
work  against  the  Montanists,  of  which  a 
few  passages  are  found  in  Eusebius. 

Apollonius  of  Tyana  {in  Cappadocia). — 
Was  born  about  the  time  of  the  birth  of 
Christ.  This  Apollonius,  a  Neo-Pythag- 
orean  philosopher,  may  be  called  the 
heathen  counterfeit  of  Christ,  just  as  the 
Neo-Platonic  system  was  the  caricature 
of  Christianity.  Origen  calls  him  both 
magician  and  philosopher,  and  Dion  Cas- 
sius  terms  him  a  skillful  wizard.  His 
biographer,  Flavius  Philostratus,  describes 
him  as  a  great  religious  and  moral  re- 
former, and  represents  him  as  a  god.  But 
the  work  of  Philostratus,  which  he  com- 
piled at  the  bidding  of  the  Empress 
Domna,  wife  of    Septimus    Severus,    and 


Apologetic 


48 


Apologetic 


from  the  materials  collected  by  her  and 
Damis,  a  disciple  of  Apollonius,  has  no 
claim  whatsoever  to  historic  truth.  This 
life  of  the  pretender  Apollonius,  furnishes 
many  striking  points  of  resemblance  to 
the  life  of  Christ,  and  the  design  of  its 
author  seems  to  have  been  to  give  to 
paganism  a  standard  bearer  and  repre- 
sentative in  the  same  manner  as  Christian- 
ity had  such  a  standard  bearer  and 
representative  in  Christ.  Carefully  ab- 
staining from  every  mention  of  Christ  or 
his  religion,  Philostratus  tacitly  imitates 
both ;  he  makes  his  hero  depart  from  the 
earth  in  a  miraculous  manner,  ascribes  to 
him  the  power  of  working  miracles,  and 
the  knowledge  of  not  only  absent  and 
secret,  but,  also,  of  future  things,  and  por- 
trays him  as  equal  to  Christ  in  wisdom, 
power,  and  the  practice  of  every  virtue. 
Thus  his  work  reveals  an  intense  inward 
antagonism  to  Christ  and  the  Christian 
Church. 

Apologetic. —  In  the  broadest  sense,  apol- 
ogetic is  the  science  which  teaches  us  how 
to  defend  or  justify  the  Catholic  religion, 
in  its  teaching  and  practices,  against  the 
attacks  of  infidelity,  heresy,  and  schism. 
Apologetic  furnishes  a  two-fold  demon- 
stration: I.  It  proves  the  divine  origin 
of  Christianity  in  general ;  this  is  what 
we  call  Christian  or  Evangelical  demon- 
stration. 2.  It  proves  that  true  Christian- 
ity finds  itself  entirely  and  exclusively  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church ;  this  is  what 
we  call  the  Catholic  Demonstration  or  Dis- 
sertation on  the  true  Church.  As  to  the 
particular  controversies  on  such  or  such  a 
point  of  dogma  or  moral,  ecclesiastical  law 
or  history,  apologetic  relegates  them  gen- 
erally to  theology  itself,  which  gives  the 
solution  thereof  in  proportion  to  its  ex- 
position of  the  dogma,  moral,  etc.  We 
can  see,  hereby,  that  apologetic  is  rather 
a  preamble  or  introduction  to  theology 
than  theology  itself.  Indeed,  it  has 
sometimes  rightly  been  given  the  title  of 
Religious  Philosophy.  The  History  of 
the  Religions,  much  in  vogue  for  some 
years  past,  is  nothing  more,  when  it  is 
written  in  a  Catholic  spirit,  than  an  apolo- 
getic work  referring  to  the  dissertation  of 
religion.  The  object  of  this  science  is 
to  successfully  make  partial  or  universal 
apologies  for  Uie  Catholic  religion.  Hereby 
we  understand  a  real  advocacy  and  plea  for 
the  truth,  whether  it  be  against  rationalism 
or  naturalism,  paganism  or  idolatry,  Juda- 


ism or  Mohammedanism.  Apologies  can 
be  traced  to  the  origin  of  Christianity 
itself;  each  assault  upon  it  stimulated  the 
production  of  new  refutations ;  and  the 
Church  often  profited  by  the  works  of  de- 
fense made  by  heretics  against  those  who 
denied  all  revelation,  or  openly  confessed 
themselves  opposed  to  Christianity.  The 
authors  of  these  pleas  of  sublime  power 
are  called  Apologists.  We  divide  them 
into  four  series  for  the  better  understand- 
ing of  the  lines  of  defense,  and  the 
character  of  the  adversaries  they  had  to 
combat. 

Among  the  most  illustrious  names  of 
those  that  fought  against  the  paganism  of 
the  ancients  and  irreligion  of  the  leaders 
of  the  people  are  the  following:  i.  St. 
Justin,  Athenagoras,  Tertullian,  St.  Cy- 
prian, Origen,  St.  Athanasius,  Lactantius, 
and  St.  Augustine,  whose  City  of  God 
is  the  masterpiece  of  primitive  apolo- 
getic. 2.  Those  who  arose  against  the 
Jews,  Mohammedans  and  Arabian  philos- 
ophers of  the  Middle  Ages :  St.  Isidore  of 
Seville,  Agobard  of  Lyons,  St.  Peter 
Damian,  St.  John  Damascene,  Raymond 
Martin,  and  especially  St.  Thomas  of 
Aquinas,  whose  incomparable  Summa 
against  the  Gentiles,  has  been,  and  is  now, 
an  indestructible  bulwark  of  Catholic 
truth  and  teaching.  3.  Those  who  battled 
against  the  leading  spirits  misled  by  the 
Renaissance,  Protestantism,  infidelity,  and 
philosophical  speculations:  Bellarmine, 
Stapleton,  Pascal  (who  unfortunately  was 
tainted  with  Jansenism),  the  great  Bos- 
suet,  the  learned  Feller,  Houteville,  the 
industrious  Bergier,  the  Cardinal  of 
Luzern,  and  Chateaubriand  by  his  Genius 
of  Christianity.  4.  Those  who  stood 
foremost  against  the  attacks  inspired  by 
inexact  interpretations  of  science  and  false 
ideas  of  modern  progress,  the  lecturers 
at  Notre  Dame,  Paris,  who  arose  "like 
walls  of  Israel" — Frayssinous,  Lacordaire, 
Ravignan,  Felix,  Monsabre.  Spain  up- 
holds the  truth  with  her  learned  Balmes 
and  Donoso  Cortes;  England  with  her 
Cardinals  Wiseman  and  Newman;  Italy 
comes  forward  with  Perone,  Nardi,  and 
the  celebrated  Manzoni ;  and  Germany 
stands  in  line  with  her  Doctors  Denzinger 
and  Hettinger,  the  latter  of  whom  in  his 
Apology  for  Christianity,  has  undoubt- 
edly, reared,  one  of  the  strongest  bulwarks 
against  the  attacks  of  infidelity.  The 
Catholic  Church  knows  that  she  will 
always  have  adversaries ;  and  she  knows, 


Apologist 


49 


Apostle 


too,  that  she  will  ever  have  fearless  and 
learned  champions  to  defend  her  cause 
and  lead  her  to  victory. 

Apologist. —  One  who  speaks  or  writes 
in  defense  of  anything;  but,  this  name  was 
originally  used  to  designate  a  defender  of 
Christian  doctrine  against  the  attacks  of 
pagans,  heretics,  schismatics,  etc.  In  this 
sense,  the  term  is  applied  to  the  writers  who 
have  lived  at  the  time  of  the  Fathers  of  the 
Church,  and  during  the  great  combats  be- 
tween paganism  and  Christianity,  whose 
special  work  entitles  them  to  a  distinct 
place  in  the  galaxy  of  Christian  defenders. 
The  principal  apologists  were  Quadratus 
and  Aristides  of  Athens,  who  addressed 
their  writings  to  the  Emperor  Hadrian ;  St. 
Justin,  Martyr ;  Meliton,  Bishop  of  Sardes ; 
Miltiades,  Christian  philosopher  of  Asia 
Minor;  Claudius  Apollinaris,  Bishop  of 
Hierapolis,  in  Phrygia;  Athenagoras, 
Athenian  philosopher;  TertuUian,  Theo- 
philus.  Bishop  of  Antioch;  Minutius  Felix, 
St.  Cyprian,  Tatian,  Hermias,  Origen, 
Apollonius  of  Tyre,  Apollinaris  the 
Younger,  Eusebius,  St.  Cyril  of  Alexan- 
dria,Clement  of  Alexandria,  Lactantius,  St. 
Athanasius,  Arnobius,  St.  Augustine,  and 
Paul  Orosus.  Otto  has  published  Corpus 
Afologetarum  Christianorum  Saeculi  Se- 
cundi  (Jena,  1847-1848,  5  vols,  in  Svo.) ; 
Freppel,  The  Christian  Afologists  (Paris, 
1866) ;  Mereaux,  Canon  of  Orleans,  has 
made  a  collection  of  the  principal  passages 
from  the  works  of  the  philosophers  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  in  favor  of  Christian- 
ity, under  the  title :  The  Involuntary 
Apologists. 

Apolyctic  Prayer. —  Prayer  recited  in 
the  Greek  Church  by  the  priest  at  the  end 

of  Mass. 

Apostate. —  Literally  this  word  desig- 
nates any  one  who  changes  his  religion, 
whatever  maybe  his  motive.  In  its  primi- 
tive sense,  the  word  Apostasy,  from  the 
Greek  apostasia  and  the  Latin  discessio,  is 
employed  in  the  Bible  to  express  the  repre- 
hensible act  of  one  who  had  abandoned  Ju- 
daism as  well  as  of  the  one  who  had 
renounced  the  Christian  faith.  In  early 
Christian  times,  the  word  was  applied  to 
those  who  abandoned  their  faith  in  order  to 
escape  from  persecution ;  but  it  was  also 
applied  to  such  as  rejected  Christianity  on 
speculative  grounds  (the  Emperor  Julian 
for  instance).  On  the  decline  of  paganism, 
those  who  had  made  profession  of  Chris- 

4 


tianity  and  were  baptized,  and  who  subse- 
quently assisted  at  heathen  festivals,  offered 
sacrifices  or  incense  to  the  Roman  gods  to 
gain  favor  or  avoid  persecution,  were 
deemed  apostates,  but  were  styled  variously 
Sacrificati,  Thurijicati,  etc.,  according  to 
the  modes  in  which  they  publicly  made 
known  their  return  to  heathenism.  The 
word  apostasy  now  expresses  the  formal 
and  declarative  abjuration  of  the  funda- 
mental principles  of  Christianity,  which 
in  itself  distinguishes  unbelief  from  heresy 
and  schism.  One  who  abjures  the  Chris- 
tian religion  for  Islamism  is  called  rene- 
gade; Catholicism  for  Protestantism,  per- 
vert ;  and  the  former  name  is  also  applied 
to  the  convert  who  returns  to  his  former 
religious  belief.  Entering  a  religious  order 
by  solemn  profession,  and  afterwards  lay- 
ing off  the  monastic  habit,  without  being 
authorized  by  legitimate  superiors,  is,  in 
canonical  language,  deemed  apostasy;  but 
passing  from  one  religious  order  into 
another  cannot  be  called  apostasy.  An 
ecclesiastic,  who  has  received  the  Major 
Orders,  and  who  afterwards  returns  to  the 
custom  and  mode  of  life  of  the  world, 
commits  apostasy,  an  action  of  ecclesias- 
tical infamy;  and  if  such  a  one  marries, 
he  is  excommunicated. 

Apostle.  —  One  ivho  is  sent,  but  es- 
pecially used  to  denote  the  twelve  per- 
sons whom  Jesus  had  chosen,  from  among 
His  disciples,  to  preach  the  Gospel  and 
govern  His  Church  after  Him.  The  ones 
sent  by  God,  in  the  Old  Testament,  were 
the  prophets;  in  the  New  Testament,  they 
are  the  twelve  men  whom  the  Saviour 
selected  to  announce  His  doctrine,  spread 
His  religion,  establish  His  Church,  and 
whom  the  Holy  Ghost  endowed  with  the 
necessary  gifts  for  this  end.  Their  names 
were  Simon  Peter  (always  named  first), 
Andrew  (his  brother),  James  (the  son  of 
Zebedee),  John  (his  brother),  Philip, 
Bartholomew,  Thomas,  Matthew  ( sur- 
named  Levi),  James  (the  son  of  Alphaeus), 
Thadeus,  Simon  (of  Cana),  and  Judas 
Iscariot.  Subsequently,  Matthias  was 
chosen  in  the  place  of  Judas;  and  at  a 
still  later  period,  the  number  of  the 
Apostles  was  further  increased  by  the  call- 
ing of  Paul  and  Barnabas  to  the  Apostle- 
ship.  The  Apostles  were  twice  com- 
missioned by  their  Master  to  go  forth  on 
their  work  of  evangelization.  First, 
during  the  third  year  of  His  public 
ministry.     On    this  occasion   their  labors 


Apostles'  Creed 


50  Apostles,  Doctrine  of  the 


were  to  be  restricted  to  the  Jews,  properly 
so  called.  The  second  time  was  shortly 
before  the  Lord's  Ascension,  when  their 
sphere  of  labor  was  indefinitely  extended 
to  all  the  nations  of  the  earth,  "Go,  and 
teach  all  nations,"  etc.  On  the  day  of 
Pentecost,  the  Apostles  received  miracu- 
lous gifts,  fitting  them  for  their  arduous 
work.  The  spirit  who  inspired  them 
already  spoke  in  them,  as  the  Saviour  Him- 
self testifies,  and  according  to  the  promise 
that  had  been  made  to  them.  They  re- 
ceived the  power  to  bind  and  to  loose ; 
the  power  to  perform  miracles,  drive 
out  demons,  heal  the  sick,  and  raise  the 
dead  to  life.  Not  only  did  the  Apostles 
under  their  visible  Chief,  Christ,  establish 
the  first  Church,  but  it  was  also  a  part 
of  their  special  mission  to  establish  His 
Church  throughout  the  world ;  and  they 
were  the  first  exponents  of  the  divine  prin- 
ciple which  founded  and  preserved  the 
Church.  It  was  this  that  Christ  wished 
they  should  be  for  the  entire  world,  in  His 
name  and  place,  what  they  had  been  for 
the  primitive  Church, — the  perpetual  medi- 
ators of  His  doctrine,  in  the  person  of  their 
successors.  If  the  principle  of  Christian 
knowledge  called  Tradition,  is  the  liv- 
ing conscience  of  the  Church,  and  if  the 
principle  of  this  conscience  is  the  living 
contemplation  of  the  Person  of  Christ,  this 
conscience  was  at  first  alive  in  the  Apostles 
and  always  transmits  itself  alive  to  their  suc- 
cessors. They  beheld  with  their  own  eyes 
the  glory  of  the  Lord,  as  one  among  them 
says  (I.  John  i.  14) :  "That  which  we  have 
seen  and  have  heard,  we  declare  unto  you 
that  you  always  may  have  fellowship  with 
us,  and  our  fellowship  may  be  with  the 
Father,  and  His  Son,  Jesus  Christ" 
(I.John  i.  2-4).  It  is  for  this  reason  that  we 
Christians  build  upon  the  foundation  of 
the  Apostles,  and  the  true  Christian  Church 
is  necessarily  the  Apostolic  Church. 

Apostles'  Creed.     See  Creed. 

Apostles,    Doctrine  of  the   Twelve    ( a 

work  of  the  apostolic  times). — The  author 
of  the  Doctrine  of  the  Txvelve  Apostles,  a. 
work  well  known  to  ancient  authors,  holds 
place  among  the  Christian  writers  of  the 
Apostolic  age.  Express  mention  is  made 
of  this  work  both  by  Greek  and  Latin  au- 
thors, such  as  Eusebius,  St.  Athanasius, 
St.  Jerome,  and  Rufinus.  Many  quota- 
tions, also,  from  the  Doctrine  of  the  Apos- 
tles are  to  be  found  in  the  second  part  of 
the  Epistle  of   Barnabas,  in  the  Pseudo- 


Clementine  Apostolic  Constitution  (book 
vii.)  and  very  clear  traces  of  the  work  are 
apparent  in  the  compositions  of  Justin, 
Tatian,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Theophilus 
of  Antioch,  Origen,  Irenaeus,  Lactantius, 
and  John  Climacus.  But  from  the  twelfth 
century  downwards  the  Didache  disap- 
peared, and  was  believed  to  be  utterly 
lost,  until  1873,  when  Philotheus  Bryen- 
nius,  at  that  time  Professor  and,  since 
1877,  Metropolitan  of  Nicomedia,  discov- 
ered in  a  monastic  library  at  Constanti- 
nople a  codex,  written  by  Leo  the  Notary 
in  the  j-ear  1056,  which  contained,  besides 
the  Epistle  of  Barnabas  and  two  Epistles  of 
St.  Clement  to  the  Corinthians  and  some 
other  writings,  the  Doctrine  of  the  Twelve 
Apostles. 

According  to  its  contents,  the  work  con- 
sists of  two  parts ;  the  first,  from  chapter 
i. —  vi.,  treats  of  the  two  ways  of  life  and 
death ;  that  is,  of  the  general  duties  of  a 
Christian  and  of  whatever  is  opposed  to 
them ;  and  from  chapter  vii. —  x.,  of  partic- 
ular duties,  especially  the  administration 
of  baptism,  fasting,  and  the  reception  of  the 
Holy  Eucharist.  The  second  part  gives 
instruction  for  the  admission  of  brethren, 
for  discerning  true  and  false  prophets,  for 
showing  hospitality  to  Christian  pilgrims 
and  strangers,  for  the  maintenance  of 
teachers  (apostles),  for  the  choice  of 
"bishops"  (priests)  and  deacons,  and  for 
fraternal  correction.  Chapter  x^'i.  closes 
with  an  admonition  to  watchfulness,  a  de- 
scription of  the  doings  of  the  antichrist, 
and  the  coming  of  our  Lord. 

Concerning  the  time  and  place  of  the 
origin  of  the  work,  opinions  differ  very 
considerably.  While  some  place  it  as  early 
as  between  50  and  70,  others  assign  it  to 
the  middle,  or  toward  the  end  of  the  sec- 
ond century.  The  majority,  however,  of  the 
learned  assume  the  last  quarter  of  the  first 
century  to  be  the  time  of  its  composition, 
on  the  ground  that  the  work  itself  con- 
tains nothing  which  would  point  to  a  later 
origin,  while  its  author  speaks  of  prophets 
and  apostles  in  a  way  that  was  possible 
only  for  a  writer  of  the  first  century.  On 
other  grounds,  also,  the  hypothesis  of  a 
later  period  is  untenable. 

In  spite  of  its  small  dimensions,  the 
work  possesses  great  merits.  It  is  written 
with  admirable  simplicity  of  style,  and  its 
subject-matter  is  of  the  highest  importance 
to  the  Catholic  theologian,  for  it  places  in 
his  hand  an  excellent  weapon  wherewith  to 
defend    the    traditional    doctrine    of    the 


Apostleship  of  Prayer 


51 


Apostolians 


Church  on  the  obligation  and  merit  of 
good  works,  the  necessity  of  baptism,  con- 
fession of  sins,  the  Holy  Eucharist,  both  as 
sacrament  and  sacrifice.  It  likewise  fur- 
nishes proof  of  the  lawfulness  of  baptism 
fer  infusionem,  the  duty  of  submission  to 
ecclesiastical  superiors,  as  well  as  of  the 
divine  institution,  authority,  and  visibility 
of  the  Church  herself. 

Apostleship  of  Prayer.  See  Confra- 
ternity. 

Apostolate  (  Catholic). — A  name  adopted 
by  an  ecclesiastical  congregation,  and  by 
certain  societies  of  piety,  founded  by 
Father  Vincent  Palotti,  a  priest  of  Rome, 
in  1835.  This  congregation  is  comprised 
of  communities  of  secular  priests  and  lay 
brothers  combined,  devoted  to  the  work  of 
giving  missions;  communities  of  religious 
women  occupied  with  the  instruction  and 
care  of  poor  girls ;  associations  of  pious 
laymen,  of  every  condition  and  state,  who 
by  alms  and  prayers  assist  in  aiding  this 
and  other  good  works. 

Apostolate  of  the  Press. — An  organiza- 
tion recently  established  in  New  York 
City,  through  the  instrumentality  of  the 
Paulist  Fathers,  with  the  approbation  of 
the  Archbishop  of  New  York,  for  co-oper- 
ation in  the  spread  of  printed  Truth. 
This  organization  is  made  up  of  men  and 
women  of  approved  Catholicity,  who  de- 
sire to  co-operate  with  the  clergy  in  the 
dissemination  of  printed  truth  regarding 
the  doctrines  of  the  Church,  and  the  atti- 
tude of  Catholic  citizens  toward  the  public 
schools  and  institutions  of  the  United 
States;  to  counteract  the  baneful  influence 
of  secret  and  organized  associations,  which 
flood  the  country  with  false  and  malicious 
literature  prejudicial  to  the  Church. 

Apostolians.  —  The  name  adopted  by 
three  different  sects,  who  fancied  that  they 
followed  the  customs  and  practices  of  the 
Apostles.  The  first  Apostolians,  also 
called  ApotactitcB,  arose  from  the  En- 
cratites  or  Catharists,  in  the  third  century. 
They  professed  to  abstain  from  marriage, 
wine,  flesh  meat,  etc.,  directed  in  this  by 
their  Gnostic  opinions  in  regard  to  the 
corruption  of  matter.  The  second  sect 
appeared  near  the  Lower  Rhine,  neighbor- 
hood of  Cologne,  and  also  at  Perigueiax, 
France,  in  the  twelfth  century.  Doubt- 
less, the  prevalence  of  Manichean  and 
Gnostic  opinions  of  former  centuries, 
mingled  with    sincere  aspirations    toward 


the  Apostolic  poverty  and  simplicity  had 
something  to  do  with  the  strange  and 
incongruous  beliefs  which  now  and  then 
sprung  up,  wherever  the  taint  of  heresy 
remained.  The  third  sect  of  the  so-called 
Apostolians  appeared  in  1261,  its  founder 
being  Gerard  of  Sagarelli,  of  Parma,  who 
was  supported  by  Fra  Dolcino  of  Prato.  Ge- 
rard, a  fanatical  young  man,  had  been  dis- 
missed from  a  Franciscan  convent.  Like 
many  of  the  heresiarchs  who  went  before 
him,  he  believed  himself  called  upon  to 
revive  the  Apostolical  era  of  the  Church. 
He  entered  upon  his  self-appointed  mis- 
sion in  1261 ;  and,  accompanied  by  a  num- 
ber of  followers,  who,  though  not 
permitted  to  marry,  were  attended  by 
women  called  "  Sisters,"  went  up  and 
down  the  country,  begging,  singing,  and 
announcing  that  the  kingdom  of  God  was 
at  hand.  The  scope  and  aim  of  their 
teaching  was  for  some  time  kept  secret, 
but  gradually  came  out,  when  it  was  dis- 
covered that  they  were  communistic, 
subversive  of  society  at  large,  hostile  to 
the  Church,  but  chiefly  opposed  to  the 
Papacy.  Both  Church  and  State  under- 
took their  suppression,  and  in  1300,  their 
fanatical  leader,  Gerard,  was  burned  to 
death  at  Parma. 

Gerard's  death  did  not  put  an  end  to 
their  sect.  They  found  a  new  leader  in 
Dolcino  of  Prato  —  in  the  county  of  No- 
vara — an  Italian  of  considerable  culture  and 
remarkable  energy  of  character,  and  some 
military  talent.  He  introduced  himself  to 
public  notice  by  a  circular  letter,  addressed 
to  all  Christendom,  in  which  he  claimed  a 
"  new  age  was  dawning  on  the  Church, 
and  that  he  and  his  followers  were  the  lat- 
ter prophets  who  were  to  immediately 
precede  the  great  Judgment  Day  "  (1303). 
After  going  about  for  some  time  in  Tyrol 
and  Dalmatia,  he  returned  to  Piedmont, 
and,  having  gathered  together  his  follow- 
ers at  Novara,  formally  declared  war 
against  Rome  (1304).  After  fighting  sev- 
eral battles,  Dolcino  and  his  followers 
were  driven  to  seek  refuge  on  Mount 
Zebello,  where  those  who  escaped  death 
by  famine  perished  by  the  sword  of  the 
crusaders  sent  against  them.  Both  Dol- 
cino and  his  female  companion,  Margaret, 
whom  he  called  his  spiritual  sister,  were 
taken  prisoners,  and,  after  having  borne 
severe  torture,  the  former  was  executed 
and  the  latter  burned  to  death.  From  this 
time  forth  the  Apostolians  ceased  to  exist 
as  an  organized  sect,  though  small  com- 


Apostolic  Canons 


52 


Apostolicae  Sedis 


munities  were  to  be  found  scattered  here 
and  there,  in  Germany  and  in  the  south  of 
France,  as  late  as  the  beginning  of  the 
fourteenth  century. 

Apostolic   Canons. —  Collections  which 
■  contain  the  rules  of  discipline  adopted  in 
the   Church    during    the    first    centuries. 
They  are   also  called  Apostolic  Constitu- 
tions.    See  Canoxs. 

Apostolic  Council.     See  Coukcil. 

Apostolic  Fathers. —  The  name  given  to 
the  immediate  disciples  and  fellow-labor- 
ers of  the  Apostles,  and  their  successors 
in  the  sees  founded  by  them,  and,  in  a 
more  restrained  sense,  to  those  of  the 
primitive  epoch  of  the  Church  who  have 
left  writings  behind  them.  The  Apostolic 
Fathers,  specially  so-called,  have  left  us 
the  following  writings:  i.  A  letter  of  St. 
Barnabas;  2.  Two  letters  of  St.  Clement 
of  Rome;  3.  Seven  letters  of  St.  Ignatius, 
Bishop  of  Antioch  and  Martyr;  4.  A  letter 
of  St.  Polycarp  of  Smyrna  to  the  Phillip- 
pians;  5.  A  letter  to  Diognetes;  6.  The 
book  entitled  Pastor  of  Hennas;  7.  Frag- 
ments of  a  work  of  Papias ;  8.  The  Acts  of 
the  Martyrs  or  the  Circulars  addressed  to 
the  Churches  on  the  death  of  St.  Ignatius 
and  of  St.  Polj-carp.  The  writings  of  the 
Apostolic  Fathers  as  to  their  form  and  sub- 
ject have  been  looked  upon  as  a  continu- 
ation of  the  Apostolic  Epistles.  Editions 
were  published  by  Cotelier  (Paris,  1672,  2 
vols. ;  Amsterdam,  1720) ;  ed.  Auctior — the 
latter  not  correct  —  by  the  Armenian,  Le 
Clerc ;  ed.  with  new  inquiries  and  explana- 
tions in  the  Bibliotheca  of  Gallandius  and  in 
Migne,  (Greek  series,  vols.  i.  and  ii.) ; 
Jacobson  (Oxford,  1830  and  1840) ;  Hefele 
(Tubingen,  1839,  1857,  1875) ;  Dressel 
(Leipsic,  1863);  another  by  Zahn,  Geb- 
hardt,  and  others  began  to  appear  in  1875. 
There  are  several  English  translations. 

Apostolic  King. —  A  title  given  to  the 
kings  of  Hungary  from  the  time  of  Stephen 
I.,  founder  of  the  royal  line,  on  account  of 
his  eflforts  to  propagate  Christianity. 
Hungary  claims  the  proud  title  of  calling 
herself  Apostolic  Kingdom  by  virtue  of 
the  title  bestowed  upon  her  Kings  by  the 
Pope. 

Apostolic  Majesty. —  Title  of  honor,  be- 
stowed on  the  Pope  during  the  Middle 
Ages. 

Apostolic  Notaries. —  Notaries  who  com- 
mit to  writing,  in  each  diocese,  the  acts 
which  belong  to  ecclesiastical  matters. 


Apostolic  Nuncio  or  Delegate. — An  am- 
bassador charged  with  ecclesiastical  affairs, 
sent  by  the  Holy  See.     See  Delegate. 

Apostolic  Prefects.     See  Vicars. 

Apostolic  Sees,  Churches,  and  Patriar- 
chates are  those  sees  and  Churches  which 
were  founded  by  the  Apostles  themselves. 
The  Churches  follow  in  order  of  date :  Jeru- 
salem, Antioch,  Alexandria,  and  Rome. 
To-day  this  title  is  reserved  and  attributed 
only  to  the  See  of  Rome.  A  Spanish  bishop 
was  excommunicated  at  the  Council  of 
Rheims  (1049)  for  having  arrogated  to  him- 
self the  quality-  of  "Apostolic,"  which,  by 
virtue  of  succession,  pre-eminence,  and 
common  consent,  is  reserved  to  the  Pope 
alone. 

Apostolic  Succession. —  An  u  n  i  n  t  e  r- 
rupted  succession  of  Popes  and  bishops  in 
the  Church  by  regular  ordination,  from 
the  Apostles  down  to  the  present  day. 
Leo  XIII.  is  the  259th  in  the  long  line  of 
Roman  Pontiffs.     See  Popes. 

Apostolic  Times. —  The  time  when  the 
Apostles  lived;  the  first  century  of  the 
Church. 

Apostolics  Sedis. —  Latin  words  which 
designate  a  celebrated  Constitution  or  Pon- 
tifical Decree,  dated  Oct.  12,  1869.  It  is  the 
ecclesiastical  penal  code  of  excommuni- 
cations, suspensions,  and  interdicts  lata 
sententi(E,  i.  e.,  incurred  by  the  fact  of  a 
fault  committed,  and  before  all  legal  pro- 
ceeding and  judgment  against  the  guilty. 
This  constituent  part  of  canonical  legisla- 
tion, having  been  in  need  of  revision,  Pope 
Pius  IX.  provided  therefore  by  the  Consti- 
tution apostolicce  sedis,  of  which  we  can 
have  an  adequate  idea  when  saying  that  it 
enumerates  first  the  excommunications 
lat(B  sententic€  specially  reserved  for  abso- 
lution to  the  sovereign  Pontiff;  the  ex- 
communications of  the  same  kind  simply 
reser\-ed  to  the  Pope;  those  which  are 
reserved  to  the  bishops  or  ordinaries ; 
again  those  which  are  reserved  to  no  par- 
ticular authority,  and  from  which  a  simple 
confessor  can  absolve.  After  this,  the 
Constitution  specifies  the  suspensions  latxB 
sententice  reserved  to  the  Holy  See,  and, 
finally,  the  interdicts  reserved  either  to 
the  Pope  or  to  an  inferior  authority.  This 
important  act  of  the  Papal  power,  belongs 
to  what  Canonists  call  the  modern  Canon- 
ical law,  the  source  of  which  is  the  Council 
of  Trent.  Hence  we  will  not  be  surprised 
to  learn  that  it  maintains,  in  a  great  part, 


Apostolicity 


53 


Apparitions 


the  spiritual  penalties  decreed  by  said 
Council.  This  Constitution  had  several 
commentaries. 

Apostolicity. —  Conformity  to  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Apostles,  one  of  the  marks 
of  the  Catholic  Church. — Apostolic  suc- 
cession from  the  chief  Apostle,  St.  Peter. 
The  marks  of  the  true  Church  of  Jesus 
Christ  are :  Authority  to  teach  and  in- 
terpret the  word  of  God,  visibility  in  her 
chief  and  universal  head,  unity  in  faith 
and  teaching ;  universality  from  the  fact 
that  she  extends  to  all  time  and  to  all 
places. 

Apostolicity  of  the  Church.  {Fourth 
mark  of  the  Church.) — By  this  term,  we 
distinguish  two  kinds  of  apostolicity :  the 
apostolicity  of  the  doctrine  which  the 
Church  has  preserved  since  her  origin, 
and  which  consists  in  the  belief  of  all  the 
truths  the  Apostles  have  transmitted  to  us 
by  voice  or  writing ;  and  the  apostolicity 
of  the  ministry,  which  consists  in  the  un- 
interrupted succession  of  pastors  since  the 
time  of  the  Apostles.  We  also  distinguish 
two  kinds  powers  in  the  apostolic  ministry, 
namely :  the  power  of  order  and  power  of 
jvirisdiction.  These  two  powers  emanate 
from  the  Apostles  who  had  received  them 
from  Jesus  Christ.  The  first,  /.  e.,  the 
power  of  order,  which  is  inherent  in  the 
episcopal  power,  has  perpetuated  itself, 
without  interruption,  through  ordination, 
which  rite  has  been  determined  by  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ.  The  Apostles,  after 
receiving  their  mission  from  Jesus,  dis- 
persed in  different  directions,  carrying 
with  them  the  light  of  faith,  preaching  the 
Gospel,  baptizing  the  people,  and  teaching 
them  all  that  their  Divine  Master  had 
taught  them.  We  read,  in  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,  that  in  each  village  in  which 
they  planted  the  faith,  there  they  estab- 
lished bishops,  priests,  and  deacons  to 
govern  the  faithful,  and  that  it  was  in  this 
manner  that  Churches  were  founded.  It 
must  be  obvious  to  every  person  that  the 
Apostles  had,  in  fulfilling  their  mission, 
ordained  the  first  bishops,  and  they  in 
turn  ordained  others,  and  so  on,  in  suc- 
cession to  our  own  days.  The  same 
power  of  order,  like  that  which  the  suc- 
cessors of  the  Apostles  received,  has  been 
transmitted  from  one  to  the  other,  and 
whoever  has  not  been  ordained  by  a 
bishop,  with  vested  rights,  cannot  partake 
in  the  Apostolic  ministry.  The  power 
and  iurisdiction  is  that  by  which  one  can 


exercise  the  power  of  order  and  take  part 
in  the  government  of  the  Church.  It  is 
attached  to  the  Canonical  institution  and 
its  mode  is  determined  by  the  ecclesias- 
tical laws  emanating  from  the  Pope,  or,  at 
least,  sanctioned  by  him  as  the  Chief  of 
the  universal  Church.  By  this  institution 
each  bishop  receives  the  jurisdiction  which 
his  predecessors  had  in  line  up  to  the 
Apostles. 

The  new  bishoprics,  founded  by  the 
successors  of  the  Apostles,  are  as  apostolic 
as  those  which  have  been  founded  by  the 
Apostles  themselves,  because  they  are 
founded  by  the  same  apostolic  power 
which  was  given  to  the  first  successors  of 
the  Apostles. 

The  power  of  jurisdiction  is  no  less 
essential  than  the  power  of  order  to  the 
apostolicity  of  the  ministry,  and  the 
apostolicity  of  the  ministry  is  no  less  es- 
sential to  the  Church  than  the  apostolicity 
of  doctrine.  Scripture  and  tradition  rep- 
resent to  us  the  apostolic  ministry  per- 
petuating itself  through  a  succession  of 
bishops,  like  the  property  of  God's 
Church,  and  with  the  mark  of  vested 
rights,  which  has  ever  distinguished  it 
from  all  schismatic  organizations. 

Apotheosis. — Deification,  or  the  raising 
of  a  mortal  to  the  rank  of  a  god.  Among 
heathens  generally,  and  especially  among 
the  Romans,  every  departed  spirit  became 
a  deity;  and  as  it  was  common  for  chil- 
dren to  worship  (privately)  the  manes  of 
their  fathers,  so  it  was  natural  for  divine 
honors  to  be  publicly  paid  to  a  deceased 
emperor,  who  was  regarded  as  the  parent 
of  his  country.  At  the  consecraito,  as  it 
was  called,  of  a  Roman  emperor,  the  body 
was  burnt  on  a  funeral  pile,  and,  as  the  fire 
ascended,  an  eagle  was  let  loose  to  mount 
into  the  sky,  carrying,  as  was  believed,  the 
soul  of  the  emperor  from  earth  to  heaven. 
Many  medals  are  found  with  the  word 
consccratio  surrounding  an  altar,  with  fire 
on  it,  and  an  eagle  rising  into  the  air 
{Chamb.  Encyc). 

Apparitions. — The  general  belief  that 
the  spirits  of  the  departed  are  occasionally 
presented  to  the  sight  of  the  living,  has 
existed  in  all  ages  and  countries,  and 
usually  declines  only  when  a  people  has 
advanced  considerably  in  the  knowledge 
of  physical  conditions  and  laws.  "  These 
apparitions  are  all  to  be  accounted  for  by 
peculiar  conditions  of  the  organism  of  the 


Apparitions 


54 


Apparitions 


individual  sensible  of  them"  is  the  theory 
of  some  of  our  modern  savants. 

To  amplify  this  point  and  make  it  more 
clear,  we  must  understand  by  apparitions 
all  extraordinary  and  sensible  manifesta- 
tions, by  which  an  object,  be  it  spiritual 
or  corporeal,  is  placed  in  communication 
with  the  exterior  or  even  interior  senses  of 
a  subject  which  could  neither  naturally  be 
expected  nor  known.  May  it  be  God,  an 
angel,  or  a  soul  who  shows  itself  under  a 
material  form ;  may  it  be  a  body  far  away, 
that  one  hears,  feels,  or  sees,  as  if  present 
before  him.  There  are  many  apparitions, 
and  all  cannot  be  due  to  a  diseased  or  dis- 
ordered state  of  the  mind. 

The  belief  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the 
Sacred  Scriptures,  does  not  permit  us  to 
question  numerous  apparitions  mentioned 
in  them,  since  it  speaks  of  the  apparition 
of  God  to  the  first  man  in  the  earthly  para- 
dise; of  Jesus  Christ  descending  from 
heaven  at  the  end  of  the  world,  "to  judge 
the  living  and  the  dead,"  as  the  Apostles' 
Creed  tells  us. 

As  a  logical  consequence,  the  Church 
believes  in  the  possibility  of  apparitions, 
and  which  have  taken  place  since  the  Bib- 
lical revelation,  and  which  have  been  re- 
ported in  Church  history,  and  in  the 
biographies  of  the  saints.  Does  she  be- 
lieve, in  like  manner,  in  their  reality.''  Her 
conduct  in  the  canonization  of  the  saints, 
and  in  the  direction  of  the  faithful,  her 
feasts  and  liturgical  prayers,  certainly 
prove  that  she  believes  in  them,  because 
she  examines  carefully  the  facts  of  this 
kind,  when  they  are  met  with  in  the  life 
of  personages  for  whom  one  asks  for  the 
honors  of  a  public  veneration,  because  she 
blames  or  permits  certain  accounts  of  ap- 
paritions, and  finally  she  authorizes  and 
sometimes  solemnizes  facts  of  this  kind, 
like  the  Apparition  of  the  Archangel  St. 
Michael  in  Sicily  (May  8th,  493  or  520). 

But  does  she  impose  the  obligation  of 
belief,  in  particular,  in  the  reality  of  one 
or  the  other  of  these  apparitions  or  non- 
Biblical  visions.?  Not  at  all.  These  ap- 
paritions, posterior  to  revelation,  wrthout 
being  outside  the  sphere  of  the  infalli- 
bility of  the  Church,  cannot  become  the 
object  of  a  definition  of  faith,  nor  of  an 
act  of  faith,  properly  speaking;  hence  one 
would  not  be  a  heretic  were  he  to  question 
or  deny  them.  It  is  true  that  the  Church, 
by  the  manner  she  receives  many  of  them, 
tells  us  quite  clearly  that  we  can  and  ought 
to   accept  them,  prudently,  as  authentic ; 


but  she  does  not  go  beyond  this;  and, 
while  the  limits  of  scientific  and  Christian 
prudence  should  never  be  overstepped,  a 
respectful  and  judicious  liberty  of  ex- 
amination or  judgment  remains  the  right 
of  the  Catholic  faithful. 

1.  The  general  objections  against  the 
possibility  and  reality  of  every  apparition, 
of  every  supernatural  vision,  being  the 
same  which  one  raises  against  the  super- 
natural, the  miracle,  the  historical  value 
of  the  Bible,  we  do  not  need  to  occupy 
ourselves  with  these  here.  It  is  sufficient 
for  us  to  say  that  a  cause  infinite  in  power 
and  Tvisdom,  can  very  well,  through  itself, 
or  through  secondary  causes,  which  it 
governs  and  animates  by  its  own  energy, 
operate  the  interior  or  exterior  phenomena 
necessary  to  an  apparition,  to  a  vision, 
and  co-ordain  them  so  perfectly  with  the 
regular  function  of  the  physical  powers, 
that  the  order  of  the  world  will  not  be 
troubled  thereby. 

2.  They  have  asked  how  a  pure  spirit,  an 
angel,  and  especially  God,  would  appear  in 
a  visible  manner  }  The  answer  is  contained 
in  that  which  precedes.  Certainly  it  is  not 
the  immaterial  nature  which  enters  into 
direct  and  physical  contact  with  our  senses, 
organic  and  material  faculties;  but  for 
this  purpose  it  makes  use  of  an  interme- 
diary instrumental  cause,  which  obeys  it 
and  manifests  to  us  its  presence,  its 
thoughts,  its  will.  Several  philosophers 
have  preferred  another  explanation  of  this 
miraculous  communication  ;  they  suppress 
the  intermediary,  the  instrument,  and  be- 
lieve that  God,  or  the  appearing  spirit, 
acts  upon  our  interior  and  exterior  senses 
to  prejudice  them,  as  really  present  and 
sensible  objects  do.  Although  this  inter- 
pretation seems  difficult  to  reconcile  with 
the  account  of  most  of  the  Biblical  appa- 
ritions, it  is  not  indefensible,  especially 
when  it  applies  itself  to  non-Biblical 
apparitions;  and  it  maintains  quite  the 
objective  reality  of  a  superior  and  super- 
natural action,  for  not  being  rejected 
entirely. 

3.  They  have  often  pretended  that  the 
apparitions  and  the  visions  are  the  result 
of  morbid  dispositions,  of  lively  and  pro- 
longed excitements  of  the  brain,  of  great 
intellectual  fatigues,  of  profound  medita- 
tions or  severe  fastings,  etc.  Undoubtedly 
this  may  have  such  effects,  and  many  ap- 
paritions may  have  been  produced  by  one 
or  the  other  of  the  causes  mentioned. 
Nothing  is  more  interesting  than  to  behold 


Appeal 


55 


Appeal  as  Abuse 


the  most  minute,  careful,  and  discretionary 
measures  indicated  by  Pope  Benedict 
XIV.,  who  so  earnestly  desired  that  the 
proofs  of  the  facts  of  this  kind,  when  they 
are  alleged  in  a  process  of  beatification, 
are  of  a  weight  equal  to  those  which  are 
required  in  criminal  causes  (De  Beatif.  et 
Canoniz.  Sanctorum ;  libr.  IIL  ch.  iii.  v.  i) ; 
by  the  Canonists,  who  admit,  only  with 
difficulty,  the  testimony  of  the  minors, 
women,  persons  whose  veracity  or  good 
faith  may  be  suspected  (Cf.  E.  Grand- 
eclaude.  Visions  and  Apparitions  in  the 
"  Revue  des  Sc.  Eccl."  of  1873,  and  in  the 
"Canonist,"  May,  1888) ;  by  the  mystic 
theologians,  of  which  the  most  celebrated 
may  be  mentioned  —  Cardinal  Bona,  the 
Jesuit  Godinez,  the  Benedictine  Schram, 
and  quite  recently  the  Sulpician  Ribet, 
show  themselves  of  extreme  rigor  in  the 
examination  of  these  phenomena.  Schram, 
for  example,  enumerates  nineteen  signs  by 
which  we  can  recognize  the  falseness  of  a 
vision,  and  these  among  others :  whether 
the  person  who  passes  for  having  had  ap- 
paritions sit  super ba, —  si  visiones  deside- 
ret, —  si  sit  arreptitia, —  vel  delira, —  si 
sit  melancholica, —  si  sit  novitia, —  si  sit 
pauper,  dives,  juvenis,  senex;  si  sit  fem- 
ina, —  si  visiones  suas  facile  propalet. 
Certainly  these  signs  are  not  equally  and 
always  certain,  and  they  themselves  must 
be  appreciated  with  a  great  wisdom.  But 
when,  after  the  most  careful  examination 
of  the  facts,  the  ecclesiastical  authority 
approves  or  at  least  does  not  disapprove 
the  publication  of  a  supernatural  vision, 
we  can  say  that  there  are  very  serious 
motives  in  favor  of  the  fact.  Besides,  the 
Church  permits  this  publication  only  after 
the  attentive  judgment  of  the  diocesan 
bishop.  The  Council  of  Trent,  in  its 
XXVth  session,  has  enacted  a  very  precise 
decree  regarding  this  matter. 

4.  What  use,  is  asked,  can  there  be  in 
these  particular  visions  and  apparitions, 
which  do  not  enter  into  the  official  deposit 
and  in  the  body  itself  of  the  Catholic  doc- 
trine? We  answer,  that  God  has  estab- 
lished not  only  His  Church;  but  that  He 
also  governs  and  assists  it  continually 
through  ordinary  or  extraordinary  helps, 
among  which  we  have  to  admit  in  the  first 
rank  certain  striking  and  famous  appari- 
tions ;  that  the  Church  does  not  occupy 
herself,  solely,  with  the  palpable,  fixed 
and  bounded,  but  takes  care  of  the  soul  in 
particular;  and  if  some  do  not  wish  to 
profit    by    the     extraordinary    signs    and 


graces,  it  is  no  reason  why  others  should 
be  deprived  of  such  awakening  manifesta- 
tions;  the  divine  liberality,  in  the  midst 
of  such  frightful  enormity  of  wickedness, 
must  not  be  shackled  here  any  more  than 
human  liberty. 

Appeal. —  In  Canon  Law,  this  is  an 
act  by  which  a  layman  or  cleric,  who  be- 
lieves that  a  wrong  or  injury  has  been 
done  to  him,  or  that  his  rights  have  been 
violated  by  an  ecclesiastical  superior  or 
judge,  demands  justice  by  appealing  to  a 
higher  court  or  superior.  One  can  always 
appeal  directly  to  the  Sovereign  Pontiff, 
without  first  passing  through  the  inter- 
mediary jurisdiction,  such  as  that  of  an 
Archbishop  or  Primate. 

The  ecclesiastical  law,  however,  of  the 
United  States  is  such  that,  if  an  ecclesi- 
astic has  any  grievance,  he  can  appeal  only 
from  his  bishop  to  the  Papal  Delegate 
residing  in  the  United  States,  and  from 
the  latter  to  the  Propaganda  of  Faith. 

One  can  never  appeal  from  an  act  of  the 
Sovereign  Pontiff  (or  Propaganda  for  the 
United  States)  to  another  authority,  not 
even  to  a  future  Ecumenical  Council, 
neither  to  the  successor  of  the  actual 
Pope,  nor  to  this  same  Pope  better  in- 
formed. The  Pope  has,  indeed,  the  su- 
preme authority  in  the  Church  ;  to  pretend 
to  revoke  one  of  his  acts  is  a  revolutionary 
temerity  which  cannot  find  place  in  the 
Catholic  Church.  Also  the  appeal  one 
would  make  from  a  decree  or  command  of 
the  Pope  to  a  future  General  Council 
would  incur,  ipso  facto,  the  pain  of  excom- 
munication, especially  reserved  for  abso- 
lution to  the  Holy  See.  If  the  appeal  is 
made  by  a  Chapter,  University,  or  Cor- 
poration, such  a  society  would  incur,  ipso 
facto,  the  interdict,  also  especially  re- 
served to  the  Pope. 

Appeal  as  Abuse.  —  This  means  a  re- 
course to  civil  authority  about  ecclesiasti- 
cal affairs.  This  kind  of  appeal  is  not  in 
harmony  with  the  Church,  and  has  served, 
for  a  long  time,  as  a  protective  wall  for 
Gallicanism,  having  proceeded,  probably, 
from  the  "Pragmatic  Sanction"  of  Bourges 
(1438),  and  is  based  on  the  thought  that 
the  king,  as  protector  of  the  Church,  can 
examine  and  do  away  with  the  orders  of 
the  Pope  and  bishops  before  his  court. 
The  French  bishops  were  well  enough 
satisfied  with  this  appeal  as  long  as  it  was 
made  against  the  Papal  orders;  but, 
finally,   when   all  ecclesiastical   obedience 


Approbation 


56 


Arabia 


had  been  destroyed,  they  remonstrated  in 
such  a  manner  that  Louis  XIV.  imposed 
some  restrictions  upon  the  Parliament. 
After  the  kind's  death,  the  evil  grew 
wonderfully.  All  the  disorders  and  troubles 
of  Jansenism  found,  in  this  appeal,  their 
full  explanation  and  support.  Priests  in 
the  United  States  cannot  have  recourse 
to  the  civil  courts  for  redress  in  matters 
strictly  ecclesiastical.  Among  other  proofs 
this  goes  forth,  clearly,  from  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  5.  Congregation  de  Propaganda 
Fide,  Sept.  2d,  1837,  on  the  decrees  of  the 
Third  Provincial  Council  of  ^^Itimore. 
We  say  in  matters  strictly  ecclesiastical. 
It  is  true,  that,  according  to  the  general 
law  of  the  Church,  as  formerly  in  force, 
ecclesiastics  were  not  allowed  to  have 
recourse  to  secular  tribunals  against  other 
ecclesiastics,  even  in  temporal  affairs. 
But  this  general  law  no  longer  exists, 
having  been  modified  by  concordats,  or 
by  custom  to  the  contrary.  Hence,  as 
the  6'.  Congr.  de  Prof.  Fide  in  the  above  in- 
struction indicates,  ecclesiastics  or  re- 
ligious are  no  longer  forbidden  to  bring 
before  the  civil  courts  causes  mixtcB,  that  is, 
those  causes  where  the  persons  are  ec- 
clesiastics, but  the  things  concerning  which 
there  is  a  controversy  are  temporal  and 
family  matters.  This  holds,  especially,  as 
the  Sacred  Congregation  says,  in  the 
above  instruction,  in  non-Catholic  coun- 
tries, where  redress  can  scarcely  be  ob- 
tained outside  the  civil  tribunals.  How- 
ever, according  to  the  declaration  of  the 
5.  Congr.  S.  Officii.,  Jan.  23d,  1886,  ap- 
proved by  Pope  Leo.  XIII.,  ecclesiastics 
and  others  must  alwaj^s  obtain  leave 
from  the  Holy  See  before  they  can  have 
recourse  to  the  secular  court  against  a 
bishop,  even  though  it  be  in  temporal 
matters.  See  S.  B.  Smith,  Elcm.  of 
Eccl.  La-iv,  vol.  I.  No.  456. 

Approbation  in  theology  is  the  power 
which  a  bishop  gives  to  a  priest  to  hear  con- 
fession and  preach  in  his  diocese.  In 
canon  law.  Approbation  is  an  act  by  which 
the  Holy  See,  the  bishop  of  a  diocese,  or  an 
inquisitor  of  faith,  authorizes  the  publica- 
tion of  a  book.  In  virtue  of  actual  discipline, 
this  approbation  is  required  only  for  the 
writings  referring  to  religious  things.  The 
Church  exercises  great  tolerance  in  this 
matter  when  there  is  question  of  Catholic 
authors  and  good  works,  reserving  to  her- 
self, however,  the  right  to  put  on  the 
Index,  those   books  which   could  not  re- 


ceive her  approbation  if  asked  for  and 
which  present  a  special  danger  to  morals, 
etc. 

In  moral  theology.  Approbation  is  the 
favorable  judgment  passed,  by  the  ecclesi- 
astical authority,  on  the  capacity  of  a 
priest  with  regard  to  the  ministry  of 
hearing  confession.  Mostly  by  the  fact 
that  the  jurisdiction  is  obtained,  also  the 
approbation  is  included,  that  is,  the  effect- 
ive power  to  absolve  in  the  tribunal  of 
penance.  Formerly,  however,  the  dis- 
tinction between  both  was  of  a  continual 
custom,  and  to-day  it  is  in  vigor  for  the 
exempt  religious  who  receive  their  juris- 
diction from  the  Sovereign  Pontiff,  but 
who  must  obtain  the  approbation  of  the 
bishops  in  whose  diocese  they  hear  con- 
fessions. 

Aquarians. —  Heretics  who  believed  that 
water  is  a  principle  coeternal  with  God, 
and  hence  they  used  water  instead  of  wine 
in  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass.  St.  Cyprian, 
who  refuted  this  heresy  in  his  63rd  Letter, 
states  that  it  was  a  new  sect  in  his  time. 
They  were  disciples  of  Hermogenus,  an 
African  heresiarch,  about  the  middle  of  the 
third  century. 

Aquila  and  Priscilla. —  A  Jewish  Chris- 
tian couple,  tent-makers,  who,  driven  from 
Rome,  went  to  Corinth,  where  St.  Paul 
met  them,  and  where  they  instructed 
Apollo  (Acts  xvi.  3-5). 

Aquileia. —  A  town  in  the  crownland  of 
Gorz  and  Gradiska,  Austria- Hungary,  sit- 
uated near  the  head  of  the  Adriatic,  22 
miles  north  of  Trieste.  It  was  one  of  the 
chief  cities  of  the  Roman  Empire,  an  em- 
porium, and  the  key  of  Italy  on  the  north- 
east, colonized  by  Rome  about  181  b.  c. 
In  452  A.  D.  it  was  destroyed  by  Attila's 
forces.  A  Synod  held  at  Aquileia,  in  558, 
condemned  the  Fifth  General  Council, 
and  thus  caused  a  formal  schism,  which 
lasted  till  the  year  700,  when  the  last  of 
the  schismatics  returned  to  the  unity  of 
the  Church.  Aquileia  became  the  seat 
of  a  Patriarchate  in  the  sixth  century. 

Arabia. —  A  country  of  Western  Asia, 
Iving  south  and  southeast  of  Judea.  It 
extends  1,500  miles  from  north  to  south  and 
1,200  miles  from  east  to  west.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Syria,  on  the  east 
by  the  Persian  gulf  and  the  Euphrates, 
on  the  south  by  the  Arabian  Sea  and  the 
straits  of  Bab-el-Mandeb,  and  on  the  west 
by  the  Red  Sea,  etc.    Arabia  is  divided,  by 


Arabici 


57 


Arbela 


fjeographers,  into  three  parts  —  Arabia 
Deserta,  Petrsea,  and  Felix.  The  north- 
eastern portion  is  called  Arabia  Deserta. 
A  rabia  Peircea,  or  Stony,  is  now  generally 
known  as  the  Sinaitic  peninsula  and  lies 
between  the  two  arms  of  the  Red  Sea. 
Arabia  Felix  is  the  larger  and  the  southern 
portion.  Holy  Scripture  often  refers  to 
the  country  of  Arabia. 

Christianity  was  introduced  into  Arabia 
by  some  of  the  Apostles,  at  least  it  is 
certain  that  St.  Paul,  after  his  conversion, 
dwelt  for  some  time  in  Arabia  (Gal.  i. 
17).  The  seed  sown  by  St.  Paul  in  Arabia 
bore  fruit  a  hundredfold,  for  one  of  the 
Emirs  of  that  country  sent  a  request  to 
Origen,  asking  him  for  instruction  in  the 
Christian  religion,  to  which  the  latter 
gladly  acceded.  There  was  a  bishopric  at 
Bostra  at  a  very  early  date,  and  at  many 
other  places  in  Arabia  about  the  middle  of 
the  third  century.  About  the  year  350, 
the  Emperor  Constantius  sent  an  embassy, 
composed  of  the  most  distinguished  per- 
sons, to  the  Sabeans  or  Homerites,  a  peo- 
ple inhabiting  southern  Arabia,  to  concili- 
ate them,  if  possible,  to  Christianity. 
Theophilus,  the  Arian  bishop,  an  Indian 
of  Diu,  who  was  at  the  head  of  the  em- 
bassy, made  an  effort  to  obtain  from  the 
king  certain  privileges  for  the  Christians. 
These  were  granted.  Many  inhabitants 
embraced  the  faith  and  three  Churches 
were  built  at  Tapharan,  Aden,  and  Hor- 
muz.  Monks  from  the  frontiers  of  Pales- 
tine labored  zealously  during  the  fourth 
and  fifth  centuries  among  the  nomadic 
tribes  of  Arabia,  as,  for  instance,  Hilarion, 
Simeon  Stylites,  and  Euthymius.  Through 
the  efforts  of  these  holy  solitaries,  im- 
mense multitudes  of  the  tribes  we  now 
call  Bedouins,  embraced  Christianity.  In 
40T,  Euthymius  converted  Aspebethos, 
chief  of  a  Saracenic  tribe,  and  also  conse- 
crated him  bishop  for  his  subjects. 

Arabici. —  Heretics  of  the  third  century, 
who  attacked  the  immortality  of  the  soul, 
without,  however,  denying  that  it  has 
another  life.  They  maintained  that  the 
soul  would  die  with  the  body,  and  rise 
again  with  it.  These  heretics  held  a  great 
assembly,  in  Arabia,  in  regard  to  this 
question,  at  which  Origen  was  present. 
He  spoke  there  with  such  tirmness  and  con- 
viction that  many  of  those  who  had  fallen 
into  this  error,  immediately  abandoned  it. 

Aram  {elevation) . — Hebrew  name  of  the 
region  situated  north  and  east  of  Palestine 


reaching  to  the  Tigris.  In  Scripture,  Aram 
is  often  distinguished  by  means  of  a  de- 
terminative, for  example :  Aram  Naharim, 
Aram  or  Syria  of  the  two  rivers  (the 
Tigris  and  Euphrates),  is  the  Mesopotamia 
of  the  Greeks  (bet-ween  the  rivers) . — A  ram 
of  Soba,  of  Damascus,  of  Beth-Rohob,  of 
Maacha.  The  Septuagint  and  Vulgate 
render  the  name  Aram  by  Syria.  In  the 
Assyrian  cuneiform  inscriptions,  the  names 
Aramu,  Arimu,  and  Arumu  are  used,  but 
only  of  Mesopotamia,  and  the  peoples  on 
the  western  bank  of  the  Euphrates.  As 
early  as  the  period  of  the  Judges,  an 
Aramean  king  extended  his  conquests  to 
Palestine  (Judg.  iii.  8,  10).  David  took 
Damascus  from  the  Arameans,  but  Solo- 
mon was  obliged  to  restore  it.  The  last 
king  of  Damascus,  Rezin,  allied  himself 
with  Phacee,  King  of  Israel,  against  Juda, 
but  succumbed  to  Teglath-Phalaser  of 
Assyria  (745-727  b.  c).  The  Arameans 
became  an  important  factor  in  the  As- 
syrian state ;  their  language  seems  to  have 
become  the  common  speech  of  trade  and 
diplomacy,  and  it  gradually  supplanted 
Assyrian  in  Assyria,  and  Hebrew  in 
Palestine. 

Ararat. — The  ancient  name  of  a  district 
in  eastern  Armenia  between  the  river 
Araxes  and  the  lakes  Van  and  Urumiah ; 
also  used  for  all  Armenia,  and  for  the 
mountain  ridge  in  the  south  of  that  coun- 
try. The  usual  statement  that  Noe's  ark 
rested  on  Mount  Ararat,  has  no  foundation 
in  the  Hebrew  text,  which  reads,  "on  the 
mountains  of  Ararat."  Tradition  fixes 
upon  a  point  called  by  the  Turks  "Steep 
Mountain,"  as  the  spot  where  the  ark 
rested.  In  the  Assyrian  cuneiform  in- 
scriptions, the  country  is  mentioned  under 
the  name  Uratu,  and  many  expeditions  of 
the  Assyrian  kings  against  it,  are  enum- 
erated. The  height  of  Great  Ararat  is 
about  17,000  feet  (17,325  according  to  Par- 
rot) ;  that  of  Little  Ararat,  12,840  feet. 

Arator. — Latin  poet,  born  in  Liguria 
(490-556) ;  secretary  and  steward  of  Athal- 
aric,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths  of  Italy;  em- 
braced the  ecclesiastical  state  and  became 
subdeacon  at  Rome.  He  put  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles  into  Latin  verses,  published 
by  Aide  (Venice,  1502). 

Arbela. — In  ancient  geography,  a  town 
in  Assyria,  the  modern  Arbil,  Erbil,  or 
Ervil.  It  was  an  early  seat  of  the  worship 
of  Istar,  and  a  place  of  considerable  im- 
portance (I.  Mach.  ix.  2.). 


Arbrissel 


58 


Archelaus 


Arbrissel  (Robert  of)  (1047-1117). — A 
French  ecclesiastiCjthe  founder  of  the  Order 
of  Fontevrault.  He  was  appointed  vicar- 
general  of  the  Bishop  of  Rennes,  in  1085 ; 
became  professor  of  theology  at  Angers, 
in  1089;  and  two  rears  later,  retired  to  the 
forest  of  Craon,  where  he  founded  the 
Abbey  of  De  Rota.  Later,  he  founded  the 
celebrated  Abbey  of  Fontevrault,  near 
Poitiers,  after  which  the  Order  was  named. 

Archangel.     See  Angkl. 

Archbishop. — The  title  given  to  a  met- 
ropolitan prelate,  who  superintends  the 
conduct  of  suffragan  bishops  in  his  prov- 
ince, and  who  exercises  episcopal  author- 
ity in  his  own  diocese.  This  title  was 
unknown  in  the  primitive  Church,  and  for 
the  first  time  was  applied  in  the  Orient  by 
St.  Athanasius,  Bishop  of  Alexandria,  to 
his  predecessor,  Alexander  (fourth  cen- 
tury) ;  and  in  the  Occident,  to  St.  Isidore 
of  Seville,  who  died  in  636.  However, 
since  the  Roman  epoch,  the  prelate  resid- 
ing in  the  capital  of  a  province,  exercised 
over  the  bishops  of  the  same  province  a 
kind  of  suzerainty,  and  it  was  generally 
the  suzerain  bishop  who,  later  on,  took 
the  name  of  archbishop.  There  is  no  dif- 
ference between  the  bishop  and  the  arch- 
bishop as  to  order  and  character,  but  only 
in  regard  to  privileges  and  jurisdiction. 
The  archbishop  judges,  in  his  metropoli- 
tan officiality,  the  appeals  lodged  against 
the  sentences  rendered  by  the  officials  of 
his  suffragans.  He  possesses  the  power 
of  convoking  and  presiding  in  the  pro- 
vincial synods,  superintendence  and  power 
of  visitation  over  the  bishops  of  the  metro- 
politan see ;  the  power  of  enforcing  the 
laws  of  the  Church  as  well  as  the  canons 
and  constitutions  of  his  province.  He  has 
also  the  right  of  having  the  Cross  carried 
before  him  in  his  own  archiepiscopate,  of 
giving  his  blessing,  etc.  See  Metropoli- 
tan ;   Appeal. 

Archbishopric. — The  extent  of  ecclesi- 
astical territory  under  the  jurisdiction  and 
spiritual  authority  of  an  archbishop.  In 
the  United  States  there  are  at  present 
(1899)  fourteen  archbishoprics.  This  term 
is  also  applied  to  the  city  where  there  is 
an  archiepiseopal  see. 

Archchaplain. — This  title  was  given  in 
the  early  French  monarchy  to  the  court 
chaplain,  often  the  same  as  the  Papal,  or 
later  the  imperial  apocrisiary,  and  identical 
with  the  grand  almoner  and  archchancel- 


lor.  The  title  became  extinct  with  the 
Carlovingian  dynasty  or  second  line  of 
kings  before  A.  D.  1000.  The  archchaplain 
had  great  privileges  over  matters  concern- 
ing the  Church ;  presided  as  mediator 
between  the  bishops  and  king.  The  same 
ecclesiastical  office  existed  at  the  court  of 
the  Emperor  of  Germany  and  at  other 
courts  of  sovereigns  and  princes. 

Archconfraternity. —  As  the  name  indi- 
dicates,  this  is,  in  the  Church,  a  chief 
confraternit}',  having  other  confraternities 
affiliated  with  it,  and  endowed  with 
special  privileges.    See  Confraternity. 

Archdeacon. —  An  ecclesiastical  digni- 
tary whose  jurisdiction  is  immediately 
subordinate  to  that  of  the  bishop.  In 
early  times,  the  archdeacon  was  often 
charged  by  the  bishop  with  attending  and 
assisting  him  in  the  administration  of  his 
diocese,  wholly,  or  in  part.  His  duties 
consisted  in  attending  the  bishop  at  the 
altar,  and  at  ordinations;  assisting  him  in 
managing  the  revenues  of  the  Church,  and 
directing  the  deacons  in  their  duties.  The 
name  archdeacon  is  found  among  the 
ecclesiastical  dignities  since  the  fourth 
century.  In  the  East  it  ceased  with  an 
ecclesiastical  officer  of  the  Court  of  Con- 
stantinople under  the  Byzantine  Empire, 
and  in  the  West  after  the  eighth  century. 
Dioceses  had  begun  to  be  divided  into 
separate  territories  over  which  rural  arch- 
deacons were  placed,  having  under  them 
deans  or  rural  archpriests,  charged  with 
the  supervision  of  the  parish  priests  of 
their  respective  districts ;  over  these  was 
placed  the  general  or  grand  archdeacon  of 
the  whole  diocese,  who  took  precedence  of 
the  archpriest  and  held  his  own  court  with 
its  officials  distinct  from  that  of  the 
bishop,  so  that  appeals  were  taken  from 
the  former  to  the  latter.  The  rural  arch- 
deacons were  often  priests,  having  care 
of  souls,  as  was  also  the  grand  archdeacon 
from  the  twelfth  century.  The  powers 
and  privileges  of  this  office  were  gradually 
restricted,  and  since  the  Council  of  Trent, 
its  place  is,  for  the  most  part,  supplied  by 
the  bishop's  vicar-general,  between  whom 
and  the  parish  priests  are  sometimes  placed 
the  vicars  forane  or  present  rural  deans ; 
while  the  archdeacon  of  the  present  day, 
where  the  office  survives,  holds  it  as  a 
position  of  honor.  There  are  no  archdea- 
cons in  the  United  States. 

Archelaus. — A  son  of  Herod  the  Great, 
by  his  Samaritan  wife,  Malthace.     He  was 


Archelaus 


59 


Architecture 


educated  with  his  brother  Antipas,  at 
Rome,  and  after  his  father's  death  was 
placed  over  Judea,  Idumea,  and  Samaria 
(the  cities  Gaza,  Gadara,  and  Hippo  ex- 
cepted), with  the  title  of  ethnarch  or  te- 
trarch  ;  whence  he  is  said  to  reign  in  Judea 
(Matt.  ii.  22).  After  enjoying  his  power 
for  ten  years,  he  was  accused  before  the 
Roman  emperor,  on  account  of  his  cruel- 
ties, and  banished  to  Vienne,  on  the 
Rhone,  in  Gaul,  where  he  died. 

Archelaus. — Bishop  of  Kascar,  in  Meso- 
potamia, flourished  about  278,  under  the 
reign  of  Probus.  He  is  only  known  by  his 
controversies  with  Manes  or  Manicheus. 
He  wrote  them  in  Syriac ;  we  still  pos- 
sess an  ancient  Latin  translation  thereof, 
made,  not  according  to  the  primitive  text, 
but  according  to  a  Greek  version,  attrib- 
uted to  Hegomenus.  This  Latin  text  has 
been  published  by  Zaccagni,  Librarian  of 
the  Vatican,  Rome,  in  1698. 

Archimandrite. —  Formerly,  this  word 
signified  a  superior  of  a  monastery.  In 
the  eighteenth  century,  it  was  used  to 
denote  an  abbot-regular.  At  the  present 
day,  the  word  is  applied  to  the  superior  of 
a  monastery  in  the  Greek  Church,  and  the 
title  has  been  retained  among  the  United 
Greeks,  that  is,  among  those  who  acknowl- 
edge the  Pope  supreme  Pontiff. 

Architecture  (Early  Church). —  What 
little  is  known  of  the  places  of  worship  of 
the  early  Christians  is  found  in  the  patris- 
tic writings  and  among  the  writings  of  the 
early  Christian  historians,  while  much  in- 
formation is  also  obtained  from  the  early 
pagan  writers  of  the  age.  In  the  earli- 
est times,  doubtless,  there  were  no  fixed 
edifices,  services  being  held  in  the  houses 
of  Christians;  sometimes,  as  we  read  in 
the  Scriptures,  in  an  upper  room,  as  when 
St.  Paul  was  stopping  at  Troas  (see  Acts 
XX.  7-1 1).  This  is  the  most  particular  de- 
scription of  a  house  of  worship  that  we 
find  in  the  Scriptures.  It  is  an  upper 
room,  as  was  also  that  in  which  our 
Saviour  celebrated  the  Last  Supper.  These 
out-of-the-way  places  were  doubtless  se- 
lected because  in  those  early  days  a  Chris- 
tian was  exposed  to  the  danger  of  losing  his 
life  by  proclaiming  his  religion.  In  Rome 
we  find  them  worshiping  in  the  houses  of 
wealthy  Christians,  in  underground  chap- 
els, and  in  other  places  where  they  were 
least  liable  to  be  disturbed,  and  discovered 
to  be  Christians.  After  the  period  of  perse- 


cutions, in  the  fourth  century,  however. 
Christians  already  possessed  in  many 
places  spacious  and  often  beautiful  edifices 
set  apart  for  the  worship  of  God.  The 
form  of  the  primitive  Christian  Church 
was  generally  that  of  an  oblong  quad- 
rangle, divided  into  three,  rarely  five, 
spaces  by  parallel  rows  of  columns.  The 
middle  space,  unlike  that  of  the  pagan 
basilicas,  was  roofed  in  and  called  the 
nave  of  the  building,  from  its  similarity  to 
a  ship,  while  the  two  or  four  spaces  on 
either  side  were  called  the  aisles,  or  wings 
of  the  building.  There  were,  however, 
many  churches  built  in  other  forms.  The 
Church  built  by  Constantine  over  the 
Holy  Sepulchre  was  round ;  the  one  built 
by  him  at  Antioch,  octagonal;  the  Church 
of  Nazianzum,  built  by  the  father  of 
Gregory  Nazianzen,  was  also  octagonal. 
Others  were  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  such 
as  that  of  the  Apostles  at  Constantinople, 
built  by  Constantine.  The  church  built 
by  the  same  emperor  at  Mambre  was,  ac- 
cording to  the  authority  of  Valesius,  in 
the  form  of  a  quadrangle,  or  square.  There 
was  still  another  form  of  church  built  in 
the  figure  of  an  arch,  or  hemisphere,  re- 
sembling, if  not  identical  with,  the  Pan- 
theon at  Rome.  This,  however,  is  more 
properly  a  description  of  part  of  a  church, 
such  as  that  of  Saint  Sophia  at  Constanti- 
nople, the  body  of  which  was  built  in  the 
form  of  a  trulla,  or  half-globe  or  cupola, 
though  the  general  outline  of  the  church 
was  oblong.  The  churches  were  com- 
monly so  situated  that  the  front  or  chief 
entrances  faced  at  first  toward  the  east, 
and  the  sanctuary,  or  altar,  toward  the 
west;  but  these  positions  were  reversed 
in  the  Western  world,  and  the  altar  was 
made  to  face  toward  the  east,  and  the  chief 
entrances  toward  the  west.  But  in  Ireland, 
as  Bishop  Usher,  quoting  from  Jocelin,- 
observes,  the  churches  built  by  St.  Patrick 
differed  in  position  from  any  of  these,  and 
faced  north  and  south. 

The  interior  of  the  church  was  com- 
monly divided  into  three  parts:  i.  At  the 
western  end  was  the  narthex,  antetemple, 
or  vestibule,  where  the  penitents  and 
catechumens  stood.  2.  The  naos,  from  its 
similarity  to  a  ship,  or  temple,  where  the 
communicants  or  faithful  took  their  re- 
spective places.  These  were  separated  ac- 
cording to  sex,  the  men  occupying  the 
north  side  and  the  women  the  south.  Be- 
sides this  general  division,  there  was  still 
another.     In  the  transept  on  the  side  occu- 


Archives 


60 


Arianism 


pied  by  the  women,  the  consecrated  vir- 
g^ins  and  widows  were  separated  from  the 
others  in  a  di\nsion  called  the  matrovceum; 
similarily,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  tran- 
sept, monks  and  men  of  rank  also  held  a 
separate  position,  called  the  senatorium . 
In  Eastern  churches  the  women  occupied 
tribunes.  And  3.  The  bema,  or  choir,  or 
sanctuary,  which  was  raised  by  a  few  steps 
above  the  nave,  and  separated  from  it  by 
a  curtain  or  partition  usually  of  wood,  but 
sometimes  of  marble.  This  terminated  in 
a  large  semicircular  hall, at  the  central  point 
of  which, and  against  the  wall,  was  the  bish- 
op's throne,  flanked  on  either  side  by  the 
seats  for  the  clergy,  which  also  ran  along 
the  wall,  and  particularly'  surrounded  the 
altar.  Only  the  clergy  were  permitted  to 
enter  here.  The  altar  stood  in  the  center 
of  the  choir. 

Archives. —  Rooms  to  keep  for  safety 
and  examination  public  records  and  his- 
torical documents.  The  principal  archives 
of  the  Church,  from  apostolic  times  to  the 
present  day,  are  those  contained  in  the 
Vatican  at  Rome.  Pope  Leo  XIII.  has 
graciously  opened  the  Vatican  Archives  to 
public  examination.  They  contain  the 
most  rare  and  most  valuable  records  in  the 
world. 

Archontics.  —  Heretics  of  the  second 
century,  a  branch  of  the  Valentinians.  They 
received  this  name  because  they  attributed 
the  creation,  not  to  God  alone,  but  to 
divers  powers  or  principalities,  which  they 
called  Archontes.  They  rejected  the  sacra- 
ments, and  pretended  that  Sabaofh,  an  in- 
ferior archon  or  principal,  was  their  author. 
They  held  that  woman  was  the  work  of 
the  de\-il ;  denied  the  resurrection  of 
the  body,  and  permitted  every  excess  of 
sensual  indulgence.  They  had  books, 
which  they  called  Revelations  of  the 
Prophets.  Their  chief  was  one  named 
Peter,  priest  and  anchorite.  This  heresy 
started  in  Palestine;  Eutactus  carried  it 
into  Armenia,  and  it  was  refuted  by  St. 
Epiphanus  of  Salamia. 

Archpriest.  —  A  title  of  ecclesiastical 
dignity  which  gives  to  certain  priests  a 
pre-eminence  over  others.  Called  by 
the  Greeks  protopresbyter,  and  later 
frotopope.  The  title  dates  from  the  fourth 
century,  and  was  originally  given  to  the 
senior  by  ordination  in  a  diocese,  a  rule 
long  observed  in  the  West.  The  arch- 
priest,  or  dean  of  the  Cathedral,  assisted 


the  bishop  in  solemn  functions  as  well  as 
in  the  spiritual  adminstration,  though 
without  ordinary  jurisdiction;  the  rural 
archpriest,  or  dean,  had  a  limited  superin- 
tendence over  the  parish  priests  of  his 
deanery  or  district  of  the  diocese,  and 
formed  with  them  the  rural  Chapter,  as 
the  bishop  with  his  canons  formed  the 
Cathedral  Chapter.  The  archpriest,  in 
the  Catholic  Church,  at  the  present  time, 
is  merely  a  title  of  honor,  the  former 
duties  of  the  office  being  now  performed 
by  the  auxiliary  bishop  or  dean  of  the 
Cathedral  Chapter.  The  duties  of  rural 
archpriests,  since  the  Council  of  Trent, 
have  generally  devolved  on  the  vicars 
forane,  still  called  rural  deans,  or  directly 
on  the  bishop's  vicar-general. 

Aretas. —  Name  of  several  kings  of 
Arabia  Petraea.  One  of  them,  at  the  in- 
stigation of  the  Jews,  attempted  to  put  St. 
Paul    into    prison     (I.    Cor.    iL    32;     Cf. 

Acts  ix.  24,  25). 

Arianism. —  Name  of  the  most  formid- 
able heresy  of  ancient  times,  having  for 
its  founder  one  Arius,  a  native  of  Cyre- 
naic  LibA-a,  and  generally  supposed  to 
have  been  born  about  the  year  296.  In 
early  life,  we  find  him  mixed  up  in  the 
religious  disputes  going  on  at  Alexandria. 
Having  studied  under  Lucian,  at  Antioch, 
he  was  well  instructed  in  matters  of  exe- 
gesis, eloquent,  subtle,  and  ambitious  for 
fame.  Degraded  from  the  deaconate  for 
having  taken  part  with  Meletius,  Bishop  of 
Lycopolis,  in  Upper  Egypt,  in  strenuously 
opposing  certain  rules  of  discipline  enter- 
tained by  Peter,  Bishop  of  Alexandria, 
but  afterwards  became  reconciled  to  the 
latter.  The  reconciliation,  however,  was 
brief.  Arius  once  more  took  part  with 
Meletius,  and  was  excommunicated  by 
Peter  in  consequence ;  but  the  latter 
dying  soon  after,  Achillas,  his  successor, 
restored  Arius  to  his  office  and  raised  him 
to  the  priesthood.  His  new  function 
opened  vast  resources  to  his  already  gifted 
intellect,  and  it  is  no  wonder  that  his 
preaching  became  f>opular,  and  his  erro- 
neous opinions  vehemently  embraced.  In 
a  conference  held  in  313  with  his  bishop, 
Alexander,  Arius,  while  speaking  of  the 
Trinity,  rejected  the  eternal  generation  of 
the  Word  and  its  equal  divinity  to  that 
of  the  Father.  In  a  word,  he  denied 
that  the  Word  was  consubstantial  to 
the  Father,  and  alleged  that  such  a  con- 
ception   was    impossible     to    the    human 


Arianism 


6i 


Arianism 


mind,  and  accused  Alexander  of  Sabellian- 
ism,  /.  e.,  of  destroying  the  distinction  of 
persons.  In  maintaining  his  ground  Arius 
went  beyond  his  first  statement  of  the 
absolute  distinctness  of  person  between 
the  Father  and  the  Son ;  he  maintained 
that  the  Son  was  not  coequal  or  coeternal 
with  the  Father,  but  only  the  first  and 
highest  of  all  finite  beings,  created  from 
nothing,  by  an  act  of  God's  free  will,  and 
that  He  ought  not  to  be  ranked  with  the 
Father. 

In  holding  these  opinions,  we  find  that 
Arius  had  embraced  the  principles  of 
Philo.  Later  on,  he  expressed  himself 
more  fully  before  his  adherents  and  in 
public:  The  Father  alone  is  not  produced. 
He  alone  has  the  being  by  Himself;  if 
such  is  the  character  of  the  divine.  Being, 
if  this  is  a  condition  of  the  divine  unity, 
the  Son  cannot  be  but  having  been  pro- 
duced;  the  basis  of  His  Being  and  of  His 
essence  is  outside  of  Him ;  He  is  not  God, 
but  of  an  essence  different  from  that  of 
the  Father;  He  is  a  creature,  but  the  first 
of  the  creatures,  the  most  eminent,  mani- 
fested before  every  other  by  the  free  will 
of  God,  who  through  Him  creates  all 
things;  hence  there  has  been  a  time  when 
the  Son  was  not.  Thus  it  was  that  Arius 
denied,  with  the  Monarchians,  the  distinc- 
tion of  the  Persons  in  God,  maintained, 
with  Sabellius,  that  God  has  not  been 
eternally  Father,  that  He  became  this  only 
in  time,  when  He  created  the  world 
through  His  Son;  finally  he  taught,  with 
the  Manicheans,  that  Christ  has  delivered 
man  only  through  His  doctrine  and 
example. 

Arius,  not  heeding  the  admonitions  of 
his  bishop  nor  the  supplications  of  the 
priests  who  wished  to  see  him  reconciled 
to  the  Church,  was  excommunicated  at 
the  Council  of  Alexandria,  in  321.  Per- 
sisting in  his  opinions  and  in  open  defiance 
of  the  excommunication,  he  succeeded  in 
securing  the  adherence  of  a  number  of  the 
clergy  and  laity  in  Egypt,  Syria,  and  Asia 
Minor,  by  his  subtle  and  equivocal  expla- 
nations. To  escape  persecution,  Arius  re- 
tired to  Palestine,  where  he  wrote  a  letter 
to  his  friend  Eusebius,  who  was  Bishop  of 
Nicomedia,  a  city  of  Bithynia,  and  not  far 
from  Constantinople.  Eusebius,  one  of 
the  most  influential  Christians  of  his  time, 
warmly  sympathized  with  him ;  wrote  in 
his  behalf  to  Paulinus,  Bishop  of  Tyre, 
and  others ;  absolved  him  from  the  Alex- 
andrian Council's  excommunication;  and 


in  323  convened  another  Council  in  Bithy- 
nia, which  pronounced  favorably  on  Arius. 
He  even  enlisted  Constantine  on  the  side 
of  the  latter  to  the  extent,  at  least,  that  the 
emperor  addressed  admonitions  to  both 
Alexander  and  Arius,  assuring  them  that 
the  point  in  dispute  was  a  trifling  one,  and 
ought  not  to  provoke  a  serious  quarrel. 
While  Arius  was  residing  at  Nicomedia, 
he  wrote  a  theological  work  in  verse  and 
prose,  called  Thalcia,  some  fragments  of 
which  remain,  but  they  contain  expres- 
sions which  could  not  but  pain  a  believer 
in  the  divinity  of  Christ.  The  Thaleia  is 
said  to  have  been  sung  by  the  Arian 
neophytes,  who  thus  kindled  the  passions 
of  their  adversaries,  and  increased  the 
virulence  of  the  contest.  The  comedians, 
who  were  pagans,  took  advantage  of  the 
occasion  to  ridicule  the  Christian  religion 
in  the  theaters.  The  officers  of  the  em- 
peror, in  several  cities,  wished  to  repress 
the  profane  temerity,  but  the  insolence  of 
the  Arians  added  to  the  confusion. 

It  now  became  impossible  for  the  em- 
peror to  remain  neutral  or  indifferent  to 
the  spread  of  Arianism  and  its  fatal  conse- 
quences. Hosius,  Bishop  of  Corduba, 
whom  he  had  appointed  mediator  between 
Alexander  and  Arius,  took  part  with  the 
former  and  reported  unfavorably  of  the 
doctrine  of  Arius.  Seeing  the  tranquillity 
of  his  empire  threatened  and  dissensions 
among  the  eastern  Christians  growing 
more  numerous  through  the  efforts  of 
Arius  and  his  adherents,  he  listened  to  the 
advice  of  the  most  eminent  bishops  and, 
with  the  full  approbation  of  the  Pope,  con- 
voked the  Ecumenical  Council  of  Nice, 
in  325.  Three  hundred  and  eighteen  bish- 
ops from  all  parts  of  the  world  were  pres- 
ent, besides  numerous  priests  and  deacons 
well  versed  in  theology.  Arius  was  allowed 
to  explain  his  doctrines,  and  the  utmost 
freedom  and  facilities  were  provided  for 
him  at  each  session,  to  plead  his  case  be- 
fore attentive  listeners.  He  boldly  ex- 
pounded and  defended  his  opinions.  He 
declared  in  the  most  unambiguous  manner 
that  the  Son  of  God  was  created  out  of 
nothing;  that  He  had  not  always  existed; 
that  He  was  not  immutable  or  impeccable; 
that  it  was  through  His  free  will  He  re- 
mained good  and  holy;  that  if  He  had 
chosen.  He  could  as  easily  have  sinned  as 
not ;  in  a  word,  that  He  was  a  mere  creature 
and  a  work  of  the  Deity.  He  further  af- 
firmed that  the  Son  of  God  was  not  of  the 
same  substance   with  the  Father;  that  He 


Arianism 


62 


Arianism 


was  not  the  "Word"  or  "Wisdom,"  prop- 
erly speaking;  and  that  the  Scriptures 
only  attribute  these  names  to  Him  as  they 
do  to  other  created  intelligences. 

These  propositions  were  listened  to  with 
great  calmness  by  all  the  bishops  until  he 
had  done.  Then  the  document  containing 
his  confession  of  faith  was  torn  to  pieces 
before  his  face  and  consigned  to  the  flames. 
The  zealous  young  deacon,  Athanasius, 
more  than  the  equal  of  Arius  in  eloquence 
and  logic,  ably  seconded  Bishop  Alex- 
ander in  controverting  the  opinions  of 
Arius,  word  for  word.  The  logical  effect 
of  the  argument  was  so  precise  and  clear 
that  the  Council  defined  in  the  most  pre- 
cise manner  the  doctrine  of  the  Godhead, 
founded  on  that  of  the  Apostles,  and 
signed  by  all  the  bishops  except  two, 
Theonis  of  Marmarica,  and  Secundus  of 
Ptolemais. 

The  definition  of  the  Godhead,  declaring 
the  absolute  unity  of  the  divine  essence, 
and  the  absolute  equality  of  the  Three 
Persons ;  that  the  Son  of  God  is  true  God, 
i.  e.,  being  necessarily  of  the  essence  of 
the  Father,  and  not  made  from  a  substance 
equal  to  the  Father,  unmasked  the  errors 
of  Arius,  and  was  a  clear  admonition  to 
his  friend  Eusebius,  and  their  adherents. 
Even  in  exile  Arius  planned  various  am- 
biguous definitions  of  his  doctrines  to 
betray  Constantine  into  the  belief  that 
in  substance  he  acknowledged  the  Nicene 
symbol  of  faith.  He  went  so  far  as  to 
promise  to  conform  to  the  decisions  of  the 
Council.  Disappointed  in  his  expectations, 
Arius,  in  336  A.  D.,  proceeded  to  Con- 
stantinople, where  he  presented  the  em- 
peror with  another  apparently  orthodox 
confession  of  faith.  The  bishops  Eusebius 
and  Theonis  were  also  recalled  from  exile. 
Constantine  thought  by  this  declaration 
that  it  would  surely  tend  to  restore  peace 
and  unity  to  the  Church,  but  immediately 
on  their  return,  the  Arians  became  bolder 
and  continued  to  persecute  the  most  faith- 
ful defenders  of  the  Nicene  Creed  :  Eusta- 
chius  of  Antioch,  Athanasius,  etc.  Atha- 
nasius was  one  of  their  most  formidable 
antagonists,  and  they  sought  every  means  to 
influence  the  emperor  against  this  saintly 
champion  of  the  Church.  Believing  that 
peace  and  concord  would  more  readily  be 
restored  by  yielding  to  their  presentations, 
he  banished  Athanasius  to  Treves,  where 
his  voice  and  pen  could  not  exert  such  in- 
fluence among  eastern  Christians  against 
the  errors  of  Arianism. 


The  new  formula  of  faith  presented  by 
Arius  to  Constantine  was  so  ingeniouslv 
put  together  that  the  emperor  accepted 
his  adherence  to  the  Nicene  dogma,  and 
requested  Alexander,  Bishop  of  Constanti- 
nople, to  administer  to  him  Holy  Com- 
munion on  the  Sunday  following.  This 
was  considered  a  grand  triumph  by  Euse- 
bius and  his  friends,  and,  when  the  day 
arrived,  they  escorted  the  heresiarch 
through  the  streets  of  the  metropolis. 
When  about  to  enter  the  Church  of  the 
Apostles,  to  sacrilegiously  partake  of  the 
Body  and  Blood  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour 
Jesus  Christ,  whom  he  denied  being  co- 
eternal  and  coequal,  he  was  seized  with 
violent  colic  and  forced  to  seek  a  private 
closet  to  relieve  nature,  where  he  died  of 
a  painful  hemorrhage  in  a  few  moments. 

Arianism  did  not  cease  after  the  death 
of  its  founder.  On  the  contrary,  it  spread 
rapidly  in  the  East  under  the  Emperor 
Constantius,  and  conquest  over  Magnen- 
tius  gaining  dominion  over  the  West, 
spread  there  also.  The  Nicene  doctrine 
had  strong  support  on  its  side,  and  was 
strictly  maintained  by  the  banished  Athan- 
asius, and  all  in  communion  with  the  Holy 
See.  The  Arians  soon  became  divided  on 
points  of  doctrine  and  split  into  many 
parties.  The  old  Arians,  also  styled  Ano- 
moeans,  or  Heterousians,  asserted,  in  the 
boldest  style,  their  doctrine  of  "distinct 
substances."  The  semi- Arians  modified 
the  former  doctrine  by  acknowledging 
that  the  Son  of  God  was  similar  to  the 
Father,  at  least  by  grace.  Instead  of 
homousian,  which  means  consubstantial  — 
of  the  Same  sub.stance,  they  said  hotnoiou- 
sian  —  of  a  similar  substance.  Morally, 
the  victory  was  leaning  to  the  side  of  the 
Niceans.  Other  parties  qualified  the  doc- 
trines of  the  others  till  the  verbal  differ- 
ence between  them  and  the  orthodox  doc- 
trine was  in  some  instances  quite  slight. 
Each  sect  carried  the  name  of  its  chief. 
There  were  Eusebians,  Eunomeans,  Pho- 
tians,  Apollinarists,  Accacians,  Macedon- 
ians, etc. 

Julian  the  Apostate  (361-363),  in  his 
hatred  of  the  Christian  religion,  left  all 
parties  at  liberty  to  contend  as  they  pleased 
with  one  another,  so  that  they  did  not  in- 
terfere with  his  plans.  Indeed,  it  is  said 
that  he  favored  the  Arian  heresy  to  weaken 
the  true  Christians.  Arianism,  at  last, 
was  virtually  abolished  in  the  Roman 
empire  under  Theodosius  in  the  East 
(379-395),   and    Valentinianus    II.    in   the 


Arias  Montanus 


63 


Ark  of  the  Covenant 


West.  Among  the  German  nations,  how- 
ever, it  continued  to  spread.  The  Van- 
dals carried  it  into  Africa,  the  Burgundians 
into  Western  Gaul,  the  Visigoths  into 
Southern  Gaul  and  Spain.  The  Arian 
controversy  has  never  excited  any  great 
interest  in  modern  times,  though  Eras- 
mus was  accused  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury of  wishing  to  revive  this  doctrine  in 
his  Commentary  on  the  Ne%v  Testament, 
while  it  is  known  that  Michael  Servetus 
published  a  work  against  the  mystery  of 
the  Trinity  later  on,  which  served  as  a 
basis  for  a  new  system  of  Arianism.  This 
modern  heresy  degenerated  in  the  course 
of  time  into  Socinianism.  Dr.  Samuel 
Clarke  (1675-1729)  and  Whiston,  who  died 
in  1752,  tried  to  revive  it  in  England. 
Recently,  a  part  of  the  Arian  doctrine,  the 
denial  of  the  "eternal  sonship,"  was 
broached  in  the  Wesleyan  Methodist  Society 
by  Dr.  Adam  Clarke  and  a  few  followers, 
but  it  was  soon  suppressed  by  the  Confer- 
ence. Pure  Arianism  can  hardly  now  he 
said  to  exist.  It  has  gradually  lapsed  into 
Unitarianism. 

Arias  Montanus  (Benedictus)  (1527- 
1598)- — Spanish  Orientalist  and  philoso- 
pher; born  at  Frejenal,  in  the  mountains 
of  Estremadura,  whence  his  surname 
Montanus.  He  took  a  distinguished  part 
in  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  was  the  editor 
of  the  Antwerp  Polyglot  Bible  (1568-73). 

Ariel  (Hebr.  lion  of  God). —  Name  given 
by  Isaias  to  Jerusalem,  because  the  moun- 
tain on  which  it  was  built  resembles  a 
lion  at  rest. 

Arimathea  or  Rama. —  A  city  of  Pales- 
tine, near  Jerusalem,  now  called  Nebi- 
Sahamuil,  because  the  people  there  claim 
that  they  possess  the  tomb  of  Samuel. 
Country  of  Joseph  of  Arimathea,  a  disci- 
ple of  Christ. 

Arioch  (Chald.  servant  of  the  moon-trod). 
—  I.  King  of  Ellasar,  one  of  the  four  kings 
who,  at  the  time  of  Abraham,  made  an  at- 
tack on  the  cities  in  the  valley  of  Sodom 
(Gen.  xiv.).  In  the  book  of  Judith  (i.  6) 
he  is  called  king  of  Elam ;  identified  by 
some  with  Erim-agu,  king  of  Ellasar. —  2. 
A  captain  of  the  guard  of  Nabuchodonosor 
(Dan.  ii.  14  f.). 

Aristides  (St.). —  Christian  apologist, 
of  the  first  half  the  second  century,  was 
an  Athenian  by  birth,  and  wore,  after 
having  become  a  Christian,  the  gown  of 


the  philosophers.  The  Emperor  Adrianus, 
staying  in  Athens  in  125,  Aristides  pre- 
sented to  him  an  apology  for  the  Chris- 
tians, filled  with  passages  selected  from 
philosophers.  Adrianus  was  struck  by  it 
and  mitigated  the  lot  of  the  Christians. 
Of  this  long  lost  Apology,  a  considerable 
f  ragment,in  an  Armenian  translation  dating 
from  the  tenth  century,  was  found  in  1878 
in  an  old  codex  by  the  Mechitarist  monks  in 
Venice,  together  with  an  oration  ascribed 
to  Aristides.  But  in  the  year  18S9,  J.  Ren- 
del  Harris,  an  American  palaeographer, 
found  in  the  Convent  of  St.  Catharine,  on 
Mount  Sinai,  the  entire  Apology  of  Aris- 
tides in  a  Syrian  manuscript  of  the  sev- 
enth century;  and,  soon  after.  Professor 
Robinson  made  the  surprising  discovery 
that  the  Greek  text  also  was  to  be  found, 
not  only  in  manuscript,  but  actually 
printed,  since  1832,  in  the  Vita  Barlaam  et 
Joasafh,  found  among  the  writings  of  St. 
John  Damascene.  Though  the  three  texts 
agree  on  the  whole,  they  differ  from  each 
other  in  many  particulars,  but  the  Syrian 
seems  to  be  preferable. 

Aristo  of  Pella. — A  Jewish  Christian 
and  apologist  of  the  second  century,  of 
whose  life  we  know  very  little.  He  wrote 
Disputatio  yasonis  et  Papisci,  a  dialogue 
on  the  Christian  religion  between  Jason, 
a  converted,  and  Papiscus,  an  unconveited 
Jew.  It  was  written  in  Greek,  and  trans- 
lated into  Latin;  both  the  original  and  the 
translation  are  lost.  Its  object  was  to 
show  the  fulfillment  of  the  ancient  prophe- 
cies in  Jesus  Christ. 

Aristobolus. — Name  of  princes  and  high- 
priests  of  the  Jews.  Aristobolus  I.  Son  of 
John  Hyrcanus,  and  King  of  Judea  (106-105 
B.C.).  His  Hebrew  name  was  Judah.  Aris- 
tobolus II. —  Son  of  Alexander  Jannaeus ; 
died  about  48  b.  c.  Aristobolus  III. —  A 
Jewish  prince,  who  was  made  high-priest 
by  Herod  I.  Herod  had  him  assassinated 
aljout  30  B.  c. 

Ark  of  the  Covenant. —  One  of  the  most 
important  parts  of  the  furniture  of  the 
Tabernacle,  which,  by  divine  direction, 
the  Israelites  constructed  in  the  wilderness, 
and  afterwards  of  the  Temple,  built  by 
Solomon,  at  Jerusalem,  to  be  used  as  a 
sacred  depository  for  the  Tables  of  the 
Law.  It  was  a  chest  of  setim  wood, 
covered  with  gold  within  and  without,  two 
cubits  and  a  half  in  length,  one  cubit  and 
a  half  in  breadth  and  in  height  (according 


Arles 


64 


Arnauld 


to  the  common  estimate  of  the  length  of 
the  cubit,  three  feet  nine  inches  in  length, 
and  two  feet  three  inches  in  breadth  and 
height).  The  lid  was  formed  of  pure 
gold,  with  a  crown  or  raised  border  of 
gold.  Within  the  Ark  was  deposited 
the  "testimony,"  consisting  of  "the  two 
Tables  of  the  Law,"  /.  e.,  the  stone 
tablets  upon  which  the  ten  command- 
ments were  inscribed.  The  golden  lid  of 
the  Ark  was  called  mercy  seat  or  propitia- 
tory, and  above  it  were  the  Cherubim  made 
of  the  same  piece  of  gold  with  it,  and  be- 
tween them  was  the  place  of  the  Sheckinah 
or  manifestation  of  the  Divine  presence. 
The  Ark  had  also  golden  rings,  through 
which  thej  passed  staves  of  setim  wood, 
overlaid  with  gold,  for  carrying  it  in  the 
journeyings  of  the  Israelites  (Ex.  xxv.  10- 
22).  At  first  it  was  placed  in  the  part  of 
the  Tabernacle  called  the  Holy  of  Holies, 
and  later  on  in  the  Temple  of  Solomon. 
It  was  carried  before  the  people  when 
they  marched  to  battle.  The  Philistines 
got  possession  of  it  but  restored  it  shortly 
after.  Before  the  Babylonian  captivity, 
Jeremias  secreted  it  in  a  cave  of  Mount 
Nebo.  There  is  no  mention  of  it  being 
deposited  in  the  second  Temple,  and  the 
general  belief,  current  in  early  times,  was 
that  it  was  burned  at  the  destruction  of 
Solomon's  Temple. 

Aries.  —  One  of  the  oldest  towns  in 
France,  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
principal  branch  of  the  Rhone,  after  it  has 
divided  into  a  delta,  in  the  department 
of  Bouches  du  Rhone.  In  the  early 
Christian  times  several  important  synods 
were  convened  at  Aries  (314,  354,  452,  and 
475)- 

Armenia. — An  extensive  country  of  Asia, 
having  Media  on  the  east,  Cappadocia  on 
the  west,  Colchis  and  Iberia  on  the  north, 
Mesopotamia  in  the  south  and  the  Eu- 
phrates and  Syria  on  the  southwest 
(IV.  Ki.  xix.  37). 

Armenia  (^Christianity  in).  See  Grkg- 
ORY  THE  "Illuminator." 

Arminius  and  Arminians. —  A  r  m  i  n  i  u  s 
(1560-1609),  a  preacher  in  Amsterdam,  and, 
in  1603,  a  professor  in  Leyden,  dissented 
from  Calvin's  severe  doctrines  on  Free 
Will  and  Predestination,  and  adopted  a 
system  which  he  deemed  less  revolting  to 
the  reason  of  man.  He  was  opposed  by 
Gomar,  one  of  his  colleagues.  The  con- 
troversy   between    the    Arminians,    also 


called  "Remonstrants,"  from  their  Re- 
monstrance, which  in  1610  they  presented 
to  the  States-General,  and  the  Gomarists, 
known  also  as  Anti-Remonstrants,  led, 
early  in  the  seventeenth  centur}-,  to  civil 
commotions.  Repeated,  but  ineffectual, 
attempts  were  made  on  the  part  of  the 
civil  authorities  to  bring  about  a  recon- 
ciliation between  the  contending  parties. 
The  National  Synod  of  Dort,  in  1618, 
upheld  Calvin's  doctrines,  and  condemned 
the  Arminians  as  heretics,  who,  in  con- 
sequence, were  deprived  of  their  position, 
and  even  banished  from  the  countrv. 
Though  much  persecuted,  the  Arminians 
continued  as  a  distinct  organization  and 
are  chiefly  confined  to  the  Netherlands, 
where  they  number  only  about  twenty  con- 
gregations and  a  few  thousand  adherents. 
The  doctrine  of  Arminius,  and  of  Epis- 
copius,  his  successor,  against  that  of  Cal- 
vinism and  that  proclaimed  by  the  "  Synod 
of  Dort,"  was  as  follows: — i.  Conditional 
election  and  reprobation  in  opposition  to 
absolute  predestination  as  taught  by  Cal- 
vin. 2.  Universal  redemption,  or  that  the 
atonement  was  made  by  Christ  for  all 
mankind,  though  none  but  believers  can 
be  partakers  of  its  benefits.  3.  That  man, 
in  order  to  exercise  true  faith,  must  be 
regenerated  and  renewed  by  the  operation 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,  which  is  the  gift  of 
God.  4.  That  this  grace  is  not  irresistible. 
5.  That  believers  are  able  by  the  aid  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  to  resist  sin,  but  that  there  is 
always  in  this  life  the  possibilit}'^  of  the  fall 
from  grace,  in  opposition  to  the  Calvinistic 
doctrine  of  the  perseverance  of  the  saints. 
Protestants  in  general  shared  in  the  con- 
troversy excited  by  the  promulgation  of 
these  doctrines,  and  all  opponents  of  Cal- 
vinism are  still  often  characterized  as 
Arminians.  In  the  Church  of  England 
Arminianism  was  esp>ecially  favored  by  the 
High  Church  party.  The  Methodist  de- 
nomination was  divided  on  the  subject, 
the  followers  of  Wesley  being  Arminians 
and  those  of  Whitefield,  Calvinists. 

Arnaujd  (Angelica). —  Daughter  of  the 
following,  born  in  1591 ;  died  in  1661.  When 
only  14  years  old,  she  became  Abbess  of 
Port- Royal  des  Champs,  where  she  revived 
the  spirit  of  the  Institute  of  St.  Bernard. 
She  also  reformed  the  Abbey  of  Maubuisson. 
Arnauld  {"jfeanne  Catharine  Agnes  de 
St.  Pauiy — Sister  of  the  preceding  (1694- 
1671),  became  coadjutress  of  her  eldest 
sister,and  ruled  Port-Royal  after  hersister's 


Arnauld 


65 


Art 


death.  She  wrote  :  The  Image  of  the  Per- 
fect and  Imperfect  Religious  ( Paris,  1660)  ; 
The  Rosary  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament 
(1663),  suppressed  at  Rome,  without  being 
censured. —  The  four  other  daughters  of 
Antoine  Arnauld  were  also  religious  of 
Port-Royal  and  attached  to  the  Jansenist 
party. 

Arnauld  (Antoine)  (1560-1619). — 
Famous  lawyer,  son  of  the  general  advo- 
cate of  Catherine  de  Medici.  He  com- 
posed works  against  the  Jesuits  and  against 
Philip  II.  King  of  Spain.  He  had  by 
Catharine  Marion  twenty  children,  of 
whom  ten  survived  him. 

Arnauld  (Antoine). —  Son  of  the  pre- 
ceding and  youngest  of  his  children,  born 
at  Paris  in  161 2.  By  the  advice  of  Abbe 
St.  Cyran,  director  of  Port-Royal,  and 
friend  of  his  family,  he  embraced  the  eccle- 
siastical state  and  joined  the  cause  of  Jan- 
senism. Doctor  of  the  Sorbonne  in  1643, 
he  published  his  book  on  Frequent  Com- 
munion^ to  which  he  might  have  given 
just  the  opposite  title.  Violent  disputes 
broke  out  in  regard  to  this  subject.  A 
priest  of  St.  Sulpice  having  refused  abso- 
lution to  the  Duke  of  Liancourt,  who  had 
taken  up,  with  an  extraordinary  zeal,  the 
defense  of  the  book  of  Jansenius,  Arnauld 
wrote  in  favor  of  Jansenism  two  lively 
letters.  The  Sorbonne  censured  the  two 
following  propositions  :  The  Fathers  show 
us  a  just  man  in  the  person  of  St.  Peter,  in 
whom  grace,  without  which  we  can  do 
nothing,  was  wanting  on  one  occasion, 
where  we  cannot  say  that  he  did  not  sin. — 
We  can  doubt  whether  the  five  proposi- 
tions condemned  by  Innocent  X.  and  Alex- 
ander VII.  are  those  of  Jansenius,  Bishop 
of  Ypres,  and  whether  they  are  contained 
in  the  book  of  this  author.  Arnauld,  re- 
fusing to  subscribe  to  the  censure,  was 
excluded  from  the  Faculty.  A  transaction 
between  tlie  parties,  concluded  in  1669, 
under  the  name  of  "  Peace  of  Clement 
VII.,"  permitted  him  to  leave  without 
disgrace.  He  devoted  this  time  of  peace 
to  the  defense  of  Catholic  orthodoxy, 
against  the  Protestant  ministers  Claude 
and  Jurieu.  Then  he  published  (in  French) : 
Perpetuity  of  Faith ;  The  Destruction  of 
the  Morals  of  fesus  Christ  by  the  Calvin- 
ists,  and  several  other  works  of  contro- 
versy. But  his  relations  with  Port-Royal 
and  the  Jansenists  rendered  him  suspicious 
once  more.  He  was  obliged  to  leave  France ; 
he  went  to  Belgium,  where  in  spite  of  his 

5 


advanced  age  and  infirmities  he  did  not 
cease  to  write  and  to  fight.  He  died  at 
Liege  in  1694.     See  Jansenism. 

Arnobius. — A  distinguished  rhetorician. 
He  was  a  native  of  Sicca,  in  Africa,  and 
flourished  in  the  beginning  of  the  fourth 
century.  He  was  a  zealous  advocate  of 
paganism,  until,  as  St.  Jerome  relates,  he 
was  warned  by  heavenly  admonitions  to 
embrace  Christianity.  To  give  some  pub- 
lic proof  of  the  sincerity  of  his  conversion, 
Arnobius,  about  304,  wrote,  probably  at 
the  bidding  of  the  bishop  to  whom  he  ap- 
plied for  admission  into  the  Church,  his 
seven  books  of  Disputations  against  the 
Gentiles,  in  which  he  exposes  the  falla- 
cies of  heathenism  and  the  immorality  of 
idolatry.  He  dwells  in  particular  on  the 
reproach  made  by  the  pagans  that  the 
Christians,  by  despising  the  ancient  gods, 
were  the  cause  of  all  the  calamities  that 
befell  the  empire.  As  he  wrote  this  work 
while  a  novice  in  the  faith,  his  expressions 
are  somewhat  inaccurate  regarding  certain 
doctrines  of  the  Gospel.     He  died  in  325. 

Arnoldists. — Heretics  of  the  twelfth 
century,  who  took  their  name  from  the 
impetuous  Arnold  of  Brescia.  They  are 
said  by  some  writers  to  have  held  the 
errors  of  the  Petrobusians,  regarding  infant 
baptism  and  the  Holy  Eucharist.  Their 
special  doctrine  was,  that  secular  and  re- 
ligious power  ought  not  to  be  vested  in  the 
same  person ;  that  salvation  was  impossible 
to  a  priest  holding  property,  or  to  an 
ecclesiastic  exercising  temporal  power; 
and,  consequently,  that  Church  property 
might  be  lawfully  seized  by  laymen.  They 
are  branded  as  heretics  by  Pope  Lucius 
III.,  and  also  in  the  law  of  Frederick  II. 

Arnon  {Oued-Modjel). — River  of  Pales- 
tine, which  descends  from  the  mountains 
of  Galaad  into  the  Dead  Sea.  It  separates 
Palestine  from  Arabia. 

Arphaxad. —  x.  Son  of  Sem,  born  two 
years  after  the  Deluge,  and  father  of 
Cainan.  According  to  Josephus,  he  set- 
tled in  Chaldea. —  2.  King  of  the  Medes, 
mentioned  in  Judith,  where  it  is  said  that  he 
built  Ecbatana.  It  is  believed  that  he  is 
the  Phraortes  or  Phrartes  of  Herodotus, 
who  subdued  all  the  peoples  of  Asia,  and 
was  finally  conquered  and  killed  by  Nabu- 
chodonosor. 

Art  {Christian). —  Christian  art  was 
born  in  the  Catacombs  of  Rome.     It  com- 


Art 


66 


Artemon 


prises  three  periods :  The  first  answers  to 
the  age  of  primitive  Christianity;  the  sec- 
ond produced  in  the  Orient  the  Bjzantine 
style,  and  the  third  produced  in  the  Occi- 
dent the  Latin  and  Roman  style.  From 
the  first  century,  the  history  of  art  and 
the  Church  are  inseparable.  The  early 
Christians  employed  painting  in  the  dec- 
oration of  their  places  of  worship,  as 
abundant  evidence  in  the  Catacombs  bears 
witness.  Among  them  is  a  head  of 
Christ,  the  type  to  which  all  succeeding 
artists  have  adhered.  There  are  also  sev- 
eral representations  of  the  Blessed  Virgin 
and  a  head  of  St.  Peter  and  of  St.  Paul. 
(See  Painting).  In  the  fourth  century, 
after  the  recognition  of  Christianity,  art 
received  new  life  and  some  remains  may 
be  traced  to  that  time ;  but  it  relapsed  after 
the  Western  Empire,  and  would,  most 
probably,  have  been  forgotten  had  it  not 
been  for  the  monks.  Those  patient  toilers 
preserved,  through  the  illustration  of  the 
Bible,  and  the  illumination  of  missals,  the 
germs  which  in  the  thirteenth  century 
waxed  strong,  and  budded  and  bloomed 
into  beauty,  in  the  matchless  work  of 
Cimabue,  Nicholo,  Pisano,  and  Giotto, 
whose  names  will  remain  landmarks  in 
the  history  of  art  for  all  time. 

At  this  time,  art  completely  abandons  the 
ancient  traditions  to  take  a  new  form — all 
Christian  in  expression.  The  thought 
which  dominates  in  the  monuments  of  the 
thirteenth  century  is  the  transporting  to- 
wards heaven.  This  new  architecture,  so 
improperly  called  Gothic,  arose  in  the 
bosom  of  France,  perfected  by  French 
workmen  and  artists.  So,  too,  with 
sculpture ;  it  creates  from  itself  a  new 
type,  essentially  Christian,  through  which 
it  is  in  harmony  with  the  temples  it 
decorates ;  the  plastic  beauty  was  all  in 
the  pagan  statuary ;  in  the  statues  of  the 
Middle  Ages  it  is  the  expression  of 
the  moral  sentiment  which  is  predomi- 
nant. Finally,  a  new  art,  encouraged  and 
nurtured  by  the  French — the  painting  on 
glass — developed  during  this  time  and 
largely  contributed  toward  the  decoration 
and  solemnity  of  the  churches ;  touching 
the  vaulted  ceilings,  aisles,  altars,  paint- 
ings and  statuary  with  a  mellow  and  sub- 
dued coloring,  which  is  both  touching  and 
elevating  to  the  soul  and  to  the  artistic  sense. 
And  now  alter  the  great  architects  come 
the  great  painters;  the  latter  arose  in  Italy 
at  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century.  In 
the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries, 


the  master  works  of  the  Middle  Ages  were 
not  so  highly  prized  as  they  are  to-day. 
The  advancement  in  all  departments  of 
knowledge  has  cultivated  a  higher  ap- 
preciation of  the  classic  works  of  art  which 
will  stand  alone  in  their  perfection  for  all 
time. 

Art  {Christian)  and  Protestantism. — 
Protestantism,  says  Cardinal  Wiseman, 
presents  no  types  of  Christian  art.  It 
has  destroyed  the  types  of  the  past.  It 
excludes  as  legendary  all  the  most  beau- 
tiful histories  of  the  early  saints;  it  has 
quenched  all  sympathy  for  the  favorite 
themes  of  mediaeval  painting — the  Fathers 
of  the  Desert,  St.  Benedict,  and  the  great 
monastic  heroes;  and,  still  more,  the  in- 
spirer  and  the  maturer  of  art  and  of  its 
poetry,  the  glorious  St.  Francis  of  Assisium. 
And  as  to  the  present,  it  allows  no  com- 
munion with  saints  in  heaven,  and  conse- 
quently no  interest  in  having  their  effigies 
before  our  eyes;  no  loving  intercourse 
with  blessed  spirits,  and  therefore  no  right 
to  bring  them  visibly  in  action.  All 
ecstasy,  supernatural  contemplation,  vision, 
and  rapturous  prayer,  with  the  only  ap- 
proach to  heavenly  expression  that  earth 
can  give;  all  miracles  and  marvelous 
occurrences,  with  the  store  of  incident 
which  they  supply ;  all  mingling,  in  any  one 
scene,  of  the  living  and  the  blessed,  the 
past  and  the  present ;  in  fine,  all  the  poetry 
of  art,  is  coldly  cut  out  —  nay,  strangled 
and  quenched  —  by  the  hard  hand  of 
Protestantism. 

Furthermore,  Protestantism  lacks  essen- 
tially all  religious  tenderness  and  affection- 
ateness.  It  has  no  sympathy  with  the 
mysteries  that  touch  the  feelings.  The 
crucifix  is  to  it,  what  it  was  in  St.  Paul's 
time  dividedly  to  Jew  and  Gentile,  both  a 
stumbling  block  and  foolishness.  The 
Mother  of  sevenfold  grief  is  a  superstition. 
Meditation  on  the  Infancy  or  Passion  of 
Our  Lord  is  not  part  of  youthful  training 
in  its  schools;  it  has  not  produced  a 
tender  writer  on  these  subjects. 

Artemon  and  Artemonites. —  Artemon, 
the  founder  of  the  Artemonites,  taught  in 
Rome,  at  the  end  of  the  second  and  the 
beginning  of  the  third  century.  He  de- 
clared the  doctrine  of  the  Divinitj'  of 
Christ  to  be  an  innovation,  and  main- 
tained that  the  belief  of  his  party,  with  re- 
gard to  Christ,  was  the  primitive  one  in 
the  Church  during  the  first  two  centuries, 


Articles  of  Perth 


^7 


Articles 


till  the  faith  was  perverted  by  Pope 
Zephyrinus.  This  bold  assertion  was  ably 
refuted  by  a  Roman  presbyter  (Cajus  or 
Hippolytus)  from  the  sacred  Scriptures, 
the  writings  of  the  Fathers  and  the  Apolo- 
gists ;  by  the  prayers  and  hymns  of  the 
early  Church,  and  by  the  condemnation  of 
Theodotus  the  Tanner. 

Articles  of  Perth.  —  The  five  articles 
agreed  upon  at  a  General  Assembly  of  the 
Church  of  Scotland,  convened  by  James 
VI.,  in  1618,  enjoining  certain  episcopal 
observances,  such  as  the  observance  of  fast 
days,  kneeling  at  the  Lord's  Supper,  etc. 
They  were  ratified  by  the  Scotch  parlia- 
ment in  1621,  and  became  a  subject  of  bit- 
ter controversy  between  the  king  and  the 
people. 

Articles  of  Schmalkald.  —  Articles  of 
Protestant  faith,  drawn  up  by  Luther,  and 
submitted  to  a  meeting  of  Protestant  elec- 
tors, princes,  and  States,  at  Schmalkald, 
Germany,  in  1537,  intended  to  bring  them 
into  closer  union  and  form  a  league  against 
the  Catholic  States  and  Charles  V. 

Articles  {The  Lambeth). — Nine  articles 
drawn  up  at  Lambeth,  England,  in  1595, 
which  were  intended  to  deiine  the  Calvin- 
istic  doctrine  with  regard  to  predestination, 
justification,  etc. 

Articles  {The  Six). — These  are  often 
mentioned  in  the  ecclesiastical  his- 
tory of  England  as  the  "whip  with  six 
strings,"  or  "  bloody  statute,"  as  they  were 
called  from  the  bloody  persecutions  to 
which  they  gave  rise.  These  articles  were 
imposed  by  act  of  parliament  in  1539,  when 
Henry  VIIL,  was  displeased  with  some  of 
the  bishops  most  favorable  to  the  Reforma- 
tion. They  upheld  the  doctrine  of  Tran- 
substantiation,  declared  communion  in  one 
kind  only  necessary,  condemned  the  mar- 
riage of  priests,  enjoined  the  continued 
observance  of  vows  of  chastity,  and  sanc- 
tioned private  Masses  and  auricular  con- 
fession. Severe  penalties  were  appointed 
for  writing  or  speaking  against  them,  and 
for  abstaining  from  confession  or  Com- 
munion at  the  accustomed  times,  for  priests 
failing  to  put  away  their  wives,  and  for 
persons  writing  or  speaking  against  the 
doctrine  of  Transubstantiation.  Arch- 
bishop Cranmer  vainly  opposed  the  act 
in  the  House  of  Lords  as  a  "blow  to  the 
Reformation"  ;  the  king  was  resolved  to 
have  it  passed.     Its  severity  was  mitigated 


by    a    subsequent    act    of   Henry's    reign 
(1544),  and  repealed  in  1549. 

Articles  {The  Thirty-Nine).— Kre  the 
articles  of  religion  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, which  were  agreed  upon  by  the 
archbishops  and  bishops  of  both  provinces 
and  the  whole  clergy,  in  the  Convocation 
held  in  London  in  the  4th  year  of  Eliza- 
beth, 1562,  under  Archbishop  Parker.  In 
the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  the  original  arti- 
cles were  forty-two  in  number,  and  were 
set  forth  by  the  King's  authority  in  1552. 
To  these  articles  was  prefixed  the  Cate- 
chism, nearly  all  of  which  was  the  work 
of  Cranmer,  for  he  acknowledged  before 
Queen  Mary's  commission  that  they  were 
his  doing.  After  Edward's  death,  one  of  the 
first  acts  of  the  Convocation  was  to  reject 
these  forty-two  articles.  In  1558,  Eliza- 
beth succeeded  her  sister,  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  Parker  was  installed  in  the 
see  of  Canterbury,  and  then  came  a  fresh 
opportunity  for  drawing  up  some  articles 
of  faith  which  might  be  binding  on  the 
Anglican  Church.  Parker  revised  the 
forty- two  articles  of  King  Edward,  reject- 
ing four  of  them  entirely,  and  introducing 
four  new  ones,  viz. :  the  5th,  12th,  29th, 
and  30th,  as  they  now  stand,  and  altering 
more  or  less  seventeen  others.  This  draft 
Parker  laid  before  the  Convocation,  which 
met  in  1562,  where  further  alterations  were 
made;  and  the  39th,  40th,  and  42d  of 
King  Edward,  which  treated  of  the  resur- 
rection, the  intermediate  state,  and  the 
doctrine  of  the  final  salvation  of  all  men, 
were  finally  rejected.  The  41st  of  King 
Edward's  articles,  which  condemned  the 
Millenarians,  was  one  of  the  four  which 
Parker  omitted.  Thus  the  articles  were  re- 
duced to  thirty-nine.  They  were  drawn  up 
and  ratified  in  Latin,  but  when  they  were 
printed,  as  was  done  both  in  Latin  and 
English,  the  29th  was  omitted,  and  so  the 
number  was  further  reduced  to  thirty- 
eight.  From  these  thirty-eight  there  was 
a  further  omission,  viz.,  of  the  first  half  of 
the  20th  article,  which  declares  that  "the 
Church  hath  power  to  decree  rites  and 
ceremonies,  and  hath  authority  in  contro- 
versies of  faith."  As  all  the  records  of 
the  Convocation  perished  in  the  great  fire 
of  1666,  it  is  difficult  to  tell  who  author- 
ized Parker  to  make  the  omissions,  altera- 
tions and  additions,  and  to  place  a  num- 
ber of  clergy  "  under  ban"  for  accepting 
the  original  draft  instead  of  the  revised 
and  altered  one.     However,  the  commis- 


Asa 


68 


Ascension  Day 


sion  had  found  some  of  the  bishops  and 
clergy  adhering  to  the  42  articles,  while 
others  maintained  the  original  draft.  This 
was  leading  to  different  beliefs  among  the 
professed  members  of  the  Church,  some 
holding  to  the  doctrine  of  purgatory,  and 
others  to  the  final  salvation  of  all  men  by 
receiving  the  last  rites  prescribed  by  the 
Church  to  the  dying.  In  1571,  the  articles 
once  more  underwent  revision  and  altera- 
tion. Some  clamored  for  a  radical  change 
in  doctrine  and  for  a  complete  elimination 
of  Catholic  doctrine.  Parker  and  Jewel 
made  some  alterations  to  satisfy  the  ex- 
treme Churchmen,  and  an  act  of  parlia- 
ment was  passed,  in  that  year,  compelling 
the  clergy  to  subscribe  to  "  such  of  them  as 
only  concern  the  confession  of  the  true 
Christian  faith,  and  the  doctrine  of  the 
sacraments."  The  question  now  arose, 
which  was  the  authorized  copy,  some  of 
the  copies  being  printed  with,  and  others 
without,  the  disputed  clause  of  the  20th 
article  and  the  restoration  of  the  whole  of 
the  29th.  The  articles  in  dispute  were  set- 
tled, and  the  whole  thirty-nine,  as  they  now 
stand,  were  approved  in  1604 ;  and  adopted 
by  the  Convocation  of  the  English  Church 
in  Ireland  in  1635,  and  by  the  Scotch  Epis- 
copal Church  in  1804,  and,  with  certain 
modifications,  by  the  Protestant  Episco- 
pal Church  of  the  United  States. 

Theologians  find  in  the  thirty-nine  arti- 
cles of  faith  a  curious  admixture.  Some 
of  them  have  been  taken  from  the  Confes- 
sion of  Augsburg,  others  from  Melanch- 
thon's  Afology  and  Luther's  writings,  and 
not  a  few  from  the  articles  drawn  up  by  a 
commission  appointed  by  Henry  VIII., 
which  contain  some  points  of  Catholic 
doctrine.  Cranmer  framed  the  nth  arti- 
cle, on  justification;  three  of  the  bishops 
of  the  Convocation  which  ratified  said 
articles  were  accused  of  Arianism,  and  no 
two  wholly  agreed  on  certain  clauses 
which  were  added  from  time  to  time.  Is 
it  possible  that  a  Church  which  came  into 
existence  at  the  bidding  of  a  lecherous 
t3'rant  and  murderer,  which  changed  its 
confession  of  faith  in  each  successive  reign 
according  to  the  royal  pleasure  and  the 
will  of  the  parliament,  that  promulgated 
its  liturgy  by  the  force  of  the  halter  and 
the  stake,  was  the  Church  of  Christ.? 

Asa. —  Son  and  successor  of  Abia,  king 
of  Juda  (944-904  B.  c).  Restored  the  wor- 
ship of  the  true  God,  conquered  the  Moab- 
ites  and  Ethiopians.     He  united  with  the 


king  of  Syria  against  the  kingdom  of  Is- 
rael, and  imprisoned  the  Prophet  Ananias, 
who  reproached  him  for  that  alliance;  but 
he  repented  and  reigned  happily  during  41 
years.     Josaphat  was  his  successor. 

Asael. —  Son  of  Sar\'ia,  brother  of  Jacob ; 
one  of  David's  thirty  heroes,  and  extremely 
swift  of  foot.  He  was  killed  by  Abner,  in 
the  battle  of  Gabaon. 

Asaph. —  A  celebrated  musician  in 
David's  time,  and  one  of  the  precentors  of 
the  Temple  music.  Some  Psalms  are  at- 
tributed to  him,  but  it  is  probable  that  he 
only  set  them  to  music. 

Ascalon. —  One  of  the  five  chief  cities  in 
the  land  of  the  Philistines,  on  the  coast  of 
the  Mediterranean,  39  miles  southwest  of 
Jerusalem.  After  the  death  of  Josue,  the 
tribe  of  Juda  took  Ascalon.  Its  site  is 
marked  by  the  modern  village  of  Asgalan. 

Ascension  Day  (sometimes  called  Holy 
Thursday). —  One  of  the  greatest  festivals 
in  the  Catholic  Chun  h.  It  is  celebrated  on 
the  fortieth  day  after  Easter,  and  is  intended 
to  commemorate  the  Ascension  of  Christ 
into  heaven.  Ascension  Day  has  been  ob- 
served from  the  earliest  times  of  the 
Christian  Church.  St.  Augustine  believes 
it  to  have  been  instituted  by  the  Apostles 
themselves  or  the  primitive  bishops  suc- 
ceeding them.  Christ  having  remained 
with  His  Apostles  forty  days  after  His 
resurrection,  and  having  them  sufficiently 
instructed  to  go  forth  and  preach  His  Gos- 
pel to  all  nations,  He  led  them  outside  the 
citj  of  Jerusalem;  then,  extending  His 
hand  to  bless  them,  He  raised  Himself  up 
to  heaven  in  their  presence,  and  seated 
Himself  at  the  right  hand  of  God,  His 
Father,  from  whence  He  shall  come  to 
judge  the  living  and  the  dead,  and  render 
to  each  according  to  his  works  (Acts  i.  i 
II.).  Several  ancient  writers  assure  us  that 
Christ  left  the  impress  of  His  feet  upon 
the  ground  when  He  raised  Himself  up  to 
heaven.  In  order  to  preserve  every  re- 
membrance of  our  Saviour's  Passion,  Res- 
urrection and  Ascension,  the  Empress 
Helena  caused  a  magnificent  Church  —  the 
Church  of  the  Ascension  —  to  be  built 
over  the  place,  leaving  unpaved  the  spot 
where  the  imprint  of  the  Saviour's  feet 
was  visible ;  and  in  closing  the  vault,  a 
part  was  left  open  to  indicate  the  direc- 
tion the  Redeemer  took  in  ascending  to 
heaven.  St.  Augustine  is  of  the  opinion 
that  the  ascension  took  place  at  the  hour 


Ascetic 


69 


Ash  Wednesday 


of  noon.  The  Apostolic  Constitutions  or- 
dain that  the  Church  shall  celebrate  the 
feast  on  Thursday,  the  fortieth  day  after 
His  resurrection. 

Ascetic  (Gr.  Asketes,  from  Askein,  to 
exercise  oneself). —  Name  given  to  those 
Christians  who  practiced  penance,  fasts, 
abstinence,  self-mortification,  etc.  Among 
the  Greeks  asceticism  denoted  the  exer- 
cise and  discipline  practiced  by  athletes  or 
wrestlers  who  had  to  harden  their  bodies 
by  exertion  and  to  avoid  all  sensual  and 
effeminating  indulgences.  In  modern 
times  the  name  is  also  applicable  to  one 
who  retires  from  the  ordinary  bustle  and 
business  of  life  to  engage  in  pious  exer- 
cises, or  who  withdraws  from  society  to 
practice  the  austerity  of  the  recluse  or 
hermit. 

Ascetical. — That  which  has  reference  to 
the  exercise  of  the  spiritual  life  and  bodily 
mortification;  ascetical  theology  which 
treats  of  the  mastering  of  the  desires  and 
passions  and  the  practice  of  severe  virtue; 
the  ascetics  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Church, 
V.  ff.,  of  St.  Basil.  The  word  has  been 
adopted  by  modern  Protestants  to  desig- 
nate that  part  of  ethics  which  treats  of  the 
practice  of  virtue,  or,  in  other  words,  the 
essence  of  asceticism  is  to  hold  self-denial 
and  suffering  to  be  meritorious  in  the 
sight  of  God,  in  and  for  itself,  without 
regard  to  whether  it  promotes  in  any  way 
the  good  of  others  or  the  improvement  of 
the  ascetic's  individual  character.  Though 
the  fundamental  principle  of  the  Reforma- 
tion is  that  salvation  is  secured  by  justifi- 
cation through  faith,  and  not  through 
"dead  works,"  yet,  the  ascetic  spirit  often 
shows  itself  still  animate  under  various 
disguises  of  Protestantism. 

Asceticism. — The  life  or  practice  of  an 
ascetic ;  the  principles  and  historic  customs 
of  ascetics.  In  the  Christian  sense,  ascet- 
icism signifies,  in  general,  the  exercise  of 
every  action  which  furthers  the  self-perfec- 
tion of  man,  especially  self-command,  self- 
denial, and  mortification  of  the  lower  sensual 
nature.  In  this  sense,  asceticism  is  the  duty 
of  every  Christian.  The  teaching  of  St. 
Paul  in  comparing  the  Christians  to  wrest- 
lers who  had  to  contend  with  Satan,  the 
world,  and  the  flesh,  contributed  to  the 
mastering  of  the  passions,  though  the  phi- 
losophy of  the  time  exercised  an  influence 
toward  it,  as  it  held  the  freeing  of  mind  from 
matter  to  be  the  means  of  union  with  God ; 


or,  at  least,  that  the  refraining  from  all  lux- 
urious pleasure  was  the  way  to  restore  the 
soul  to  its  original  purity.  In  a  more  re- 
stricted sense,  asceticism  designates  an  un- 
measured degree  of  self-  victory,  like  the 
renouncing  of  earthly  possessions,  pleasure, 
abstinence  in  eating  and  drinking,  exercise 
of  penance,  abstinence  from  marriage,  and 
submission  of  our  own  will  to  that  of  a 
superior.  The  ascetic  is  one  who  wishes 
to  obtain,  through  such  means,  a  higher 
state  of  holiness  than  is  generally  attained. 
Towards  the  beginning  of  the  second 
century,  the  ascetic  spirit  began  to  show 
itself  in  the  practice  of  poverty,  celibacy, 
and  abstinence  from  all  sensual  gratifica- 
tion. Some  of  the  ascetics  remained 
among  men,  and  others  dwelt  apart  as 
hermits.  The  union  of  scattered  hermits 
into  separate  communities,  was  first  made 
by  Pachomius  in  340  a.  d.  Afterwards, 
each  community  followed  the  rule  of  its 
founder,  and  this  virtually  led  to  the 
institution  of  monasticism.      See  Monas- 

TICISM. 

Ashdod  (Gr.  Azottis). —  One  of  the  five 
cities  of  the  Philistine  confederacy,  and  a 
seat  of  the  worship  of  Dagon,  the  fish-god 
(I.  Ki.  V.  5),  between  Gaza  and  Jaffa.  It  was 
assigned  to  the  tribe  of  Juda,  but  was  never 
subdued  by  the  Israelites.  It  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  Machabees  (I.  Mach.  v.  68; 
X.  84).  Its  site  is  marked  by  the  modern 
village  of  Esdud. 

Ashima  or  Asima. — A  deity  adored  by 
the  people  of  Hamath,  who  settled  in  Sa- 
maria. It  means,  probably,  the  same  as 
the  Persian  word  asuman,  heaven;  and 
signifies  the  host  of  heaven,  that  is,  the 
stars,  or  perhaps  the  sun  alone. 

Ashtoreth  (plural  AsktarotJi,  called  by 
the  Greeks  Astarte). —  A  goddess  of  the 
Phoenicians,  whose  worship  was  also  intro- 
duced among  the  Israelites  and  Philis- 
tines. She  is  more  commonly  named  in 
connection  with  Baal.  Another  Hebrew 
name  for  the  same  goddess  is  AsheraJi,  that 
is,  the  happy,  the  fortunate;  or  more 
simply,  fortune.  In  connection  with  the 
worship  of  Astarte,  there  was  much  of 
dissolute  licentiousness;  and  the  public 
prostitutes  of  both  sexes  were  regarded  as 
consecrated  to  her. 

Ash  Wednesday  is  the  first  day  of 
Lent,  so  called  from  the  Catholic  cere- 
mony of  blessing  ashes  and  strewing  it 
upon  the  forehead  of  the  clergy  and  laity 


Asia 


70 


Aspersion 


as  a  sign  of  penance.  The  Fathers  of  the 
Church,  especially  St,  Gregory,  call  the 
first  day  of  Lent  the  "  head  of  the  fast," 
caput  jejunii,  because  it  is  on  this  day 
that  the  fast  of  Lent  begins.  This  custom 
is  very  ancient,  for  we  know  it  was  ob- 
sers-ed  in  the  time  of  Pope  Gregory  the 
Great  (590-604).  The  covering  of  the 
head  with  ashes  has  long  been  a  common 
sign  of  mourning  among  eastern  nations, 
indicative  of  the  deepest  sorrow  and  dis- 
tress. Instances  of  this  are  mentioned  in 
Scripture.  Jeremias  advises  the  people 
of  Jerusalem  to  cover  themselves  with 
ashes  to  escape  the  wrath  of  Nabuchodo- 
nosor  ( Jer.  xxv.  34).  The  Nini^•ites  dressed 
in  sackcloth  and  put  ashes  upon  their  heads 
to  avert  the  heavenly  vengeance  (Jonas  iii. 
6).  The  Christian  Church  has  adopted  a 
symbol  so  potent  to  excite  in  the  soul  senti- 
ments of  humility,  compunction,  and  pen- 
ance, by  reminding  us  that  we  are  but  dust 
and  unto  dust  shall  return.  Penitents,  in 
the  early  Christian  Church,  testified  their 
sorrow  and  humiliation  at  times  by  stand- 
ing at  the  door  of  the  Church  in  "  sack- 
cloth and  ashes."  The  ashes  are  blessed 
at  the  altar,  immediately  before  Mass ;  the 
celebrant  marks  on  the  heads  of  the  clergy 
and  the  assembled  people,  with  the  blessed 
ashes,  and  to  each  person  he  thus  marks, 
he  addresses  the  words  which  God  an- 
nounced to  the  first  sinner:  "Remember, 
O  man !  that  thou  art  dust  and  that  thou 
shalt  return  untodust  "  (Gen.  iii.  19).  The 
ashes  that  are  used  on  Ash  Wednesday 
should  be  dry ;  this  the  Sacred  Congrega- 
tion of  Rites  specifies  (May  23d,  1693, 
afud  Gardellint,  vol.  I,  p.  19).  They 
should  be  made  from  the  branches  blessed 
on  Palm  Sunday,  the  year  previous.  The 
Rubric  of  the  Missal  is  formal  on  this 
point.  These  ashes,  are  indeed  the  re- 
mains of  the  glory  of  the  God-Man,  and 
as  the  seed  of  that  which  is  reserved  for  us 
in  heaven.  Hence  we  should  receive  them 
in  accordance  with  the  sentiments  of  the 
Church. 

Asia. — The  largest  division  of  land  on 
the  globe,  generally  regarded  as  the  birth- 
place of  the  human  race,  and  the  most 
ancient  seat  of  civilization.  The  same  Asian 
characteristic  of  variety  and  wide  con- 
trast is  found  in  the  religious  creeds  as  in 
the  countries  and  tribes  of  people :  The 
Brahminical  religion  of  India;  the  doctrines 
of  Buddha,  Confucius,  and  of  I.,avtse  in 
China ;  the  worship  of  the  Grand  Lama  in 


Tibet ;  the  creed  of  Islam  in  several  varie- 
ties in  Arabia,  Persia,  and  India;  the  rude 
heathenism  of  the  north ;  the  various 
sects  of  native  Christians  in  Armenia, 
Syria,  Kurdistan,  and  India;  the  Greek 
Church  in  Siberia, —  these  and  other  forms 
of  belief  or  religious  profession,  display 
diversities  and  contrasts  nearly  as  striking 
as  Asian  geography. 

Christianity,  however,  has  spread  with 
the  European  populations.  The  so-called 
orthodox  religion  in  the  Russian  Empire ; 
Anglicanism,  and  other  denominations  of 
Protestantism,  are  mostly  found  in  English 
possessions,  while  Catholic  missionaries, 
besides  preaching  the  Gospel  in  Asia,  have 
founded  flourishing  missions  in  Syria,  India, 
Japan,  and  China.  The  Catholic  Hier- 
archy of  Asia  at  the  present  time,  com- 
prises six  patriarchates ;  26  archbishoprics ; 
51  bishoprics;  five  apostolic  delegations; 
26  apostolic  vicariates ;  six  apostolic  pre- 
fectures, with  a  Catholic  population  of 
about  nine  millions. 

Asia  Minor. — The  ancient  name  of  what 
is  now  called  Anatolia.  Many  of  its  cities 
were  famed  as  seats  of  civilization,  litera- 
ture, and  commerce.  Since  the  Christian 
era  it  has  been  divided  into  numerous 
sects,  and  many  of  the  heresies  which  have 
antagonized  the  Church  from  apostolic 
times  found  many  adherents  among  the 
people.  To-day,  pure  Christianity  has  to 
contend  against  Mohammedanism,  Armini- 
anism,  and  the  Russian  Church. 

Asiongaber  (the  modern  Akabak). — An- 
cient port  of  Arabia,  on  the  Elamitic  Gulf, 
whence  the  Hebrews  and  Phoenicians  de- 
parted to  trade  with  Ethiopia  and  Arabia 
Felix. 

Asmodeus  (from  the  Hebr.  samad,  de- 
stroyer).—  Demon  of  which  there  is  men- 
tion in  the  Book  of  Tobias  and  in  the 
Talmud.  The  Rabbis  call  him  "  the 
prince  of  demons."  He  is  generally  looked 
upon  as  the  demon  of  licentiousness. 

Asmoneans. —  Name  given  to  the  Mach- 
abees,  natives  of  Amson,  in  the  tribe  of 
Simeon,  or  descendants  of  a  certain  Asmo- 
neus. 

Asor. —  Musical  instrument  of  the  He- 
brews, formed  of  10  strings  mounted  on 
an  oblong  square ;  they  played  on  it  either 
with  the  fingers  or  a  plectrum. 

Aspersion  (from  the  Lat.  aspergere, 
from    ad    and    spar  go,    I  spread). —  The 


Assar-Haddon 


71 


Assumption 


religious  ceremony  of  spreading  or  sprink- 
ling water  over  the  people  or  objects  which 
are  to  be  blessed.  Aspersion  is  found  al- 
most among  all  nations.  The  Jews  had 
different  aspersions  ordained  by  the  Law 
of  Moses.  Our  blessed  water  has  evi- 
dently replaced  the  lustral  water  of  the 
Romans.  The  rite  of  aspersion  goes  back 
to  the  first  centuries  of  the  Church.  Pope 
St.  Clement  prescribes  aspersions  with 
water  mixed  with  oil.  Alexander  substi- 
tuted the  salt  for  the  oil ;  we  bless  water 
and  salt  to  be  used  in  sprinkling  the  people. 
The  prayers  said  in  the  blessing  of  the 
water  consist  in  exorcisms  over  the  water 
and  salt;  they  are  found  in  almost  all  the 
missals.  The  custom  of  blessing  water 
every  Sunday  before  Mass  is  of  the  high- 
est antiquity;  it  is  evidently  connected 
with  the  custom  that  the  early  Christians 
had  of  washing  their  hands  and  faces  in 
blessed  water  to  purify  themselves  be- 
fore entering  the  church.  See  Blessed 
Water. 

Assar-Haddon.  —  King  of  Syria,  of  the 
second  dynasty,  successor  to  his  father  Sen- 
nacherib in  681  B.  c.  He  commanded  an 
army  in  Armenia  when  he  learned  the 
news  of  the  assassination  of  his  father  by 
his  eldest  sons.  Assar-Haddon  hastily  re- 
turned, defeated  his  two  brothers  at 
Khanir-rabat,  in  January  680,  and  was  pro- 
claimed king.  He  invaded  Syria,  de- 
stroyed Sidon,  and  transported  the  skilled 
laborers  to  Babylon.  He  went  south  into 
the  heart  of  Arabia,  and  north  as  far  as  the 
Caucasus,  subduing  the  Cimmerians  and 
Medes.  In  672,  he  invaded  Egypt,  eflfected 
its  conquest,  and  defeated  the  Ethiopian 
prince  Tirhaka.  He  divided  Egypt  into 
20  governments.  In  669,  Assai'-Haddon 
fell  sick.  In  668  he  associated  his  son 
Assurbanipal  with  the  government,  and 
died  at  Babylon  in  667.  Under  his  rule,  all 
Western  Asia  formed  one  single  empire. 

Assemani. — Name  of  a  famous  family  of 
United  Maronites.  i.  Giuseppe  Aloys  to, 
A.  Born  at  Tripoli,  Syria,  about  1710; 
died  at  Rome,  1782.  A  Syrian  Orientalist 
and  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at 
Rome.  2.  Sif/ione  A. —  Born  at  Tripoli, 
Syria,  1687;  died  at  Rome,  1768.  A  Syr- 
ian Orientalist,  custodian  in  the  Vatican 
library;  author  oi  Bibliof/ieca  Orientalis, 
Clementino-Vaticana  (1719-1728).  3.  Ste- 
fano  Evodio,  A. —  Born  at  Tripoli,  Syria, 
1707;  died  1782.  A  Syrian  Orientalist 
and    custodian    in    the    Vatican    library. 


His  works  include  Bibliothecce  Mediceo- 
LaurentiancB  ct  Palatince  cod.,  etc.{i']^2)  \ 
Ada  Sanctorum  Martyrum  (1748),  etc. 

Assuerus  (more  correctly  Ahasuerus,  or 
Achasverosch,  derived  from  the  Sanscrit 
kchatra,  king,  which  became  kchesche  in 
the  cuneiform  inscriptions). —  i.  Assuerus. 
—  King  of  the  Medes,  mentioned  in  Daniel 
( ix.  I.) .  This  ruler  has  been  identified  with 
Cyaxares,  father  of  Astyages,  who  con- 
quered Ninive.  2.  Assuerus. —  King  of  the 
Medes  mentioned  in  Esdras  (iv.  6),  to 
whom  the  enemies  of  the  Jews, — desirous  of 
hindering  the  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem,  sent 
accusations  against  the  latter, —  is  the  Cam- 
byses  of  history,  who  waged  war  and  died 
in  Egypt.  3.  Assuerus. — The  best  known, 
is  the  potentate  who  figures  in  the  Book  of 
Esther.  Having  repudiated  Queen  Vasthi, 
who  had  refused  to  appear  at  a  court  festival, 
Assuerus  married,  four  years  afterwards, 
a  young  Jewess  named  Esther,  a  ward  of 
Mardochai.  Five  years  after  this  mar- 
riage, the  minister  Aman,  on  account  of 
some  insult  he  had  had  to  suffer,  persuaded 
the  king  to  murder  all  the  Jews  of  the 
empire.  But  a  few  days  before  the  fatal 
date,  Esther  and  Mardochai  succeeded  in 
so  completely  overthrowing  the  influence 
of  Aman  that  the  latter  was  executed  in- 
stead of  the  Jews,  and  the  king  permitted 
them  to  defend  themselves  against  their 
enemies,  whom  they  murdered  by  thou- 
sands. This  Persian  king  has  been  identi- 
fied with  the  historic  Xerxes  according  to 
two  concordances  between  Scripture  and 
Herodotus  (Her.  vii.  7,  and  Esther,  i.  3; 
Her.  ix.  108,  and  Esther,  x.  i). 

Assumption. —  Term  employed  to-day 
in  the  language  of  the  Church  to  signify 
the  miraculous  removal  into  heaven  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  body  and  soul. 
Jesus  Christ,  before  dying,  having  recom- 
mended His  Mother  to  St.  John, this  Apostle 
took  care  of  her,  and  it  is  believed  that  she 
followed  him  to  Asia,  and  finally  settled  at 
Ephesus  where  she  died.  The  Church 
honors  her  death  under  the  name  of  depo- 
sition, rest,  sleep,  passage,  since  the  be- 
ginning of  the  fifth  century,  as  it  appears 
from  a  letter  of  the  Ecumenical  Council  of 
Ephesus,  of  the  year  431.  Since  the  cen- 
tury following,  the  Faithful  commenced  to 
distinguish  the  Assumption  from  the  other 
solemnities  of  the  Blessed  Virgin.  About 
the  end  of  the  seventh  century,  the  belief 
in  her  resurrection  became  current.  We  find 
this  pointed  out  under  the  name  of  Assump- 


Assyria 


72 


Assyria 


tion  in  an  ancient  Martjrology  attributed 
to  St.  Jerome,  and  in  the  Sacramentaries 
of  Popes  St.  Gelasius  and  St.  Gregory. 
The  Feast  of  Assumption  is  celebrated  on 
August  15th.  In  regard  to  this  assump- 
tion or  resurrection  of  body  and  soul  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin  into  heaven,  it  is  no 
article  of  faith,  but  only  a  common  opin- 
ion which  it  would  be  rash  to  contradict. 

Assyria. —  In  the  Old  Testament  Assur. 
An  ancient  Asiatic  state,  which,  at  the 
period  of  its  greatest  power,  covered  a 
territory  of  75,000  square  miles;  bounded 
by  Armenia  on  the  north,  the  Lower  Zab 
on  the  south,  the  Zagros  mountains  on  the 
east,  and  the  Tigris  on  the  west.  In  Gen. 
X.  2,  the  name  is  given  to  a  small  district 
(about  25  by  17  miles  in  extent)  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Tigris.  The  name  of  the  country 
is  derived  from  that  of  the  city  Assur.  situ- 
ated about  50  miles  south  of  the  modern 
Mosul,  and  marked  by  the  ruins  of  Kileh- 
Shergat.  The  city  is  not  mentioned  in 
the  Old  Testament,  but  it  survived  Ninive, 
being  still  in  existence  in  the  time  of 
Cyrus,  the  conqueror  of  Babj^lon.  The 
name,  besides  being  given  to  the  city  and 
country,  was  also  applied  to  the  national 
god,  always  spelled  Asur  in  this  con- 
nection. The  Persians  called  the  city 
Athura.  The  Greeks  comprised  in  the 
name  Assyria,  or  its  shortened  form  Syria, 
the  entire  territory  between  Babylonia  and 
the  Mediterranean,  sometimes  applying  it 
even  to  Babylonia.  The  northern  and 
eastern  portions  of  the  country  were 
mountainous,  but  the  greater  part  was  flat, 
being  an  extension  of  the  Babylonian 
plains.  Its  principal  rivers  were  the  Ti- 
gris and  Euphrates,  with  their  tributaries, 
the  Choser  and  the  Upper  and  Lower  Zab. 
Assyria  was  a  fertile  country,  and  abounded 
in  all  sorts  of  animals;  among  others  the 
stag,  roebuck,  wild  bull,  and  lion.  The  hunt- 
ing of  the  lion  was  the  favorite  sport  of  the 
Assyrian  kings.  According  to  Genesis  (x. 
8-12,  22),  the  Assyrians  were  descendants  of 
Sem,  and  emigrants  from  Babylon.  Their 
Semitic-Babylonian  origin  is  fully  attested 
by  sculptures  and  inscriptions.  Their  lan- 
guage is,  apart  from  new  dialectical  and 
orthographical  variations,  identical  with 
Babylonian,  and  akin  to  Hebrew.  Assyria, 
derived  its  civilization  from  Babylonia. 
Its  religion  was  the  same  as  that  of 
the  mother-country,  with  the  exception 
of  the  national  god  Asur,  which  was  placed 
at   the   head  of   the   pantheon.     Assyrian 


architecture  was  a  slavish  copy  of  that  of 
Babylonia.  Although  stone  abounded  in 
Assyria,  bricks  continued  to  be  used  in 
imitation  of  the  practice  in  Babylonia, 
where  no  stone  existed.  The  Babylonian 
emigrants  who  settled  Assyria,  probably 
set  out  about  2000  b.  c.  The  first  Assyrian 
rulers,  of  whom  we  have  knowledge,  were 
Belkapkapu,  Ismi-Dagan,  and  his  son 
Samsi-Ramman  (1816  B.  c).  For  the  next 
300  years  nothing  is  known  of  the  con- 
dition of  Assyria.  In  the  fifteenth  century 
B.C.  Assyria  was  involved  in  a  war  with 
Babylonia,  then  under  the  rule  of  the  Sem- 
itic Kassites.  War  continued  between  the 
two  countries  for  a  long  time  with  var}Tng 
fortunes.  Finally,  however,  Assyria  be- 
came supreme  and  Babylonia  the  vassal 
state.  The  chief  makers  of  Assyria's 
glory  were  Theglath-Phalassar  I.  (1120- 
iioo),  who  conquered  the  city  of  Babylon, 
other  cities  of  Babylonia,  and  penetrated 
as  far  as  the  Mediterranean.  His  more 
important  successors  were  Assur-Nasir- 
Hapal  (Sardanapal)  (930-911);  he  built 
the  palace  of  Nimroud,  and  his  expeditions 
into  Armenia,  Asia  Minor,  Syria  and  Phoe- 
nicia are  related  to  us  b}'  numerous  in- 
scriptions; Asurnazirpal  (884-860);  Sal- 
manasar  II.  (860-824),  who  came  in 
contact  with  Damascus  and  Israel ;  The- 
glath-Phalasser  III.  {Pliu/in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, 745-727),  whose  power  extended  to 
the  confines  of  Egypt,  and  who  put  the 
crown  of  Babylon  on  his  head.  Sargon 
(722—705),  the  conqueror  of  Samaria,  who 
defeated  the  Egyptians  at  Raphia ;  Senna- 
cherib (705-681).  We  are  in  possession  of 
an  inscription  relating  his  war  against 
Hiskia  (Ezechias),  of  Juda,  and  his  siege 
of  Jerusalem.  He  did  not  succeed  in  tak- 
ing the  city,  but,  after  having  devastated 
all  Palestine,  he  transported  200,000  Jews 
into  Assyria.  He  had  for  successor,  Assar- 
haddon  (680-668).  These  last  two  kings 
mark  the  height  of  Assyrian  power,  and 
Assarhaddon  was  enabled,  by  his  conquests, 
to  add  to  his  titles  that  of  king  of  Upper 
and  Lower  Egypt  and  Ethiopia.  Under 
Asurbanipal  (the  Sardanapalus  of  the 
Greek  writers,  668-626  b.  c),  the  decline 
of  the  empire  began.  In  some  respects, 
this  reign  was  most  prosperous  and  bril- 
liant; it  was  the  golden  age  of  art  and  lit- 
erature. During  this  reign,  too,  Susa  was 
conquered  and  destroyed.  But  signs  of  the 
approaching  ruin  were  seen  in  the  constant 
uprisings  of  the  oppressed  nations.  The 
downward  course  was  rapid.     Once,  about 


ASTARTE 


73 


Astronomy 


625,  Assyria  succeeded  in  repelling  the  at- 
tack of  the  Medes  and  Persians  under 
Phraortes,  but  when  his  son  Cyaxares,  in 
union  with  Nabopolassar  of  Babylon,  re- 
peated the  attack  (608  b.  c.)  Ninive  fell, 
and  the  Assyrian  power  entirely  disap- 
peared. 

Astarte.     See  Ashtoreth. 

Asterius. —  Metropolitan  of  Emesa,  in 
Pontus,  about  the  end  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury. Distinguished  orator;  he  has  left 
us  twenty-one  homilies. 

Asterius  (Urbanus). —  A  presbyter  or 
bishop,  in  Asia  Minor,  in  the  first  half  of 
the  third  century.  Published  a  treatise 
against  the  Montanists,  in  which  he  gives 
an  account  of  the  tragic  end  of  their 
founder. 

Astrology. — Originally  meant  much  the 
same  as  astronomy,  the  kno-tvledge  of  the 
stars,  but  was  at  length  restricted  to  the 
cabalistic  art  of  predicting  future  events, 
especially  the  fortunes  of  men,  from  the 
positions  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  It  as- 
sumes that  the  heavenly  bodies  exert, 
according  to  their  relative  positions  at 
certain  times,  a  direct  influence  upon  hu- 
man life  and  destiny,  and  proposes  to 
determine  in  any  given  case  what  this  in- 
fluence is,  and  thus  foretell  the  future. 
Astrology  is  one  of  the  most  ancient 
forms  of  superstition,  and  is  found  pre- 
vailing among  the  nations  of  the  East 
(Egyptians,  Chaldeans,  Hindus,  Chinese) 
at  the  very  dawn  of  history.  Understood 
in  this  sense,  we  find  that  the  ancient 
Babylonians  were  astrologers  as  well  as 
astronomers.  They  professed  to  cast 
nativities,  to  expound  dreams,  and  to  fore- 
tell events  by  means  of  the  stars  (Is. 
xlvii.  13;  Dan.  ii.  2).  The  Babylonian  or 
Chaldaic  astrology  was  primarily  and 
mainly  genethliacal.  It  investigated  under 
what  aspect  of  the  heavens  persons  were 
born  or  conceived,  and  from  the  posi- 
tion of  the  celestial  bodies  at  one  or  other 
of  these  moments,  it  professed  to  deduce 
the  future  life  and  fortunes  of  the  in- 
dividual. Chaldaic  astrology  was  not, 
however,  limited  to  genethlialogy.  The 
Chaldeans  professed  to  predict  from  the 
stars  changes  of  the  weather,  high  winds 
and  storms,  excessive  heat  and  cold,  pes- 
tilential diseases,  appearance  of  comets, 
eclipses,  earthquakes,  wars,  and  similar 
phenomena.    The  science  was  brought  from 


Greece  to  Rome  during  the  reign  of  Augus- 
tus, and  astrologers  played  an  important 
part  there,  and  were  known  as  Chaldeans 
and  Mathematicians.  Though  often  ban- 
ished by  the  senate  and  emperors  under 
pain  of  death,  they  continued  to  hold  their 
ground.  Astrology  had  always  a  fertile 
field  in  the  East;  it  accords  well  with  the 
predestinarian  doctrines  of  Mohammed- 
anism, and  was  accordingly  cultivated 
with  great  ardor  by  the  Arabs  from  the 
seventh  to  the  twelfth  centuries.  Many  of 
the  early  Fathers  of  the  Church  argued 
strongly  against  this  false  science.  Em- 
peror Constans  caused  an  edict  to  be  pro- 
mulgated against  astrologers,  decreeing 
one  of  the  most  severe  punishments 
against  them,  that  of  being  torn  to  pieces 
with  iron  hooks.  Charlemagne  also  en- 
acted severe  laws  against  them,  perceiving 
that  their  false  divinations  of  the  stars  had 
disturbed  the  tranquillity  of  rulers  and 
countries.  Popes  Urban  VIII.  and  Sixtus  V. 
condemned  the  system  of  astrology,  and  the 
Church,  at  various  times,  raised  her  voice 
against  believing  and  aiding  such  false 
predestinations.  Henry  III.,  Louis  XIII., 
and  Louis  XIV.,  vigorously  endeavored  to 
crush  the  science  within  their  realms,  but 
some  of  the  Christian  rulers  and  nobles 
either  cultivated  it  or  accepted  it  in  a 
modified  form.  Louis  XI.,  Charles  V., 
and  Catherine  de  Medici  protected  pro- 
fessionals in  their  practice,  and  in  the 
sixteenth  century  several  princes  had 
astrologers  at  their  courts.  On  the  birth 
of  a  royal  child,  or  on  contemplation  of 
war  or  conquest,  their  duty  was  to  con- 
sult the  stars  as  to  destiny  or  victory.  The 
Copernican  system  gave  the  death  blow  to 
astrology. 

Astronomy  (Gr.  astron,  a  star,  noinos, 
a  law) .  —  The  science  of  the  heavenly 
bodies.  From  the  earliest  period  man 
loved  to  gaze  on  the  starry  firmament,  and 
watch  the  movements  of  the  whole  planet- 
ary system  with  mingled  astonishment 
and  awe.  "  The  heavens  show  forth  the 
glory  of  God,  and  the  firmament  declareth 
the  work  of  His  hands"  (Ps.  xviii.  2).  The 
Chinese,  Hindus,  Chaldeans,  Egyptians, 
and  even  the  Greeks,  are  known  to  have 
investigated  the  heavens  in  times  remote 
from  the  Christian  era.  The  first  four  na- 
tions respectively  claim  the  honor  of  being 
the  first  students  of  astronomy.  The  claim 
of  the  Chinese  has  been  questioned  by  mod- 
ern scientists,  as  their  tables  conclusively 


Astronomy 


74 


Astronomy 


prove  a  later  period  than  that  assigned  to 
them.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the 
Hindu  tables,  which,  as  far  as  date  is  con- 
cerned, have  been  proved  to  be  fictitious. 

The  mass  of  evidence  seems  in  favor  of 
the  plains  of  Chaldea  being  the  primal 
seat  of  observative  astronomy.  The  ris- 
ings and  settings  of  the  heavenly  bodies 
and  eclipses  were  subjects  of  observation 
and  notation  by  their  priests  at  a  very 
remote  period.  Simplicius  and  Porphyry 
mention  that  Aristotle  had  transmitted  to 
him  from  Babylon,  by  order  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  a  catalogue  of  eclipses  observed 
throughout  1903  years  preceding  the  con- 
quest of  that  city  by  the  Macedonians.  Ptol- 
emy gives  six  of  the  eclipses  from  this  cata- 
logue, but  the  earliest  does  not  extend 
further  back  than  720  b.  c.  The  prob- 
ability is,  therefore,  that  the  statement  of 
Simplicius,  as  to  their  early  date,  is  an 
exaggeration.  However,  it  is  remarkably 
illustrative  of  their  habit  of  diligent  ob- 
ser\'ation,  that  the  Chaldeans  were  ac- 
quainted with  the  cycle  of  6585^/^'  days, 
during  which  the  moon  makes  about  223 
synodical  revolutions,  and  passes  through 
the  same  number  of  eclipses, — alike,  too, 
in  order  and  magnitude,  comparing  cycle 
with  cycle.  The  clepsydra  as  a  clock,  the 
gnomon  for  determining  the  solstices,  and 
the  hemispherical  dial  for  ascertaining  the 
positions  of  the  sun,  were  used  by  the 
Chaldeans,  and  they  are  credited  with 
the  invention  of  the  zodiac  and  the 
duodecimal  division  of  the  day. 

Although  it  is  supposed  that  the  Egyp- 
tians were  the  first  instructors  of  the 
Greeks  in  astronomy,  we  have  every 
reason  to  believe  that  their  knowledge 
was  meagre  and  crude.  The  Greeks  have 
the  honor  of  elevating  it  into  a  reliable 
history,  and  to  the  dignity  of  a  science. 
Thales  (640  b.  c.)  laid  the  foundation  of 
Greek  astronomy.  He  it  was  who  first 
propagated  the  theory  of  the  earth's 
sphericity.  The  sphere  he  divided  into 
five  zones.  He  predicted  the  year  of  a 
great  solar  eclipse,  but  this  it  is  now  sup- 
posed he  must  have  accidentally  succeeded 
in  doing — the  Greeks  at  this  time  having  no 
observations  of  their  own  to  guide  them — 
by  means  of  the  Chaldean  Saros,  or 
period  of  eighteen  years  and  ten  days, 
which  gives  a  regular  recurrence  of 
eclipses.  He  made  the  Greeks,  who,  prior 
to  his  time,  were  content  to  navigate  their 
vessels  by  the  Great  Bear — a  rough  ap- 
proximation   to    the     north  —  acquainted 


with  the  lesser  constellation  of  that  name, 
and  a  much  better  guide  for  the  mariner. 

Pythagoras  (500  b.  c.)  was  the  next 
astronomer  of  eminence.  He  promulgated, 
on  grounds  fanciful  enough,  the  theory, 
the  truth  of  which,  however,  has  been 
since  established,  that  the  sun  is  the  center 
of  the  planetary  system,  and  that  the  earth 
revolves  round  it.  He,  also,  first  taught 
that  the  morning  and  evening  stars  were 
in  reality  one  and  the  same  planet.  Be- 
tween Pythagoras  and  the  advent  of  the 
Alexandrian  School,  about  two  centuries 
later,  the  most  prominent  names  in  as- 
tronomical annals  are  those  of  Meton 
(432  B.  c),  who  introduced  the  lunar-solar 
cycle,  and  in  conjunction  with  Euctemon, 
observed  a  solstice  at  Athens  in  the  year 
424  B.C.;  Callippus  (330  b.  c),  who  im- 
proved the  Metonic  cycle ;  Eudoxus  of  Cni- 
dus  (370  B.C.),  who  introduced  into  Greece 
the  year  of  365^^  days,  and  Nicetas  of  Syra- 
cuse, who  is  reported  to  have  taught  the 
diurnal  motion  of  the  earth  on  its  axis. 

The  Alexandrian  School  originated  a 
connected  series  of  observations  relative 
to  the  constitution  of  the  universe.  The 
positions  of  the  fixed  stars  were  deter- 
mined, the  orbits  of  the  planets  carefully 
traced,  and  the  solar  and  lunar  inequalities 
more  accurately  ascertained.  Angular 
distances  were  calculated  with  instruments, 
suitable  to  the  purpose,  by  trigonometrical 
methods,  and  the  School  presented  to  the 
world  the  first  system  of  theoretical  astron- 
omy, and  attempted  to  determine  the 
distance  of  the  earth  from  the  sun,  and 
the  magnitude  of  the  terrestial  globe. 
Hipparchus  of  Bithynia,  catalogued  no 
less  than  1081  stars.  He  also  determined 
the  mean  motion  of  the  moon,  her  eccen- 
tricity, the  equation  of  her  center,  and 
the  inclination  of  her  orbit.  He  invented 
processes  analogous  to  plane  and  spherical 
trigonometry,  and  was  the  first  to  use 
right  ascensions  and  declinations,  which 
he  afterwards  abandoned  in  favor  of  lati- 
tudes and  longitudes. 

Ptolemy  (130-150  a.  d.)  is  the  next  who 
rises  above  the  mass  of  mediocrities. 
Besides  being  a  practical  astronomer,  he 
was  accomplished  as  a  musician,  geo- 
grapher, and  mathematician.  His  most  im- 
portant discovery  in  astronomy  was  the 
libration  or  evection  of  the  moon.  He 
was  also  the  first  to  point  out  the  effect  of 
refraction. 

With  Ptolemy  closes  the  originality  of 
the  Greek  School.     It  is  to  the  Arabs  that 


Asylum 


75 


Asylum 


we  owe  the  next  advances  in  astronomy. 
For  four  centuries,  the  Arabs  prosecuted 
the  study  of  the  science  with  assiduity, 
but  they  are  chiefly  meritorious  as  ob- 
servers. The  most  illustrious  of  the 
Arabian  School  was  Albategnius  or  Al- 
Batani  (800  a.  d.)  who  discovered  the  mo- 
tion of  the  solar  apogee,  and  who  was  also 
the  first  to  make  use  of  sines  and  versed 
sines  instead  of  chords ;  he  corrected  the 
Greek  observations,  and  was  altogether  the 
most  distinguished  observer  between  Hip- 
parchus  and  the  Copernican  era. 

We  now  come  to  the  illustrious  priest, 
Nicholas  Copernicus  (1473-1543)  to  whom 
was  reserved  the  distinction  of  explod- 
ing the  Ptolemaic  ideas,  and  of  promul- 
gating a  correct  theory  of  the  universe, 
appropriately  called  after  him  the  Coper- 
nican, which  is  now  generally  accepted, 
and  which  led  to  the  brilliant  discoveries 
of  Kepler  and  Galileo,  and  formed  the 
basis  of  the  splendid  mathematical  demon- 
strations of  Newton  and  Laplace. 

Following  Copernicus,  we  must  mention 
the  eminent  Tycho  Brahe  (1546-1601), 
who  compiled  a  catalogue  of  777  fixed 
stars,  more  perfect  than  any  that  had  pre- 
viously been  tabulated.  He  made  the  first 
table  of  refractions,  and  discovered  the  vari- 
ation and  annual  equation  of  the  moon,  the 
inequalities  of  the  motion  of  the  nodes,  and 
the  inclination  of  the  lunar  orbit.  His  re- 
searches made  possible  the  brilliant  discov- 
eries of  Kepler  (1571-1631),  and  of  those 
famous  laws  which  have  rendered  his 
name  immortal.  Kepler  is  also  said  to 
have  had  some  idea  of  gravitation. 

Galileo  Galilei  (1564-1642)  in  a  measure 
revolutionized  the  system  of  astronomy  by 
his  discovery  and  application  of  the  tele- 
scope. He  was  rewarded  by  the  discovery 
of  the  inequalities  on  the  moon's  surface. 
The  important  discoveries  of  the  four 
satellites  of  Jupiter,  the  ring  of  Saturn, 
the  spots  on  the  sun,  and  the  crescent 
form  of  Venus,  followed  in  quick  succes- 
sion. 

Galileo  was  followed  by  the  epochal  New- 
ton (1642-1727).  In  the  interval,  astron- 
omy profited  largely  by  the  researches  of 
Descartes,  Gascoigne,  Auzout,  and  Picard. 
Newton's  fame  rests  upon  his  discovery  of 
the  law  of  gravitation.  The  discovery  is 
perhaps  the  grandest  achievement  of  human 
genius  of  which  we  have  any  record.  New- 
ton also  made  the  important  discovery  of 
the  revolution  of  comets  round  the  sun  in 
conic  sections,  proved  the  earth's  form  to 


be  an  oblate  spheroid,  gave  a  theory  of  the 
moon  and  tides,  invented  fluxions,  and 
wrote  upon  optics. 

If  the  eighteenth  century  opened  with 
lustre  derived  from  the  physical  demon- 
strations of  Newton,  and  the  numerous 
observations  of  Flamsteed,  Halley,  Dr. 
Bradley,  and  others,  it  closed  magnifi- 
cently with  the  telescopic  discoveries  of 
Sir  William  Herschel,  which  added  to  our 
universe  a  primary  planet  (Uranus)  with 
its  satellites,  gave  two  more  satellites  to 
Saturn,  resolved  the  milky  way  into  count- 
less myriads  of  suns,  and  unraveled  the 
mystery  of  nebulae  and  of  double  and  triple 
stars.  Laplace,  in  his  great  work,  the 
Mecanique  Celeste  (1799-1808),  gave  what 
further  proof  was  needed  of  the  truth  and 
sufficiency  of  the  Newtonian  theory. 

Leverrier,  Gall,  Challis,  Lord  Ross, 
Father  Sechi,  S.  J.,  and  many  others,  have, 
by  means  of  powerful  telescopes,  spectrum 
analysis,  and  photography,  made  many 
important  discoveries,  corrected  and  sys- 
tematized former  observations,  added  sev- 
eral small  planets  and  planetoids  to  the 
already  extensive  catalogue  of  stars,  double 
stars,  and  nebulae.  Optical  and  other  in- 
struments have  been  brought  to  what  ap- 
pears almost  a  state  of  perfection.  In  more 
recent  years,  research  has  been  directed, 
chiefly,  toward  the  physical  nature  of  the 
sun  and  other  heavenly  bodies,  by  means 
of  spectrum  analysis.  These  scientific  ex- 
plorations and  discoveries  in  the  regions 
and  laws  of  the  universe  all  tend  to  show 
and  conclusively  prove  that  the  visible 
creation  is  a  mirror  in  which  God  reflects 
to  intelligent  beings  His  infinite  perfec- 
tion, power,  goodness,  wisdom,  and  jus- 
tice. Man  is  created  for  God ;  and  the 
cause  of  the  happiness  and  joy  man  feels 
in  contemplating  the  visible  creation,  is 
because  it  reflects  the  infinite  beauty  and 
perfections  of  the  Creator. 

Asylum  (a  place  of  refuge) . — In  ancient 
times,  sacred  places,  especially  the  temples 
and  altars  of  the  gods,  were  appointed  as 
asylums  to  which  criminals,  as  well  as  per- 
secuted individuals,  might  flee  for  refuge ; 
and  to  molest  them  in  such  places,  was  re- 
garded as  an  impiety.  They  were,  how- 
ever, sometimes  surrounded  and  watched 
until  the  refugees  died  of  starvation.  The 
Jews  set  apart  six  cities  of  refuge  for  per- 
sons guilty  of  manslaughter  (Ex.  xxi.  13 
sq.;  III.  Ki.  ii.  28-31 ;  i.  50).  Romulus, 
according    to    popular    legend,    attracted 


Athanasian  Creed 


70 


Atheism 


many  persons  from  other  places  to  Rome 
by  offering  the  city  as  an  asylum  for  crimi- 
nals. The  Emperor  Tiberius  abolished  all 
places  of  refuge  from  the  law,  except  those 
in  the  temples  of  Juno  and  Esculapius.  The 
custom  of  allowing  to  real  or  supposed 
criminals  a  place  of  safety  in  temples,  was 
also  adopted  by  the  Christian  Church.  In 
the  reign  of  Constantine  the  Great,  all 
Christian  churches  were  asylums.  The 
privileges  were  afterwards  extended  to  con- 
vents, but  they  were  much  abused  by 
criminals  during  the  Middle  Ages.  Several 
Popes,  in  order  to  prevent  this  abuse,  ex- 
cluded murderers  and  some  other  classes  of 
offenders  from  the  privilege  of  the  sanctu- 
ary. The  word  asylum  is  now  applied  to 
places  of  shelter  for  unfortunate  and  desti- 
tute persons,  and  especially  the  blind, 
insane,  etc. 

Athanasian  Creed.     See  Creed. 

Athanasius  (St.). — The  greatest  lumi- 
nary' among  the  Oriental  Doctors  was  St. 
Athanasius,  sumamed  the  Great,  whom 
God  had  chosen  to  be  the  champion  and 
defender  of  His  Church  against  the  Arian 
heresy.  Athanasius  was  born  at  Alexan- 
dria, about  the  year  296,  ordained  deacon 
in  319,  and  was  chosen  by  Alexander,  his 
bishop,  to  accompany  him  to  the  Council 
of  Nice.  To  his  acuteness,  learning,  and 
eloquence  in  that  Council,  was  principally 
owing  the  condemnation  of  Arianism.  On 
the  death  of  Alexander  in  328,  Athanasius 
became  Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  and  dur- 
ing forty-five  years,  he  withstood,  often 
almost  alone,  the  whole  brunt  of  the  Arian 
assault.  He  stood  unmoved  against  four 
Roman  emperors,  was  banished  five  times, 
was  the  butt  of  every  wrong  and  calumny 
the  Arians  could  devise,  and  lived  in  con- 
stant peril  of  death.  Firm  and  unbending 
in  defense  of  the  Catholic  faith,  he  merited 
the  honorable  title  of  "  Father  of  Ortho- 
doxy. "  He  closed  his  stormy  life  in 
peace,  in  373.  With  few  exceptions,  the 
numerous  works  of  St.  Athanasius  have  an 
apologetical  and  polemical  tenor,  having 
been  written  in  defense  of  Catholicity 
against  paganism  and  heresy.  His  dicta- 
tion and  style  are  clear,  full  of  deep  sense, 
strength,  and  solid  reasoning.  The  first 
of  his  works  are  his  two  discourses 
"  Against  the  Gentiles  "  and  "  On  the 
Incarnation,"  which  form  one  work  ad- 
dressed to  a  convert  from  heathenism,  and 
which  were  written  before  the  Arian  con- 
troversy  had   broken    out.      Most   of   his 


other  works  have  a  direct  bearing  upon 
that  heresy.  The  most  noted  of  them  are : 
I.  Four  Orations  against  the  Arians, 
which  he  wrote  while  concealed  in  the 
desert  (356-361)  ;  2.  An  Apology  against 
the  Arians,  containing  thirty-six  au- 
thentic documents  relative  to  the  history 
of  Arianism ;  3.  Two  encyclical  letters 
to  the  orthodox  bishops,  one  against  the 
illegal  intrusion  of  Gregory  the  Cappado- 
cian  into  his  see ;  the  other  a  warning 
against  the  wiles  and  stratagems  of  the 
Arians;  4.  An  Apology  to  the  Emperor 
Constantius  and  An  Apology  for  his 
Flight,  both  of  which  were  written  in 
the  desert.  Against  the  heresies  of  the 
Macedonians  and  the  Apollinarians,  St. 
Athanasius  wrote  :  Four  Letters  to  Serap- 
ion  bishop  of  Thumis ;  a  treatise  "  On 
the  Incarnation  and  against  the  Arians  "  ; 
A  Book  on  the  Trinity  and  the  Holv 
Ghost;  T1V0  Books  against  the  Apolli- 
narians; a  treatise  "On  the  Incarnation 
against  Appollinaris,"  and  another  "On 
the  Advent  of  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ." 
St.  Athanasius  is,  however,  not  the  author 
of  the  famous  Creed  bearing  his  name,  as 
it  was  compiled  in  Latin  in  the  fifth  or 
sixth  century.     F.  May  2d. 

Atheism. —  A  word  of  modern  formation 
from  Gr.  Atheos,  -without  God,  signifies 
the  doctrine  of  those  who  deny  the  existence 
of  a  God.  Atheism  is  not  a  system,  it  is  a 
negation ;  and  although  it  is  found  in  the 
logical  consequences  of  certain  doctrines 
which  pervert  completely  the  idea  of 
God,  there  is  not,  in  the  whole  history  of 
philosophy,  any  great  school  which  has 
professed  atheism.  The  first  Greek  phi- 
losophers, who  believed  in  the  eternity  of 
matter  and  sought  in  material  elements 
the  first  principle  which  strikes  the  senses, 
did  not  deny,  formally,  the  existence  of 
God.  Neither  did  the  ancient  philoso- 
phers deny  the  existence  of  a  divinity, 
though  accused  of  atheism,  but  only  re- 
jected the  common  notions  of  a  plurality 
of  gods.  We  have  proof  in  the  instance 
of  Protagoras,  who  declared  he  could 
affirm  neither  that  God  is,  nor  that  He 
is  not;  this  doubt  explicitly  expressed  is 
sufficient  to  banish  him  from  Athens,  where 
the  Ionian  philosophy  flourished  at  that 
time.  Epicurus,  whose  system,  perhaps 
more  than  any  other,  implies  the  negation 
of  God,  nevertheless  speaks  of  the  gods. 
Who  does  not  know  the  beautiful  verses 
his   disciple   Lucretius   composed,  in   his 


Athenagoras 


77 


Atomism 


invocation  of  the  goddess,  "  who  alone  gov- 
erns all  nature  '? 

St.  Thomas  teaches  that  whoever  be- 
lieves in  the  direction  of  the  world  is 
no  atheist.  Spinoza,  in  spite  of  his 
promises,  concludes  his  ethics  in  proclaim- 
ing as  the  end  of  our  actions  the  knowl- 
edge and  love  of  God,  and  as  sovereign 
good,  God  himself.  Consequently,  neither 
the  Materialists  nor  the  Pantheists  are 
ifso  facto  atheists.  It  is,  therefore,  in 
vain  that  some  atheists  in  our  days,  de- 
sirous of  finding  themselves  a  numerous 
body,  have  claimed  for  their  negative  sys- 
tem whole  schools  and  nations.  They 
wish,  in  the  name  of  science,  to  attack  the 
ancient  proof  of  the  existence  of  God, 
founded  upon  the  universal  testimony. 
Science  has  answered  them  through  the 
words  of  a  conspicuous  authority  in  similar 
matters, —  De  Quatrefages  :  "  Bound  by  my 
teaching  to  pass  review  of  all  the  human 
races,  I  have  sought  atheism,  but  have  met 
with  it  nowhere,  except,  perhaps,  in  an  in- 
dividual state,  or  in  the  state  of  more  or  less 
limited  schools.  Atheism  is  found  no- 
where except  in  an  erratic  state ;  always, 
and  everywhere,  the  mass  of  the  populations 
escape  it."  Anthropology,  the  science 
which  made  it  a  law  to  make  use  only  of 
experimental  method,  repeats  after  Aris- 
totle that  "  Man  is  a  religious  animal  "  ;  an- 
thropology even  confirms  that  the  sentiment 
of  the  divine  is  natural  to  man,  that  it 
is  his  distinctive  characteristic.  Besides 
atheism  is  directly  refuted  by  the  demon- 
stration of  the  existence  of  God.  See  God. 

Athenagoras. —  Born  at  Athens  ;  flour- 
ished about  176  A.  D.  A  Greek  Platonist, 
philosopher,  and  Christian.  Author  of  an 
apology  or  intercession  in  behalf  of  the 
Christians,  addressed  to  the  Emperors 
Marcus  Aurelius  and  Commodus.  He  ex- 
pounds and  refutes  the  accusations  of  athe- 
ism, cannibalism,  and  incest,  made  against 
the  Christians  in  his  day.  A  treatise  on 
the  resurrection  of  the  dead  is  also  attrib- 
uted to  him. 

Athos  or  Monte  Santo,  that  is,  the 
Holy  Hill,  the  principal  mountain  of  a 
chain  extending,  in  a  peninsular  form, 
from  the  coast  of  Macedonia  into  the 
^gean  Sea,  between  the  Gulf  of  Contessa 
and  Monte  Santo,  and  connected  with  the 
mainland  by  a  narrow  isthmus.  The  time 
of  the  first  establishment  of  hermitages  on 
this  romantic  spot  is  uncertain,  though  the 
origin  of  some  may  be  traced  to  the  days 


of  Constantine  the  Great,  and  others  to 
the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Basil,  in  885. 
One  convent  was  "restored"  900  years 
ago.  The  monks  follow  the  Rule  of  St. 
Basil,  and  lead  an  ascetic  life,  engaged 
chiefly  in  agriculture,  gardening,  and  the 
care  of  bees. 

Atomism. — The  philosophical  system, 
which  in  modern  times  has  been  brought 
forward  to  account  for  the  formation  of 
the  universe,  and  known  as  the  atomic  or 
corpuscular  theory.  The  diverse  atomic 
systems  have  one  common  basis;  they  ad- 
mit that  matter,  to  whatever  degree  it 
might  be  divisible,  is  not  this  infinitely, 
and  that  its  primordial  elements,  the  atoms, 
furnish  us  with  the  explanation  of  the 
origin  of  the  world  and  of  natural  phenom- 
ena. But,  upon  this  common  basis,  contra- 
dictory doctrines  have  reared  themselves. 
Are  the  atoms  eternal.''  Do  they  contain 
in  themselves  the  principle  of  movement, 
indispensable  to  their  existence,  their  com- 
bination, and  to  their  development.?  Are 
they  of  one  sole  species,  or  of  an  in- 
definite number  of  species,  or  do  they  exist 
in  such  varied  quantity  as  the  bodies.? 
Can  they  be  made  to  agree  with  the  funda- 
mental dogma  of  religions,  the  existence 
of  a  being  or  principle  outside  of  them,  or 
do  they  exclude  it  absolutely.?  So  many 
questions,  necessarily  bearing  and  bound 
up  with  the  atomic  theory,  have  been 
solved  differently  by  the  atomic  philoso- 
phers. Granting,  however,  that  the  chem- 
ist can  prove  that  his  simple  and  compound 
forms  of  matter  are  built  up  of  chemical 
atoms,  the  problem  still  remains  to  be 
solved  as  to  the  possible  identity  of  physi- 
cal and  chemical  atoms.  What  the  chem- 
ist regards  as  an  atom  in  his  science,  may 
not  be  an  ultimate  and  indivisible  atom 
from  a  physical  point  of  view ;  the  chemical 
atom,  though  incapable  of  division  as  a 
chemical  atom,  may  still  be  composed  or 
built  up  of  many  physical  atoms,  and  may 
be  capable  of  being  subdivided  into  such. 
Indeed,  while  the  atomic  theory  of  Dal- 
ton,  when  first  announced,  was  eagerly 
seized  upon  as  the  best  possible  evidence 
for  the  existence  of  both  chemical  and 
physical  atoms,  the  tendency  of  recent  in- 
vestigations and  experiments  in  chemistry 
has  been  to  show  that  the  chemical  atom 
is  difTerent  from  the  physical. 

The  origin  of  the  atomic  theory  goes 
back  to  the  Hindoo  speculative  system 
called  Vaiseshika,  and  which  was  founded 


Atonement 


78 


Augustine 


hy  the  philosopher  Kanada,  a  mysterious 
and  legendary  personage.  Kanada,  meta- 
physician like  all  the  thinkers  of  his  race, 
does  not  content  himself  with  a  purely 
physical  explanation  of  the  world,  and 
acknowledges  the  existence  of  an  imma- 
terial principle.  We  do  not  know  that  his 
system  was  known  to  the  Greeks.  How- 
ever, we  find  quite  evident  traces  in  the 
theories  of  Empedocles  and  that  of  Anaxa- 
goras,  who  both  admit  atoms,  but  equally 
acknowledge  the  existence  of  independent 
principles,  and,  aside  from  their  physical 
properties,  leave  room  for  a  theology. 
Democritus  and  Leucippus  adopted  their 
doctrine,  but  declared  that  nothing  exists 
outside  the  void  and  the  atoms ;  the  atoms 
meet  together  in  the  void,  and  combine 
themselves  by  chance ;  it  is  thus  that  they 
have  formed  the  world.  Epicurus  re- 
mains the  faithful  disciple  of  Democritus 
and  Lucretius,  without  adding  anything 
to  the  theory  such  as  it  manifests  itself  in 
antiquity,  gives  to  it  its  distinctive  form 
and  all  the  development  of  which  it  is 
susceptible.  After  Lucretius,  the  theory 
of  atoms  was  abandoned  until  the  time  of 
Gassendi,  who,  besides  trying  to  place 
it  in  harmony  with  the  Christian  dogma, 
removes  from  the  atoms  the  character  of 
eternity  and  of  necessity,  in  order  to  make 
them,  so  to  say,  the  contingent  elements 
of  creation.  After  Gassandi,  atoms  ceased 
to  play  an  important  role  in  philosophy, 
until  Hugius,  Richter,  Dalton,  and  others 
took  them  up  to  support  their  theories  or 
hypotheses  of  the  physical  nature  of 
matter.     See  Cosmogony. 

Atonement.     See  Redemption. 

Attila  ( sumamed  "  the  scourge  of 
God"). — King  of  the  Huns,  ravaged  Gaul, 
was  defeated  near  Chalons-sur-Marne,  by 
.^tius,  with  the  aid  of  the  West-Gothic 
Theodoric  (434-453).     See  Leo  I. 

Attributes  of  God.     See  God. 

Attrition. — An  imperfect  sorrow  for  sin, 
fear  of  disgrace,  fear  of  hell,  etc. ;  distinct 
from  contrition,  yet  good  in  itself  as  com- 
ing from  God  and  leading  to  contrition, 
but  without  actual  confession  will  not 
avail  to  justify  the  sinner.  See  Con- 
trition. 

Audians. — Heretics  in  the  early  Church. 
Their  name  is  derived  from  their  founder 
Audius,  whose  home  was  in  Mesopotamia. 
They   refused    to   hold   communion   with 


Catholics,  rejected  canonical  penances, 
obsers'ed  the  Jewish  manner  of  celebrating 
Easter,  and  were  Anthropomorphites,  be- 
lieving that  God  exists  in  a  human  form. 
Audius,  who  had  himself  been  irregularly 
consecrated  bishop,  was  banished  by  Em- 
peror Constantius;  but  in  spite  of  repeated 
persecutions,  they  maintained  their  sect 
till  the  close  of  the  fifth  century. 

Audients. —  In  the  early  Church,  those 
not  yet  baptized,  but  receiving  instruction 
preparatory  to  baptism ;  catechumens  of 
the  first  grade.  Such  persons  were  per- 
mitted to  hear  the  Psalms,  lessons,  and 
sermon,  but  were  not  present  at  the  more 
sacred  services  which  followed. 

Augsburg  Confession. —  Formulary 
which  the  Protestants  presented  at  the 
Diet  of  Augsburg.  It  contained  their  con- 
fession of  faith  in  28  articles,  drawn  up  by 
Melanchthon,  approved  by  Luther,  and 
signed  by  the  Protestant  princes.  The 
Diet  rejected  this  formulary  and  the  Re- 
formers did  not  unanimously  admit  it. 
Hence,  in  order  to  come  to  an  understand- 
ing, Melanchthon  modified  it,  and  the 
formulary  was  called  confessio  variafa. 

Augsburg  Peace,  declared  September  15, 
1555,  in  which  Charles  V.  granted  to  the 
Reformers  the  free  exercise  of  their  re- 
ligious convictions. 

Augustine  (St.). —  The  most  illustrious 
among  the  Doctors  of  the  Church,  Au- 
gustine, was  born  in  354  at  Tagasta,  in 
Africa.  He  received  his  literary  educa- 
tion in  the  schools  of  Madaura  and  Car- 
thage, and  was  reared  by  his  mother,  St. 
Monica,  in  the  Christian  faith ;  but,  as 
his  own  Confessions  tell  us,  his  conduct 
was  far  from  exemplary ;  he  early  lost  his 
faith  and  innocence.  At  the  age  of  twenty 
he  embraced  the  Manichean  heresy,  and 
for  a  space  of  nine  years,  remained  more 
or  less  under  its  influence.  From  Maniche- 
ism  he  turned  to  Neo-Platonism  without, 
however,  finding  a  resting-place  in  that 
system.  The  reading  of  Hortensius,  by 
Cicero,  roused  him  to  a  diligent  search 
after  truth.  Setting  out  for  Rome  and 
thence  to  Milan,  he  was,  by  God's  grace, 
rescued  from  the  errors  of  his  youth,  and, 
together  with  his  son  Adeodatus,  and  his 
friend  Alypius,  baptized  by  St.  Ambrose, 
in  387.  He  was  then  thirty-three  years  of 
age.  From  this  time  forth,  Augustine  de- 
voted himself  with  his  whole  mind  and 
soul  to  the  service  of  truth  and  the  Church. 


Augustine 


79 


Australia 


His  mother  having  died  at  Ostia,  Augus- 
tine returned  to  Carthage  and  lived  for 
three  years  with  several  friends  in  monastic 
retirement.  He  was  ordained  priest  by 
Valerius,  Bishop  of  Hippo,  who  also, 
about  the  year  395,  appointed  him  coadju- 
tor and  successor  in  his  see.  For  thirty- 
five  years  Augustine  was  the  center  of 
ecclesiastical  life  in  Africa,  and  the 
Church's  mightiest  champion  against 
heresy;  he  bore  the  great  burden  of  the 
controversy  against  the  Donatists,  Mani- 
cheans,  and  Pelagians.  His  death  oc^ 
curred  in  430,  while  Hippo  was  besieged 
by  the  Vandals.  These  barbarians  en- 
tered and  burned  the  city,  but  the  library 
of  Augustine  was  providentially  saved.  F. 
Aug.  28th. —  Of  his  multitudinous  works,  St, 
Augustine  gives  a  critical  review  in  his  Re- 
tractions, which  he  wrote  towards  the  end  of 
his  life,  to  correct  whatever  seemed  doubt- 
ful or  extravagant  in  his  writings  and  to 
harmonize  discordant  opinions.  The  most 
famous  of  his  works  are  the  Confessions, 
and  the  twenty  books  of  the  City  of  God. 
In  the  former  he  gives  a  history  of  his  own 
life  up  to  the  year  400,  when  the  work  ap- 
peared. This  extraordinary  work  is  classed 
as  one  of  the  choicest  of  ascetic  books. 
The  City  of  God,  which  was  begun  in  413 
and  finished  in  427 —  thus  engaging  the  ma- 
turest  years  of  the  author's  life  —  is  Augus- 
tine's masterpiece  and  one  of  the  noblest 
apologetical  works  of  which  the  ancient 
Church  can  boast.  It  is  a  learned  defense 
of  the  Christian  religion  against  the  ab- 
surd calumnies  of  the  pagans,  who  accused 
the  Christians  of  having  brought  about  all 
the  calamities  then  befalling  the  empire, 
by  renouncing  the  time-honored  deities  of 
ancient  Rome.  Augustine  was  a  philos- 
opher and  dogmatical  theologian,  as  well 
as  a  mystic,  and  a  powerful  controversial- 
ist. For  his  other  works,  see  Migne  Pat. 
Lat.  XXXII-XLVII. 

Augustine  or  Austin  (St.). —  Apostle  of 
England.  Died  in  605.  A  Benedictine 
monk,  sent  by  Pope  Gregory  I.  in  596, 
with  thirty-nine  of  his  brethren,  to  under- 
take the  conversion  of  Anglo-Saxons  in 
Britain.  The  eflFect  of  their  preaching 
was  accompanied  with  most  wonderful 
success;  on  the  following  Christmas,  ten 
thousand,  following  the  example  of  King 
Ethelbert  of  Kent,  were  baptized.  On 
learning  of  the  wonderful  and  prosperous 
mission  of  Augustine,  Pope  Gregory  ap- 
pointed him  the  first  bishop,  and,  in  601, 


metropolitan  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  with 
the  authority  to  found  twelve  suffragan 
sees,  and,  when  the  Northern  English 
should  have  embraced  the  faith,  also  to 
consecrate  a  bishop  for  York,  which 
should,  likewise,  be  a  metropolitan  with 
twelve  suffragan  sees.  Augustine  chose 
Dovernum,  now  Canterbury,  for  his  metro- 
politan see.  St.  Augustine  died,  after 
having  chosen  Lawrence,  one  of  his  faith- 
ful fellow-laborers,  to  succeed  him  in  the 
See  of  Canterbury. 

Augustinian  Hermits.  —  These  hermits 
regard  the  great  St.  Augustine  of  Hippo 
as  their  patron  and  composer  of  their  rule, 
if  not  their  founder.  In  1256,  Pope  Alex- 
ander IV.  united  several  existing  com- 
munities under  the  title  of  "  Hermits  of 
St.  Augustine,"  giving  to  them  the  rule 
ascribed  to  that  Father.  Lanfranco  Sep- 
tola,  of  Milan,  became  their  first  General. 
A  colony  of  Augustinians  from  Dublin, 
Ireland,  came  to  the  United  States  in  1790, 
and  settled  in  Philadelphia,  where  they 
largely  contributed  to  the  spread  and 
progress  of  Catholicity.  They  have  quite 
a  number  of  establishments  in  this  country. 

Aureola  Sanctorum. —  In  Christian  art 
it  is  used  to  designate  the  glory  of  the 
figure  represented.  In  painting  and  statu- 
ary, the  golden  aureola  which  surrounds 
the  head  and  sometimes  the  whole  body  of 
saints  and  martyrs.  The  circle  or  nimbus, 
when  it  encloses  a  cross,  belongs  to  Christ ; 
without  the  cross,  it  designates  canonized 
saints.  There  is  also  a  form  of  aureola 
which  designates  the  beatified,  —  those 
whose  heads  are  encircled  with  golden 
lines.     See  Nimbus. 

Auricular  Confession.  See  Confession. 

Australia. —  The  religious  history  of 
Australia  or  Australasia,  which  term  in- 
cludes the  British  colonies  of  Australia, 
Tasmania,  and  New  Zealand,  begins  with 
the  year  1787,  when  these  islands  became 
penal  colonies  of  England.  Among  the 
convicts  transported  to  Australia  were 
many  Irish  Catholics,  whose  religion, 
joined  with  patriotism,  was  their  only 
crime.  Instead  of  being  ministered  to,  as 
they  requested,  by  Catholic  priests,  they 
were  driven,  even  with  the  whip,  to  assist 
at  the  Anglican  service,  as  no  other  reli- 
gion was  then  tolerated  in  the  colonies. 
In  1818,  Pius  VII.  established  the  Vicariate 
Apostolic  of   Mauritius,  with  jurisdiction 


Australia 


80 


Austria 


also  over  the  Australian  islands.  Fcm-  the 
Australian  colonies  the  Rev.  Mr.  Flynn 
was  appointed,  on  whom  the  Holy  See  had 
conferred  the  title  of  Archpriest  .with 
power  to  administer  confirmation.  But 
the  colonial  government,  which  consisted 
mostly  of  Protestant  ministers,  could  ill 
brook  the  presence  of  a  Catholic  priest  in 
the  islands :  so,  when  Father  Flynn  arrived 
in  Australia,  he  was  at  once  seized,  put  in 
prison,  and  finally  sent  back  to  England. 
This  intolerance  of  the  colonial  authori- 
ties gave  great  offense,  even  in  Protestant 
England.  To  reconcile  public  feeling,  the 
English  Government  was  obliged,  in  1820, 
not  only  to  permit  two  Catholic  priests  to 
serve  the  Irish  exiles  in  the  Australian 
colonies,  but  also  to  grant  them  a  yearly 
support.  Meanwhile,  Catholic  emancipa- 
tion in  England  had  borne  its  fruits  —  it  had 
also  secured  liberty  to  the  Catholics  in  the 
British  colonies.  In  1832,  the  Rev.  W.  Ul- 
lathorne,  a  Benedictine,  late  Bishop  of 
Birmingham,  England,  was  appointed  Vi- 
car General  and  Visitor  Apostolic  of  the 
desolate  mission  by  the  Holy  See.  There 
were,  then,  in  all  Australia  and  New 
Zealand,  only  one  partly-finished  Church, 
two  chapels,  and  four  free  schools,  in 
charge  of  only  three  priests.  The  result 
of  his  zeal  and  activity  soon  became  mani- 
fest. In  1835,  the  Holy  See  named  the 
Rev.  Bede  Folding,  a  Benedictine  from 
England,  Vicar  Apostolic  of  "  New  Hol- 
land," which  then  comprised  the  whole 
of  Australia,  besides  Tasmania,  Norfolk, 
and  other  islands.  This  prelate's  first  care 
was  to  secure  fellow-laborers  for  his  exten- 
sive vineyard.  Soon  twenty-three  priests 
came  to  join  him,  and  in  1840  the  first 
Sisters  of  Mercy  arrived  from  Ireland,  who 
took  charge  of  the  orphans  and  female 
prisoners.  Five  years  after  the  arrival  of 
Bishop  Folding,  the  Catholics  already 
formed  one-third  of  all  the  inhabitants  of 
the  colonies.  In  1842,  Gregory  XVI. 
raised  the  vicariate  of  "New  Holland" 
to  an  ecclesiastical  province.  Sydney 
became  a  metropolitan  see  with  two  suf- 
fragan bishops,  one  at  Adelaide,  in  New 
South  Wales,  and  the  other  Hobart  Town, 
in  Tasmania.  In  1844,  Archbishop  Folding 
held  his  First  £cutnenical  Council;  it  was 
attended  by  two  suffragan  bishops  and 
thirty-three  missionaries  from  all  parts  of 
the  Australian  Continent.  The  most  im- 
portant decrees  adopted  by  this  Council 
bore  upon  the  life  and  manners  of  the  clergy, 
the  founding  of  Catholic  schoc^  in  all  the 


missions,  and  on  the  pMreservation  and  ad- 
ministration of  Church  property. 

Australia  {The  Church  in). — According 
to  the  Census  of  England,  etc.,  Fourth  Gen- 
eral Report  of  1873,  there  are  in  Australia 
proper,  two  archdioceses  :  The  ecclesiasti- 
cal province  of  Sydney,  with  the  following 
suffragans  :  Armidale,  Bathurst,  Brisbane, 
Gaulbourn,  Maitland,  and  Port  Victoria; 
and  the  province  of  Melbourne  with  the 
following  suffragans :  Adelaide,  Ballarat, 
Hobart  Town,  Perth,  and  Sandhurst.  To- 
tal population  of  both  provinces,  2,000,000 ; 
Catholic  population,  271,000.  New  Zea- 
land contains  the  following  bishoprics: 
Auckland,  Dunedin,  and  Wellington,  with 
a  population  of  400,000;  Catholic  popula- 
tion, 51,000.  Oceania  comprises  seven  Pre- 
fectures Apolostic,  with  a  population  of 
435,000;  Catholic  population.  80,000. 

According  to  the  Alissiones  Catholicce 
of  1892,  the  Church  in  Australia  and  New 
Zealand  numbers  about  750  priests,  some 
1,700  churches  and  chapels,  over  900  paro- 
chial schools,  which  are  attended  by  95,- 
000  pupils.  The  Catholic  population  is 
about  700,000,  and  this  flock  is  ruled  by  a 
hierarchy  of  five  archbishops, —  Sydney, 
Melbourne,  Adelaide,  Brisbane,  and  Wel- 
lington, in  New  Zealand, —  seventeen  bish- 
ops, and  four  vicars  apostolic. 

Austria  { Christianity  in). —  Christianity 
was  introduced  into  Austria  in  the  fourth 
century.  The  Roman  colony  of  Trent  had 
a  bishop  as  early  as  A.  D.  381,  named  Abun- 
dantins.  His  successor,  'STigilius,  among 
other  extant  works,  left  a  letter  addressed 
to  St.  Chrysostom.  But  the  real  apostle 
of  Southern  Rhaetia,  or  the  Tyrol,  was  St. 
Valentinus,  a  Belgian  Bishop.  He  died  in 
the  year  470.  His  famous  contemporary, 
St.  Severinus,  preached  the  Gosp>el  in 
Noricum,  principally  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Vienna,  where  he  built  a  monastery. 
For  many  years  this  extraordinary  man 
was  the  guide  and  refuge  of  all  the  tribes 
in  those  parts.  He  extended  his  mission 
as  far  as  Pannonia,  embracing  then  parts 
of  Hungary,  Styria,  Croatia,  and  Lower 
Austria,  with  the  whole  of  Slavonia.  St. 
Severinus  died  in  the  year  483.  ' 

Austria  {Worship  in). —  The  religious 
hierarchy  is  represented,  in  the  Austrian 
Empire,  by  26  Catholic  bishop>s,  9  Evan- 
gelical superintendencies,  2  Greek-Oriental 
bishoprics,  a  superintendence  and  upper 
consistory  of  the  Unitarians.    In  the  king- 


Authenticity 


8i 


Ave  Maria 


dom  of  Hungary  by  25  Catholic  bishops, 
ID  Evangelical  superintendencies,  and  8 
Greek-Oriental  bishops.  The  different 
worships  of  the  total  population  are  as 
follows:  I.  Austrian  Countries,  Roman 
Catholics,  17,808,530;  Greek  and  Armen- 
ian Catholics,  2,593,618;  Oriental  Greeks 
and  Armenians,  493,542 ;  Protestants, 
401,479;  Israelites,  1,005,394;  Others,  14,- 
004. —  2.  Countries  of  the  Hungaria7i 
Cro-wn,  Roman  Catholics,  7,849,692 ;  Greek 
Catholics,  1,497,268;  Armenian  Catholics, 
3,223;  Onental  Greeks,  2,434,890;  Evan- 
gelicals, 1,122,849;  Calvinists,  2,031,803; 
Unitarians,  33,792.  Other  Christian  sects, 
4,645;  Israelites,  683,314;  Others,  3,626. 
See  Census  of  the  year  1890. 

Authenticity  {Holy  Scripture).  —  A 
book  is  credited  as  authentic  that  was 
written  by  the  author  whose  name  it  car- 
ries and  to  whom  it  is  generally  at^trib- 
uted.  A  history,  or  narrative  may  be  true 
or  conformable  to  facts  without  being 
authentic,  that  is  without  having  been 
written  by  the  author  to  whom  it  is  attrib- 
uted. It  is  sufficient  that  it  was  the  work 
of  a  writer  adequately  informed  and  sin- 
cere, whoever  he  may  have  been.  Be- 
cause the  author  of  a  book  is  unknown,  it 
does  not  follow  that  all  it  contains  is  false 
and  fabulous,  and  it  may  have  as  much 
weight  and  authority  as  if  the  author  were 
certainly  known,  the  subject  matter  being 
the  final  criterion  of  the  value  of  the  work. 
In  fact,  among  the  Sacred  Books  there  are 
some,  especially  in  the  Old  Testament, 
whose  authors  are  not  authentically  known ; 
we  only  know  that  they  proceed  from  an 
inspired  hand,  because  the  ancients,  bet- 
ter enabled  than  we  to  discover  their 
origin,  have  believed  in  them  and  have 
quoted  them  as  historic  authority.  In  re- 
gard to  this  point,  tradition  is  the  only 
guide  we  have.  As  to  the  books  of  the 
New  Testament,  we  know  for  certain  that 
they  are  authentic,  and  that  they  were 
written  by  the  authors  whose  names  they 
carry. 

In  order  that  a  book  may  be  held  ca- 
nonical, inspired,  divine,  reputed  as  the 
word  of  God,  it  is  not  enough  that  it  is 
authentic,  that  it  was  written  by  one  of  the 
Apostles,  or  by  one  of  their  immediate  suc- 
cessors ;  but  the  Church  must  have  adopted 
it  as  such,  and  ancient  tradition  must  tes- 
tify in  its  favor.  The  Church  would  not 
be  in  a  condition  to  guarantee  the  Christian 
doctrine,  if  she  had  not  the  authority  to 
6 


teach  us,  without  danger  of  error,  what 
are  the  books  we  must  regard  as  rules  of 
our  belief.  The  rules  of  criticism  may 
serve  to  discover  whether  a  book  was  writ- 
ten by  such  or  such  an  author,  but  they  can- 
not inform  us  whether  this  book  is  or  is  not 
a  rule  of  faith  ;  it  remains  for  the  Church  to 
judge  whether  it  contains  the  doctrine  of 
Christ  or  not.  This  holy  society  was 
instructed  by  word  of  mouth  by  the  Apos- 
tles before  she  had  received  their  writ- 
ings, and  no  book  can  entirely  supply  the 
public  with  the  never  varying  teaching  of 
the  Church. 

Authority.  See  Law;  Pope  {Preroga- 
tives of  the) ;  Jurisdiction. 

Autocephali. — Name  given  by  the  Greeks 
to  bishops  who  are  not  subject  to  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  patriarchs. 

Auto  Da  Fe  {Act  of  Faith).  —  Name 
given  to  the  ceremony  that  took  place 
when  the  Inquisition  had  rendered  its 
judgment  on  the  person  brought  before  it 
for  trial.  It  was  especially  applied  to  the 
execution  of  the  judgment  by  fire.     See 

iNqUISITION. 

Ave  Maria  or  the  *'  Angelical  Saluta- 
tion." Catholics,  after  having  said  the 
"  Our  Father,"  almost  invariably  add  the 
"Ave  Maria."  It  has  always  been  cus- 
tomary among  Christians  to  imitate  the 
example  of  the  archangel  Gabriel,  and 
salute  our  Blessed  Lady  in  his  words.  The 
devotion  to  Mary  was  not  introduced  by  a 
decree  of  a  Council,  nor  at  the  behest  of 
any  Pope;  at  all  times  the  faithful  have 
been  wont  to  pay  their  devout  homage  to 
the  Queen  of  heaven.  She  herself  foresaw 
that  this  would  be  so;  that  all  generations 
would  call  her  blessed  (Luke  i.  48).  The 
"Ave  Maria"  is  also  called  the  Angelical 
Salutation,  because  it  commences  with  the 
words  of  the  archangel.  It  consists  of 
three  parts :  The  salutation  of  the  arch- 
angel Gabriel,  the  greeting  of  St.  Eliza- 
beth, and  the  words  of  the  Church.  The 
salutation  of  the  archangel  runs  thus : 
"  Hail,  full  of  grace,  the  Lord  is  with 
thee;  blessed  art  thou  among  women" 
(Luke  i.  28).  The  greeting  of  Elizabeth 
is  this  :  "  Blessed  art  thou  among  women, 
and  blessed  is  the  fruit  of  thy  womb " 
(v.  42).  The  remaining  words  were  added 
by  the  Church.  The  first  and  second  parts 
were  recited  by  the  faithful  in  the  earliest 
ages  of  Christianity  in  their  present  form, 
while  the  concluding  words  were  varied. 


Avignon 


82 


Babylon 


St.  Athanasius  used  to  add  :  "  Pray  for  us, 
Patron  and  Lady,  Queen  and  Mother  of 
God."  From  the  time  of  Luther  it  was 
customary  to  end  with  the  words  :  "  Holy 
Mary,  Mother  of  God,  pray  for  us."  The 
final  clause  now  in  use  dates  from  the  reign 
of  Pope  St.  Pius  v.,  who  directed  it  to 
be  printed  in  all  the  authorized  prayer 
books. 

Avignon  (.The  Popes  at).  See  Captiv- 
ity OF  THE  Popes. 

Aviz  ( Order  of  St.  Benedict). — An  Order 
of  knighthood,  instituted  in  1134-1147,  by 
Sancho  I.,  king  of  Navarre.  Its  purpose 
was  to  aid  in  the  suppression  of  the  Moors. 
It  received  the  papal  confirmation  as  a  re- 
ligious Order  under  the  Rule  of  St.  Bene- 


dict in  1 162.  In  1187  the  seat  of  the  Order 
is  said  to  have  been  placed  at  Aviz.  In 
1550  Pope  Paul  III.  united  the  grand  mas- 
tership to  the  Portuguese  crown,  and  in 
1789  it  was  changed  into  an  honorary  order 
for  the  reward  of  military  merit. 

Azarias. —  King  of  Juda.  He  began  his 
reign  at  the  age  of  16  years,  812  b.  c.  The 
first  part  of  his  reign  was  prosperous  and 
happy;  but  presuming  to  offer  incense  in 
the  temple,  he  was  smitten  with  leprosy, 
and  continued  a  leper  till  his  death,  in  758 
B.  c. 

Azimites. —  A  name  signifying  users  of 
unleavened  bread,  applied  to  the  Roman 
Church,  by  the  Patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople, Michael  Caerularius,  in  1053. 


B 


Baader  (Franz  Xavervon)(i765-i84I). 
— Born  at  Munich.  A  German  scholar,  ap- 
pointed honorary  professor  of  philosophy 
and  speculative  theology  at  the  University 
of  Munich  in  1826;  chiefly  known  from 
his  philosophical  writings.  He  devoted 
himself  at  first  to  the  study  of  medicine 
and  the  natural  sciences,  held  the  position 
of  superintendent  of  mines  in  Munich 
(1797)  and  published  various  scientific  and 
technical  works.  Catholic  and  profound 
thinker,  Baader  had  the  misfortune  to  fall 
into  the  errors  of  mystics,  such  as  J. 
Bochum,  Paracelsus,  Van  Helmont,  and 
St.  Martin.  He  imagined  a  democratic 
Catholicism,  enfranchised  from  the  su- 
premacy of  the  Pope  and  governed  in  a 
parliamentary  manner  by  councils.  He 
believed  in  having  found  his  ideal  in  the 
Greek  Church,  which  he  maintained  to  be 
superior  to  the  Roman  Church.  However, 
Baader  died  a  Catholic,  at  Mimich. 

Baal  or  Bel,  signifies  lord,  and  was 
the  name  of  an  idol,  god  of  the  Phoeni- 
cians and  Chanaanites,  which  is  very  com- 
monly mentioned  along  with  Ashtaroth, 
or  Astarte.  The  word  Baal,  in  the  Old 
Testament, when  employed  without  further 
addition,  denotes  an  idol  of  the  Phccnici- 
ans,  and  particularly  of  the  Tyrians,  whose 
worship  was  also  introduced,  with  great 
solemnities,  among  the  Hebrews,  and 
especially  at  Samaria,  along  with  that  of 
Astarte  ( Judg.  vi.  25;  IV.  Ki.  x.  18).  In 
the    plural,    Baalim,    the    word   signifies 


images  or  statues  of  Baal.  Of  the  extent 
to  which  the  worship  of  this  idol  was 
practiced  among  the  Phoenicians  and 
Carthaginians,  we  have  an  evidence  in  the 
proper  names  of  persons ;  as,  among  the 
former,  Ethbaal,  Jerubbaal;  and  among 
the  latter,  Hannibal,  Asdrubal,  etc.  Also 
the  name  Baal  is  often  joined  to  the  name 
of  a  city  where  Baal  is  adored  :  Baal-Bek, 
Baal-Hazor,  Baal-Pharasim,  etc. ;  with  the 
name  of  another  false  deity,  like  Baal- 
Phegor,  Baal-Berith,  that  is  "lord  of  the 
covenant,"  Beel-Zebuth.  Among  the  Bab- 
ylonians, the  same  idol  was  worshiped 
under  the  name  of  Bel,  which  is  only 
another  form  of  the  word  Baal. 

Baalah  or  Cariath-Yarim. —  City  of  Pal- 
estine, in  the  tribe  of  Juda,  where  they 
deposited  the  Ark  of  Covenant  brought 
back  from  the  country  of  the  Philistines. 

Baanites. —  Heretics  of  the  ninth  cen- 
tury. They  were  followers  of  Baanes,  a 
Paulician,  and  who  founded  a  separate 
sect  of  the  Manicheans. 

Babel. —  Same  as  Babylon  (which  see). 

Babylon. —  In  ancient  geography,  the 
capital  of  Babylonia,  situated  on  the  Eu- 
phrates. Its  original  foundation  is  re- 
ferred, in  the  Bible,  to  the  attempt  of  tlje 
descendants  of  Noe  to  build  "a  city  and  a 
tower,"  on  account  of  which  their  lan- 
guage was  confounded,  and  they  were 
scattered  by  the  interposition  of  God  Him- 


Babylonian  Captivity 


83 


Ballerini 


self  (Gen.  xi.).  Hence  the  name  Babel, 
that  is,  confusion.  Babylon  is  now  a  mass 
of  ruins,  but  once,  according  to  Herodo- 
tus, it  included  within  its  walls  200  square 
miles.  It  is  named  250  times  in  the 
Bible.  Babylon  rose  to  great  glory  under 
Nabuchodonosor.  Thither  the  Jews  were 
carried  into  captivity.  Cyrus  captured  it 
(Dan.  v.),  as  did  also,  later,  Alexander  the 
Great,  who  died  there.  Its  overthrow  was 
frequently  foretold  (Is.  xiii,  4-22;  Jer. 
XXV.  12;  Hab.  i.  5-10). 

Babylonian  Captivity.     See  Captivity. 

Bacon  or  Baconthorp  (John). — English 
monk  and  theologian,  born  at  Baconthorp, 
in  the  province  of  Norfolk,  England,  died 
at  London  about  1346.  Provincial  of  the 
Carmelities.  They  surnamed  him  the 
"  Resolute  Doctor  "  on  account  of  the  great 
facility  with  which  he  answered  the  pro- 
posed questions.  H  e  is  the  author  of  a  Com  - 
mentary  on  the  Master  of  Sentences. 

Bacon  (Roger). — Born  at  or  near  Ilches- 
ter,  Somersetshire,  about  1214;  died,  prob- 
ably at  Oxford,  in  1294.  A  celebrated 
English  philosopher.  He  was  educated  at 
Oxford  and  Paris,  and  joined  the  Francis- 
can Order.  In  1227  he  was  sent  by  his  su- 
periors to  Paris,  where  he  was  kept  in  close 
confinement  for  several  years.  About  1265 
he  was  invited  by  Pope  Clement  IV.  to 
write  a  general  treatise  on  the  sciences,  in 
answer  to  which  he  composed  his  chief 
work,  the  Ofus  Majus.  In  1278  his 
writings  were  condemned  as  heretical  by  a 
Council  of  his  Order,  in  consequence  of 
which  he  was  again  placed  in  confinement. 
He  was  set  at  liberty  in  1292.  Besides  the 
Opus  Majus,  his  most  notable  works 
are  Opus  Minus,  Opus  Tertium,  and 
Compendium  Philosophies. 

Baden  (  Worship  in).     See  Germany. 

Baius  (Michael)  (1513-1689).  —  Doctor 
and  professor  of  theology  at  Louvain. 
Misinterpreting  the  doctrine  of  St.  Augus- 
tine, he  advanced  new  opinions  on  original 
justice,  grace,  and  freedom  of  will.  His 
lectures  on  these  subjects  excited  much 
opposition  among  his  academic  colleagues, 
especially  among  the  Franciscans.  The 
principal  errors  couched  in  the  doctrine  of 
Baius  are,  that  original  justice  is  an  in- 
tegral part  of  human  nature,  and  not  a  free 
gift  of  Guod;  that  fallen  man,  being  utterly 
depraved  in  his  nature,  is  incapable  of  do- 
ing good ;  that  all  actions  of  man    in  the 


natural  order  are  sinful ;  and  that  divine 
grace  constrains  man  to  be  and  to  do  good. 
In  1567  Pope  Pius  V.  condemned  seventy- 
six  propositions,  representing  the  teaching 
of  Baius,  as  erroneous  and  heretical,  which 
sentence  Gregory  XIII.  renewed  in  1579. 
Baius  submitted  to  the  papal  decision. 
His  tenets,  which  are  hardly  distinguish- 
able from  those  of  Calvin,  took  root  and 
passed  from  his  disciples  to  Jansenism  in 
the  next  century.     See  Jansenism. 

Balaam. —  Prophet  or  diviner  of  the  city 
of  Pethora,on  the  Euphrates.  Balak,  king 
of  Moab,  having  seen  the  hosts  of  Israel, 
and  fearing  they  would  attack  his  country, 
sent  for  Balaam  to  come  and  curse  them. 
His  messengers  having  declared  their 
errand,  Balaam,  during  the  night,  con- 
sulted God,  who  forbade  his  going.  Balak 
afterward  sent  others,  whom  Balaam 
finally  accompanied,  contrary  to  the  will 
of  God,  who  sent  an  angel  to  stop  him  on 
the  way.  Here  occurred  the  miracle  of 
Balaam's  ass.  But  instead  of  cursing  he 
blessed  the  children  of  Israel.  See  Num. 
xxii.  Balaam  and  Balak  were  killed  in 
the  year  1461  b.  c. 

Baldachin. —  A  canopy  of  various  kinds  : 
I.  A  portable  decorative  covering,  borne 
in  ceremonial  processions,  as  a  sign  of 
rank  or  dignity;  particularly,  the  dais-like 
canopy  carried  over  the  Pope,  which  is 
supported  on  eight  poles  and  carried  by 
distinguished  personages. —  2.  A  portable 
canopy  borne  over  the  Blessed  Eucharist, 
carried  processionally,  as  on  the  feast  of 
Corpus  Christi. — 3.  A  stationary  covering, 
of  baudekin,  silk,  or  other  rich  material, 
stretched  above  the  seat  of  a  dignitary. — 
4.  A  fixed  canopy,  often  of  metal  or  stone, 
above  the  isolated  high  altar,  in  many 
churches,  especially  in  Italy  and  the  East. 
From  its  center,  according  to  the  old 
ritual,  usually  hung  by  a  chain  the  vessel 
containing  the  Sacred  Host;  but  this  usage 
has  been  superseded. 

Ballerini  (-Anthony)  (1803-1881). — Ital- 
ian theologian,  born  at  Bologna,  entered 
the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1826,  and  was  suc- 
cessively professor  of  philosophy  at  Feren- 
tino,  of  Church  History  at  Rome  and  at 
Fermo.  He  occupied  the  chair  of  moral 
theology  at  the  Gregorian  University  of 
Rome  when  he  died.  He  published  the 
Compendium  Theologies  Moralis,  of  R.  P. 
Gury,  and  Tractatus  de  Justitia  et  Jure  ; 
Tractatus  de  Actibus  Humanis ;    Sylloge 


Ballerini 


84 


Baltimore 


Monumentorutn  adMysterium  Conceptionis 
Immaculate  Virginis  Deifarce;  yuris 
Offlcium  Episcoforum  in  ferendo  suffragio 
pro  Infallibilitate,  Romani  Pontificis,  etc. 

Ballerini  (Jerome)  (1720-1770). —  Priest 
ax»d  theologian,  brother  of  the  following, 
born  at  Verona.  His  knowledge  of  eccle- 
siastical history  was  very  extensive.  He 
was  the  fellow-laborer  of  his  brother  in 
his  various  works,  and  he  himself  pub- 
lished a  complete  edition  of  the  Works  of 
Cardinal  Noris,  with  notes  and  disserta- 
tions. 

Ballerini  (Peter)  (1698-1764). — Italian 
theologian  and  canonist,  born  at  Verona; 
priest  and  savant,  published  an  excellent 
edition  of  the  works  of  St.  Leo  the  Great; 
of  the  Theological  Summa,  of  St.  Anthony, 
and  of  Raymond  of  Pennafort.  More- 
over, we  have  from  him  a  small  treatise 
entitled :  *'  Methods  of  Studying,  Drawn 
from  tbe  Works  of  St.  Augustine"  (1724), 
a  work  which  became  one  of  the  causes 
of  the  quarrel  of  Probabilism. 

Balmes  (Jaime  Luciano). —  Born  at 
Vich,  in  Catalonia,  1810;  died  there,  1848. 
A  Spanish  publicist  and  philosophical 
writer.  He  founded  a  journal  '*//  Pensa- 
miento  de  la  Nacion,"  to  defend  religion 
and  monarchy.  But  Balmes  especially 
owes  his  great  fame  to  his  Protestantism 
and  Catholicity  Compared  in  their  Effects 
on  the  Civilization  of  Europe,  a  work 
translated  into  English.  Other  works  of 
his  in  English  are :  Fundamental  Philos- 
ophy ;  The  Foundations  of  Religion  Ex- 
plained ;  Letters  to  a  Skeptic,  on  Religion. 

Balsam. — An  oily,  aromatic,  resinous 
substance,  exuding  spontaneously  from 
trees  of  the  genus  Balsamodendron.  The 
balsam  from  the  tree  of  the  species  opo- 
balsamum  was  anciently  plentiful  in  Judea, 
and  particularly  in  Galaad,  hence  called 
the  "Balsam  of  Galaad"  (Jer.  xlvi.  11). 
It  was  considered  very  valuable  as  a  cure 
for  external  wounds.  In  oiSr  days,  it  is 
collected  chiefly  in  Arabia,  between  Mecca 
and  Medina.  Its  odor  is  exquisitely  fra- 
grant and  pungent.  It  is  very  costly,  and 
it  is  still  in  the  highest  esteem  among  the 
Turks  and  other  Oriental  nations,  both  as 
a  medicine  and  as  a  cosmetic.  The  bal- 
sam used  in  the  Catholic  Church  in  the 
confection  of  chrism  is,  by  the  rubrics,  that 
of  Syria  or  Mecca;  but  from  difficulty  in 
obtaining  this,  concessions  have  been  made 


by  the   Popes   for   the   use   of   balsam   of 
Brazil,  Tolu,  Peru,  etc. 

Balthasar. — Son  of  the  last  Chaldean 
king  of  Babylon,  Nebu-Nehid  or  Nabon- 
idus.  Intrenched  by  his  father  in  Babylon, 
when  besieged  by  Cyrus,  he  trusted  in  the 
strength  of  the  place,  and  spent  the  time 
in  debaucheries.  The  Bible  relates  (Dan. 
V.)  that  at  a  great  festival  he  profaned  the 
sacred  vessels  of  the  temple  of  Jerusalem. 
The  same  night  Cyrus  took  Babylon  and 
put  an  end  to  the  Chaldean  empire,  which 
had  lasted  200  years. 

Baltimore  Councils.  —  Three  plenary 
councils  were  held  in  the  city  of  Balti- 
more, Maryland.  The  First  was  held  in 
1852.  Thirty-two  archbishops  and  bishops 
took  part  in  its  deliberations.  The  decrees 
of  this  Council  related  chiefly  to  ecclesi- 
astical discipline,  the  school  question,  and 
other  important  matters,  and  proposed  the 
creation  of  eight  new  sees.  Bishop  Fr.  P. 
Kenrick,  Archbishop  of  Baltimore,  pre- 
sided over  the  First  Plenary  Council. — 
The  Second  took  place  in  1866.  It  had 
been  convened  by  Archbishop  Spalding, 
as  Apostolic  Delegate,  and  was  attended 
by  seven  archbishops  and  thirty-eight 
bishops.  One  of  the  decrees  of  the  Coun- 
cil recommended  to  the  Holy  See  the 
erection  of  fifteen  new  episcopal  sees. — 
The  Third  took  place  in  the  year  1884. 
No  such  gathering  had  been  witnessed  in 
the  history  of  the  American  Church. 
Among  its  attendants  were  fourteen  arch- 
bishops, sixty  bishops,  five  visiting  bishops 
from  Canada  and  Japan,  one  prefect  apos- 
tolic, and  seven  mitred  abbots.  The  ap- 
pointed task  of  the  Council  was  to  promote 
uniformity  of  discipline,  and  provide  for 
the  exigencies  and  a  closer  organization 
of  the  Church  of  America. 

Baltimore  (Lord),  or  Sir  Cecil  Calvert 
(1613-1676). — An  English  Catholic  noble- 
man, known  as  Lord  Baltimore.  Having 
obtained  from  Charles  I.  a  charter  for  the 
settlement  of  Maryland,  in  1634,  sent  out 
his  brother,  Leonard  Calvert,  and  two 
hundred  English  emigrants,  chiefly  Cath- 
olics, to  establish  a  colony  in  his  new  pos- 
session. The  new  settlement,  to  which 
the  name  of  St.  Mary's  was  given,  began 
with  Catholics  and  Protestants  living  to- 
gether in  peace,  neither  interfering  with 
the  religious  rights  of  the  other.  Thus 
"religious  liberty,"  says  Bancroft,  "ob- 
tained a  home,  its  only  home  in  the  wide 


Banner 


85 


Baptism 


world,  in  the  humble  village  which  bore 
the  name  of  St.  Mary's."  To  insure  the 
continuance  of  peace  and  mutual  confi- 
dence among  the  colonists,  the  Assembly 
of  Maryland,  at  the  instance  of  Lord  Balti- 
more, in  1649,  passed  the  famous  Act  con- 
cerning Relisrion,  which  provided  that  no 
person  believing  in  Jesus  Christ  should  be 
molested  in  respect  to  their  religion,  or 
the  exercise  thereof,  or  be  compelled  to 
adopt  the  belief  of  any  other  religion, 
against  their  consent. 

Banner.     See  Standard. 

Banns  of  Marriage.  —  Proclamations 
which  are  solemnly  made  in  the  Church, 
in  order  to  make  known  an  intended  mar- 
riage, so  that  those  who  know  of  any  im- 
pediment, may  state  it  to  the  proper 
authorities.  Banns  were  made  a  part  of 
ecclesiastical  legislation  by  the  Fourth 
Council  of  the  Lateran,  in  1215,  whose 
decrees  were  confirmed  by  the  Council  of 
Trent.  In  the  Catholic  Church  the  cele- 
bration of  marriage,  without  previous  proc- 
lamation of  the  banns,  is,  unless  by 
special  dispensation,  gravely  illicit,  but  not 
invalid.  The  proclamations  of  the  banns 
are  made  by  the  parish  priest  of  the  con- 
tracting parties,  on  three  consecutive  Sun- 
days at  high  Mass. 

Baptism. —  Baptism  is  the  first  of  the 
sacraments,  because  without  it  we  can  re- 
ceive no  other  sacrament ;  and  if  we  were 
to  participate  in  any  other  sacrament,  it 
would  be  void  ;  and  we,  knowingly  and  wil- 
fully unbaptized,  would  commit  a  sacrilege. 
God  might  accord  persons  so  acting  sancti- 
fying grace,  but  it  would  not  be  conferred 
through  the  bestowal  of  the  sacrament. 

The  word  "baptism"  is  a  Greek  word 
which  signifies  ablution  or  immersion. 
This  was  the  manner  of  baptizing  in 
the  primitive  Church,  symbolizing  puri- 
fication, and  expressive  of  the  spiritual 
effect  of  this  sacrament.  Although  St. 
John  baptized,  his  baptism  was  but  the 
figure  of  the  real  baptism, —  the  sign  of 
heartfelt  penitence,  in  preparation  for  re- 
ceiving the  grace  of  the  remission  of  sins; 
but  it  neither  contained  nor  conferred  that 
grace. 

According  to  some  theologians,  our 
Lord  instituted  the  sacrament  of  baptism 
on  receiving  from  St.  John  the  figurative 
baptism.  In  the  opinion  of  others,  it  was 
after  the  resurrection  of  our  Saviour,  when 
He  said  to  His  Apostles:  "Teach  ye  all 
nations,  baptizing  them  in  the  name  of  the 


Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy 
Ghost"  (Matt,  xxviii.  19). 

In  the  sacrament  of  baptism,  instituted 
by  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  He  eflF^ces  the 
stain  of  original  sin,  and  communicates  to 
our  souls  the  supernatural  life  of  sanctify- 
ing or  habitual  grace,  rendering  us  Chris- 
tians, children  of  God,  members  of  His 
Church,  and  inheritors  of  the  kingdom  of 
heaven.  Baptism  imprints  an  ineffaceable 
character  on  the  soul,  as  St.  Paul  explains 
by  saying :  "  Grieve  not  the  Holy  Spirit  of 
God,  whereby  you  are  sealed  unto  the  day 
of  redemption"  (Eph.  iv.  30).  In  adults, 
having  the  necessary  dispositions,  the 
grace  conferred  by  the  sacrament  of  bap- 
tism effaces  actual  sin  as  well  as  original 
sin,  and  remits  the  temporal  punishment 
due  to  sin.  St.  Paul  aflSrms  this  in  ex- 
horting sinners  to  contrition  and  baptism, 
in  these  words:  "Be  penitent,  therefore, 
and  be  converted,  that  your  sins  may  be 
blotted  out"  (Acts.  iii.  19).  "  Do  penance 
and  be  baptized,  every  one  of  you,  in  the 
name  of  Jesus  Christ,  for  the  remission  of 
your  sins ;  and  you  shall  receive  the  gift  of 
the  Holy  Ghost "  (Acts  ii.  38).  To  those 
who  sin  after  baptism,  but  who  do  not  die 
in  mortal  sin,  there  remains  expiation  of 
purgation  in  this  world,  or  of  purgatory 
in  the  next,  for  there  is  "  no  condemnation 
to  them  that  are  in  Christ  Jesus,  who  walk 
not  according  to  the  flesh  "  (Rom.  viii.  i). 
Those  who  die  undefiled  by  any  kind  of 
sin,  are  numbered  among  the  just,  and 
immediately  enter  heaven.  By  baptism 
we  are  made  Christians,  for  those  who 
"  have  been  baptized  in  Christ  have  put 
on  Christ  "  (Gal.  iii.  27).  We  are  "  chil- 
dren of  God  by  faith  in  Jesus  Christ " 
(Gal.  iii.  26) ;  and  members  of  His  Church, 
having  entered  by  baptism,  that  great  re- 
ligious society  established  by  our  Lord, 
and  being  designated  in  Scripture  as  "  Be- 
lieving "  (i  Cor.  vii.  14).  We  are  inheri- 
tors of  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  "  for  the 
Spirit  Himself  giveth  testimony  to  our 
spirit,  that  we  are  the  sons  of  God.  And 
if  sons,  heirs  also;  heirs  indeed  of  God, 
and  joint  heirs  of  Christ;  yet  so,  if  we 
suffer  with  Him"  (Rom.  viii.  17).  Al- 
though baptism  blots  out  the  stain  of  sin, 
it  does  not  absolve  us  from  the  temporal 
consequences  of  original  sin,  but  leaves  us 
ever  subject  to  suffering,  ignorance,  con- 
cupiscence, and  death.  This  is  in  order  to 
prove  our  virtue  and  steadfastness  toward 
God,  to  afford  us  opportunities  of  expiat- 
ing our  own  faults  by  resistance  to  tempta- 


Baptism 


86 


Baptism 


tion,  and  by  patience  and  forbearance, 
thereby  giving  us  occasion  for  increasing 
sanctifying  grace  in  our  souls,  and  of 
gaining  new  merits  wherewith  to  add  to 
our  heavenly  glory  and  happiness. 

In  cases  of  necessity,  when  ecclesiastical 
administration  of  the  sacrament  of  bap- 
tism cannot  be  procured,  any  person  of 
either  sex,  of  any  age  or  religion,  may 
baptize.  Indeed,  it  is  obligatory  to  bap- 
tize, when  an  unbaptized  child  or  adult  is 
in  danger  of  death,  and  no  priest  is  at 
hand ;  but  otherwise  it  is  not  permissible 
under  pain  of  sin.  In  any  case,  the  cere- 
monies must,  as  soon  as  convenient,  be 
supplied  by  a  priest,  and  the  baptism 
itself  must  be  renewed,  conditionally,  if 
there  be  any  doubt  as  to  its  having  been 
validly  administered. 

To  baptize  validly,  water  must  be  poured 
on  the  forehead,  while  the  person  baptiz- 
ing says  at  the  same  time,  with  the  in- 
tention of  carrying  out  the  precept  of  the 
Church  :  "  I  baptize  thee  in  the  name  of 
the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the 
Holy  Ghost."  In  conferring  this  sacra- 
ment, great  care  should  be  taken,  while 
pronouncing  these  words,  that  the  water 
should  be  poured  on  the  forehead  three 
times,  forming  the  sign  of  the  cross  at  each 
pouring — to  bring  more  clearly  to  mind 
the  sacrifice  of  our  Saviour,  the  source 
of  baptismal  grace,  and  the  Holy  Trinity. 
If  there  be  any  doubt  as  to  whether  the 
person  has  been  already  baptized,  and 
dangerous  illness  does  not  afiFord  time  to 
make  proper  inquiries,  the  baptism  must 
be  made  "conditional,"  by  the  person  who 
administers  it,  saying:  "If  thou  art  not 
baptized,  I  baptize  thee,"  etc.  In  the  same 
manner,  if  there  be  doubt  as  to  whether 
the  person  be  still  alive,  the  words  should 
be  in  a  conditional  form :  *'  If  thou  art 
living,  I  baptize  thee,"  etc. 

Baptism  is  absolutely  necessary  for  sal- 
vation, for  our  Lord  said  :  "Unless  a  man 
be  born  again  of  water  and  the  Holy 
Ghost,  he  cannot  enter  into  the  kingdom 
of  God"  (John  iii.  5).  "He  that  believeth 
and  is  baptized,  shall  be  saved ;  but  he 
that  believeth  not  shall  be  condemned " 
(Mark  xvi.  16). 

But  when  the  baptism  of  water  cannot 
possibly  be  effected,  it  may  be  supplied  by 
the  baptism  of  desire:  "For  whosoever 
shall  call  upon  the  name  of  the  Lord  shall 
be  saved"  (Rom.  x.  13).  This,  however, 
neither  gives  the  character  of  the  true 
baptism,  nor  the  right  of  participating  in 


the  other  sacraments  of  the  Church  ;  and 
will  remit  temporal  punishment  due  to 
sin  only  when  the  desire  and  devotion  are 
sufficiently  ardent.  The  baptism  of  de- 
sire is  the  perfect  love  of  God,  with  the 
strong  resolve  of  obedience  to  all  that  God 
has  commanded,  including  the  desire  of 
baptism.  But  after  Aie  passing  away  of 
the  circumstances  that  have  called  forth 
the  desire,  baptism  must  voluntarily  be 
sought  for  on  the  first  available  oppor- 
tunity, and  be  administered  according  to 
the  rites  of  the  Church ;  otherwise,  by  the 
clear  evidence  of  the  desire  having  ceased 
to  exist,  a  grievous  sin  is  committed. 

The  baptism  of  water  may  also  be  sup- 
plied by  the  baptism  of  blood,  or  martyr- 
dom ;  which,  properly  speaking,  is  death 
endured  in  the  name  of  our  Lord,  to  pre- 
serve faith,  chastity,  or  some  other  Chris- 
tian virtue.  This  baptism  of  blood,  in 
which  man  manifests  the  greatest  proof  of 
love  for  the  Creator,  remits  all  punish- 
ment due  to  sin,  as  in  ordinary  baptism. 
This  is  distinctly  so  explained  in  the  sense 
of  the  words  of  Christ:  "He  that  shall 
lose  his  life  for  my  sake,  shall  save  it " 
(Luke  ix.  24).  But  if  the  martyrdom  is  a 
torture  that  does  not  result  in  death,  bap- 
tism of  water  must  be  administered  as 
soon  as  procurable,  as  in  the  case  of  bap- 
tism of  desire,  to  ratify  and  increase  the 
gifts  received. 

No  avoidable  delay  is  admissible  in  the 
baptism  of  a  child  ;  and  parents  are  greatly 
and  sometimes  grievously  at  fault  in  thus 
exposing  a  soul  to  exclusion  from  heaven, 
for  it  is  written :  "  There  shall  not  enter 
into  it  anything  defiled"  (Apoc.  xxi.  27). 
It  is,  therefore,  according  to  faith,  that 
every  child,  though  of  itself  sinless,  so  far 
as  actual  sin  is  concerned,  is  deprived,  if 
dying  unbaptized,  of  the  sight  of  God  and 
glory  of  heaven.  In  the  opinion  of  some 
theologians,  they  are  taken  to  the  place 
called  Limbo,  where  the  souls  of  the  just 
went,  who  died  before  our  Saviour's  com- 
ing on  earth.  It  is  evident,  that  by  the 
justice  of  God,  these  children  enjoy  a 
greater  degree  of  happiness,  though  how 
far  their  exclusion  from  heaven  is  realized 
by  them,  to  the  tempering  of  that  happi- 
ness, is  unknown.     Probably  not  at  all. 

For  the  baptism  of  children  who  have 
not  attained  the  age  of  reason,  or  of  adults 
who  have  always  been  deprived  of  that 
faculty,  or  who  have  lost  the  use  of  it  be- 
fore being  baptized,  any  disposition  for 
the   reception  of  the  sacrament  is  neces- 


Baptism 


87 


Baptism 


sarily  dispensed  with,  because  they  are  in- 
capable of  judging  for  themselves  on  such 
matters,  and  consequently  cannot  oppose 
the  grace  of  God  working  in  the  sacra- 
ment. For  the  baptism  of  adults  in  pos- 
session of  reason,  their  full  consent  is 
indispensable  to  its  validity.  They  should 
also  have  sufficient  knowledge  of  the  prin- 
cipal truths  of  religion,  and  adequate  con- 
victions of  faith,  hope,  love  of  God,  and 
sincere  repentance  of  sin,  at  least  from  the 
motive  of  attrition.  With  consent,  but 
without  the  necessary  dispositions,  bap- 
tism would  be  valid,  but  would  not  efface 
the  stain  of  original  and  actual  sin,  nor  give 
sanctifying  grace  to  the  soul  until  such 
time  as  the  requisite  knowledge  and  fitting 
dispositions  should  drive  away  all  obstacles 
to  the  full  reception  of  sanctifying  grace. 

The  promises,  solemn,  sacred,  and  irrev- 
ocable, exacted  by  the  Church  from  the 
catechumen,  or  from  the  godfather  or  god- 
mother in  the  name  of  the  infant  to  be 
baptized,  are  the  renouncing  of  Satan,  his 
pomps  and  his  works.  That  is  to  say,  the 
embracing  the  law  of  our  Saviour,  and  de- 
claring adherence  henceforth  to  God  and 
His  holy  will;  and  the  rejecting  the  vani- 
ties of  the  world,  over-indulgence  in  out- 
ward show,  and  flattering  deceptions  of 
pride,  which  can  be  of  little  avail  in  this 
life,  and  are  compromising  to  the  interests 
of  our  eternal  happiness.  Further,  the 
repudiation  of  the  wicked  and  false  maxims 
of  the  world,  including  all  that  selfish 
love  of  luxuries  and  all  those  worldly  dis- 
positions so  totally  opposed  to  the  doc- 
trines and  examples  of  our  Lord.  It  is 
important  for  parents  or  godparents  to  ex- 
plain to  children,  as  soon  as  they  are  ca- 
pable of  understanding  them,  the  value  and 
consequences  of  the  promises  that  have 
been  made  in  their  name,  the  grace  that 
has  been  accorded  to  them  by  God,  the 
privileges  with  which  they  have  been  en- 
dowed in  having  been  made  members  of 
the  Holy  Catholic  Church,  and  the  neces- 
sity of  their  remembering  in  whose  ser- 
vice they  are  to  pass  their  lives.  They 
should  teach  children  to  celebrate  worthily 
the  anniversary  of  that  day  on  which  they  re- 
ceived the  life  of  sanctifying  grace  through 
the  sacrament  of  baptism;  instructing 
them  to  ask  pardon,  with  all  sincerity  of 
heart,  for  sins  meanwhile  committed,  and 
to  renew,  with  ardent  fervor,  the  solemn 
pledges  given  in  baptism,  praying  for  the 
help  of  divine  grace  in  carrying  out  their 
resolutions. 


For  the  solemn  administration  of  the 
sacrament  of  baptism,  the  godfather  or 
godmother  may,  if  necessary,  be  repre- 
sented by  someone  else,  who,  however, 
contracts  none  of  the  obligations  of  the 
godparents.  The  Church  exacts  that 
every  child  to  be  baptized  should  have  a 
sponsor  to  act  in  its  name  in  making  the 
required  promises,  and  to  see  to  the  due 
carrying  out  of  the  same  by  the  child  who 
receives  this  sacrament.  Godparents 
must  at  least  have  attained  the  age  of  dis- 
cretion, and  be  in  full  possession  of  the  use 
of  reason.  They  must  be  Catholics,  be- 
cause the  Church  admits  none  but  her 
followers  to  assume  this  position.  They 
must  be  of  good  faith  and  morals,  and 
adequately  versed  in  the  knowledge  of  our 
holy  religion,  that  their  teaching  may  be 
pure,  and  their  instruction  sufficient  for 
those  intrusted  to  their  spiritual  direction. 
Of  course,  neither  the  father  nor  the 
mother  of  the  child  to  be  baptized  can  act 
as  sponsor.  According  to  the  laws  of  the 
Church,  the  godparent  contracts  a  spirit- 
ual affinity  with  the  child,  which  prevents 
the  sponsor's  marriage  with  the  child  or 
with  its  mother  or  father,  in  case  of  the 
death  of  either.  This  spiritual  alliance, 
however,  is  only  formed  in  the  solemn  ad- 
ministration of  the  sacrament  of  baptism, 
and  not  in  connection  with  ceremonies  of 
the  Church  performed  for  a  baptism  that 
has  already  been  conferred  without  the 
ceremonies  prescribed. 

The  duty  of  godparents  is  to  love  their 
godchildren  in  a  spiritual  manner,  to 
teach  them,  or  have  them  taught,  in  de- 
fault of  their  natural  parents,  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  Christian  faith,  and  to  remind 
them  of  the  serious  and  sacred  promises 
and  obligations  contracted  on  their  behalf 
before  Holy  Church.  The  duty  of  god- 
children is  to  respect  and  to  love,  in  a 
spiritual  manner,  their  godparents,  and  to 
receive,  with  gentleness  and  grateful 
recognition,  their  good  counsel  and  char- 
itable corrections. 

The  custom  of  giving  the  children  to  be 
baptized  one  or  several  names  of  saints  of 
the  Old  or  New  Testaments,  in  order  that 
they  may  be  especially  protected  by  them, 
is  very  ancient,  especially  in  several 
Churches  of  the  West.  The  ritual  makes 
it  an  obligation  upon  the  priest  not  to 
impose  upon  the  children  profane  bap- 
tismal names,  or  such  as  have  a  ridicu- 
lous meaning,  or  are  contrary  to  decency. 
See  Catechumenate, 


Baptism 


88 


Baptism 


Baptism  {Ceretnonies  of). — The  person 
to  be  baptized  waits  at  the  entrance  of  the 
Church,  to  indicate  that  until  he  has  thrown 
off  the  yoke  of  sin,  and  submitted  to  Christ 
and  His  authority,  he  is  unworthy  to  enter, 
because  baptism  is  the  portal  to  God's 
grace,  to  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  and  to 
the  communion  of  saints.  The  person  to 
be  baptized  receives  a  saint's  name ;  that 
by  this  name  he  may  be  enrolled,  through 
baptism,  among  the  number  of  Christians 
whom  St.  Paul  calls  saints ;  that  he  may 
have  a  patron  and  intercessor,  and  that  the 
saint  whose  name  he  bears  may  be  his 
model  and  example,  according  to  which 
he  may  order  his  own  life.  The  priest 
breathes  in  the  face  of  the  one  to  be  bap- 
tized, in  imitation  of  Christ  who  breathed 
on  His  Apostles  when  He  gave  them  the 
Holy  Ghost  (John  xx.  22).  The  priest  im- 
poses his  hand  upon  the  head  of  the  person 
to  be  baptized,  to  signify  that  he  is  now  the 
property  of  God  and  is  under  His  protec- 
tion. The  numerous  exorcisms  signify  that 
the  evil  spirit,  which,  previous  to  baptism, 
holds  the  unbaptized  in  bondage,  is  now 
commanded  in  the  name  of  God  to  depart 
that  a  dwelling  place  may  be  prepared  for 
the  Holy  Ghost.  The  one  to  be  baptized 
is  often  signed  with  the  sign  of  the  cross, 
to  signify  that  through  the  power  of 
Christ's  merits  and  of  His  death  on  the 
Cross,  baptism  washes  away  original  sin ; 
that  he  is  henceforth  to  be  a  follower  of 
Christ  the  Crucified,  and  as  such  must 
fight  valiantly  under  the  banner  of  the 
Cross  against  the  enemies  of  salvation, 
and  must  follow  Christ  on  the  way  of  the 
Cross,  even  unto  death.  The  salt  which  is 
put  into  his  mouth,  is  an  emblem  of 
Christian  wisdom  and  of  preservation 
from  the  corruption  of  sin.  Then  the  ears 
and  nostrils  are  touched  with  spittle,  to  sig- 
nify that  as  Christ  put  spittle  on  the  eyes 
of  the  man  born  blind,  thus  restoring  his 
sight,  so  by  baptism  the  spiritual  blind- 
ness of  the  soul  is  removed,  and  the  mind 
receives  light  to  behold  heavenly  wisdom. 
The  priest  asks  the  question:  "Dost  thou 
renounce  the  devil,  and  all  his  works,  and 
all  his  pomps.'"' — in  order  that  the  Chris- 
tian may  know  that  his  vocation  requires 
him  to  renounce  and  combat  the  devil,  his 
works,  suggestions,  and  pomps.  The  per- 
son is  anointed  on  the  shoulders  and 
breast  with  holy  oil,  in  order  to  strengthen 
him  to  fight  bravely  for  Christ.  As  the 
combatants  of  old  anointed  themselves  with 
oil  before   they  entered  the  arena,  so    is 


he  anointed  on  the  breast,  that  he  may 
gain  courage  and  force,  bravely  to  com- 
bat the  world,  the  flesh,  and  the  devil ; 
and  on  the  shoulder  that  he  may  be  strong 
to  bear  constantly  and  untiringly  the  yoke 
of  Christ's  commands,  and  pursue  the  toil- 
some course  of  life  in  unwavering  fidelity 
to  God  and  His  holy  law.  The  Lord's 
Prayer  and  the  Apostles'  Creed  are  said 
at  baptism,  in  order  that,  when  the  child 
is  a  grown  person  an  acknowledgment 
of  faith  may  by  this  means  be  made  in 
the  face  of  the  Church.  When  children 
are  baptized,  these  prayers  are  said  by  the 
sponsors  who  are  thus  admonished  to  see 
that  their  godchildren  are  well  instructed 
in  these  as  in  all  other  Christian  truths. 
The  priest  expressly  asks  the  person  if  he 
will  be  baptized,  because  as  man,  through 
Adam,  of  his  own  free  will  obeyed  the 
devil,  so  now  when  he  would  be  received 
among  the  number  of  Christ's  children, 
he  must,  to  obtain  salvation,  of  his  own  free 
will  obey  the  precepts  of  God.  Water  is 
poured  three  times  upon  the  head,  in  token 
that  man  after  this  thrice-repeated  ablution 
rises  from  the  death  of  sin,  as  Christ, 
after  His  three  days'  burial,  rose  from  the 
dead  (Rom.  vi.  4,  5).  In  early  times  the 
candidate  for  baptism  was  immersed  three 
times  in  the  water.  For  divers  reasons 
this  custom  has  been  abolished.  The  per- 
son is  anointed  on  the  head  with  chrism, 
because  this  anointing  is,  so  to  speak,  the 
crown  of  the  young  Christian.  As  in  the 
Old  Law  the  kings  were  anointed  (I.  Ki. 
X.  r),  as  Jesus  is  the  anointed  One,  and  as 
the  Apostle  St.  Peter  calls  the  Christians 
a  chosen  race,  a  kingly  priesthood,  a  holy 
people  (L  Pet.  ii.  9),  so  the  baptized  by 
means  of  this  unction  is  embodied  in 
Christ,  the  anointed  One,  and  participates 
in  His  priesthood  and  kingly  dignity. 
The  white  robe  represents  the  glory  to 
which  by  baptism  we  are  born  again;  the 
purity  and  beauty  with  which  the  soul, 
having  been  washed  from  sin  in  the  sacra- 
ment of  baptism,  is  adorned,  and  the  inno- 
cence which  the  baptized  should  preser\'e 
through  his  whole  life.  The  lighted  can- 
dle placed  in  his  hand,  is  an  emblem  of 
the  Christian  doctrine  which  preserves  the 
baptized  from  error,  ignorance,  and  sin, 
illumines  his  understanding,  and  leads 
him  safel}'  in  the  way  of  virtue ;  it  repre- 
sents the  flame  of  love  for  God  and  our 
neighbor  which  the  baptized  should  hence- 
forth continually  carry,  like  the  five  pru- 
dent virgins  (Matt.  xxv.  13)  on  the  path  to 


Baptistery 


89 


Baptists 


meet  the  Lord,  that  when  his  life  is  ended 
he  may  be  admitted  to  the  eternal  wedding 
feast.  It  signifies  also  the  light  of  good 
example  which  he  should  keep  ever  burn- 
ing. 

Baptistery  (a  place  for  baptizing.) — The 
baptisteries,  in  the  first  centuries  of  the 
Church,  were  usually  buildings  of  a  cir- 
cular form,  apart  from  the  Church,  and 
sometimes  so  spacious  that  large  assem- 
blies might  be  held  in  them.  The  faith  of 
our  forefathers  was  attentive  to  every- 
thing that  could  add  to  the  embellishment 
of  these  places,  in  which  the  great  mystery 
of  regeneration  was  accomplished.  The 
purest  gold  and  the  most  exquisite  marble 
shone  on  all  sides.  But  nothing  can  give 
us  a  better  idea  of  the  magnificence  of 
early  baptisteries,  than  the  description  of 
that  of  St.  John  Lateran,  at  Rome,  built 
by  the  Emperor  Constantine.  It  was  a 
magnificent  square  hall,  with  walls  of 
marble  and  porphyry.  In  the  center  was 
to  be  seen  a  basin  of  porphyry,  adorned 
with  silver,  in  which  the  baptismal  waters 
were  preserved ;  from  the  middle  of  the 
basin  rose  a  column  of  porphyry,  sup- 
porting a  golden  vase  of  fifty  pounds 
weight,  which  contained  the  holy  chrism 
for  the  unctions  of  the  newly  baptized. 
On  one  side  of  the  basin  were  steps  to  de- 
scend into  it.  At  the  two  extremities  were 
silver  statues,  one  of  our  Lord,  the  other 
of  St.  John  the  Baptist,  each  weighing  a 
hundred  and  seventy  pounds.  Around  the 
sides  of  the  basin  were  seven  large  silver 
hearts,  emblems  of  souls  that  pant  after 
the  salutary  fountains;  each  of  them 
weighed  eighty  pounds  and  jetted  water 
into  the  basin.  In  the  center  of  every 
baptistery  was  the  font.     (See  Font.) 

Baptistines  (religious).  —  The  hermits 
of  St.  John  the  Baptist,  or  Baptistines, 
were  founded  by  Mary  Antonia,  called 
later  Mary  Battista  Solimani,  born  at  Al- 
baro,  near  Genoa,  in  1688.  In  1730,  at 
Moneglia,  Battista  commenced  with  some 
virgins  a  congregation  of  very  austere  life  ; 
established  at  Genoa  in  1736  a  similar 
society,  and  in  1742  went  to  Rome,  where 
Pope  Benedict  XIV.  approved  the  rules 
which  she  had  drawn  up  (January,  1744). 
Having  returned  to  Genoa  and  occupied 
with  the  foundation  of  a  new  convent, 
Mary  received,  with  twelve  companions, 
the  habit  from  the  hands  of  the  archbishop 
and  became  the  first  Abbess  of  the  Institute. 
She  died  in  the  odor  of  sanctity  April  8th, 


1758.  These  religious  make  a  novitiate  of 
eighteen  months,  observe  a  rigorous  fast, 
never  use  any  fiesh-meat,  and  say  the 
office  in  choir  during  the  night.  There  was 
also  a  community  of  male  members  called 
Baptistines,  which  was  suppressed  during 
the  French  Revolution. 

Baptists. — Members  of  a  Protestant  de- 
nomination. The  Baptists  appeared  in 
history  at  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  They  condemned  baptism  by 
sprinkling  as  an  innovation.  They  baptize 
by  immersion,  and  administer  the  sacra- 
ment only  to  adults.  They  reject  the 
communion  with  the  Christians  of  other 
Churches,  who,  according  to  them,  are  not 
Christians,  because  the  baptism  they  re- 
ceived before  they  were  grown  up  is  null 
and  void.  The  religious  affairs  are  treated 
in  assemblies,  where  all  the  Faithful,  men 
and  women,  have  a  deliberative  voice.  In 
the  United  States  the  Baptists  owe  their 
origin  to  Roger  Williams,  and  his  settle- 
ment at  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  in  1639. 
To  Mark  Lucar,  an  immigrant  in  1644 
from  England,  is  attributed  the  introduc- 
tion of  immersion  as  the  characteristic 
rite  of  this  denomination.  He  was  a  "  Par- 
ticular Baptist,"  as  those  religionists  were 
called  who  held  to  the  high  Calvinistic 
doctrine  of  an  atonement  particularly  for 
the  elect.  It  is  from  these  "Particular 
Baptists"  that  the  many  different  denomi- 
nations of  Baptists  developed,  brief  men- 
tion of  which  is  made  below.  The  first 
division  took  place  in  1652,  in  Providence, 
when  Chad  Brown  established  a  congrega- 
tion of  "General  Baptists";  the  term 
"General"  implying  adherence  to  the 
doctrine  of  a  general  atonement  for  the 
sins  of  mankind.  These  General  Baptists 
were  largely  tinctured  with  Arminianism, 
if  not  wholly  adherent  to  that  body  of 
theology.  "  Freewill  Baptists,"  who  are 
Arminian  in  theology  and  open  commu- 
nists in  practice;  and  "  German  Baptists," 
popularly  called  "  Dunkers "  (see  this 
subject),  "Old  School  Baptists,"  sometimes 
called  "Anti-Mission"  or  "  Hard-Shell 
Baptists,"  from  their  extreme  Calvinism, 
which  leads  them  to  oppose  all  active 
measures  for  the  conversion  of  the  world 
(a  sect  numbering  40,000) ;  "  Seventh-Day 
Baptists  "  who  keep  the  seventh  day  instead 
of  the  first,  as  the  Sabbath;  "Sixth-Prin- 
ciple Baptists,"  so  called  from  the  six 
principles  which  constitute  their  creed ; 
"Disciples  of  Christ,"  also  called  "Chris- 


Barac 


90 


Barnabites 


tians"  or  "  Campbellites."  See  Disci- 
ples,     WiNEBRENNARIANS,      WlNEBREN- 

NER,  Christians,  or  the  Christian 
Connection,  an  American  sect  of  Unita- 
rian Baptists  which  arose  about  the  begin- 
ning of  the  present  century.  The  Baptists 
of  the  world  numbered,  in  1895,  4,447,074, 
and  had  46,520  Churches,  and  32,447  min- 
isters. The  greatest  number  of  Baptists 
are  in  North  America,  where  they  enu- 
merate :  41,227  Churches,  28,475  ministers, 
and  3,856,584  members.   See  Anabaptists. 

Barac. — Fourth  Judge  of  Israel  (1396- 
1356  B.C.);  with  the  help  of  the  prophetess 
Debbora,  he  delivered  the  Hebrews  from 
the  bijndage  of  the  Chanaanites,  in  attack- 
ing and  routing  the  army  of  King  Jabin, 
which  was  under  the  command  of  his 
general,  Sisara. 

Barabbas. —  A  Jew  condemned  for  theft, 
murder,  and  revolt,  who  was  preferred  to 
Jesus  Christ  when  Pilate  proposed  to  the 
people  to  deliver  a  prisoner  at  the  occasion 
of  the  feast  of  the  Pasch. 

Baraga  (Frederick). —  Austrian  Cath- 
olic missionary  (1797-1868).  Bishop  of 
Marquette,  Michigan,  in  1853.  He  com- 
piled a  Grammar  and  a  Dictionary  oi  the 
Chippewa  language  (Detroit,  1849  and 
1853) ;  and  wrote  a  History  of  the  Indians 
of  North  America. 

Barbara  (St.). — Virgin  and  martyr  of 
the  third  century ;  daughter  of  Dioscorus, 
ardent  defender  of  paganism,  who,  being 
unable  to  make  his  daughter  abandon  the 
faith  in  Jesus  Chrjst,  became  himself  her 
executioner,  by  beheading  her,  at  Nico- 
media,  about  240.    F.  Dec.  4th. 

Bar-Cochebas  (Aram,  son  of  the  star) . — 
A  Hebrew  whose  real  name  was  Simeon 
from  the  town  of  Coziba.  The  heroic 
leader  of  the  Jewish  insurrection  against 
the  Romans  (122-135  a.d.).  He  was  be- 
lieved by  many  Jews  to  be  the  Messias, 
was  proclaimed  king,  and  maintained  his 
cause  against  Hadrian  for  two  years,  but 
was  overthrown  amid  the  slaughter  of 
over  half  a  million  Jews,  and  the  destruc- 
tion of  985  villages  and  50  fortresses.  Jeru- 
salem was  destroyed  and  yElia  Capitolina 
founded  on  its  ruins.  After  this  failure 
his  name  was  interpreted  "  son  of  lies." 

Bardesanes. —  Syrian  philosopher,  born 
about  A.  D.  154;  we  find  him  at  Edessa 
in  174.  He  was  a  man  of  great  learning. 
A   convert  from  Valentinian  Gnosticism, 


he  soon  relapsed  into  Gnostic  heresies, 
and  became  himself  the  founder  of  a  num- 
erous sect.  He  and  his  son  Harmonius 
were  noted  composers  of  beautiful  hymns. 
He  is  said  to  have  held  the  following 
Gnostic  theories:  "Satan  cannot  be  said 
to  have  derived  his  origin  from  God," 
and  "  Our  body  being  the  prison  of  the 
soul,  can  never  rise  again."  He  held  that 
Christ  was  clothed  with  a  celestial  and  im- 
material body,  and  that  He  taught  man  to 
subdue  the  sensual  passions,  and  enjoined 
fasting,  abstinence,  and  contemplation,  as 
a  means  of  shaking  ofJ  the  fetters  of  evil 
matter ;  that  thus  freed  from  grosser  bonds, 
the  body  might  return  to  heaven  after  the 
death  of  the  flesh,  as  an  ethereal  substance, 
etc.  The  poetic  beauty  of  his  hymns  drew 
to  his  side  so  many  followers,  and  so  great 
was  their  influence  among  the  people  that, 
in  the  fourth  century,  Ephrem  of  Syria 
was  obliged  to  compose  others  of  an  or- 
thodox nature  to  counteract  it. 

Barnabas  (St.). —  Follower  of  Christ 
and  one  of  the  seventy-two  disciples.  Qf 
his  apostolic  labors,  beyond  what  is  con- 
tained in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  nothing 
certain  is  known.  He  accompanied  St. 
Paul  on  his  first  missionary  journey  to 
Cyprus  and  Asia  Minor  (45-48.)  In  the 
year  53,  Barnabas  and  Paul  proposed 
another  missionary  expedition,  Barnabas 
wished  to  take  with  him  his  nephew  John, 
surnamed  Mark,  to  which  Paul  objected. 
The  two  Apostles  thereupon  parted,  and 
Barnabas  taking  Mark  with  him,  sailed  to 
Cyprus,  his  native  land.  Here  the  Acts 
say  nothing  further  about  him.  His  life 
is  reported  to  have  been  ended  by  martyr- 
dom, between  55  and  57.  A  letter  which 
Origen  calls  "  Catholic  Epistle,"  has  been 
handed  down  under  the  name  of  St.  Barna- 
bas, and  to  him  it  is  ascribed  by  the  most 
eminent  Christian  writers  of  the  first 
centuries.     F.  June  nth. 

Barnabites. —  Religious  of  the  Clerks 
Regular  of  St.  Paul.  This  Congregation 
was  founded  at  Milan,  about  the  beginning 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  by  St.  Zaccaria, 
priest  of  Cremona  (died  1539),  together 
with  two  priests  of  Milan.  By  a  bull  of 
Feb.  iSth,  1533,  Pope  Clement  VII.  author- 
ized them  to  follow  particular  rules.  Their 
constitutions  were  approved,  Nov.  7th, 
1579,  by  Gregory  XIII.  The  Barnabites 
were  austere  preachers  of  penance,  who, 
at  the  same  time,  took  charge  of  semina- 
ries for  the  priesthood. 


Baronius 


91 


Bartolomites 


Baronius(C^SAR)(i538-i6o7). — Ecclesi- 
astical historian,  born  at  Sora,  Campania; 
died  at  Rome.  Pope  Clement  VIII.  named 
him  pronotary  apostolic,  cardinal,  and 
librarian  in  the  Vatican.  He  rendered  great 
services  by  his  Church  History,  h\xX.\\\'i,  chief 
work  is  his  A  finales  Ecclesiastici  a  Christo 
Natum  ad  Annum  (1198),  which  appeared 
in  Rome  in  12  volumes,  from  1588  to  1593. 
It  is  a  reply  to  the  Protestant  Magdeburg 
Centuries,  a  history  of  the  Church  written 
in  an  intensely  Protestant  and  hostile 
spirit. 

Barsabas  (Joseph)  (surnamed  "the 
Just"). — Disciple  of  Christ,  was  presented 
together  with  Matthias  to  replace  Judas 
Iscariot;  the  lot  designated  Matthias.  We 
do  not  know  any  particulars  either  of  his 
life  or  death. 

Barsabas. —  Surname  of  Jude,  a  disciple 
of  Christ,  who  was  chosen  to  accompany 
Paul  and  Barnabas  to  Antioch. 

Barsanians. —  Heretics  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury. Their  doctrine  was  a  mixture  of  the 
errors  of  the  Guianites  and  Theodosians. 
They  celebrated  the  Eucharist  by  dipping 
the  iinger  into  fine  wheaten  flour,  and  then 
putting  it  into  the  mouth.  Their  name 
was  derived  from  their  bishop,  Barsanes, 
whose  consecration  was  hotly  contested. 

Bartholomew's  Day  {or  Massacre  of  St.). 
—  In  order  to  cement  the  peace  of  St.  Ger- 
main-en-Laye  (1569),  which  put  an  end  to 
the  third  civil  war  in  France,  a  marriage 
was  concluded  between  the  young  king  of 
Navarre  (Henry  IV.)  and  Margaret,  the 
sister  of  Charles  IX.  The  Huguenot 
chiefs  who  had  gone  to  Paris  to  assist  at 
the  wedding,  availed  themselves  of  the  oc- 
casion, and  on  August  23d,  concerted  a 
plan  for  murdering  the  whole  royal  family 
and  proclaiming  Henry  of  Navarre  king 
of  France.  To  anticipate  the  bloody  and 
traitorous  designs  of  the  conspirators, 
Catherine  de  Medici,  who  was  as  unscru- 
pulous as  she  was  adroit  in  the  management 
of  affairs,  persuaded  her  son,  the  king,  to 
command  the  horrible  Massacre  of  St. 
Bartholomew.  Coligny  and  his  chief  coun- 
selors were  slain.  The  populace  joined  in 
the  work  of  blood,  and  not  only  Paris,  but 
several  of  the  provincial  towns  that  suf- 
fered most  from  the  Huguenots,  now  took 
a  fearful  reckoning.  When  the  tidings  of 
the  tragic  event  reached  the  Papal  court, 
Gregory  XIII.,  the  then  reigning  Pontiff, 
congratulated    King   Charles  IX.,  on  his 


escape  from  the  plot  against  his  life,  and  a 
service  was  held  in  thanksgiving  for  the 
preservation  of  the  royal  family,  because 
the  deed  had  been  represented  to  the  Pope, 
as  to  the  other  sovereigns,  as  a  necessary 
act  of  self-defense  against  the  machina- 
tions of  Coligny  and  the  Huguenots.  But 
when  he  afterwards  learned  the  true  state 
of  affairs,  Gregory  expressed  his  horror  at 
the  deed,  even  with  tears.  All  Europe  ab- 
horred the  terrible  slaughter,  the  German 
Lutherans  excepted,  who  regarded  the 
massaacre  as  a  just  punishment  of  God  upon 
the  Huguenots.  The  number  of  victims 
in  the  cruel  massacre  cannot  be  ascertained 
with  accuracy ;  but  it  has  been  much  ex- 
aggerated by  hostile  writers.  The  most 
reliable  account,  corroborated  by  docu- 
mentary evidences,  estimates  the  number, 
for  all  France,  at  less  than  two  thousand. 
According  to  an  old  record  of  Paris,  the 
gravediggers  of  that  city  at  the  time 
buried  eleven  hundred  bodies.  Foxe,  the 
martyrologist,  in  his  Acts  and  Monuments, 
commonly  known  as  the  Book  of  Martyrs, 
gives  the  names  of  786  who  perished  in  the 
inhuman  slaughter.  This  bloody  tragedy 
was  but  a  political  scheme,  and  had  noth- 
ing whatever  to  do  with  religious  interests. 

Bartholomew  (St.). — One  of  the  twelve 
Apostles.  He  is  generally  supposed  to  be 
identical  with  Nathanael ;  carried  the  Gos- 
pel into  India,  i.  e.,  Arabia  Felix  or 
modern  Yemen.  A  century  later,  traces 
of  Christianity  were  found  in  those  coun- 
tries by  Pantaenus  of  Alexandria,  who  also 
discovered  a  copy  of  St.  Matthew's  Gospel 
in  Hebrew  which  had  been  left  there  by 
St.  Bartholomew.  Armenian  writers  in- 
form us  that  he  afterwards  traversed  Persia, 
Babylonia,  Mesopotamia,  Syria,  and  Asia 
Minor.  Thence  he  passed  into  Greater 
Armenia,  and  there,  after  making  numer- 
ous conversions,  suffered  a  cruel  martyr- 
dom at  Albanopolis.  By  order  of  King 
Astyages,  whose  predecessor  and  brother, 
Polymius,  had  been  converted  by  him,  the 
Apostle  was  flayed  alive  and  beheaded. 
F.  Aug.  24th. 

Bartholomites. — i.  Members  of  the  com- 
munity of  Basilian  monks  of  the  Armenian 
rite  who  took  refuge  in  the  West  and  were 
assigned  the  Church  of  St.  Bartholomew, 
in  Genoa,  in  1307.  The  community  was 
finally  suppressed  in  1650. — 2.  Members  of 
a  congregation  of  secular  priests  following 
a  rule  drawn  up  by  Bartholomew  Holz- 
hauser    (died,   1658)  in  Germany  in  1640. 


Baruch 


92 


Basilians 


They  spread  into  Hungary,  Poland,  and 
Spain,  but,  under  this  name,  became  ex- 
tinct in  the  eighth  century. 

Baruch. — One  of  the  twelve  minor 
Prophets,  offspring  of  a  noble  family  of 
the  tribe  of  Juda,  disciple  and  secretary 
of  Jeremias,  whose  prophecies  he  wrote 
and  read  to  the  people,  and  whom  he  fol- 
lowed into  Egypt.  After  the  death  of  his 
master,  he  rejoined  the  Jews,  captive  at 
Babylon,  to  make  known  to  them  prophe- 
cies which  he  himself  had  composed,  and, 
according  to  tradition,  died  there  in  the 
twelfth  year  of  the  captivity.  The  Book 
of  Baruch,  inserted  in  the  canon  of  the 
Scriptures,  exists  no  longer  in  Hebrew, 
hence  the  reason  why  the  Jews  do  not  ac- 
knowledge it  as  canonical.  We  have  two 
Syriac  versions  thereof,  but  the  Greek  text 
appears  to  be  more  ancient.  In  the  first 
centuries  of  the  Church,  several  Fathers 
and  Doctors  understood  and  quoted  the 
prophecies  of  Baruch  under  the  name  of 
Jeremias. 

Baruli.  —  Heretics  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, who  maintained  that  Christ  had 
assumed  a  chimerical  body,  and  that  souls 
were  created  before  the  creation  of  the 
world,  and  all  committed  sin  together 
after  the  creation.  The^  only  renewed 
the  opinions  of  the  Origenists. 

Basan  or  Batanea. — Country  of  ancient 
Palestine  of  Perea,  that  is,  beyond  the 
Jordan,  situated  in  the  half  tribe  of  Ma- 
nasses.  It  was  bounded  on  the  east  by 
the  mountains  of  Galaad,  north  by  Mount 
Hermon,  south  by  the  brook  Jabok,  west 
by  the  Jordan.  It  contained  several  forti- 
fied cities  and  passed  as  one  of  the  most 
fruitful  countries  of  the  world. 

Baselian  Manuscript. —  The  name  given 
to  two  Greek  manuscripts  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament. One  is  a  nearly  complete  Qopy 
of  the  Gospels  written  at  Constantinople, 
in  uncical  characters,  about  the  eighth 
century,  and  lacking  only  Luke  iii.  4-15; 
xxiv.  47-53.  The  other  is  a  copy  of  the 
whole  Testament,  excepting  the  Apoca- 
lypse, and  is  written  in  the  cursive  charac- 
ters of  the  tenth  century.  These  valuable 
manuscripts  are  preserved  in  the  library  at 
Basel;  hence  their  name. 

Basil  of  Ancyra.-i-  A  native  of  Ancyra, 
and  bishop  of  that  city  (336-360).  One  of 
the  leaders  of  the  Semi-Arians.  He  was  de- 
posed in  360  by  the  Council  of  Constanti- 


nople, and  exiled  to  Illyricum,  where  he 
probably  died. 

Basil  the   Great  (St.). — Archbishop  of 
Caesarea,    in    Cappadocia ;    was    born    at 
Csesarea,  about  the  year  330.     Two  of  his 
brothers,  Gregory  and  Peter,  became  bish- 
ops, the  former  of  Nyssa,  the  latter  of  Se- 
baste,  and  are  also  honored  by  the  Church 
as  saints.     Basil  studied  with  great  success 
at  Athens,  where  he  became  intimate  with 
Gregory  Nazianzen.    The  two  friends  vied 
with  each  other  both  in  learning  and  in 
the   practice   of   virtue.     "  We   know   but 
two  streets  in  the  city,"  said  Gregory,  "  the 
one  leading  to  the  Church  and  the  other 
leading  to  the  schools."     They  remained 
at  Athens  four  or  five  years,  where  they 
also  made  the  acquaintance  of  Julian,  who- 
afterwards  earned  the  evil  name  of  apos- 
tate.     Having   received    baptism   in   357, 
Basil  visited  the  monastic  institutions  of 
Syria    and    Egypt,    and    founded    several 
monasteries   in   Pontus  and    Cappadocia. 
He   became   father  of  monasticism  in  the 
East.     The  Basilians  are  to  this  day  the 
principal  religious  order  in    the   Oriental 
Church.     In  364,  Basil  was  ordained  priest 
by  Bishop  Eusebius,  successor  of  Dianius, 
and,   on   the   death   of    that   prelate,   was 
chosen    Bishop   of    Csesarea,   in   370.     He 
was  an  instrument  in  the  hand  of  God  for 
beating  back  the  Arian  and   Macedonian 
heresies    in    the    East.     His    energy    and 
zeal,  learning  and  eloquence,  and  the  ex- 
ceeding austerity  and  holiness  of   his  life, 
have  gained  for  him  the  reputation  of  one 
of  the  greatest  bishops  of  the  Church,  and 
his   character  and  works  have  earned  for 
him  the  surname  "Great."     Basil  died  in 
379.     His  works  are  of  a  theological  or  an 
ascetical   and   ethical   character,  and  em- 
brace   also    sermons    and    commentaries. 
See  Migne,  Pat.  Gr.  XXIX-XXXII.   The 
liturgy  ascribed  to  St.  Basil  is  still  used  in 
the   Eastern   Church,    both   by   Catholics 
and  schismatics.     F.  Jan.  14th. 

Basil  the  Heretic.     See  Bogomiles. 

Basilians. —  Monks  and  nuns  following 
the  Rule  of  St.  Basil  the  Great.  This 
saint  exercised  so  great  an  influence  on 
monastic  life  in  the  East  that  the  monks 
there  were  usually  called  after  him,  Basil- 
ians. Besides  giving  them  a  new  rule,  he 
founded  a  cloister  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Neo-Caesarea,  which  formed  at  once  a  bul- 
wark  against   the   Arian   heresy,   and   an 


Basilica 


93 


Basle 


asylum  for  the  persecuted  during  the  so- 
cial disturbances  of  that  age.  This  cloister 
served  as  a  pattern  for  many  others,  which 
were  now  usually  built  within  easy  dis- 
tances of  some  city.  The  monks  took  part 
in  the  controversies  on  the  faith,  and  were 
frecfuently  driven  to  fanatical  excesses  by 
the  advice  of  ambitious  leaders.  More- 
over, they  sometimes  lived  together  in 
parties  of  two  and  three,  and,  recognizing 
no  superior,  soon  lost  all  traces  of  the 
monastic  spirit  and  discipline.  These 
were  called  Sarabites  and  Gyrovagi,  or 
lazy,  worthless  fellows,  who,  by  their  con- 
stant quarreling,  their  vain  pretensions 
and  excesses  —  the  last  frequently  alter- 
nating with  their  fasts  —  lost  all  dignity 
and  became  disreputable.  The  Basilians 
comprise  nearly  all  the  Greek  and  Orien- 
tal monasteries,  and  are  found  in  com- 
munion with  Rome  in  Sicily,  and  in  the 
Grseco-Ruthenian  and  Armenian  rites. 
There  are  several  Basilian  monasteries  in 
Canada  and  in  the  United  States. 

Basilica.  —  The  ancient  basilica  was  a 
court  of  commerce  or  justice.  Many  of 
these  halls  were  appropriated  for  Christian 
churches  and  new  churches  were  built 
upon  a  similar  plan,  whence  basilica  be- 
came a  usual  name  for  a  church.  Major 
Basilica,  Minor  Basilica  are  honorary 
titles  to  which  are  attached  certain  canon- 
ical privileges.  There  are  Major  Basilicas 
only  in  Rome ;  these  are  the  five  principal 
churches  of  St.  John  Lateran,  St.  Peter  of 
the  Vatican,  St.  Paul  without  the  Walls, 
San  Croce  of  Jerusalem,  and  St.  Lawrence 
without  the  Walls.  They  are  also  called 
Patriarchal  Churches,  because  they  answer 
to  the  five  great  patriarchates  of  the  Cath- 
olic Church.  St.  Mary  Major  and  St. 
Sebastian  on  the  Appenine  road,  are 
ranked  among  the  number  of  Major  Basil- 
icas. The  title  of  Minor  Basilicas  is 
granted,  in  Rome  and  outside  of  Rome,  to 
other  churches  famous  on  account  of  their 
antiquity  or  the  devotion  which  the  faithful 
have  toward  them.  In  Rome  there  are  six 
of  these:  St.  Mary  de  Travestevere,  St. 
Lawrence  in  Damaso,  St.  Mary's  in  Cos- 
medin,  St.  Peter  in  Chains,  St.  Mary  in 
Monte  Sancto,  and  the  Church  of  the 
Twelve  Apostles.  The  Roman  States  con- 
tain some  Minor  Basilicas.  In  France 
there  are  three  Minor  Basilicas :  The 
Church  of  Notre  Dame  in  Paris,  the 
Cathedral  of  Valence,  and  Our  Lady  of 
Lourdes.    See  Church  (Building). 


Basilidians. —  So  called  from  their 
founder  Basilides.  He  was  a  citizen  of 
Alexandria,  and  Syrian  by  birth.  He 
taught  in  Alexandria  betweeen  the  years 
125  and  130,  and  his  sect  existed  as  late  as 
the  fourth  century.  Basilides  and  his  son 
Isidore,  based  their  doctrines  on  the  pre- 
tended prophecies  of  certain  Oriental 
prophets  and  boasted  of  a  secret  tradition 
which  they  claimed  to  have  from  the 
Apostle  Matthias,  and  a  certain  Glaucias, 
the  interpreter  of  St.  Peter.  Jesus  was  to 
Basilides  not  the  Redeemer;  he  was  dis- 
tinguished from  other  men  only  in  degree. 
The  Redeemer  was  the  highest  ^Eon,  who 
was  sent  down  from  the  Supreme  God  and 
united  himself  with  the  man  Jesus  at  His 
baptism  in  the  Jordan,  but  left  Him  again 
in  His  passion.  The  Basilidians  were 
grossly  immoral. 

Basle  or  Basel  ( Council  of)  (1431-1442). 
— The  object  of  this  Council  was  to  complete 
the  work  commenced  by  the  Council  of  Pisa 
and  continued  by  the  Council  of  Constance. 
The  Council  of  Basle  was  convoked  by  Pope 
Martin  V. ;  but  he  died  the  day  before  the 
opening.  Eugenius  IV.,  his  successor, 
confirmed  the  convocation  of  the  Council 
of  Basle,  as  well  as  the  appointment  of 
Cardinal  Julian  Cesarini,  as  papal  Legate 
and  president  of  the  assembly.  The  Coun- 
cil opened  under  John  of  Polemar  and 
John  of  Ragusa,  delegates  of  Cardinal 
Cesarini,  who  was  at  the  time  engaged  in 
endeavoring  to  effect  a  reconciliation  with 
the  Hussites.  But  very  few  prelates  were 
in  attendance.  On  his  arrival  in  Basle, 
Cesarini  sent  a  messenger  to  Rome,  to  ac- 
quaint the  Pope  with  the  state  of  affairs. 
In  the  meantime,  the  prelates  at  Basle,  con- 
sisting only  of  three  bishops  and  fourteen 
abbots,  held  their  first  public  session ;  they 
declared  their  assembly  a  lawfully  convened 
Council  whose  object  was  defined  to  be : 
I.  The  extirpation  of  heresy.  2.  The  es- 
tablishment of  peace  among  Christian 
princes.  3.  The  reformation  of  the  Church 
in  its  head  and  members.  The  small  at- 
tendance of  bishops  at  Basle,  but  especially 
the  proposals  for  a  reunion  made  by  the 
Greeks,  who,  however,  desired  the  Coun- 
cil to  meet  in  some  Italian  city,  induced 
the  Pope  to  dissolve  the  Council  and  con- 
voke a  new  one  to  open  at  Bologna,  eigh- 
teen months  later.  The  cardinal  legate 
obeyed,  and  declined  to  take  his  seat  as 
president  of  the  Council  then  in  session. 
But  the  bishops  at  Basle  vehemently  op- 


Bassians 


94 


Bavaria 


posed  the  removal  of  the  Council.  They 
continued  their  sessions  and  proceeded  to 
act,  at  first,  independently  of  the  Pope, 
and,  soon  after,  against  his  authority  and 
person.  A  serious  conflict  between  the 
Pope  and  the  Fathers  at  Basle  now  ensued. 
In  its  second  session,  which  was  attended 
by  only  fourteen  bishops,  they  renewed 
the  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Constance, 
proclaiming  the  superiority  of  an  Ecu- 
menical Council  over  the  Pope.  In  its 
subsequent  sessions,  the  recalcitrant  con- 
venticle commanded  the  Pope  to  withdraw 
his  Bull  of  dissolution;  cited  him  and  his 
cardinals  to  appear  at  Basle,  and  threatened 
him  with  further  action,  if  they,  in  three 
months,  did  not  obey  the  summons.  Fi- 
nally, in  the  tenth  session,  the  Fathers  of 
Basle,  who,  in  the  interval,  had  increased 
to  the  number  of  five  cardinals  and  forty- 
one  prelates,  proceeded  to  declare  Eugenius 
contumacious  !  Eugenius  sent  four  legates 
to  Basle  with  authority  to  negotiate  with 
the  assembled  Fathers,  on  the  continuance 
of  the  Council.  But  his  legates  were  ill 
received,  and  his  overtures  rejected  as  un- 
satisfactory. The  refractory  prelates,  in 
the  eleventh  session,  went  so  far  as  to 
menace  the  Pope  with  suspension  and  dep- 
osition, for  refusing  to  recognize  the  ar- 
rogant pretensions  of  their  conventicle. 
Pope  Eugenius,  revoking  his  Bull  of  dis- 
solution, consented  to  acknowledge  the 
assembly  of  Basle  as  a  lawfully  convened 
Council,  under  the  express  condition, 
however,  that  his  legates  would  be  admit- 
ted to  preside  at  its  sessions,  and  that  all 
decrees  derogatory  to  his  person  and  the 
prerogatives  of  the  Holy  See,  would  be 
repealed.  From  the  period  (Feb.  5th, 
1434,  to  May  7th,  1437),  all  sessions,  from 
the  sixteenth  to  the  twenty-fifth,  were  held 
under  the  presidency  of  the  papal  legates. 
A  number  of  decrees  w-as  passed  by  the 
Council,  which  apply  to  the  extinction  of 
heresy,  the  establishment  of  peace  among 
Christian  rulers,  and  the  reformation  of 
the  faithful.  These  are  the  only  Acts  of 
the  Council  that  are  recognized  as  truly 
synodical,  and  that  were  approved  by  the 
Holy  See.  Still,  before  long,  the  Council 
again  engaged  in  a  contest  against  the 
Pope.  Returning  to  their  former  schism, 
the  Fathers  renewed  the  declaration  of  the 
supremacy  of  a  General  Council  over  the 
Pope.  This  caused  Eugenius  to  once 
more  dissolve  the  Council  of  Basle,  and 
to  transfer  its  sessions  to  Ferrara,  Sept., 
1437.     The  cardinals,    excepting   L'Alle- 


mand,  and  nearly  all  the  prelates  of  rank, 
in  obedience  to  the  Pope's  mandate,  re- 
paired to  Ferrara.  The  malcontents,  ex- 
asperated by  the  general  defection  from 
their  conventicle  to  the  Council  of  Fer- 
rara, now  proceeded  to  revolutionary  ex- 
tremes. The  following  propositions  were 
defined  by  them  as  articles  of  faith:  i. 
That  a  General  Council  is  superior  to  the 
Pope.  2.  That  the  Pope  cannot  dissol\-e, 
or  transfer,  or  adjourn  a  General  Council. 
3.  That  whoever  denies  these  articles  is  a 
heretic.  They,  furthermore,  excommuni- 
cated the  Council  of  Ferrara,  and  cited  its 
members  to  appear  before  the  Basle  tribu- 
nal ;  finally  in  their  thirty-fourth  session, 
which  was  attended  by  only  seven  bishops, 
they  presumed  to  depose  Eugenius,  in 
whose  stead  they  thrust  forward  Amadeus 
of  Savoy.  The  antipope  took  the  name  of 
Felix  V.  After  playing  his  miserable  part 
for  ten  years,  Felix  abdicated,  and  his 
party  put  an  end  to  the  schism  by  recog- 
nizing the  Pontificate  of  Nicholas  V.  Fe- 
lix, who  is  the  last  antipope  recorded  in 
history,  died  in  1451. 

Bassians. —  Disciples  of  Bassus,  heretic 
of  the  second  century,  who,  supporting 
himself  on  the  word  of  our  Saviour:  "I 
am  the  Alpha  and  the  Omega,^'  pretended 
that  the  perfection  of  all  things  consists 
in  the  letters  of  the  alphabet. 

Bath  or  Ephah. —  A  Hebrew  measure, 
containing  seven  gallons,  two  quarts,  liquid 
measure,  or  three  pecks,  one  quart,  one 
pint,  dry  measure. 

Bautain  (Louise  Eugene  Marie). — 
French  Catholic  philosopher  (1795-1867). 
Was  professor  of  philosophy  at  Strasburg. 
He  denied  that  human  reason  could  attain 
to  certainty  on  religion  and  religious 
truths.  He  did  not  place  the  source  of 
certainty  in  the  ^'■sensiis  communis,''''  as  De 
Lamennais  had  done,  but  considered  divine 
revelation  to  be  the  sole  ground  of  re- 
liance ;  and  the  trustworthiness  of  this,  he 
thought,  could  not  be  proved  by  reason. 
Pope  Gregory  XVI.  condemned  this  doc- 
trine, and  Bautain,  together  with  his  disci- 
ples, submitted  to  the  judgment  of  the 
Church. 

Bavaria(  C//r/j/;fl»/7v  in). — The  Baioarii, 
or  Bavarians,  in  Northern  Rhsetia,  were 
chiefly  converted  to  Christianity  by  the 
Frankish  bishops,  St.  Rupertus  and  St, 
Emmeramnus.  St.  Rupertus,  who  was 
bishop    of    Worms,    baptized    the    Duke 


Bavaria 


95 


Beatitudes 


Theodon  of  Ratisbon,  restored  the  Bishop- 
ric of  Salzburg,  and  founded  the  Monas- 
tery of  St.  Peter  near  that  city,  and  another 
for  women  under  the  direction  of  his 
niece,  Ehrentrudis.  He  died  in  the  year 
620.  About  the  same  time  St.  Emmer- 
amnus,  a  bishop  of  Aquitaine,  appeared 
in  Bavaria,  and  for  three  years  zealously 
preached  the  Gospel.  Falsely  accused  of 
a  great  crime,  he  was  ruthlessly  slain  by 
Lambert,  Theodon's  son,  in  654.  The  work 
of  these  holy  men  was  continued  by 
another  Frankish  missionary,  St.  Corbin- 
ianus.  He  founded  the  Bishopric  of 
Freising  and  died  as  its  first  bishop,  in 
730.  In  the  North  of  Bavaria,  the  country 
now  known  as  Franconia,  the  Gospel  was 
first  preached  by  St.  Kilian.     See  Kilian. 

Bavaria  (  Worship  in). —  In  the  year  1885 
the  population  of  Bavaria  was  5,284,798. 
The  division  in  regard  to  worship  was  as 
as  follows :  Catholics,  3,748,253;  Protes- 
tants, 1,477,952;  other  Christians,  5,017; 
Jews,  53,526;  those  professing  no  religion, 
30.  Hence  per  1,000  inhabitants  there  were 
709  Catholics  and  280  Protestants.  See 
Germany. 

Bayley  (James  Roosevelt). — A  Roman 
Catholic  prelate ;  born  in  New  York  city, 
Aug.  23d,  1814;  died  at  Newark,  New 
Jersey,  Oct.  3d,  1877.  He  graduated  at 
Trinity  College,  Hartford,  in  1835.  After 
a  year's  study  of  medicine  he  turned  his 
attention  to  theology,  and  was,  in  1840, 
established  as  rector  in  Harlem.  Becom- 
ing dissatisfied  with  Episcopal  doctrines, 
he  resigned  his  charge,  went  to  Europe, 
and  in  1844  was  ordained  a  priest  of  the 
Catholic  Church.  He  was  made  vice- 
president  and  then  president  of  St.  John's 
College,  Fordham  ;  was  pastor  of  a  Church 
on  Staten  Island ;  private  secretary  to 
Bishop  Hughes;  and  in  1S53  was  created 
first  Bishop  of  Newark.  In  1872  he  was 
made  Archbishop  of  Baltimore,  which 
placed  him  at  the  head  of  the  hierarchy  in 
the  United  States.  Archbishop  Bayley 
was  a  philanthropic  man,  an  untiring 
worker,  and  the  author  of  historical  works 
relating  to  the  Catholic  Church. 

Bdellium. —  Generally  supposed  to  be  a 
gum  from  a  tree  common  in  Arabia  and 
the  East.  But  this  substance,  whatever 
it  is,  is  mentioned  with  gold  and  gems; 
while  a  gum  is  certainly  not  so  remarkable 
an  object  of  nature  as  to  deserve  this  classi- 
fication, or  that  the  production  of  it  should 


confer  on  Havilah  a  peculiar  celebrity. 
Hence  the  opinion  of  the  Jewish  writers  is 
not  to  be  contemned,  namely , that  pearls  are 
here  to  be  understood,  of  which  great  quan- 
tities are  found  on  the  shores  of  the  Per- 
sian Gulf  and  in  India,  and  which  might 
not,  inaptly,  be  compared  to  manna,  as  in 
Num.  xi.  7. 

Beads.     See  Rosary. 

Beatific  Vision.     See  Vision. 

Beatification. —  Act  by  which  the  Pope, 
after  the  death  of  an  individual,  declares 
that  he  is  numbered  among  the  blessed. 
Beatification  differs  from  canonization  in 
this,  that  in  beatification,  the  Pope  does 
not  act  as  judge,  who  decides  about  the 
state  of  the  one  who  is  beatified,  but  grants 
only  to  certain  persons  the  privilege  to 
honor  with  a  form  of  religious  worship  the 
one  who  is  beatified,  without  incurring  the 
punishments  pronounced  against  those  who 
render  a  superstitious  worship.  In  can- 
onization, the  Pope  speaks  as  judge,  and 
as  we  say,  he  pronounces  "  ex  cathedra  "  the 
state  of  the  one  whom  he  canonizes. 
Beatification  has  been  introduced  since  the 
time  when  it  was  judged  proper  to  allow 
a  longer  interval  of  time  to  elapse  before 
the  canonization  of  the  saints.  Beatifica- 
tion is  regarded  as  the  preliminary  step 
to  canonization.  It  is  a  provisory  permis- 
sion to  render  public  veneration  to  the 
blessed,  granted  to  a  diocese,  a  city,  or  a 
religious  order.  Pope  Urban  VIII.  for- 
bade the  rendering  of  any  veneration  to  any 
person  who  has  not  been  beatified,  whether 
the  person  may  have  died  in  the  odor  of 
sanctity,  or  wrought  miracles  during  life 
or  after  death.  The  same  Pope  prescribes 
that  every  biographer,  who  makes  use  of 
the  terms  blessed,  saint,  or  martyr,  in 
speaking  of  a  person  that  has  not  yet  been 
beatified,  ought  to  declare,  that  he  does 
this,  only  to  acknowledge  the  innocence 
of  his  life  and  the  excellence  of  his  virtues, 
without  any  prejudice  to  the  authority  of 
the  Church,  the  only  sovereign  judge 
about  these  questions. 

Beatitudes  (The  Eijrht).—]esus  behold- 
ing the  multitude,  spoke  to  them  from  a 
certain  mount,  and  this  discourse  has  been 
called  "  The  Sermon  on  the  Mount."  In 
this  sermon  of  our  Lord  was  contained 
"The  Eight  Beatitudes,"  which  are  as  fol- 
lows:— "Blessed  are  the  poor  in  spirit 
[i.  e.,  those  who  have  the  spirit  of  poverty, 
the    sincere     and    Christian    detachment 


Beaton 


96 


Bede,  The  Venerable 


from  the  goods  of  this  world],  for  theirs 
is  the  kingdom  of  heaven." — "Blessed 
are  the  meek  [who  try  to  avoid  all  quar- 
rels], for  they  shall  possess  the  land 
[heaven]." —  "Blessed  are  they  that 
mourn,  for  they  shall  be  comforted." 
Christ,  according  to  the  Gospel  of  St.  John 
(xvi.  20),  has  expressed  the  same  thought 
in  these  terms:  "Amen,  Amen,  I  say  to 
you,  that  you  shall  lament  and  weep,  but 
the  world  shall  rejoice ;  and  you  shall  be 
made  sorrowful,  but  your  sorrow  shall  be 
turned  into  joy,  [in  a  better  world]." — 
"  Blessed  are  they  that  hunger  and  thirst 
after  justice  [who  are  deprived  of  justice, 
who  are  robbed  of  their  rights  here  be- 
low], for  they  shall  have  their  fill  [they 
will  obtain  a  glorious  reparation  in  the 
land  of  heaven].'' — "  Blessed  are  the  merci- 
ful [towards  their  neighbor],  for  they  shall 
obtain  mercy  [by  God]."  —  "Blessed  are 
the  clean  of  heart,  for  they  shall  see  God." 
— "  Blessed  are  the  peacemakers  [who 
avoid  quarrels,  discord,  and  seek  to  main- 
tain, and  to  restore  union  among  men],  for 
they  shall  be  called  the  children  of  God 
[who  is  the  God  of  peace] "(Rom.  xvi.  20). 
St.  John  has  said  in  the  same  sense  :  "The 
Father  has  given  us  love  for  one  another, 
in  order  that  we  may  be  called  children  of 
God  and  that  we  be  this  in  reality." — 
"Blessed  are  those  that  suffer  persecution 
for  justice  sake  [who  are  persecuted  be- 
cause they  do  not  wish  to  betray  their  duty, 
nor  do  anything  that  is  contrary  to  justice 
and  honesty],  for  theirs  is  the  kingdom 
of  heaven"  (Matt.  v.  i-io). 

Beaton  (Cardinal)  (1494-1546) . — 
Scotch  prelate  and  statesman.  During 
the  minority  of  James  V.,  he  was  sent  to 
negotiate  an  alliance  with  Francis  I.  against 
Charles  V.  and  Henry  VIII.  On  his  re- 
turn, he  became  keeper  of  the  seals.  In 
1533  he  was  charged  to  ask  for  James  V. 
the  hand  of  Magdelen,  daughter  of  Francis 
I. ;  but  this  princess  having  died,  Beaton 
asked  for  his  master  the  hand  of  Mary  of 
Lorraine,  widow  of  the  Duke  of  Longue- 
ville.  He  succeeded,  and  the  marriage 
took  place  in  1538. — Francis  I.  gave  him 
the  bishopric  of  Mirepoix,  and  at  the  same 
time  asked  for  him  the  cardinal's  hat, 
which  Paul  III.  gave  to  him  the  same 
year.  —  In  1539,  he  succeeded  his  uncle 
James  as  archbishop  of  St.  Andrews.  De- 
voted to  a  national  politic,  and  dreading 
for  his  country  the  example  and  influence 
of  England,  from  the  double  point  of  view 


of  religion  and  patriotism,  he  employed 
all  his  strength  to  keep  James  V.  away 
from  Henry  VIII.,  and  succeeded  in  pre- 
venting a  projected  interview  between  the 
two  kings.  A  war  followed,  and  James  V. 
was  killed  in  the  battle  of  Solway  (1542). 
Beaton  produced  a  will  which  gave  to  him 
the  title  and  power  as  regent  during  the 
minority  of  Mary  Stuart.  The  nobility 
declared  this  document  as  apocryphal,  and 
appointed  as  regent  the  Duke  of  Arran. 
Beaton  was  arrested  and  thrown  into 
prison ;  but  soon  left  this,  and,  in  accord 
with  Mary  of  Lorraine,  he  appointed,  in- 
stead of  the  Duke  of  Arran,  the  Count  of 
Lennox,  who  left  the  whole  power  to  the 
Cardinal  (1543).  His  line  of  conduct  was 
clearly  Scotch.  Convinced  that  England 
was  the  enemy,  he  energetically  combated 
this  country  with  all  the  power  of  his 
political  ambition  and  religious  influence. 
Perhaps,  in  his  pursuit,  he  committed  ex- 
cesses, but  it  is  impossible  to  doubt  the 
sincerity  of  his  intentions  and  the  grandeur 
of  his  views.  His  conduct  and  memory 
have  been  sharply  attacked  by  English 
writers  who  cannot  pardon  him  his  pa- 
triotism and  faith.  It  is  certain  that  the 
Cardinal  pursued  the  Protestants  and  used 
against  them  violent  means  which  the 
legislation  furnished  to  him,  and  which 
the  customs  of  the  time  tolerated.  He 
tried,  at  the  same  time,  to  reform  the  dis- 
cipline and  morals  of  his  clergy.  Beaton 
became  a  victim  of  the  hatred  of  Protes- 
tants and  of  the  adherents  of  the  English 
alliance.  Surprised  in  his  castle  of  St. 
Andrews,  he  fell  under  the  strokes  of  as- 
sassins, who  were  never  punished. 

Bee. — A  ruined  abbey  at  Bec-Helloin, 
near  Brionne,  France.  Bee  may  be  con- 
sidered the  origin  of  universities,  which 
soon  began  to  be  established  in  every 
country,  after  the  model  of  that  renowned 
institution.  Many  eminent  scholars  issued 
from  this  school,  among  whom  were  Pope 
Alexander  II. ;  the  learned  Guitmund, 
Archbishop  Averse;  Ives,  Bishop  of  Char- 
jtres,  the  restorer  of  Canon  Law  in  France; 
and  the  celebrated  St.  Anselm. 

Becket  (Thomas  A).  See  Thomas  A 
Becket. 

Bede,  The  Venerable.  —  Anglo-Saxon 
monk,  historian,  and  theologian.  Bede, 
who  from  his  superior  learning  and  ad- 
mirable virtues  received  the  appellation  of 
"Venerable,"  was  born  about  the  year  673. 


Beelphegor 


97 


Belgium 


He  was  educated  by  the  monks  of  Jarrow 
and  Weremouth,  his  first  instructor  being 
Benedict  Biscop  himself.  The  proficiency 
of  Bede  in  all  branches  of  learning  was 
considerable,  and  the  diversity,  as  well  as 
the  extent  of  his  reading,  remarkable. 
His  ardent  and  comprehensive  mind  em- 
braced every  science  which  was  then 
studied.  In  his  own  catalogue  of  books, 
which  he  composed,  we  find  commentaries 
on  most  of  the  books  of  the  Scripture, 
treatises  on  physics,  geography,  astronomy, 
and  all  the  sciences  of  the  period,  lives  of 
saints,  and  sermons.  But  his  Ecclesiastical 
History  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  in  five 
books,  from  the  landing  of  Julius  Caesar 
to  the  year  731,  is  the  most  celebrated  of 
his  works.     Venerable  Bede  died  in  735. 

Beelphegor,  Baalphegor,  Baal-Peor. — 

Syrian  god,  adored  especially  by  the  Am- 
monites and  Madianites,  was  the  same  as 
Priapus  according  to  Origen  ;  as  Saturnus, 
according  to  St.  John  Chrysostom,  Theod- 
oret,  Apollinaris  and  Suidas.  But  it  would 
appear  that  Dom  Calmet  has  shown  that  it 
was  the  same  god  as  Adonis  or  Horus, 
adored  by  the  Egyptians.  "Phegor  or 
Peor,"  he  says,  "is  the  same  as  Or  or 
Horus,  by  cutting  off  from  this  word  the 
article  Pe,  which  signifies  nothing.  Horus 
is  the  same  as  Adonis  or  Osiris."  The 
Israelites,  in  the  desert  of  Sin,  permitted 
themselves  to  be  dragged  into  the  worship 
of  Phegor  and  committed  lewd  actions 
with  the  daughters  of  Moab  (Num.  xxv. 
3-3),  and  the  Psalmist  adds  that  they  par- 
took in  the  sacrifices  for  the  dead.  Now 
we  know  that  the  feasts  of  Adonis  were 
celebrated  as  funeral  feasts,  and  that  they 
abandoned  themselves  to  all  kinds  of  de- 
baucheries. 

Beelsamen  and  Baal-Samen. — Assyrian 
deity,  adored  also  at  Carthage.  It  is  be- 
lieved that  it  was  the  sun,'  king  of  heaven, 
or  the  personification  of  heaven  itself,  the 
King-Heaven,  the  Uranus  of  the  Greeks. 
At  Carthage,  they  made  a  goddess  thereof, 
identical  with  Minerva. 

Beelzebub. — Deity  of  the  Philistines; 
^'the  prince  of  the  devils  "  (Matt.  xii.  24, 
etc.).  The  Jews  seem  to  have  applied  this 
appellation  to  Satan,  as  being  the  author 
of  all  the  pollutions  and  the  abominations 
of  idol  worship. 

Beghards  or  Spiritualists,  also  called 
"  Brethren  and  Sisters  of  the  Free  Spirit." 
A  sect  of  mediaeval  heretics.     They  spread 

7 


in  the  thirteenth  century,  chiefly  through 
France,  Italy,  and  Germany.  Owing  to 
their  professional  character  as  beggars, 
they  were  called  Beghards.  They  de- 
nied the  difference  between  good  and 
evil  works  and  maintained  that  the  soul, 
which  is  a  portion  of  the  divine  sub- 
stance, could  not  be  stained  by  sensual 
excesses.  Thus  they  committed  acts  of 
the  coarsest  licentiousness  and  in  their 
wanderings  they  were  accompanied  by 
women  called  "  Sisters."  Hence  the  name 
"Brethren  and  Sisters  of  the  Free  Spirit." 

Beguines. —  An  association  founded 
about  1 180  for  pious  widows  and  single 
women  desirous  of  consecrating  their  lives 
to  God.  They  did  not  take  any  vows  and 
had  no  convents  proper,  but  dwelt  in  small 
houses  within  the  same  enclosure,  with 
the  church  or  chapel  in  the  center  (to 
which  the  name  of  Beguinage  was  given), 
and  devoted  themselves  to  works  of  piety 
and  mercy.  The  institution  was  approved 
by  Urban  VIII.  Beguine  communities 
still  exist  in  Belgium,  France,  and  the 
Netherlands.  Similar  institutions  existed 
for  laymen  who  were  called  "  Beghards." 

Bel.     See  Baal. 

Belgium  {Christianity  in). —  St.  Aman- 
dus  of  Aquitaine,  after  a  pilgrimage  to 
Rome,  where  he  was  consecrated  mission- 
ary bishop,  preached  the  Gospel  with 
much  success  in  modern  Belgium.  The 
principal  scene  of  his  missionary  labors 
was  the  neighborhood  of  Antwerp  and 
Ghent.  About  the  year  646,  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  Episcopate  of  Mastricht, 
and  there  devoted  himself  with  unceasing 
energy  to  the  work  of  evangelizing  the 
surrounding  tribes.  He  died  about  the 
year  661.  St.  Omer,  or  Audomar,  contem- 
poraneously labored  with  him  in  the  same 
country.  After  thirty  years  of  missionary 
labors,  which  converted  the  heathen  tribes 
of  Morinia  from  their  idolatries,  St.  Omer 
died  about  667.  St.  Livinus,  an  Irish 
bishop,  is  called  the  Apostle  of  Brabant. 
He  suffered  martyrdom  about  the  year 
656.  The  work  of  these  apostolic  men 
was  continued  by  St.  Elipandus,  Bishop 
of  Noyon,  and  the  bishops  St.  Lambertus 
and  Hubertus  of  Mastricht. 

Belgium  (  Worship  in). — In  Belgium  the 
religious  hierarchy  is  represented  by  one 
Catholic  archbishop,  residing  at  Malines, 
the  metropolis,  and  by  five  bishops  of  the 
same    religion   at   Bruges*   Gand,   Liege, 


Bellarmin 


98 


Benedict 


Namur,  and  Tournay.  The  population  is, 
in  fact,  almost  entirely  Catholic,  both 
Flemish  and  Wallonish.  They  estimate  the 
number  of  Protestants  to  be  about  15,000, 
and  that  of  the  Jews  3,000.  The  lat- 
ter reside  especially  at  Antwerp,  and 
are  of  German  nationality.  Both  the 
Protestant  and  Israelitish  worship  are  ac- 
knowledged by  the  State.  The  majority  of 
the  Protestants  are  subject  to  a  synod 
which  has  its  seat  at  Brussels,  and  its 
members  assemble  once  a  year.  The  cen- 
tral synagogue  at  Brussels  has  branches  of 
minor  importance  at  Liege,  Antwerp, 
Gand,  Arlon,  and  Namur. 

Bellarmin  (Robert). —  Italian  cardinal 
and  theologian.  Archbishop  of  Capua, 
born  at  Montepulciano  (Tuscany),  in  1542, 
and  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1560. 
Extremely  severe  toward  himself,  an 
enemy  to  all  indulgence,  and  an  indefati- 
gable worker,  he  left  behind  him  writings 
so  numerous  and  valuable  that  no  better 
evidence  of  the  holiness  and  self-sacrifice 
of  his  life  could  be  required.  He  was  a 
successful  preacher,  but  was  especially 
distinguished  for  the  ability  with  which  he 
taught  the  various  branches  of  theology. 
In  1602  he  was  appointed  Archbishop  of 
Capua,  and  died  Sept.  17th,  1621.  The 
principal  works  of  Bellarmin  are :  Dis- 
puttones  de  controversis  Chrisiiance  jidei 
Arttcults,  libri,  IV;  De  Scripforibus  ec- 
clesiasticis  (a  sort  of  patrology  or  bio- 
grapical  sketches  of  ecclesiastical  writers) ; 
De  Ascensione  Mentis  in  Deujn  per  Scalas 
rerum  Creatarutn,  and  De  Gemitu  Coltimbce, 
seu  de  bono  Lacrymarum,  etc. 

Bells. —  Bells  were  known  to  the  He- 
brews, Egyptians,  and  Romans.  But  the 
employment  of  bells  in  churches  to  an- 
nounce the  hours  of  office  does  not  go 
back  beyond  the  reign  of  Constantine  the 
Great.  During  the  heathen  persecution  it 
was  of  course  impossible  to  call  the  faith- 
ful by  any  signal  which  would  have  at- 
tracted public  notice.  After  Constantine's 
time,  monastic  communities  used  to  sig- 
nify the  hour  of  prayer  by  blowing  a 
trumpet,  or  by  rapping  with  a  hammer  at 
the  cells  of  the  monks.  The  use  of  bells 
was  spread  only  in  the  time  of  St.  Paul- 
inus.  Bishop  of  Nola  (409-431).  The  cus- 
tom of  blessing  bells  goes  back  to  the 
year  750.  The  bishop  or  his  delegate 
first  blesses  salt  and  water,  then  he  washes 
the  bell  within  and  without;  makes  seven 
unctions  in  the  form  of  a  cross  on  the  bell 


outside,  and  four  inside.  For  the  outside 
unctions  he  uses  "  Oleum  Catecfiumenorum," 
and  for  those  inside  "  Holy  Chrism." 
Then  the  bishop  names  the  saint  under 
whose  invocation  the  bell  is  blessed.  After 
this  the  censer-bearer  places  under  the 
bell  a  censer  filled  with  incense,  a  passage 
of  the  Gospel  is  sung  and  the  celebrant 
ends  the  ceremony  in  making  the  sign  of 
the  Cross  over  the  bell. 

Belphegor.     See  Beelphegor. 

Benedict  (name  of  14  Popes). — Benedict 
I. —  Surnamed  Bonosus;  Pope,  Roman  by 
origin  (574-578).  Successor  of  John  III., 
after  a  vacancy  in  the  Holy  See  which  had 
lasted  ten  months.  In  his  Pontificate  the 
Longobards  extended  their  conquests  in 
Italy  and  threatened  Rome.  Benedict  II. — 
Priest  of  Rome,  succeeded,  in  684,  Leo  II. 
in  the  Chair  of  St.  Peter.  He  occupied  it 
only  10  months  and  12  days,  but  with  so 
much  zeal  and  virtue  that  he  was  admitted 
among  the  number  of  saints.  Benedict 
III.  (855-858). —  Roman  priest.  His  elec- 
tion was  opposed  by  the  ambassadors  of 
Emperor  Louis  II.,  who  supported  the 
pretensions  of  the  antipope  Anastasius. 
But  the  constancy  of  both  clergy  and  laity 
obliged  the  imperial  messengers  to  recog- 
nize the  lawful  Pontiff.  Benedict  III.  is 
praised  for  his  meekness  and  forbearance 
toward  his  adversaries.  He  beautified 
many  churches,  and  reopened  the  English 
college  in  Rome.  Benedict  I V^. —  Roman 
by  birth,  successor  of  John  IX.  (900-903). 
He  crowned  Louis,  King  of  Provence,  em- 
peror, in  901.  Benedict  V. —  Roman  by 
birth,successor  of  John  XII.  (964-965).  He 
was  elected  by  the  Romans,  in  opposition 
to  Leo  VIII.,  the  choice  of  the  Emperor 
Otto  I.  The  emperor  reduced  Rome,  and 
secured  the  person  of  Benedict,  who  was 
kept  till  his  death  in  confinement  under 
the  charge  of  Bishop  Adaldag  at  Hamburg. 
Benedict  VI. —  Roman  by  birth,  succes- 
sor of  John  XIII.  (972-974).  He  was 
dethroned,  imprisoned  in  the  Castle  St. 
Angelo,  and  finally  strangled.  Benedict 
VII.  —  Roman  by  birth,  successor  of 
Domnus  II.  (975-983).  He  'excommuni- 
cated Cardinal  Franco,  the  antipope,  and 
governed  the  Church  with  vigor  and  great 
prudence.  Benedict  VIII. —  Bishop  of 
Porto,  successor  of  Sergius  IV.  (1012-1024). 
Proved  a  most  worthy  Pontiff,  who  spared 
neither  weariness  nor  exertion  to  restore 
to  his  high  office  the  prestige  it  had  lost. 
An  antipope,  named  Gregory,  set  up  by 


Benedict  Biscop 


99 


Benedict 


the  opposite  faction,  forced  Benedict  to 
leave  Rome.  He  was  restored  to  his  See  by 
the  Emperor  St.  Henry  H.  of  Germany, 
who  with  his  wife,  the  sainted  Cundigunda, 
received  from  him  the  imperial  crown  in 
1014,  The  indefatigable  Pontiff  labored 
strenuously  for  Church  reform,  and  held 
several  councils,  the  decrees  of  which  the 
emperor  confirmed  as  laws  of  the  empire. 
Benedict  IX.  (1033-1044). —  He  obtained 
his  elevation  to  the  Papacy  by  simony, 
when  a  youth  of  eighteen.  During  the 
eleven  years  of  his  reign,  under  the  protec- 
tion of  the  emperor,  and  supported  by  the 
power  of  his  family,  this  youth  harassed 
the  people  by  his  capricious  tyranny,  and 
disgraced  the  Apostolic  See  by  the  wanton 
conduct  of  his  life.  The  Romans,  disgusted 
with  his  disorders,  expelled  him,  but  he 
was  restored  by  Emperor  Conrad.  In 
1044,  he  was  driven  away  a  second  time, 
when  an  antipope,  styled  Sylvester  HI., 
was  intruded  on  the  throne  for  three 
months.  To  free  the  Holy  See  from  the 
degradation  to  which  it  had  sunk  in  con- 
sequence of  the  bribery  and  tyranny  of  the 
nobles,  Gratian,  a  distinguished  and  re- 
spected Roman  archpriest,  by  offering  a 
large  subsidy  in  money,  induced  Benedict 
to  resign  and  withdraw  to  private  life. 
Gratian  was  then  himself  canonicallyelected 
Pope,  under  the  name  of  Gregory  VI. 
Benedict  X. —  Bishop  of  Velletri,  placed 
in  the  Holy  See  by  a  faction  at  the  death 
of  Stephen  IX.  (1058).  He  resigned  ten 
months  afterwards,  and  the  Romans  elected 
Nicholas  II.  By  several  authors  he  is 
regarded  as  an  antipope.  Benedict  XI. 
{^Nicholas  Boccasini).  —  Italian  by  birth 
(1303-1304).  He  annulled  the  Bulls  of  Boni- 
face VIII.  against  Philip  the  Fair  of  France. 
Benedict  XII. —  Cistercian  monk,  succes- 
sor of  John  XXII.  (1334-1342).  He  was 
an  eminent  canonist  and  theologian,  and  a 
severe  reformer.  He  meditated  the  res- 
toration of  the  Holy  See  to  Rome,  but  was 
resisted  in  this  effort  by  the  cardinals. 
Benedict  XIII.  —  Successor  of  Innocent 
XIII.  (1724-1730).  A  Dominican;  accepted 
with  reluctance  the  papal  dignity;  held  a 
provincial  council  in  the  Lateran  (1725), 
which  enacted  wise  laws  for  the  suppres- 
sion of  abuses  and  the  reformation  of 
morals,  and  terminated  the  dispute  con- 
cerning the  "Spiritual  Monarchy  of  Sic- 
ily." But  he  was  rudely  treated  by  the 
Catholic  courts,  on  account  of  inserting 
an  historical  fact  in  the  office  of  St. 
Gregorv  VII.  Benedict  XI V. —  Successor 


of  Clement  XII.  (1740-1758).  One  of  the 
most  learned  Popes  that  ever  filled  the 
Papal  Chair,  yielded  in  the  extreme  to- 
ward civil  rulers,  and  thus  succeeded  in 
preserving  friendly  relations  with  most  of 
them.  However,  he  gained  little  by  the 
great  concessions  he  made.  He  saw  the  be- 
ginning of  the  warfare  against  the  Society 
of  Jesus. 

Benedict  Biscop  (628-690). — An  English 
ecclesiastic,  founder  of  two  celebrated 
monasteries  of  Wearmouth  and  Jarrow. 
He  made  several  journeys  to  Rome,  and 
each  time  brought  back  a  valuable  col- 
lection of  books,  as  well  as  a  large  supply 
of  relics  and  images  for  his  monasteries. 
His  memory  has  been  transmitted  to 
posterity  by  his  disciple.  Venerable  Bede, 
in  his  Lives  of  the  Abbots  of  Wearmouth. 
England,  and  even  Europe,  owes  much  to 
the  zeal  of  Benedict  Biscop ;  for  the  civi- 
lization of  the  eighth  century  may  be  said 
to  have  rested  on  the  monasteries  he 
founded,  which  produced  Bede,  and 
through  him  the  School  of  York,  Alcuin, 
and  the  Carolingian  School,  on  which  the 
culture  and  learning  of  the  Middle  Ages 
were  based.  In  690,  he  also  brought  bells 
from  Italy,  and  was  the  first  person  who 
introduced  into  England  constructors  of 
stone  edifices,  as  well  as  makers  of  glass 
windows. 

Benedict  of  Aniane  (  St.  ).  —  Born  in 
Languedoc  about  750;  died  821,  A  re- 
former of  monastic  discipline.  Encour- 
aged by  Louis  the  Mild,  he  conceived  and 
carried  out  the  idea  of  restoring  among 
his  monks  the  severity  of  the  ancient 
discipline.  They  soon  became  models  of 
order  and  piety  for  other  monasteries,  and 
contributed  much  to  the  revival  of  letters. 
But  owing  to  the  disturbances  arising 
from  the  strife  of  contending  factions 
within  the  Frankish  empire,  the  reforms 
of  Benedict  did  not  exert  any  permanent 
influence.     F.  Feb.  12th. 

Benedict  (St.)  and  the  Benedictines. — 

Founder  of  monachism  in  the  West. 
Benedict,  born  in  480  at  Nursia  in  Umbria, 
of  noble  parents,  at  the  age  of  fourteen 
withdrew  into  the  wilds  of  Subiaco,  in  the 
Apennines.  Here  he  lived  for  three  years 
in  a  deep  and  almost  inaccessible  cavern. 
His  reputation  for  sanctity  and  his  mira- 
cles soon  gathered  a  number  of  disciples 
around  him,  for  whom  he  erected  two 
monasteries.     In  529,   he   retired   with   a 


Benediction 


lOO 


Benjamin 


few  monks  to  Monte  Cassino,  where,  on 
the  site  of  an  ancient  temple  of  Apollo,  he 
founded  a  monastery,  which  became  the 
glorious  monastic  center  of  the  West.  Sev- 
eral other  monasteries  were  also  founded  by 
St.  Benedict ;  among  these,  one  for  women, 
which  he  placed  under  the  direction  of  his 
sister  St.  Scholastica.  St.  Benedict,  who  is 
called  the  patriarch  of  the  Western  monks, 
died  in  543.  F.  Mch.  21st.—  The  Rule  of  St. 
Benedict,which  very  appropriately  has  been 
called  a  "  Summary  of  the  Christian  Relig- 
ion," is  a  masterpiece  of  enlightened  wis- 
dom and  prudence.  Its  precepts  are  few  and 
simple.  In  seventy-three  chapters,  it  con- 
tains a  collection  of  regulations  intended 
to  train  men  in  retirement  from  the  world, 
and  in  the  acquisition  of  Christain  per- 
fection, through  the  practice  of  the  evan- 
gelical counsels.  In  it  we  find  the  duties 
and  observances  of  the  monastic  life  clearly 
defined.  The  evils,  arising  from  the  cus- 
tom of  monks  continually  passing  from 
one  convent  to  another,  are  prevented 
by  the  "vow  of  stability,"  binding  each 
member  to  remain  constantly  in  the  same 
community.  The  Benedictine  Rule  grad- 
ually superseded  all  other  rules  in  the 
West,  as,  for  example,  the  Irish  Rule  of  St. 
Columban,  that  of  St.  Martin  in  France, 
and  those  of  Sts.  Fructuosus,  Csesarius, 
and  Isidore  in  Spain.  In  the  ninth  cen- 
tury, it  was  formally  adopted  throughout 
the  dominions  of  Charlemagne,  and  later 
on,  it  was  received  in  all  the  Cathedral 
monasteries  of  England.  The  order 
founded  by  St.  Benedict  spread  rapidly 
and  widely.  It  was  established  in  Sicily 
by  St,  Placidus,  in  Gaul  by  St.  Maurus, 
both  disciples  of  St.  Benedict ;  in  Britain 
by  St.  Augustine,  and  in  Germany  by  St. 
Boniface.  No  other  religious  order  can 
claim  to  have  accomplished  so  much  for  the 
conversion  and  civilization  of  the  world. 
The  monks  planted  Christianity  in  Eng- 
land, Friesland,  and  Germany;  and  the 
Scandinavian  North  received  with  the  true 
faith  its  first  monasteries  as  well.  For 
centuries  the  Benedictines  were  the  prin- 
cipal teachers  of  youth  in  all  branches  of 
sciences  and  art.  The  oldest  establish- 
ment of  Benedictines  in  the  United  States 
is  that  of  St.  Vincent's  Abbey  at  Latrobe, 
in  Westmoreland  county,  Pennsylvania, 
founded  by  a  colony  of  monks  from  Bava- 
ria, in  1846.  It  was  raised  to  the  dignity 
of  an  Abbey  in  1855.  The  Abbey  of  St. 
Meinrad,  Indiana,  which  was  founded  in 
1853,  *s  a  filiation  of  the  celebrated  Bene- 


dictine abbey  at  Einsiedlen,  in  Switzer- 
land. The  first  convent  of  Benedictine 
nuns  in  the  United  States  was  established 
at  St.  Mary's,  Pennsylvania,  in  1853. 

Benediction  (from  the  Lat.  benedicere, 
to  speak  well). — Signifies  a  solemn  invoca- 
tion of  the  divine  blessing  upon  men  or 
things.  The  ceremony  in  its  simplest  form 
may  be  considered  almost  coeval  with  the 
earliest  expression  of  religious  feeling. 
We  know  from  Holy  Writ  that  the  Jewish 
patriarchs,  before  they  died,  invoked  the 
blessing  of  God  on  their  children ;  but  at 
a  later  period  the  priests  were  commanded 
to  implore  the  divine  blessing  upon  the 
people.  Christ  sanctioned  the  custom, 
which  was  consequently  grafted  into  the 
primitive  Church,  where  it  gradually  de- 
veloped itself  in  different  forms.  See 
Blessing. 

Benefice  {Ecclesiastical). — A  Church 
office  endowed  with  a  revenue  for  its 
proper  fulfillment.  We  have  no  such  bene- 
fices in  the  United  States. 

Benignus  (St.). — Apostle  of  Bourgogne 
and  martyr.  He  was  a  native  of  Smyrna, 
and  disciple  of  St.  Polycarpus,  who  or- 
dained him  priest  and  sent  him  into  Gaul, 
under  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius.  His 
mission  was  confirmed  by  Pope  St.  Anicet. 
Benignus  evangelized  Autun,  Langres, 
and  Dijon,  the  latter  of  which  he  selected 
as  the  center  of  his  apostolic  labors.  Ar- 
rested by  the  soldiers  of  Terentius,  gov- 
ernor of  the  province,  in  a  village  near 
Epagny,  nearly  eight  miles  from  Dijon,  he 
was  put  to  death  by  order  of  Marcus  Aure- 
lius, about  the  year  178.  The  Cathedral 
church  of  Dijon  bears  the  name  of  St. 
Benignus,  and  was  built  in  his  honor. 
F.  Nov.  ist. 

Benjamin  (Hebr.  son  of  the  right  hand) 
— The  youngest  son  of  Jacob,  he  was  called 
Benoni  {son  of  my  sorrow),  by  his  mother, 
Rachel,  who  died  in  giving  him  birth; 
but  this  was  changed  into  Benjamin  by 
Jacob.  The  Benjamites  occupied  a  terri- 
tory about  26  miles  long  and  12  miles 
wide,  between  Ephraim  (on  the  north) 
and  Juda,  containing  Jerusalem  and  Jeri- 
cho. The  Benjamites  became  famous 
for  their  skill  in  using  the  sling.  During 
the  period  of  the  Judges  they  were  nearly 
all  slain  by  the  army  of  the  other  tribes, 
on  account  of  an  outrage  committed 
against  a  Levite  of  Ephraim.  Only  600 
Benjamites  were  spared  and  repeopled  the 


Berengarius 


lOI 


Bernard 


country.  After  the  death  of  Saul,  who 
was  a  Benjamite,  the  tribe  of  Benjamin 
remained  faithful  to  his  son  Isboseth,  until 
the  definitive  installation  of  David.  Dur- 
ing the  schism  of  the  tribes,  that  of  Benja- 
min remained  united  with  the  tribe  of 
Juda. 

Berengarius  {Heresy  of). —  Up  to  the 
tenth  century,  the  Real  Presence  had  not 
really  been  called  into  question.  Beren- 
garius of  Tours,  was  the  first  who  im- 
pugned the  Presence  of  our  Lord  in  the 
Holy  Eucharist  and  the  doctrine  of  Tran- 
substantiation,  and  thus  anticipated  the 
Sacramentarians  of  a  later  age.  He  was 
born  about  A.  d.  iooo,  and  was  made  Arch- 
deacon of  Angers,  and  appointed  Scholas- 
ticus,  or  Master,  of  the  Cathedral  school  of 
Tours,  Berengarius  held  that  Christ  was 
only  spiritually  present  in  the  sacred  ele- 
ments, which  in  every  respect  remained 
unchanged,  and  that  a  certain  efficacy  was 
imparted  to  them  by  the  faith  of  the  com- 
municant. The  matter  having  been  re- 
ferred to  Rome,  his  errors  were  condemned 
by  Pope  Leo  IX.  in  the  councils,  which 
were  held  at  Rome  and  Vercelli,  in  1050. 
Berengarius  was  excommunicated  until  he 
would  recant.  In  1054,  a  synod  was  held 
at  Tours  by  the  cardinal-deacon,  Hilde- 
brand,  and  there  Berengarius  made  and 
signed  a  confession  of  faith,  acknowl- 
edging that  "  bread  and  wine  after  the 
consecration  are  the  Flesh  and  Blood  of 
Christ."  As  he  continued,  however,  to 
teach  his  heresy,  he  was,  in  1059,  cited 
to  appear  at  Rome,  by  Pope  Nicholas 
II.,  and  there,  before  a  council  of  113 
bishops,  Berengarius  made  a  new  re- 
cantation, and  signed  a  new  confession  of 
faith,  affirming  that  "  the  bread  and  wine 
placed  on  the  altar,  are,  after  the  conse- 
cration, not  only  the  Sacrament,  but  also 
the  true  Body  and  Blood  of  our  Lord." 
Nevertheless,  the  fraudulent  heretic,  hav- 
ing returned  to  France,  relapsed  into  the 
condemned  errors,  and  spoke  detractingly 
of  the  Pope,  and  of  the  Roman  See,  which 
he  called  the  '*  See  of  Satan."  Pope  Alex- 
ander II.  in  vain  exhorted  him  no  longer 
to  scandalize  the  Church.  Cardinal  Hilde- 
brand,  who  in  the  meantime  had  ascended 
the  papal  throne  as  Gregory  VII.,  sum- 
moned Berengarius  once  more  to  Rome, 
and,  in  the  councils  held  in  1078  and  1079, 
obliged  him  to  confess  that  he  had  till  then 
erred  on  the  mystery  of  the  Eucharist,  and 
to  declare  under  oath,  that  the  "  Bread  of 


the  altar  is,  after  consecration,  the  true 
Body  of  Christ,  the  same  which  was  born 
of  the  Virgin,  and  was  offered  on  the 
Cross,  and  is  now  seated  at  the  right 
hand  of  the  Father  in  heaven."  But  the 
obstinate  heretic  continued  to  teach  as  be- 
fore, and  accused  Gregory  VII.  of  incon- 
sistency and  partiality.  He  made  the  last 
recantation  at  the  Council  of  Bordeaux,  in 
1080,  after  which  he  became  silent.  He  is 
said  to  have  died  in  communion  with  the 
Church,  in  1088. 

Bernard  (St.)  (surnamed  the  "Last 
Father  of  the  Church ").— Born  in  the 
Castle  Fontaines,  near  Dijon,  France,  in 
1091,  of  an  old  patrician  family ;  he  entered, 
in  his  twenty-second  year,  with  some 
thirty  of  his  kinsmen  and  friends,  the 
Order  of  Citeaux,  of  which  he  is  sometimes 
regarded  as  the  second  founder.  After  two 
years,  the  abbot,  St.  Stephen  Harding,  an 
Englishman,  sent  Bernard  to  found  a  new 
abbey  at  Clairvaux,  which  soon  rose  to 
great  celebrity.  He  was  consecrated  abbot 
by  William  of  Champeaux,  the  great  dia- 
lectician and  teacher  of  Abelard.  The 
fame  and  influence  of  Bernard  spread 
rapidly.  "  He  united  in  himself,"  as  the 
learned  Hurter  well  observes,  "the  qualities 
of  the  most  perfect  contemplative  monk 
with  those  of  the  most  profound  politician. 
.  .  .  His  judgment  decides  who  is  the 
rightful  successor  of  St.  Peter ;  and  he  it 
is  who  shields  the  Church  from  new 
dangers  engendered  by  rash  teaching. 
Popes  follow  his  counsels  like  humble 
monks.  He  is  proffered  and  refuses  bishop- 
rics and  archbishoprics ;  but,  wherever  he 
appears,  greater  honors  are  shown  to  him 
than  to  the  bishops  and  archbishops  of  the 
most  famous  sees."  Bernard  died  in  1153. 
The  works  which  St.  Bernard  has  left  be- 
hind him  are  as  various  as  they  are  numer- 
ous, and  consist  of  sermons,  epistles,  and 
moral  treatises.  His  letters,  which  num- 
ber no  less  than  404,  record  many  historical 
facts,  interspersed  with  sage  reflections  and 
salutary  advice.  Of  his  sermons  he  de- 
livered 86  on  the  Book  of  Canticles  to  his 
monks.  His  most  famous  work  is  his 
treatise  De  Consider atione,  addressed  to 
Eugenius  III.,  who  had  been  his  pupil,  in 
which  he  states,  without  disguise,  what 
are  the  duties  of  the  chief  pastor,  and 
urges  the  necessity  of  reforms.  He  ac- 
quired the  appellation  of  the  "  Mellifluous 
Doctor"  and,  on  account  of  the  value  of 
his  writings,  he  was  numbered  among  the 


Bernardin 


1 02 


Bethlehem 


Doctors   of    the   Church,   by   Pius   VIII. 
F.  Aug.  20th. 

Bernardin  (St.)  of  Siena  (1380-1444). — 
Franciscan  reh'gious.  Famous  preacher 
of  penance;  he  preached  in  nearly  all  the 
cities  of  Italy,  and  the  effect  which  his 
sermons  everywhere  produced,  is  said  to 
have  been  overwhelming.  He  was  sur- 
named  the  "Trumpet  of  Heaven,"  the 
"  Evangelical  Preacher."     F.  May  20th. 

Bernardines. —  Religious  of  the  Order 
of  St.  Benedict,  reformed  by  St.  Bernard. 
See  Cistercians. 

Bernice. — Eldest  daughter  of  king  Herod 
Agrippa  I.,  and  sister  to  the  younger 
Agrippa  (Acts  nscv.  13,  23).  She  was  first 
married  to  her  uncle  Herod,  king  of  Chal- 
cis ;  and  after  his  death,  in  order  to  avoid 
the  merited  suspicion  of  incest  with  her 
brother  Agrippa,  she  became  the  wife  of 
Polemon,  king  of  Cilicia.  This  connec- 
tion being  soon  dissolved,  she  returned  to 
her  brother,  and  afterwards  became  mis- 
tress of  Vespasian  and  Titus. 

Beryl. —  The  name  of  a  precious  stone, 
of  a  sea-green  color,  found  principally  in 
India  (Apoc.  xxi.  20). 

Beryllians. —  Members  of  a  sect  founded, 
in  the  third  century,  by  Beryllus,  Bishop 
of  Bostra  in  Arabia.  This  heresiarch  de- 
nied that  there  was  in  Jesus  Christ  a  per- 
sonal divine  essence,  and  maintained  that 
there  was  in  Him  no  other  divinity  than 
that  of  the  Father. 

Besor. —  River  of  Judea,  which  watered 
the  territory  of  the  tribe  of  Simeon,  to 
Oued  -  Cheria.  Watered  Gerara  (Oum- 
D/erar),  and  emptied  into  the  Mediterra- 
nean south  of  Gaza. 

Bessarion  (John  or  Basil). —  Born  at 
Trebizond,  in  1403;  died  at  Ravenna,  1472. 
A  Greek  scholar  and  a  Roman  Catholic 
ecclesiastic,  notable  as  a  patron  of  learn- 
ing and  a  collector  of  manuscripts.  He 
entered  the  Order  of  St.  Basil  in  1423 ; 
studied  under  the  Platonic  scholar  George 
Gemistus  Pletho;  became  Archbishop  of 
Nice  in  1437 ;  accompanied  John  Palaeolo- 
gus  to  Italy,  in  1438,  to  assist  in  effecting 
a  union  between  the  Greek  and  Latin 
Churches;  supported  the  Roman  Church 
at  the  Councils  of  Ferrara  and  Florence, 
whereby  he  gained  the  favor  of  Pope  Eu- 
genius  by  whom  he  was  made  cardinal  in 
1439,  and  successively  invested  with  the 


Archbishopric  of  Siponto  and  the  bishop- 
rics of  Sabina  and  Tusculum ;  and  received 
the  title  of  Patriarch  of  Constantinople 
( 1463).  He  wrote  AdversusCalumniatorem 
Platonis,  libr.  IV.;  Responsio  ad  quatuor 
argument  a  Afaximi  Planudis  de  proces- 
sione  Spiritus  Sancti  ex  solo  Pat  re;  Epis- 
tola  catholica  sive  generalis  ad  omnes,  qui 
sedi  Patriarchal!'  Constantinopolitance  sub- 
sunt,  etc. 

Bethany  (Hebr.  house  of  grace). —  A 
place  about  forty  minutes'  ride  from  Jeru- 
salem, on  the  road  to  Jericho,  southeast  of 
the  Mount  of  Olives.  It  is  often  men- 
tioned in  the  New  Testament  as  the  home 
of  Lazarus,  Martha  and  Mary,  and  of  Si- 
mon the  Leper.  It  is  identified  with  the 
modern  El-Azariyeh,  a  village  of  forty 
huts,  inhabited  by  Mohammedans  exclu- 
sively. 

Beth- Arab  (Hebr.  house  of  passage). — 
Locality  of  Palestine,  where  the  Israelites 
crossed  the  Jordan,  under  the  leadership 
of  Josue.  In  sight  of  this  place,  situated 
on  the  right  shore  of  the  Jordan,  in  the 
tribe  of  Juda,  St.  John  was  baptizing. 

Bethel  (Hebr.  house  of  God). — A  town 
(originally  named  Luza)  in  Palestine, 
twelve  miles  north  of  Jerusalem,  the  rest- 
ing-place of  the  Ark,  and  later,  a  seat  of 
idolatrous  worship ;  the  modern  Beitin. 

Beth- Heron  (Hebr.  place  of  the  hollow). 
— Two  villages  of  Palestine,  about  twelve 
miles  northwest  of  Jerusalem.  At  the  pass 
between  them  Josue  defeated  the  kings  of 
the  Amorites.  It  was  also  a  scene  of  a  vic- 
tory of  Judas  Machabeus  in  the  second 
century  b.  c. 

Bethlehem  (Hebr.  house  of  bread). — A 
town  in  Palestine,  six  miles  south  of  Jeru- 
salem; the  modern  Beit-Lahm.  It  was 
the  birth-place  of  David,  and,  according  to 
St.  Matthew,  St.  Luke,  and  St.  John,  of 
Christ.  The  Convent  of  the  Nativity  at 
Bethlehem  is  a  complex  body  of  structures 
distributed  between  the  Greek  and  Latin 
creeds,  and  grouped  around  the  church  is 
a  basilica  of  five  naves,  with  apse  and 
apsidal  transepts,  built  by  the  Empress 
Helena  and  the  Emperor  Constantine. 
There  are  four  long  ranges  of  monotho- 
litic  Corinthian  columns  19  feet  high, 
above  which  rise  the  walls  of  the  nave, 
with  round  arched  windows.  The  choir  is 
richly  ornamented  with  illustrations  of  the 
Greek    rite;    beneath  it  is  the    tortuous 


Bethlehemites 


103 


Bible 


Grotto  of  the  Nativity.  The  church  meas- 
ures 86  by  136  feet.  The  population  of 
Bethlehem  is  about  5,000. 

Bethlehemites. — i.  Old  religious  order 
whose  only  known  monastery  was  founded 
about  the  year  1257  at  Cambridge,  Eng- 
land. The  religious  wore  a  habit  similar 
to  the  Dominicans,  and  on  the  breast  a  red 
star  to  remind  them  of  the  star  that  ap- 
peared to  the  .Magi. — 2.  A  religious  order 
founded  in  Guatemala,  in  1653.  Extended 
to  Mexico  a  few  years  later,  and  ulti- 
mately to  other  parts  of  Spanish-America. 
The  members  lived  according  to  the  mon- 
astic rules  of  the  Augustinians. 

Bethphage  (Hebr.  house  of  unripe  figs). 
— A  village  in  Palestine,  situated  on  the 
Mount  of  Olives  eastwards  from  Jerusalem 
and  near  Bethany.  The  exact  site  is  in 
dispute.  "  The  traditional  site  is  above 
Bethany,  halfway  between  that  village  and 
the  top  of  the  mount." — William  Smith. 
At  Bethphage  Jesus  mounted  an  ass  in 
order  to  make  His  triumphant  entry  into 
Jerusalem. 

Bethsaida  (Hebr.  fishing-place). —  The 
name  of  two  cities  in  Palestine:  i.  Beth- 
saida of  Galilee  was  situated  in  Galilee, 
on  the  western  shore  of  the  lake  Gennesa- 
reth,  a  little  south  of  Capharnaum,  and 
was  the  birthplace  of  the  Apostles  Philip, 
Andrew,  and  Peter. —  2.  The  other  Beth- 
saida lay  in  Gaulonitis,  on  the  eastern  site 
of  the  same  lake,  and  near  the  place  where 
the  Jordan  enters  it.  This  town  was  en- 
larged by  Philip,  tetrarch  of  that  region 
(Luke  iii.  i),  and  called  Julias  in  honor 
of  Julia,  the  daughter  of  Augustus.  Near 
by  Jesus  wrought  the  miracle  of  the  multi- 
plication of  the  five  loaves  of  bread  and 
two  fishes  (Luke  ix.  10-17). 

Bethsan  (Hebr.  house  of  rest) — More 
generally  known  by  the  name  of  Scythop- 
olis,  was  situated  on  the  west  of  the  Jor- 
dan, at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  great 
plain  of  Esdrselon,  on  the  high  ground 
between  that  plain  and  the  valley  of  the 
Jordan.  The  place  is  now  called  Bysan. 
The  bodies  of  Saul  and  Jonathan,  killed  in 
the  battle  of  Gelboe,  were  hung  on  the 
wall  of  Bethsan  by  the  Philistines;  but  the 
inhabitants  of  Jabes  Galaad  removed  the 
remains  during  the  night  and  buried  them 
in  the  wood  of  Jabes  (L  Ki.  xxxi.  10). 

Bethsur. —  Town  of  Palestine,  in  the 
tribe  of  Juda,  twelve  miles  south  of  Jerusa- 


lem, fortified  by  Roboam.  Besieged  by 
Lysias,  regent  of  the  kingdom  of  Syria,  it 
was  delivered  by  Judas  Machabeus  who 
routed  the  Syrians  (L  Mach.  vi.  6). 

Bethulia. —  City  of  Palestine,  in  the 
tribe  of  Zabulon,  famous  through  the  siege 
of  Holofernes,  who  was  killed  by  Judith. 
Some  authors  believe  that  the  existent 
small  town  of  Saour,  situated  about  17 
miles  north  of  Naplouse,  near  the  plain  of 
Esdrselon,  arose  on  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Bethulia. 

Baza  (Theodore). —  One  of  the  princi- 
pal chiefs  of  the  so-called  reformers  (1519- 
1605).  Born  in  Burgundy;  died  at  Geneva. 
In  1548  he  fled  to  Geneva,  where  he  ab- 
jured his  Catholic  faith  and  became  the 
successor  of  Calvin  in  this  city  on  the  lat- 
ter's  death  in  1564. 

Bible  (from  the  Gr.  biblion,  biblios,  a 
letter  or  paper). —  The  Sacred  Books  of 
the  Jews  and  Christians.  St.  Paul  has  di- 
vided the  Bible  into  the  Old  and  New 
Covenant,  because  it  sets  forth  the  cove- 
nant which  God  made  with  the  Jews,  when 
He  constituted  them  His  chosen  people, 
and  afterwards  with  the  Jews  and  Gentiles 
when  Christ  redeemed  the  world.  This 
Covenant  of  St.  Paul  is  translated  Tcsta- 
mentum  in  the  Latin  Vulgate,  and  Testa- 
ment in  English.  In  the  reading  of  the 
Old  Testament,  the  early  Christians  gener- 
ally used  the  Septuagint  (see  this  subject) 
version,  which  was  considered  divinely  in- 
spired. This  version  was  held  in  high 
veneration,  even  by  the  Jews  until  the 
Christians  quoted  it  against  them,  when 
the  Rabbins  affected  to  condemn  it.  Three 
new  Greek  versions  were  produced,  which 
were  intended  to  supersede  the  Septuagint. 
The  first  by  Aquila,  a  Jewish  proselyte  of 
Sinope  in  Pontus,  under  Hadrian;  a  sec- 
ond by  Symmachus,  an  Ebionite  of  Eph- 
esus,  under  Severus ;  and  a  third  by 
Theodotion,  another  Ebionite,  who  lived 
in  the  reign  of  Commodus.  These  ver- 
sions Origen  republished  in  his  famous 
Hexapla,  which  contained,  besides  the 
original  Hebrew,  the  same  in  Greek  text, 
and  the  Septuagint.  Of  the  Hexaplarian 
Septuagint,  a  new  edition,  published  by 
Pamphylus  and  Eusebius,  was  adopted  in 
the  Churches  of  Palestine.  Other  edi- 
tions of  the  Septuagint  appeared,  one  by 
Lucian  of  Antioch,  and  another  by  He- 
sychius,  an  Egyptian  bishop ;  the  former 
being    used    in    the     Churches    of    Asia 


Bible 


104 


Bible 


Minor  and  Constantinople,  the  latter  in 
those  of  Egypt.  One  of  the  oldest  and 
most  important  renditions  of  the  Bible, 
the  Syriac  version,  called  the  Peshito  or 
"Simple,"  appeared,  probably  at  Edessa, 
about  the  middle  of  the  second  century; 
some  refer  it  even  to  the  time  of  St-  Jude, 
the  Apostle.  The  Peshito,  which  was 
made  from  the  original  text,  that  is,  the 
Old  Testament  from  the  Hebrew,  and  the 
New  from  the  Greek,  was  held  in  high  re- 
pute by  all  the  Christians  of  Syria.  Latin 
versions  are  known  to  have  existed  in  the 
earliest  ages  of  Christianity.  Of  these  the 
most  famous  was  the  ancient  Vulgate, 
also  called  Italic,  although  it  is  believed 
to  have  been  made  in  Africa.  It  was 
made,  if  not  in  the  age  of  the  Apostles, 
at  least  in  the  second  centur}-,  and  was 
translated  from  the  Greek  copy  (Septua- 
gint)  of  the  Old  Testament  and  from  Greek 
copies  of  books  of  the  Old  Testament  not 
found  in  the  Septuagint,  as  well  as  from 
the  Greek  copies  of  the  books  of  the  New 
Testament.  This  version  was  used  in  the 
Latin  Churches  till  the  sixth  century,  when 
it  was  superseded  by  the  New  Vulgate  of 
St.  Jerome.  See  Canon  of  the  Scrip- 
tures. 

Believing  the  Sacred  Scriptures  to  be  di- 
vinely inspired  writings,  the  Church,  at  all 
times,  recommended  their  perusal  and  study 
to  the  people.  In  no  instance  did  the  Church 
ever  prohibit  the  reading  of  the  Bible  in 
the  original  text,  or  in  authentic  versions; 
neither  did  she  ever  forbid  translations  to 
be  made  into  the  language  of  any  country. 
But  when  the  heresies  of  the  Waldenses 
and  Albigenses  arose,  there  was  danger 
from  corrupt  translations.  These  heretics 
appealed  to  the  Bible,  in  justification  of 
their  assaults  upon  civil  and  ecclesiastical 
authority,  and  insisted  that  the  people 
should  judge  the  Church  by  their  own 
interpretation  of  the  Scriptures.  These 
evils  elicited  restrictions  from  the  Councils 
of  Toulouse  (1239)  and  Tarragona  (1234) 
with  regard  to  vernacular  versions.  "The 
lawless  political  principles  of  WyclifTe," 
says  Blunt,  "and  the  still  more  lawless 
ones  of  his  followers,  created  a  strong  prej- 
udice against  vernacular  translations  of 
the  Scriptures,  on  the  part  of  the  rulers  of 
England,  both  in  Church  and  State.  The 
Bible  was  quoted  in  support  of  rebellion 
and  of  the  wildest  heresy."  {Reform  of 
the.  Church  of  England,  vol.  I.  p.  504.) 
That  the  Bible  was  scarce,  or  its  reading 
neglected,  is  historically  imtrue.     "There 


has  been  much  wild  and  foolish  writing," 
the  same  author  observes,  "about  the 
scarcity  of  the  Bible  in  the  age  preceding 
the  Reformation.  It  has  been  taken  for 
granted  that  Holy  Scripture  was  almost  a 
sealed  book  to  clergy  and  laity,  until  it  was 
printed  in  English  by  Tyndale  and  Cover- 
dale,  and  that  the  only  real  source  of 
knowledge  respecting  it,  before  them,  was 
the  translation  made  by  WyclifTe.  The 
facts  are  that  the  clergy  and  monks  were 
daily  reading  large  portions  of  the  Bible, 
and  had  them  stored  up  in  their  memory, 
by  constant  recitation;  that  they  made 
very  free  use  of  Holy  Scripture  in  preach- 
ing, so  that  even  a  modern  Bible  reader  is 
astonished  at  the  number  of  quotations 
and  references  contained  in  mediaeval 
sermons ;  that  countless  copies  of  the 
Bible  were  written  out  by  the  surprising 
industry  of  cloistered  scribes;  that  many 
glosses  or  commentaries  were  written 
which  are  still  seen  to  be  full  of  pious  and 
wise  thoughts ;  and  that  all  laymen  who 
could  read  were,  as  a  rule,  provided  with 
their  Gospels,  their  Psalter,  or  other  de- 
votional portions  of  the  Bible.  .  .  .  The 
clergy  studied  the  word  of  God,  and  made 
it  known  to  the  laity ;  and  those  few 
among  the  laity  who  could  read  had 
abundant  opportunity  of  reading  the  Bible 
either  in  Latin  or  in  English,  up  to  the 
Reformed  period."     {Ibid.  p.  501.) 

It  has  been  asserted  by  Protestants  that 
WyclifTe's  and  Luther's  translations  of  the 
Scriptures  first  made  them  accessible  to 
the  laity.  This  is  not  true.  For  it  is  a 
well  ascertained  fact,  that  long  before  the 
Reformation  of  Luther,  the  people  of 
almost  every  country  in  Europe  had  the 
Bible  already  translated  into  their  own 
vernacular  tongues.  In  most  nations  there 
was  not  only  one,  but  there  were  even 
many  different  versions.  We  begin  with 
Germanv,  the  theatre  of  the  Reformation. 
The  Germans  had  no  less  than  five  dif- 
ferent translations  of  the  Scriptures  into 
their  own  language,  of  which  three  were 
previous  to  that  of  Luther  in  1530,  and 
two  were  contemporary  with  or  immedi- 
ately subsequent  to  it.  The  oldest  was 
that  made  by  Ulphilas,  Bishop  of  the 
Maeso-Goths  (now  Wallachians),  as  early 
as  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century.  This 
version  seems  to  have  been  used  for  sev- 
eral centuries  by  many  of  the  older  Gothic 
and  Germanic  Christians.  The  second 
version  was  that  ascribed  to  Charlemagne 
(beginning  of  the  ninth  century)  —  proba- 


Bible 


105 


Bible 


bly  because  it  was  made  by  some  erudite 
translator  under  his  direction.  It  was 
translated  into  the  old  German,  or  Teu- 
tonic dialect.  Besides,  there  was  a  very- 
old  rhythmical  paraphrase  of  the  four  Gos- 
pels, much  used  in  Germany  from  the  time 
of  the  first  Emperor  Louis  (814-840).  The 
third  German  version  was  a  translation 
from  the  Latin  Vulgate  by  some  person 
unknown,  an  edition  of  which  was  printed 
as  early  as  the  year  1466.  Two  copies  of 
this  edition  are  still  preserved  in  the  sena- 
torial library  at  Leipsic.  Before  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  German  Bible  of  Luther, 
the  version  last  named  had  been  published 
in  Germany  at  least  sixteen  times:  once  at 
Strasburg,  five  times  at  Nuremberg,  and 
ten  times  at  Augsburg.  Add  to  these  the 
three  editions  of  Wittenberg,  mentioned 
by  Seckendorf  (published  in  1470,  1483, 
and  1490),  and  not  included  in  this  esti- 
mate, and  we  ascertain  that  the  Bible  had 
already  been  reprinted  in  the  German  lan- 
guage no  less  than  twenty  times  before 
Luther's  translation  appeared.  In  1534,  John 
Dietemberg  published  his  new  German 
translation  from  the  Latin  Vulgate  at  May- 
ence,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Archbishop 
and  Elector,  Albert.  It  passed  through  up- 
wards of  twenty  editions  in  the  course  of 
one  hundred  years,  four  of  which  appeared 
at  Mayence,  and  seventeen  at  Cologne. 
Though  somewhat  unpolished  in  style  it 
was  generally  esteemed  as  a  faithful  trans- 
lation. In  1537,  another  Catholic  version 
appeared  under  the  supervision  of  Doctors 
Emser  and  Eck,  the  two  learned  champions 
of  Catholicity  against  Luther.  This  ver- 
sion likewise  passed  through  many  edi- 
tions. The  facts  already  stated  clearly 
prove  how  utterly  unfounded  is  the  state- 
ment, that  before  the  Reformation  "the 
Bible  was  an  unknown  book  !  " 

Other  Catholic  countries  were  not  be- 
hind Germany  in  the  sincere  desire  to 
translate  the  Scriptures  into  the  vernacu- 
lar tongues,  and  to  circulate  them  among 
the  people.  In  fact  there  is  not  a  country 
in  Europe  in  which  the  Bible  had  not  been 
repeatedly  translated  and  published  long 
before  the  Reformation.  In  Italy,  there 
were  two  versions  anterior  to  that  of  Lu- 
ther: that  by  the  Dominican,  Jacobus  a 
Voragine,  Archbishop  of  Genoa,  which 
version,  according  to  the  testimony  of 
Sixtus  Senensis,  was  completed  as  early  as 
1290  (see  Bibliotheca  sacra,  torn.  I.  p.  397) ; 
and  that  by  Nicholas  Malermi,  a  Camal- 
dolese  monk,  which  was  first  printed  sim- 


ultaneously at  Rome  and  Venice,  in  the 
year  1471,  and  which  passed  through  as 
many  as  thirteen  different  editions  before 
the  year  1525.  This  translation  was  after- 
wards reprinted  eight  times  before  the  year 
1567,  with  the  express  permission  of  Santa 
Uflizio,  or  Holy  Office,  at  Rome.  Almost 
simultaneously  with  that  of  Luther,  there 
likewise  appeared  two  Italian  trans- 
lations of  the  Bible:  that  by  Antonio 
Bruccioli,  in  1532,  which  in  twenty  years 
passed  through  ten  editions ;  and  that  of 
Santes  Marmochino,  which  was  succes- 
sively printed  in  1538,  1546,  and  1547. 
The  oldest  French  version  of  the  Bible 
was  that  by  Des  Moulins,  whose  Bibly 
Historyal  —  almost  a  complete  transla- 
tion of  the  Bible — appeared,  according 
to  Usher,  about  the  year  1478.  A  new 
edition  of  it,  corrected  by  Rely,  Bishop  of 
Angers,  was  published  in  1487,  and  was 
successively  reprinted  sixteen  different 
times  before  the  year  1546,  four  of  these 
editions  apypearing  at  Lyons  and  twelve  at 
Paris.  Le  Fevre  published  a  new  French 
translation,  which  passed  through  many 
editions.  A  revision  of  this  version  was 
made  by  the  divines  at  Louvain,  in  1550, 
and  was  subsequently  reprinted  in  France 
and  Flanders  thirty-nine  times  before  the 
year  1700.  According  to  Mariana,  the 
great  Spanish  historian,  the  Scriptures 
were  translated  into  Castilian  by  order  of 
Alphonso  the  Wise  (1252-1282).  The 
whole  Bible  was  translated  into  the  Valen- 
cian  dialect  of  the  Spanish,  in  the  year 
1405,  by  Boniface  Ferrer,  brother  of  St. 
Vincent  Ferrer.  This  version  was  printed 
in  1478,  and  reprinted  in  1515,  -with  the 
formal  consent  of  the  Spanish  Inquisition. 
In  1512,  the  Epistles  and  Gospels  were 
translated  into  Spanish  by  Ambrosio  de 
Montesma.  This  work  was  republished  at 
Antwerp  in  1544,  at  Barcelona  in  1601  and 
1608,  and  at  Madrid  in  1603  and  1644.  In 
England,  besides  the  translation  made  by 
the  Venerable  Bede  in  the  eighth  century 
and  that  of  the  Psalms  ascribed  to  Alfred 
the  Great,  in  the  ninth  century,  there  was 
also  another  translation  of  the  whole  Bible 
into  the  English  of  that  early  period, 
which  was  completed  about  the  year  1290— 
long  before  the  version  of  WycliflFe  in  the 
fifteenth  century.  In  the  year  706,  Ad- 
helm,  first  Bishop  of  Salisbury,  according 
to  the  testimony  of  the  Protestant  bibli- 
cist  Horn,  translated  the  Psalter  into 
Saxon.  At  his  persuasion,  Egbert,  Bishop 
of   Lindisfarne,   also   translated   the   four 


Bible 


io6 


Bible 


Gospels.  In  the  fourteenth  century,  a 
new  English  version  of  the  whole  Bible 
was  made  by  John  Trevisa.  In  the  year 
905,  Elfric,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
translated  into  English  the  Pentateuch, 
Josue,  Job,  Judges,  Ruth,  part  of  the  books 
of  Kings,  Esther,  and  the  Machabees. 

The  Bible  was  translated  into  Flemish, 
as  Usher  admits,  by  Jacobus  Merland, 
before  the  year  1210.  This  version  was 
printed  at  Cologne  in  1475,  and  it  passed 
through  seven  new  editions  before  the  ap- 
pearance of  Luther's  Bible  in  1530.  The 
Antwerp  edition  was  published  eight  times 
in  the  short  space  of  seventeen  years. 
Within  thirty  years  there  were  also  pub- 
lished, at  Antwerp  alone,  no  less  than  ten 
editions  of  the  New  Testament  translated 
by  Cornelius  Kendrick  in  1524.  In  the 
course  of  the  seventeenth  century,  there 
also  appeared  in  Flanders  several  new 
Catholic  versions  by  De  Witt,  Laemput, 
Schum,  and  others.  All  these  were  re- 
peatedly republished.  A  Slavonic  version 
of  the  Bible  was  published  at  Cracow  in 
the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
As  early  as  the  fourteenth  century  the  Bi- 
ble had  been  translated  into  the  Swedish, 
by  the  direction  of  St.  Bridget.  Accord- 
ing to  the  testimony  of  Jonas  Arnagrimus, 
a  disciple  of  the  distinguished  Tycho 
Brahe,  a  translation  of  the  Bible  was  made 
in  Iceland  as  early  as  1297.  A  Bohemian 
Bible  appeared  at  Prague  in  1488,  and 
passed  through  three  other  different  edi- 
tions ;  at  Cutna  in  1498,  and  at  Venice  in 
1506  and  1511. 

Finally,  to  complete  this  hasty  summary 
of  bibliographical  facts,  we  may  state,  as 
an  evidence  of  the  solicitude  of  Rome  for 
the  dissemination  of  the  Bible,  that  many 
editions  of  Syriac  and  Arabic  Bibles  have 
been  printed  at  Rome  and  Venice  for  the 
use  of  the  Oriental  Churches  in  commun- 
ion with  the  Holy  See.  A  translation 
of  the  Bible  into  Ethiopic  was  published 
at  Rome,  as  early  as  1548.  The  famous 
convent  of  Armenian  monks,  called  Mech- 
itarists,  at  Venice,  has  more  recently  pub- 
lished exquisitely  beautiful  versions  of  the 
Bible  translated  into  Armenian. 

The  bishops  at  present  recommend  the 
German  version  of  AUioli.  which  is  very 
faithfully  rendered  word  for  word  from 
the  Latin  Vulgate,  and  is  furnished  with 
very  fine  explanatory  notes.  It  appeared 
in  1830.  So,  too,  in  French  there  are  many 
Catholic  versions,  dating  as  far  back  as 
1294.;    but    the    latest    and    best    is    that 


published  with  excellent  notes  in  1861,  by 
the  Abbe  Glaire,  who  has  faithfullj'  ren- 
dered the  text  of  the  Latin  Vulgate.  In 
Italy,  of  all  the  Catholic  versions,  the  one 
that  holds  the  highest  place  was  translated 
literally  from  the  Vulgate,  in  1779,  by 
Anthony  Martini,  Archbishop  of  Florence, 
who  has  also  added  valuable  notes.  The 
Spanish  Catholics  have  a  favorite  version 
on  the  same  plan,  by  Don  Felipe  de  San 
Miguel,  published  in  1793,  and  the  Portu- 
guese possess  one  by  Antonio  Pereira, 
which  appeared  in  1781 ;  while  the  Belgian 
or  Dutch  Catholics  have  the  version  of 
Nicholas  Van  Winghe,  printed  in  Louvain 
as  early  as  1548.  In  short,  there  is  no 
Catholic  country  without  its  native  ver- 
sion of  the  Scriptures,  approved  and 
circulated  by  episcopal  authority.  In  the 
sweet  and  expressive  language  of  Ireland 
there  is  a  Catholic  Bible,  as  old  as  1347, 
which  emanated,  it  is  supposed,  from  the 
pen  of  Richard  Fitz-Ralph,  Archbishop 
of  Armagh.  Dr.  McHale,  the  late  Arch- 
bishop of  Tuam,  was  actually  engaged  in 
correcting  the  old  Irish  translation  ac- 
cording to  the  Latin  Vulgate;  but  fail- 
ing health  prevented  the  completion  of 
the  undertaking.  English-speaking  Cath- 
olics use  the  Douay  Bible.  It  is  an  Eng- 
lish translation,  made  in  the  English  Col- 
lege at  Rheims,  France,  about  15S2,  and 
taken  directly  from  the  Vulgate;  but  as 
the  Old  Testament  part  was  not  published 
until  1610,  in  the  English  College  at  Douay, 
the  whole  was  given  the  name  Douav 
Bible.  Dr.  Challoner,  Catholic  Bishop  of 
London,  revised  it  in  1750,  and  the  Catholic 
hierarchy  of  Ireland  soon  circulated  it 
among  their  flocks.  The  Catholic  bishops 
of  America  adopted  it  in  1810,  and  Scriv- 
ener, the  learned  Protestant  editor,  in  his 
supplement  to  the  Authorized  Protestant 
Version,  says  the  "Douay  translation  is 
highly  commendable  for  its  scrupulous 
accuracy." 

Bible  (Canon  of  the).  See  Canox  of 
THE  Scriptures. 

Bible  (Geneva  or  Breeches). — This  work 
is  the  joint  production  of  Gilby,  Witting- 
ham,  probably  John  Knox,  and  other  prom- 
inent divines  of  the  Puritan  stamp,  who, 
when  the  Catholic  Qiieen  Mary  ascended 
the  throne  of  England,  fled  to  the  more 
congenial  atmosphere  of  their  Calvinistic 
center,  in  Switzerland.  It  is  saturated 
with  Swiss  Protestantism,  and  derives  its 
most  familiar  name  from  the  rendering  it 


Bible 


107 


Bigamist 


gives  of  Genesis  (iii.  7)  to  this  effect: 
"  Then  the  eyes  of  them  both  were  opened, 
and  they  knew  that  they  were  naked,  and 
they  sewed  fig-tree  leaves  together,  and 
made  themselves  breeches.''^ 

Bible  {King  '^atnes's).  —  Version  of  the 
Bible  authorized  by  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land. When  King  James  I.  (1603-1625)  as- 
cended the  throne  of  England,  an  address 
was  presented  to  his  majesty  by  the  clergy 
of  Lincoln  diocese,  with  the  request  to  re- 
vise the  English  versions  of  the  Bible.  In 
consequence  of  this,  and  other  representa- 
tions, the  king  ordered  fifty-four  of  the 
most  eminent  divines  from  Oxford  and 
Cambridge  to  produce  a  new  version  of 
the  Hebrew  and  Greek  Testaments.  Four 
years  were  devoted  to  the  task,  and  the 
outcome  was  the  present  Authorized  Prot- 
estant Version,  which  received  the  royal 
sanction  in  1605.  It  is  the  version  ap- 
pointed by  the  Crown  to  be  used  in  all  the 
Churches  belonging  to  English  commun- 
ion, so  that  no  Anglican  clergyman  can 
use  any  other  in  public  worship.  This 
"  Authorized  Version,"  after  a  long  inter- 
val of  over  260  years,  was  lately  revised  by 
a  learned  company,  under  the  presidency  of 
Dr.  Ellicot,  Protestant  Bishop  of  Glouces- 
ter and  Bristol.  These  distinguished  schol- 
ars devoted  ten  years  to  their  arduous  work, 
and  some  of  their  corrections  are  in  har- 
mony with  the  Catholic  Vulgate. 

Biblia  Pauperum  (Bible  of  the  Poor). — 
Collection  of  the  principal  passages  of  the 
Bible,  engraved  on  wood,  before  the  in- 
vention of  printing,  for  the  instruction 
and  use  of  the  people.  This  work,  which 
dates  from  the  fourteenth  century,  is  one 
of  the  first  monuments  of  xylography. 
The  text  has  been  drawn  up  by  Bona- 
ventura.  General  of  the  Franciscans,  in 
1260.  A  fac-simile  has  been  published 
by  J.  Russel  Smith,  in  1859. 

Bible  Societies. — Protestant  associations 
established  to  propagate  the  Bible  among 
all  the  peoples  and  in  all  the  languages. 
The  first  regular  Bible  Society  was  consti- 
tuted at  London,  England,  in  1804.  Pope 
Leo.  XII.,  in  his  Encyclical  of  May  3d, 
1824,  condemned  the  Bible  Societies.  The 
same  was  done  by  Pope  Pius  VIII.,  May 
29th,  1S29;  by  Gregory  XVI.,  May  8th, 
1844;  and  by  Pius  IX.,  Nov.  9th,  1846. 

The  annual  report  of  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society  for  the  year  ending 
March  31st,  1895,  showed  a  total  issue  for 


that  year  by  the  Society  of  3,837,222  copies 
of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  The  great  in- 
crease of  the  work  of  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society  during  the  last  few 
years  may  be  seen  by  the  following  tabular 
statement  of  its  total  issues  by  decades  : — 

Total  issues  to  March  31,  1820 2,843,291 

For  ten  years  to  March  31,  1830 3,710.507 

For  ten  years  to  March  31,  1840 51768,673 

For  ten  years  to  March  31,  1850 10,787,778 

For  ten  years  to  March  31,  :86o 14,417,778 

For  ten  years  to  March  31,  1870 21,868,843 

For  ten  years  to  March  31,  1880 28,771,748 

For  ten  years  to  March  31,  1890 35,760,627 

For  March  31,  1890,  to  January  i,  1895 19,467,184 

Grand  total  from  organi-)  ~ 

zation  to  January  i,  1895  I    '43.390.429 

The  receipts  for  the  year  ending  March 
31st,  1895,  aggregated  $1,166,815;  total  ex- 
penditure for  the  year,  $1,074,850.  The 
American  Bible  Society  issued  during  the 
year  ending  March  31st,  1896,  an  aggregate 
number  of  1,750,283  copies, —  an  increase 
over  the  preceding  year  of  169,155.  Its 
total  issues  from  1816,  the  date  of  its  or- 
ganization, to  March  31st,  1896,  aggregated 
61,705,841.  The  cash  receipts  for  the  year 
aggregated  $437,223.  The  number  of  is- 
sues of  the  two  Societies  (British  and 
Foreign  and  American  Bible  Societies) 
during  1895  aggregated  5,418,350  copies, 
an  average  of  about  17,366  copies  of  the 
Scriptures  for  every  working  day  of  the 
year.  The  grand  total  of  issues  to  Jan.  ist, 
1896,  circulated  by  all  the  societies,  was 
256,647,008. 

The  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society 
reported,  March  31st,  1890,  a  list  of  3,279 
auxiliary  and  branch  Bible  societies.  The 
American  Bible  Society  at  the  same  date 
reported  a  list  of  2,034,  aggregating  a  total 
of  5,313  auxiliary  and  branch  societies 
which  are  connected  with  those  two  parent 
societies. 

Bigamist  and  Bigamy. —  The  term  ap- 
plied to  a  person  who  has  committed  the 
crime  of  bigamy,  that  is,  who  has  more 
than  one  wife  or  husband  at  the  same  time. 
In  Canon  Law  a  bigamist  is  defined  as  one 
who  has  married  two  wives  successively, 
or  who,  having  been  married  but  once,  has 
married  a  widow.  In  both  cases  such  a  one 
cannot  hold  a  bishopric  without  dispensa- 
tion. This  point  of  discipline  is  founded 
upon  what  St.  Paul  says  in  his  Epistle  to 
Titus,  (Tit.  i.  6).  "  Husband  of  one  wife." 
Hence  it  was  that  bigamists  were  not  ad- 
mitted to  sacred  orders  :  either  because  big- 
amy was  real,  for  having  married  two  wives ; 


BiNATION 


io8 


Bishop 


or  because  it  was  interpretative,  for  having 
married  a  widow  or  daughter,  who  had  been 
corrupted  before  her  marriage.  Even  those 
were  declared  as  bigamists  who  had  made 
a  vow  of  celibacy  before  their  marriage ; 
and  the  Church  observed  such  a  great 
rigor  in  regard  to  bigamists,  that  Pope 
Leo  I.  never  wished  a  bishop  of  Mauri- 
tanea  to  ordain  them.  Father  Doucin,  in 
his  History  of  Nestor ianism,  says  that 
Irenaeus  being  a  bigamist,  because  he  had 
been  married  twice,  had  been  elected 
Bishop  of  Tyre  against  the  canons.  St. 
Jerome,  Gennadius,  and  the  Greeks  re- 
garded as  bigamists  only  those  who  had 
married  two  wives  successively,  after  they 
had  received  baptism ;  but  St.  Ambrose, 
St.Innocent,  and  St.Augustine  regarded — • 
with  the  Latin  Church — as  bigamists  those 
who  had  married  two  wives,  even  when 
they  had  married  the  first  before  being 
baptized  (see  Father  Thomassin).  St. 
Epiphanius  says  {Hcer.  59,  n.  4),  that  the 
Church  strictly  observes  the  rule  not  to 
ordain  bigamists,  although  they  had  mar- 
ried the  second  wife  only  after  the  death 
of  the  first.  In  the  sixth,  seventh,  and 
eighth  centuries,  bigamists  were  excluded, 
both  in  the  East  and  West,  from  the  epis- 
copate, priesthood,  and  deaconate;  they 
could  receive  inferior  orders  with  the 
dispensation  of  their  bishop,  according  to 
several  theologians  and  canonists,  who 
quote  in  their  favor  St.  Thomas;  but 
Father  Thomassin  says  that  the  interpret- 
ing cardinals  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  and 
Sixtus  IV.,  have  declared  that,  even  in 
this  case,  one  must  have  recourse  to  the 
Pope.     See  Matrimony. 

Bination. —  By  bination  we  understand  a 
priest  saying  two  Masses  on  the  same  day. 
Formerly  priests  were  allowed  to  cele- 
brate several  times  a  day.  But  at  present 
this  is  prohibited,  except  on  Christmas 
and  in  the  case  of  necessity.  Cases  of 
necessity  are  held  to  be  when  either  an 
entire  congregation,  or  a  large  portion  of 
a  congregation,  is  debarred  from  hearing 
Mass  on  Sunday  and  holydays,  unless  the 
pastor  says  two  Masses  on  the  same  day. 
Hence  :  i.  A  pastor  who  has  two  parishes  at 
so  great  a  distance  from  each  other  that  the 
people  residing  in  one  of  the  places  cannot 
conveniently  go  to  the  other  place  for  Mass, 
can  say  two  Masses  a  day,  one  in  each 
parish.  2.  A  pastor  can  say  two  Masses  a 
day  in  the  same  church,  if  a  considerable 
number,  v.  g.,  thirty,  would  otherwise  be 


deprived  of  Mass  on  Sundays  and  holydays, 
V.  ff.,  because  the  church  is  too  small  to 
hold  the  entire  congregation  at  the  same 
time.  3.  We  say  on  Sundays  and  holy- 
days;  that  is,  the  necessity  for  saying  two 
Masses  can  occur  only  on  those  days  on 
which  the  faithful  are  bound  to  hear  Mass, 
—  but  not  on  week-days,  nor  on  Holy  Thurs- 
day or  Good  Friday.  The  permission  of 
the  bishop,  as  a  rule,  is  required  for  the  . 
bination  even  in  the  above  circumstances. 
On  Christmas  every  priest  is  allowed  to  say 
three  Masses  without  the  permission  of  the 
bishop. 

Biretta. —  Originally,  any  small  cap 
worn  as  distinctive  of  a  trade  or  profes- 
sion ;  afterwards,  a  scholastic  cap,  or  such  as 
was  worn  indoors  by  members  of  the  learned 
professions ;  and  at  present  in  the  Catholic 
Church  the  ecclesiastical  cap.  This  last  is 
square,  and  has  three,  and  sometimes  four, 
ridges  or  projections  on  top,  crossing  it  at 
equal  angles,  frequently  having  a  tuft  or 
tassel  where  the  ridges  meet  in  the  middle. 
For  priests  and  the  lo-wer  orders  of  the 
clergy  its  color  is  black,  and  for  bishops 
who  are  resident  at  Rome,  though  else- 
where they  commonly  wear  one  of  violet, 
corresponding  with  the  color  of  the  cas- 
sock; for  cardinals  it  is  red.  It  seems  to 
have  been  introduced  in  the  offices  of  the 
Church,  when  the  amice  ceased  to  be  worn 
over  the  head  in  proceeding  to  and  from 
the  altar  at  Mass. 

Birgit  (St.).     See  Bright. 

Bishop. —  The  word  bishop,  etymolog- 
ically,  means  overseer,  and  priest  means 
elder.  The  Greek  originals  of  both  words 
{episcopos,  presbyteros)  are  of  frequent 
occurrence  in  the  New  Testament,  and  do 
not  seem  to  be  always  used  with  precision ; 
the  verbal  distinction  was  not  fixed.  But 
in  the  second  and  following  centuries,  we 
find  that  the  distinction  between  bishops 
and  priests  is  no  less  marked  than  that  be- 
tween priests  and  deacons.  Bishops  have 
always  been  regarded  as  the  chief  pastors, 
and  as  superior  to  the  priests  in  authority 
and  jurisdiction,  as  well  as  in  order.  This 
distinction  between  the  episcopate  and  the 
simple  priesthood,  with  the  superiority  of 
bishops,  which  is  clearly  pointed  out  in  the 
Sacred  Scriptures  (I.  Tim.  v.  19;  Tit.  i.  5; 
Phil.  iv.  3;  Col.  iv.  17),  was  uniformly 
taught  by  the  early  Fathers.  St.  Clement 
of  Rome  writes:  "The  Apostles,  foresee- 
ing that  contentions  would  arise  regarding 


Bishop 


109 


Bishops 


the  dignity  of  the  episcopacy,  appointed 
bishops,  instructing  them  to  appoint  others, 
that  when  they  should  die,  other  approved 
men  would  succeed  them  in  their  ministry." 
Nothing  can  be  plainer  than  the  language  of 
St.  Ignatius  the  Martyr,  who  ventures  to  say, 
that  in  the  Church  the  bishop  presides  in  the 
place  of  God,  and  the  priests  represent  the 
College  of  the  Apostles  (Ad  Magnes,  n. 
6),  and  this  saint's  epistles  are  full  of 
similar  expressions.  The  Presbyterians 
find  no  answer  to  this  argument,  except  to 
call  in  question  the  genuineness  of  the  let- 
ters. St.  Irenseus  and  St.  Cyprian  affirm 
the  same  truth.  That  this  gradation  of 
dignity  and  authority  had  existed  in  the 
first  ages,  appears  from  the  fact  that  the 
early  Fathers,  in  their  controversies  with 
heretics,  often  appealed  to  the  catalogue 
of  bishops,  which  existed  in  nearly  all  the 
principal  churches,  and  had  come  down 
unbroken  from  the  days  of  the  Apostles. 
Nor  have  the  early  heretics  ever  denied 
the  apostolic  appointment  of  bishops,  or 
their  superiority  over  priests.  If,  in  the 
New  Testament,  the  words  "bishop"  and 
"presbyter"  are  sometimes  indifferently 
applied  to  the  same  person,  it  does  not 
follow,  that  there  existed  no  distinction 
between  the  episcopacy  and  the  priesthood. 
St.  John,  though  an  Apostle,  calls  himself 
an  ancient,  i.e.,  a  presbyter  (II.  John  i.); 
and  thus  also  with  the  bishops  of  the  sec- 
ond and  third  centuries,  whose  right  to 
exercise  authority  over  priests  was  cer- 
tainly never  called  into  question  at  that 
period.  The  same  ecclesiastics,  indeed, 
passed  often  for  bishops  and  priests;  yet 
as  to  the  power  or  dignity,  a  distinc- 
tion was  always  recognized  between  the 
two,  even  from  the  very  beginning  of  the 
Church.     See  Clergy  and  Laity. 

Bishop  {Auxiliary). —  Auxiliary  bishop 
is  a  titular  bishop  appointed  by  the  Holy 
See  to  assist  an  ordinary  bishop,  not  in  the 
exercise  of  his  jurisdiction,  but  merely  of 
the  episcopal  order,  v.g:,  to  give  confirma- 
tion. He  is  called  first,  titular  bishop  {epis- 
copus  titularis,  efiscopus  in  partibus  infi- 
delium) ;  for  he  is  consecrated  with  the 
title  of  some  diocese  in  the  hands  of  the 
infidels ;  and,  secondly,  appointed  by  the 
Holy  See.  At  present  titular  bishops  are 
appointed  only:  i.  When  they  are  really 
needed.  2.  Where  it  is  customary  to  have 
them.  3.  On  condition  that  a  proper  sal- 
ary be  assigned  to  them.  The  reasons  for 
which  they  are  usually  appointed  are :     i. 


Where  a  bishop  does  not  reside  in  his  see. 
2.  Or  cannot  perform  the  episcopal  func- 
tions of  order  on  account  of  old.  age,  in- 
firmity, or  the  great  extent  of  his  diocese. 
Auxiliary  bishops  are  not  bound  to  make 
the  visit  ad  limia.  Their  office  lapses  as 
soon  as  the  bishop  whom  they  assist  dies 
or  in  some  other  way  relinquishes  his  see. 
They  exist  at  present  chiefly  in  Prussia, 
Austria,  Spain,  etc.  The  Pope  makes  use 
of  titular  bishops  in  the  discharge  of  his 
apostolic  duties. 

Bishop  {Suffragan).      See  Suffragan. 

Bishops  {Appointment  of  in  the  United 
States).— Frior  to  the  "Third  Plenary 
Council  of  Baltimore,"  held  in  1884,  the 
candidates  for  a  vacant  diocese  were  pre- 
sented to  the  6\  C.  de  Prof.  Fide  by 
the  bishops  of  the  province  to  which 
the  vacant  diocese  belonged.  The  priests 
of  the  vacant  diocese  had  no  share  or 
voice  in  this  presentation  or  nomination. 
The  "  Third  Plenary  Council  of  Balti- 
more"  amended  this  mode  of  appoint- 
ment and  made  the  following  enactments, 
which  now  form  the  law  in  this  country : 
I.  When  a  diocese  falls  vacant,  whether 
by  the  death,  resignation,  transfer,  or  re- 
moval of  the  bishop,  and  when,  in  conse- 
quence, three  candidates  are  to  be  chosen, 
the  consultors  and  the  irremovable  rectors 
of  the  vacant  diocese  shall  be  called  to- 
gether, V.  ff.,  thirty  days  after  the  vacancy 
occurs.  It  will  be  the  right  and  duty  of 
these  consultors  and  rectors,  thus  properly 
assembled,  to  select  three  candidates  for 
the  vacant  see.  The  candidates  thus 
chosen  shall  be  submitted  to  the  bishops 
of  the  province,  whose  right  it  will  be  to 
approve  or  disapprove  of  them.  2.  The 
meeting  of  the  consultors  and  irremovable 
rectors  is  called  and  presided  over  by  the 
metropolitan  of  the  province  to  which  the 
vacant  diocese  belongs ;  or,  if  the  metro- 
politan be  lawfully  hindered,  then  the 
meeting  may  be  presided  over  by  one  of  the 
suffragan  bishops  of  the  same  province,  to 
be  deputed  for  this  purpose  by  the  metro- 
politan. Where  there  is  question  of  choos- 
ing three  candidates  for  a  metropolitan  see 
which  is  vacant,  the  meeting  of  the  con- 
sultors and  irremovable  rectors  of  the 
vacant  metropolitan  see  is  called  and  pre- 
sided over  by  the  senior  suffragan  bishop, 
or,  if  he  be  hindered,  by  another  bishop  to 
be  deputed  by  him.  3.  Before  they  cast 
their  votes,  the  aforesaid  consultors  and 
rectors  shall  swear  that  they  are  not  in- 


Bishop's  Coadjutor 


I  lO 


Blasius 


duced  to  cast  their  votes  for  a  candidate 
because  of  unworthy  motives,  such  as  that 
of  expecting  favors  or  rewards.  They 
shall  vote  by  secret  ballot.  This  vote  is 
merely  consultive,  /.  e.,  it  is  simply  equiva- 
lent to  a  recommendation  that  one  of  the 
candidates  be  appointed  to  the  vacant  see. 
4.  The  president  of  the  meeting  shall 
cause  two  authentic  copies  of  the  min- 
utes of  the  meeting  containing  an  ac- 
curate list  of  the  candidates  chosen,  to  be 
drawn  up  and  signed  by  the  secretary.  He 
shall  forward  one  copy  directly  to  the  S. 
C.  de  Prop.  Fide,  the  second  to  the  other 
bishops  of  the  province.  A  third  copy 
may  also  be  drawn  up  and  kept  in  the  dioc- 
esan archives,  as  is  done  in  England.  5. 
Thereupon,  on  a  day  fixed  beforehand, 
V.  g-.,  ten  days  after  the  above  meeting  of 
consultors  and  rectors,  the  bishops  of  the 
province  shall  meet  and  openly  discuss 
among  themselves  the  merits  of  the  candi- 
dates selected  by  the  consultors  and  rec- 
tors, or  of  others  to  be  selected  by  them- 
selves. Afterwards  they  make  up  their 
list  of  three  candidates  to  be  sent  to  Rome. 
From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the  bishops 
have  a  right  to  approve  or  disapprove  of 
the  candidates  chosen  by  the  clergy.  But 
if  they  disapprove  of  them,  they  are  bound 
to  give  the  reason  upon  which  they  base 
their  disapproval  to  the  5.  C  de  Prop. 
Fide.  6.  In  everything  else  the  bishops 
shall  observe  the  instruction  of  the  5'.  C. 
de  Prop.  Fide  dated  Jan.  21st,  1861,  and 
given  in  the  Second  Plenary  Council  of 
Baltimore,  n.  106,  107.  In  other  words, 
the  bishops  shall  state  in  writing  the  qual- 
ifications and  merits  of  the  various  candi- 
dates, according  to  the  questions  given  in 
the  Second  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore, 
n.  107.  The  minutes  of  the  meeting  of  the 
bishops  shall  then  be  sent  to  the  5.  C.  de 
Prop.  Fide  by  the  archbishop,  or  senior 
bishop  of  the  province.  7.  When  there 
is  question  of  appointing  a  coadjutor- 
bishop,  with  the  right  of  succession,  the 
rules  laid  down  above  under  Nos.  i,  3, 
4,  5  and  6  shall  be  strictly  adhered  to. 
Rule  2  will,  however,  be  changed  thus: 
The  meeting  of  the  consultors  and  irre- 
movable rectors  will  be  presided  over, 
not  by  the  archbishop  of  the  province,  or 
his  deputy,  but  by  the  archbishop  or 
bishop  for  whom  the  coadjutor  is  to  be 
chosen;  or,  where  he  is  hindered,  by  the 
vicar-general,  or  other  priest,  deputed  by 
him.  Moreover,  in  this  case,  the  bishop 
for  whom  the  coadjutor  is  to  be  named 


can,  if  he  desires,  suggest  or  point  out 
the  names  of  the  candidates  who  would 
be  most  acceptable  to  him  for  the  coad- 
jutorship.  8.  When  there  is  question 
of  electing  a  bishop  for  a  diocese  newly 
erected,  the  rules  given  above  under 
Nos.  2,  3,  4  and  6  shall  be  observed. 
However,  Rule  1  shall  be  changed  thus : 
When  there  is  question  of  proposing  to  the 
Holy  See  the  names  of  candidates  for  the 
new  diocese,  the  consultors  of  the  diocese, 
or  dioceses,  from  which  the  new  see  has 
been  formed,  and  the  irremovable  rectors 
of  the  newly  erected  diocese,  shall  be 
called  together,  and  it  will  be  their  right 
and  duty  to  select  three  candidates  for  the 
new  bishopric.  This  rule  is  based  on  the 
fact  that  a  newly  erected  see  will,  of 
course,  have  no  consultors  until  after  the 
first  bishop,  having  been  confirmed,  ap- 
points them.  Hence,  the  consultors  of  the 
old  diocese  properly  take  the  place  of  the 
future  consultors  of  the  new  diocese,  for 
the  purpose  of  naming  the  first  bishop. 

Bishop's  Coadjutor.  See  Coadjutor 
Bishop. 

Bithynia  (  TJie  Faith  in).   See  Ethiopia. 

Black  Friars.     See  Dominicans. 

Blanc  (Anthony). —  Catholic  prelate; 
Archbishop  of  New  Orleans  ;  born  in  Surry, 
France,  Oct.  nth,  1792.  He  left  his  native 
country  in  1817,  a  year  after  his  ordina- 
tion to  the  priesthood,  and  came  to  the 
United  States  ;  was  created  Bishop  of  New 
Orleans  in  1835;  archbishop  in  1850.  He 
founded  a  theological  seminary,  introduced 
several  religious  orders  into  his  diocese, 
and  was  instrumental  in  founding  many 
educational  institutions  and  orphan  asy- 
lums. He  died  at  New  Orleans,  June  20th, 
i860. 

Blanchet  (Francis  Norbert)  (1795- 
1883). — American  prelate;  was  born  in  the 
parish  of  St.  Pierre,  Canada;  died  in  Ore- 
gon. Ordained  priest  in  1819,  he  came  to 
the  United  States  in  1838  to  labor  among 
the  Canadians  who  had  settled  in  Oregon. 
Bishop  of  Oregon  in  1S45  ;  Archbishop  of 
Oregon  in  1846. 

Blasius  (St.). — Martyr;  was  Bishop  of 
Sebaste,  in  Cappadocia,  when  Licinius  be- 
gan a  bloody  persecution  of  the  Christians. 
Blasius  left  the  town  and  concealed  him- 
self in  an  unknown  chasm  in  the  rocks; 
but  his  abode  was  discovered  by  Agricola, 
the   governor,   while    out    hunting.     The 


Blasphemy 


III 


BOGOMILES 


saint  was  conveyed  to  Sebaste ;  and  as  he 
steadfastly  refused  to  deny  Christ,  and  to 
worship  the  heathen  gods,  he  was  put  to 
death  in  316.  The  wool-combers  claim 
him  as  their  patron  saint,  for  the  singular 
reason  that  he  was  tortured,  among  other 
instruments,  with  a  wool-comb.  The  prac- 
tice of  invoking  St.  Blasius  in  cases  of  sore- 
throat  is  said  to  have  originated  in  the 
circumstance  that,  when  imprisoned,  he 
saved  the  only  son  of  a  rich  widow  from 
being  choked  by  a  fish-bone. 

Blasphemy. —  An  offense  against  God 
and  religion,  by  denying  the  Almighty,  His 
being  and  providence,  or  by  contumelious 
reproaches  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus 
Christ;  also  all  profane  scofBng  at  the 
Holy  Scriptures,  or  exposing  them  to 
ridicule  and  contempt. 

Blessing.     See  Sacramentals. 

Blood-Avenger. — Among  the  Hebrews, 
a  wilful  murderer  forfeited  his  own  life, 
and  it  was  the  duty  of  the  next  of  kin  to 
inflict  the  penalty,  since  the  crime  was 
committed  against  God  as  well  as  society, 
and  no  ransom  could  be  allowed  (Num. 
XXXV.  31-33).  But  cities  of  refuge  were 
provided  for  the  accidental  homicide,  who 
could  flee  thither  and  have  his  case  de- 
termined by  the  assembl}'-  (Num.  xxxv. 
12, 24),  when,  if  guilty,  he  was  surrendered  ; 
but  if  not,  was  required  to  remain  there 
till  the  death  of  the  existing  high-priest. 

Blood  {Congregation  of  the  Most  Pre- 
cious).    See  Precious  Blood. 

Blue  La^ws. — A  code  of  laws  passed  by 
Puritans  for  the  regulation  of  religious 
and  personal  conduct  in  the  colonies  of 
Connecticut  and  New  Haven,  in  the  seven- 
teenth century.  Among  the  Blue  Laws 
of  Connecticut  we  find  one  enacting  that 
"no  priest  shall  abide  in  this  dominion; 
he  shall  be  banished,  and  suffer  death  on 
his  return.  Priests  may  be  seized  by  any- 
one without  a  warrant."  They  also  em- 
braced the  following  provisions:  "No 
one  shall  travel,  cook,  make  beds,  sweep 
house,  cut  hair,  shave,  on  the  Sabbath  day. 
No  woman  shall  kiss  her  child,  and  no 
husband  shall  kiss  his  wife,  or  wife  her 
husband,  on  the  Lord's  day.  No  one  shall 
read  common  Prayer,  keep  Christmas  or 
Saints'  days,  make  mince  pies,  dance,  play 
cards,  or  play  on  any  instrument  of  music, 
except  the  drum,  trumpet,  and  jews'  harp." 
See  Archbishop  Spalding's  Miscellanea. 


Bockhold   (John).     See   Anabaptists. 

Boehme  (James).     See  Rosecruciani. 

Boethius.  —  Senator  and  philosopher, 
called  "the  last  of  the  Romans,"  was  born 
between  the  years  470  and  480.  He  was 
one  of  the  most  accomplished  scholars  of 
his  age.  He  was  consul  from  the  year  508 
to  510,  and  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  King 
Theodoric.  His  strict  honesty  and  advo- 
cacy of  the  cause  of  the  innocent  and  weak, 
had  made  him  many  enemies  by  whom  he 
was  accused  of  plotting  with  the  Byzantine 
emperor  to  free  Rome  from  the  Ostro- 
gothic  rule.  He  was  imprisoned  by  order 
of  King  Theodoric,  and  ultimately  exe- 
cuted, in  524  or  525,  in  the  fiftieth  year  of 
his  age.  A  magnificent  mausoleum,  with 
an  epitaph  by  Pope  Sylvester  H.,  was 
erected  to  the  memory  of  Boethius  by  the 
Emperor  Otto  HL  The  works  of  Boethius 
are  chiefly  philosophical,  containing  trans- 
lations with  notes  of  the  works  of  Plato, 
Aristotle,  and  other  Greek  philosophers. 
His  principal  literary  relic.  Consolation  of 
Philosophy  in  five  books,  Boethius  com- 
posed in  prison  at  Pavia,  shortly  before  his 
execution.  It  is  a  dialogue  between  the 
author  and  philosophy,  showing  the  incon- 
stancy and  insufficiency  of  earthly  happi- 
ness, and  that  true  happiness  is  to  be 
sought  in  God  alone.  Its  tone  is  elevated, 
its  style  eloquent  and  pure,  but  the  fact 
that  the  name  of  Christ  or  of  the  Christian 
religion  is  not  even  once  mentioned  in  the 
work,  has  led  many  to  question  the 
author's  belief  in  Christianity.  The  sev- 
eral theological  tracts  written  against  the 
Arian,  Nestorian,  and  Eutychian  heresies, 
which  are  attributed  to  our  author,  are  by 
many  regarded  as  not  genuine. 

Bogomiles.  —  Heretics  of  the  twelfth 
century.  Had  for  founder  one  Basil,  a 
Bulgarian  monk.  Their  tenets  resembled 
very  much  those  of  the  ancient  Manicheans. 
They  believed  that  God  had  two  sons, 
Satanael,  the  seducer  and  chief  of  the  fallen 
angels,  and  creator  of  the  material  world ; 
and  Christ,  whom  He  sent  into  this  world 
to  destroy  the  power  of  Satanael.  They 
rejected  the  Old  Testament  and  part  of  the 
New,  abhorred  the  Holy  Eucharist,  con- 
demned the  invocation  of  the  saints  and 
the  use  of  images  and  churches,  repudiated 
marriage,  and  would  not  recognize  any 
liturgy,  except  the  Lord's  Prayer.  They 
were  detected  at  their  impious  work  in  the 
Greek  Empire,  during  the  reign  of  Alexius 


Bohemian  Brethren 


112 


Boniface 


Comnenus,  by  whom  Basil  was  condemned 
to  the  flames,  in  1119.  From  the  East,  the 
New-Manicheans  flocked  into  Western 
Europe,  where  they  appeared  under  a  va- 
riety of  names,  such  as  Bulgarians,  Pur- 
itans, Paterines,  Good  Men,  and,  above  all, 
Catharists.     See  Albigensks. 

Bohemian  Brethren. — Heretics  of  the 
fifteenth  century.  They  sprang  from  the 
Utraquists  in  Bohemia  and  Moravia. 
Their  first  head  was  Michael  Bradacz, 
Utraquist  parish  priest  at  Zamberg.  The 
members  of  this  sect,  who  wished  to  re- 
store the  Church  to  its  ancient  simplicity, 
rejected  Transubstantiation  and  some  other 
dogmas.  The  sect  spread  throughout 
Germany,  principally,  however,  in  Saxony. 
At  a  later  period  its  adherents  made  com- 
mon cause  with  the  Protestants. 

Boleyn  (Annk)  (1507-1536). —  Queen  of 
England  ;  the  second  wife  of  Henry  VIII.  of 
England, —  whom  she  married  on  or  about 
Jan.  25th,  1533, — and  mother  of  Queen  Eliza- 
beth. She  was  the  daughter  of  Sir  Thomas 
Boleyn,  later  Earl  of  Wiltshire  and  Ormond. 
She  was  condemned  to  death  on  a  charge 
of  adultery  and  incest,  and  decapitated. 
See  Henry  VIII. 

Bollandists.     See  Acts  of  the  Saints. 

Bolsena  {Mass  of).     See  Mass  of  Bol- 

SEXA. 

Bona  (Giovanni)  Cardinal. —  Born  at 
Mondovi,  Piedmont,  Oct.  12,  1609;  died  at 
Rome,  Oct.  28,  1674.  General  of  the  Or- 
der of  the  Feullants  (1651),  cardinal  in 
1669;  he  failed  to  be  elected  Pope  at  the 
death  of  Clement  XI.  and  then  it  was  said 
that  Pafa  Bona  had  been  Pa  fa  Bonus. 
He  was  distinguished  for  piety  and  learn- 
ing. His  principal  works  are  De  rebus 
liturgicis,  a  work  full  of  learned  inquiries 
about  the  rites,  prayers,  and  ceremonies 
of  Mass;  Manductio  ad  Cxlunt;  Hor- 
logium  asceticum  ;  De  Principiis  vitce 
Christiance,  which  work  has  been  com- 
pared to  the  Imitation  of  Christ;  Psallen- 
tis  ecclesicB  hartnonia;  De  sacra  Psalmo- 
dia. 

Bonaventure  (St.). — Surnamed  "Doctor 
Seraphicus  "  ;  Franciscan,  distinguished 
for  his  learning  and  piety.  He  was  born 
in  1 22 1,  at  Bagnarea,  in  Tuscany,  and  was 
educated  at  the  University  of  Paris,  where, 
as  early  as  1253,  he  obtained  a  professor- 
ship of  theology,  and  at  the  age  of  thirty- 
five  years  he  became  the  general  of  his 


order,  the  internal  disorders  and  conten- 
tions of  which  he  brought  under  due  reg- 
ulation. Pope  Clement  IV.  wished  to 
make  him  Archbishop  of  York,  but  de- 
sisted at  the  request  of  Bonaventure;  on 
the  other  hand,  Gregory  X.,  in  1273,  com- 
pelled him  to  accept  the  bishopric  of  Al- 
bano.  In  the  year  following  Bonaven- 
ture attended  the  Ecumenical  Council  of 
Lyons,  and  died  while  it  was  in  session, 
July  15th,  1 274.  Bonaventure  acquired  great 
fame  by  his  mystical  writings.  But  both 
his  philosophical  and  scholastico-theologi- 
cal  works,  of  which  the  principal  ones  are 
the  Breviloquium,  and  the  Certiloquium, 
are  highly  esteemed,  although  their  author 
does  not  on  these  subjects  reach  the  level 
of  St.  Thomas.  As  a  mystic,  however,  he 
surpasses  him. 

Boniface  (name  of  9  Popes). —  Boniface 
J. —  Successor  of  Zosimus  I.  (418-422). 
Was  for  a  time  opposed  by  the  Antipope 
Eulalius  till  the  latter  was  banished  by  the 
Emperor  Honorius.  He  was  an  unswerv- 
ing supporter  of  orthodoxy  and  a  strenuous 
defender  of  the  prerogatives  of  the  Holy 
See.  Boniface  II. —  Successor  of  Felix 
IV.  (530-532).  His  election  was  disputed 
by  one  Dioscorus;  but  the  Church  was 
saved  from  schism  by  the  death  of  the 
antipope  a  few  weeks  afterwards.  At  a 
Synod  held  in  Rome,  Boniface  appointed 
his  own  successor  in  the  person  of  the 
Deacon  Vigilius,  but  annulled  the  act  in 
a  subsequent  Council.  Boniface  III. — 
Successor  of  Sabinianus  (607).  Died  ten 
months  after  his  election.  Obtained  from 
the  Emperor  Phocas  (602-610),  a  decree 
acknowledging  the  Roman  Church  the 
"  Head  of  all  the  Churches,"  and  forbid- 
ding the  bishops  of  Constantinople  to 
usurp  the  title  of  "  Universal  Patriarch." 
The  assertion  that  from  this  epoch  dates 
the  Papal  Supremacy  is  too  absurd  to 
need  refutation.  Boniface  I V. —  Successor 
of  the  foregoing  (608-615).  Obtained  the 
grant  of  the  famous  Pantheon,  which  he 
dedicated  to  divine  worship  under  the  in- 
vocation of  the  Blessed  Virgin  and  all  the 
holy  martyrs.  Boniface  V. —  Successor  of 
Deusdedit  (619-625).  He  evinced  great 
zeal,  especially  for  the  Anglo-Saxon 
Church.  Boniface  VI. —  Elected  Pope 
after  Formosus,  by  a  popular  faction,  died 
or  was  driven  away  14  days  afterwards,  in 
896.  He  had  been  previously  deposed 
from  the  priesthood,  and  some  writers  re- 
gard him  as  an  antipope.  Boniface  VII. — 


Boniface 


113 


Boniface 


Cardinal-deacon  Franco.  They  rank  him 
among  the  antipopes.  Irregularly  elected, 
on  August  20th,  974,  while  Benedict  VI. 
was  yet  alive,  he  was  accused  of  having 
taken  part  in  the  assassination  of  this 
Pontiff.  A  creature  of  the  Cescentians, 
when  Otto  II.  drew  near  to  the  city  of 
Rome,  the  pseudo-Pope  fled  to  Constanti- 
nople. Returned  to  Rome  in  985,  threw 
John  XIV.  into  the  castle  Michael  Angelo, 
where  he  caused  him  to  be  killed.  But  in 
the  month  of  December  following,  he  died 
quite  suddenly,  and  his  corpse,  pierced 
with  a  lance,  was  left  on  the  public  place 
in  front  of  the  statue  of  Constantine; 
finally,  some  priests  buried  his  remains. 
Boniface  VIII. —  Successor  of  Celestine 
V.  (1294-1303).  He  was  of  a  noble  family 
in  Anagni.  The  Pontificate  of  this  truly 
great,  but  much  calumniated.  Pope  oc- 
curred when  the  political  aflfairs  of  Eu- 
rope were  extremely  complicated.  The 
policy  of  Boniface  was  to  establish  peace 
among  the  States  of  Europe  and  unite 
them  in  a  great  crusade  for  the  recovery 
of  the  Holy  Land.  He  issued,  Feb.  25th, 
1296,  the  Bull  Clericis  laicos,  which  was 
directed  against  Philip  the  Fair,  of  France, 
who  had  imposed  taxes  on  the  French 
clergy,  and  which  forbade  the  clergy  of 
any  country  to  pay  tribute  to  the  secular 
government  without  the  papal  permission  ; 
but  was  forced  by  an  enactment  of  Philip, 
which  stopped  the  exportation  of  money 
from  France,  to  concede  that  the  French 
clergy  might  render  voluntary  contribu- 
tions. He  opened  at  Rome,  Oct.  30th,  1302, 
a  synod  in  which  he  promulgated,  Nov. 
i8th,  1302,  the  Bull  Unam  Sanctam. 
This  Bull,  after  explaining  the  relations 
between  Church  and  State,  between  the 
Spiritual  and  Temporal  power,  affirms 
that  the  temporal  power  is,  of  its  na- 
ture, subordinate  to  the  ecclesiastical,  as 
earthly  are  to  heavenly  things,  and  defines 
the  obligation,  which  is  incumbent  on 
rulers  as  well  as  their  subjects,  of  sub- 
mitting in  spiritual  matters  to  the  author- 
ity of  the  vicar  of  Christ.  "  We  declare  to 
every  creature,  we  afiirm,  define,  and  pro- 
nounce, that  it  is  altogether  necessary  for 
salvation  to  be  subject  to  the  Roman 
Pontiff."  No  more  is  taught  in  this  docu- 
ment, as  of  faith,  than  what  all  Catholics 
in  every  age  have  held,  namely,  that  sub- 
jection to  the  Bishop  of  Rome  in  matters 
of  salvation  is  a  necessary  duty.  He  was 
made  prisoner  at  Anagni,  Sept.  7th,  1303, 
by  Nogaret,  vice-Chancellor  to  Philip,  and 


Sciarra  Colonna ;  and,  although  released  by 
the  inhabitants  of  Anagni,  he  died  at 
Rome  of  a  violent  fever.  Boniface  IX. — 
Successor  of  Urban  VI.  (1389-1404).  A 
pious  and  mild  Pontiff,  but  too  indulgent 
to  his  relatives,  re-established  the  papal 
authority  at  Rome,  restored  the  cardinals 
deposed  in  the  preceding  reign,  and  has- 
tened to  make  terms  with  the  royal  family 
of  Naples.  He  recognized  young  Ladis- 
laus,  son  of  Charles  III.,  as  the  legitimate 
king,  and  energetically  supported  him 
against  Louis  of  Anjou,  who  was  com- 
pelled to  withdraw  to  France. 

Boniface  (St.). — Surnamed  "  Apostle  of 
Germany."  Was  born  of  noble  parents  in 
Wessex,  at  Crediton,  680.  At  an  early 
age  he  developed  a  strong  predilection  for 
the  monastic  profession  and  was  educated 
in  the  monastery  of  Adescanceaster.  His 
name  was  then  Winfrid.  At  the  age  of 
thirty  he  was  ordained  priest,  and  being 
eminent  among  his  brethren  for  learning 
and  ability,  had  the  prospect  of  future 
greatness  before  him.  Having  heard  of* 
the  spiritual  conquests  of  St.  Willibrord  and 
other  missionaries,  he  desired  to  con- 
tribute, like  them,  to  the  progress  and 
diffusion  of  Christianity.  His  longings 
turned  particularly  to  the  old  country,  the 
fatherland  of  the  Anglo-Saxons.  In  716, 
Winfrid,  accompanied  by  three  other  mis- 
sionaries, sailed  from  the  port  of  London 
to  the  coast  of  Friesland.  But  his  attempt 
was  singularly  inopportune.  Ratbod, 
King  of  the  Frisians,  was  then  at  war  with 
Charles  Martel.  The  missionaries  fled; 
the  churches  and  monasteries  in  Friesland, 
which  had  been  founded  by  the  Franks, 
were  demolished,  and  paganism  recovered 
the  ascendancy.  This  state  of  affairs  com- 
pelled Winfrid  to  return  to  England,  hav- 
ing accomplished  nothing.  Two  years 
later,  Winfrid  was  again  permitted  to  pur- 
sue his  apostolic  labors.  Fortified  with  a 
commendatory  letter  from  his  ordinary,  he 
went  to  Rome  and  there  obtained  from 
Pope  Gregory  II.,  an  apostolic  mission  to 
all  Northern  Germany.  He  began  his 
apostolic  career  in  Thuringia,  in  719,  which 
had  been  Christianized  in  part  by  the  dis- 
ciples of  St.  Columbanus ;  but  the  clergy, 
as  well  as  the  people,  were  demoralized. 
He  instructed  the  people  and  reformed  the 
clergy.  His  missionary  efforts,  however, 
in  this  direction  were  interrupted  by  the 
tidings  of  the  death  of  Ratbod,  and  the 
subsequent   success   of   the    Franks.      He 


BONOSIANS 


114 


BoRROMEO  Union 


repaired  at  once  to  Friesland,  and  offering 
his  services  to  Willibrord,  then  Archbishop 
of  Utrecht,  labored  three  years  under  the 
direction  of  that  apostolic  prelate.  In  722, 
declining  to  become  the  coadjutor  and  suc- 
cessor of  Willibrord,  Winfrid  returned  to 
Thuringia,  and  thence  went  to  Hesse, 
where  he  made  many  converts.  Being  in- 
formed of  the  conquests  of  our  Saint,  Pope 
Gregory  II.  summoned  him  to  Rome, 
consecrating  him  regionary  bishop,  and 
sent  him  back  with  honor  to  his  converts, 
in  723.  On  that  occasion  our  Saint  also 
assumed  the  name  "  Boniface,"  by  which 
he  is  known  in  history.  Returning  to 
Germany,  he  resumed  his  mission  among 
the  Hessians  and  Thuringians.  With  his 
own  hands,  and  in  the  presence  of  an 
assemblage  of  heathens,  he  felled  the 
Sacred  Oak  of  Thor,  at  Geismar,  and 
of  its  wood  built  a  chapel  which  he  dedi- 
cated to  St.  Peter.  As  the  number  of 
conversions  daily  increased,  zealous  as- 
sistants from  England  joined  Boniface. 
Pope  Gregory  III.  sent  Boniface  the  pal- 
lium (732),  made  him  vicar  apostolic  with 
full  power  to  consecrate  bishops  and  erect 
dioceses,  and  appointed  him  superior,  not 
only  of  German,  but  also  of  Gallic  prelates. 
In  738  Boniface  made  his  third  and  last 
pilgrimage  to  Rome.  Returning  with  in- 
creased powers,  he  proceeded  to  settle  the 
ecclesiastical  divisions  of  Germany.  The 
next  object  of  the  apostolic  archbishop  was 
to  insure  a  permanent  supply  of  mission- 
aries. With  this  view  he  erected  several 
monasteries.  The  most  famous  among 
these  was  that  of  Fulda.  Between  the 
years  742  and  746,  Boniface  held  several 
synods,  at  which  he  reformed  abuses  and 
established  excellent  rules  for  the  govern- 
ment of  the  churches  in  Germany.  In 
747,  Pope  Zacharias  appointed  Boniface 
Archbishop  of  Mentz  and  Primate  of  Ger- 
many. By  order  of  the  same  Pope,  the 
Saint,  in  752,  crowned  Pepin  the  Short, 
king  of  the  Franks.  For  more  than  thirty 
years,  Boniface  had  devoted  himself  to  the 
salvation  of  Germany.  Having  completed 
his  greal  task,  he  resigned  his  archiepisco- 
pal  see  to  his  disciple  Lullus,  in  order  to 
undertake  the  conversion  of  the  Frisians. 
He  had  already  converted  several  thou- 
sands of  this  nation,  when  the  great 
Apostle  of  Germany  terminated  his  holy 
and  useful  life  by  a  glorious  martyrdom. 
He  was  attacked  and  slain,  together  with 
his  companions,  by  a  band  of  pagan  Frisi- 
ans, in  755.     The  remains  of  the  illustrious 


martyr  were  deposited  in  the  monastery  of 
Fulda.     F.  June  5th. 

Bonosians. —  Macedonian  heretics  about 
the  end  of  the  fourth  century,  who  had  for 
founder  Bonosus,  Bishop  of  Sardica.  He 
maintained  that  Mary  did  not  always  re- 
main a  Virgin.  He  was  suspended  and 
his  error  condemned  in  the  Council  of 
Capua,  in  389,  and  finally  excommunicated 
by  the  Macedonian  bishops. 

Book  of  Common  Discipline. —  The  lit- 
urgy of  the  Church  of  Scotland.  In  1562, 
the  Book  of  Common  Discipline,  com- 
monly termed  "Knox's  Liturgy,"  was 
partially-  introduced  in  place  of  the  Book 
of  Common  Prayer,  and  in  1564  its  use  was 
authoritatively  ordained  in  all  the  churches 
in  Scotland.  This  liturgy  was  taken  from 
the  order  or  liturgy  used  by  the  English 
Church  at  Geneva. 

Book  of  Common  Prayer. —  The  service- 
book  of  the  Church  of  England,  or  a  sim- 
ilar book  authorized  by  the  other  branches 
of  the  Anglican  Church,  It  is  popularly 
known  as  the  Prayer  Book.  It  was  nearly 
all  taken  from  mediaeval  liturgical  books. 
English  was  substituted  for  Latin,  and  a 
uniform  use  was  established  for  the  whole 
Church  of  England.  The  first  Book  of 
Common  Prayer  was  issued  in  1549;  and 
revisions  were  made  in  1552,  1559,  and  1662. 

Borborites. —  A  nickname  for  certain 
Ophite  Gnostics,  and  also  in  general  for  one 
who  holds  or  is  supposed  to  hold  filthy  and 
immoral  doctrines ;  in  modern  times,  espe- 
cially applied  to  a  branch  of  the  Men- 
nonites. 

Borromeo  (St.  Charles)  (1538-1584). 
— An  Italian  Cardinal,  archbishop  of  Milan, 
born  at  Arona,  near  Lago  Maggiore;  died 
at  Milan.  Noted  as  an  ecclesiastical  re- 
former and  philanthropist.  He  was  a 
model  bishop  and  his  life  is  full  of  ex- 
amples to  all  Christians.  Especially  did 
he  show  his  courage  and  great  trust  in  God 
by  staying  in  Milan  during  the  fearful 
plague  of  1576.  He  founded  the  "Col- 
legium Helveticum  "  for  the  education  of 
priests  to  labor  in  Switzerland,  and  to 
prevent  the  introduction  of  Protestantism 
from  that  quarter. 

Borromeo  Union,  founded  in  Coblenz, 
1844,  for  the  circulation  of  Roman  Cath- 
olic literature ;  up  to  1890,  numbered  over 
50,000  members  and  had  distributed  more 
than  $3,000,000  worth  of  books. 


BOSSUET 


115 


Brahmanism 


Bossuet(jAcquEsBKNiGNE)(i627-i7o4). 
— A  French  prelate,  and  celebrated  pulpit 
orator,  historian,  and  theological  writer; 
was  born  at  Dijon ;  died  at  Paris.  He  was 
preceptor  to  the  Dauphin  in  1670-81,  and 
became  Bishop  of  Meaux  in  1681.  His 
chief  works  are  Exposition  of  the  Catholic 
Doctrine;  Discourseon  Universal  History  ; 
History  of  the  Variations  of  the  Protes- 
tant Churches, 

Bourdaloue  (Louis)  (1632-1704). — A 
famous  French  theologian  and  preacher, 
born  at  Alencon;  died  at  Paris.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  order  of  the  Jesuits,  pro- 
fessor of  rhetoric,  philosophy,  and  the- 
ology in  the  Jesuit  College  of  Bourges, 
court  preacher  (1670),  and  one  of  the  most 
illustrious  pulpit  orators  of  his  time.  His 
sermons  have  been  published  in  16  volumes 
(1707),  in  17  volumes  (1822-26). 

Bourignists. — Members  of  a  sect  founded 
by  Antoinette  Bourignon  (1616-1680),  a 
religious  enthusiast  who  assumed  the  Au- 
gustinian  habit,  and  traveled  in  France, 
Holland,  England,  and  Scotland.  She 
maintained  that  Christianity  does  not  con- 
sist in  faith  and  practice,  but  in  the  inward 
feeling  and  supernatural  impulse. 

Bradwardine  (Thomas). — Born  at  Hart- 
field,  Sussex,  England,  about  1290;  died  at 
Lambeth,  England,  in  1349.  A  celebrated 
English  prelate,  theologian,  and  mathema- 
tician, surnamed  "Doctor  Profundus." 
Chancellor  of  the  University  of  Oxford 
and  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1349.  His 
works  include  De  Causa  Dei,  De  ^uadra- 
tura  Circuli,  Geometria  Speculativa,  Ars 
Meniorativa,  etc. 

Brahmanism. — Doctrine  of  the  Brah- 
mans.  The  word  Brahmanism  does  not  in- 
dicate a  formal  religion  with  certain  fixed 
dogmas,  but  asystem  of  beliefs  and  practices 
superseding  other  and  older  forms.  It  com- 
prises a  kind  of  slow  evolution  among  the 
many  religious  systems  of  India,  from 
pantheistic,  anthropomorphous,  and  poly- 
theistic, up  to  a  sacerdotal  and  hierarchical 
form.  The  first  phasis  of  Hindoo  religion 
is  shown  to  us  in  a  body  of  writings  called 
Veda  {science)  or  Sruti  {revelation). 
These  writings  are  subdivided  into  four  col- 
lections :  Riff-  Veda,  Sama  -  Veda,  Tayur- 
Veda,  and  Atharva  -Veda.  To  each  of 
these  parts  is  attached  a  series  of  Brahma- 
nas,  i.  e.,  rites  and  ceremonies,  then  a 
second  class  of   writings,  the  Aranyakas, 


and,  finally,  a  series  of  speculative  and 
philosophical  writings,  called  Upanishads. 

Of  this  whole  body  the  Rig-Veda  is 
evidently  the  most  ancient.  It  appears  to 
be  composed  of  hymns,  whose  origin  goes 
back  to  the  first  migrations  of  the  Aryians 
in  India,  and  in  this  Rig-Veda  the  first 
eight  books,  are  anterior  to  the  ninth.  The 
religious  views  set  forth  in  the  Rig-Veda 
are  purely  pantheistic,  consisting  of  the 
adoration  of  the  great  phenomena  of 
nature,  conceived  as  endowed  with  a  soul, 
whose  power  is  greatly  superior  to  that  of 
man,  and  which  is  not  unmindful  of  praise. 
This  personification  of  the  elements  is 
hardly  sensible.  We  have  here  the  first 
phasis  of  polytheism,  without  having  yet 
a  well-arranged  pantheon  and  deities  with 
definite  attributes.  For  the  Vedic  wor- 
shiper, the  different  departments  of  nature 
are  so  mingled  together  that  we  are  con- 
tinually in  the  presence  of  confusion  and 
repetitions,  and  the  author  of  the  hymns, 
in  his  adoration  for  the  power  which  he 
implores,  constantly  forgets  that  there  are 
other  powers  existing.  The  word  devas, 
the  brilliant,  by  which  the  Vedas  designate 
the  gods,  proves  that  it  is  the  phenom- 
enon of  light  which  most  lively  struck 
the  primitive  Aryian.  Also  this  is  the 
name  of  the  personification  of  the  atmo- 
sphere, Indra,  which  is  so  often  repeated 
in  the  Rig- Veda  hymns,  and  which  plays 
the  greatest  role  in  the  allegorical  ac- 
counts, the  solar  myths,  figuring  the  rising 
and  setting  of  the  sun,  its  wrestling  with 
the  clouds  and  night.  Besides  all  this, 
the  deities  were  divided  into  gods  of  the 
air,  water,  and  earth,  without  that  each  of 
these  elements  was  ruled  by  a  special  deity. 
Gradually  the  deities  which  were  not  ab- 
solutely distinct  became  commingled  into 
one  body,  and,  as  some  among  them  were 
supposed  to  exercise  important  creative 
and  cosmic  functions,  there  was  formed  a 
god  the  creator  of  the  other  gods,  and  of 
all  things.  This  god  was  called  Prajapati 
{king  of  creatures)  or  Visvakarman  {the 
creator  of  all  things) .  At  the  same  time, 
concluding  from  the  spirit  which  animates 
men  on  a  universal  spirit  spread  in  whole 
matter,  they  succeeded  in  reconciling  this 
pantheistic  idea  with  the  preceding  mono- 
theistic one,  and  made  of  Prapati  the  prin- 
cipal creative  god  of  Brahma. 

This  evolution  of  the  Vedic  theology 
took  place  in  the  tenth  century  b.  c, 
while  the  preceding  phasis  dates  since  the 
thirteenth  century  B.C.      About  the  same 


Brahmanism 


ii6 


Brahmanism 


epoch — on  account  of  the  necessity  of  sep- 
arating the  Aryan  conquerors  from  the 
conquered  black  tribes  and  by  reason  of 
the  formation  of  a  sacerdotal  class,  in- 
terested in  separating  itself  from  the  rest 
of  the  people  —  the  division,  self-eflFected, 
of  the  Hindoo  people  into  four  classes  or 
castes  took  place :  the  Brahmans,  the 
Kchattryas  {warriors),  the  Vaicyas  {la- 
borers), and  the  Soudras  {slaves).  After 
many  and  long  struggles,  which  the  great 
epic  poem  Mahabharata  relates,  finally 
the  Brahmans  overcome  the  warriors,  and 
consolidated  their  power  by  a  vigorous 
theocratic  legislation,  of  which  the  laws 
of  Manu  are  a  recent  reproduction.  All 
the  Vedic  writings  are  declared  to  be  of 
divine  origin.  The  respective  rights  and 
conditions  of  the  four  castes  were  codified ; 
all  the  acts  of  the  Hindoo  families  became 
subject  to  a  rigorous  ceremonial,  of  which 
no  rite  could  be  performed  without  the 
service  of  a  priest.  The  three  superior 
castes  were  united  and  separated  from  the 
Soudras  by  a  particular  ceremony ;  the  in- 
vesture  of  the  sacred  cord,  which  was  of 
distinct  material  for  each  class,  composed 
of  priests,  warriors,  and  husbandmen,  out- 
side of  which  was  only  the  caste  of  Parias, 
required  a  solemn  religious  rite.  The 
teaching  of  the  law  is  reserved  to  the 
priests,  who  were  to  explain  it  to  the  war- 
riors and  husbandmen  only.  Regarding 
the  Soudras,  it  was  forbidden  even  to  teach 
them  the  manner  of  expiating  their  sins. 
Marriage  between  the  different  castes  was 
prohibited.  This  strict  distinction  of 
caste,  which  appears  shocking  to  us,  was, 
however,  a  necessary  outcome  of  a  belief 
of  a  universal  world-god  in  Brahma.  In 
fact,  the  Brahmanic  priest  who  considers 
the  entire  human  race  as  an  emanation 
of  the  same  force,  conceives  their  different 
forms  as  a  kind  of  gradation  in  which  the 
divine  spirit  manifests  itself  more  and 
more  clearly.  Every  relapse  of  an  elevated 
being  towards  a  lower  one,  must  therefore 
be  avoided.  Every  being  being  a  spirit, 
and  every  spirit  being  immortal,  each 
being  possesses  a  spiritual  family,  or 
Manes,  as  well  as  a  human  family.  The 
pantheistic  monotheism  of  the  period  of 
composition  of  the  Brahmana,  was  hardly 
a  period  of  transition.  The  ancient  poly- 
theistic notion  of  the  gods  of  the  air,  earth, 
and  water  continued  to  exist.  Gradually 
the  number  of  these  deities  became  defi- 
nite. Thirty-three  were  enumerated,  eleven 
in  each  of  the  three  kingdoms,  or  elements, 


being  presided  over  by  Agni  {the  fire)  for 
the  earth,  Indra  {the  atmosphere)  for  the 
air,  and  Sour y a  {the  sun)  for  the  kingdom 
of  the  cloudy  heaven.  This  attempt  at  clas- 
sification, which  dates  from  the  end  of  the 
Vedic  epoch,  was  united  to  the  cosmogonic 
conceptions  which  the  laws  of  Manu  de- 
veloped about  the  period  of  the  institu- 
tion of  castes  and  the  supremacy  of  the 
Brahmans.  The  laws  of  Manu  teach  that 
in  the  beginning  spirit  alone  existed,  un- 
perceptible,  indivisible,  yet  floating,  as  it 
were,  throughout  space.  The  primal 
spirit,  by  contemplating  itself,  created  the 
nature,  and  deposited  in  this  creation  a 
golden  egg,  from  which  came  forth 
Brahma,  the  aboriginal  god  of  all  things. 
To  this  purely  philosophic  doctrine,  which 
probably  affected  the  common  people  very 
little,  is  joined,  in  order  to  form  the 
Brahmanic  pantheon,  the  influence  of  the 
popular  worship  of  the  deities  especially 
adored  in  such  a  region  and  by  such  a 
people.  From  all  these  religious  elements 
and  different  deities,  the  Vedic  gods, 
local,  national,  and  purely  speculative 
gods,  the  Brahmans  constituted  a  great 
pantheon.  Siva  or  Mahadeva  —  the  great 
god  —  and  Vishnu  seem  to  have  been  wor- 
shiped by  the  people  in  the  time  of 
Ramayana.  From  these  two  deities  which 
were  evidently  evolved  by  the  union  of  a 
great  number  of  local  gods,  and  from 
Brahma,  was  formed  the  superior  Triade, 
Brahma  being  the  Creator,  Vishnu  the 
preserver,  and  Siva  the  destroyer.  To 
each  of  these  male  energies  or  powers  was 
associated  a  female  energy.  Vach  or 
Sarasvati  {science),  was  the  wife  of 
Brahma;  Sai  or  Lakschmi  {the  beauty), 
that  of  Vishnu;  and  Parvati  {death),  that 
of  Siva.  The  latter  god  transformed  him- 
self into  a  phallic  and  genetic  deity,  while 
the  distinctive  functions  were  assigned  to 
his  wife,  surnamed  Kali  {  the  black ), 
Durya  {the  terrible).  It  is  said  that 
Vishnu,  in  his  quality  of  benevolent  deity, 
appeared  ten  times  on  earth  in  different 
incarnations,  or  avataras,  in  order  to  be 
useful  to  men.  To  unite  this  supreme 
Triade  with  the  Vedic  gods,  it  was  taught 
that  the  deities  had  become  created  like 
men,  by  an  emanation  of  the  spirit  of 
Brahma,  that  they  live  in  a  material 
heaven  —  the  air — and  tend  towards  per- 
fection. 

Indria  governed  the  region  of  the  Orient ; 
Agni  the  Southeast;  Sourya  the  South- 
west ;     Tama    had    the    South ;     Varuna, 


Bread 


117 


Brethren  and  Sisters 


god  of  the  sea,  the  West;  Vayu  {the 
-^vind),  controlled  the  Northwest;  Kiibera 
{zvealfli),  the  North;  Soma  {drunkenness), 
the  Northeast.  Besides  these  many  gods, 
Hindoo  mythology  knew  genii,  Gandhar- 
vas ;  nymphs,  Apsaras.  Varada  serves 
as  a  messenger  of  the  gods  to  men.  Kam- 
adeva  or  Ananga  is  the  god  of  love. 
Gatteka,  the  god  with  the  head  of  an  ele- 
phant, presides  over  wisdom ;  Skanda 
leads  the  heavenly  armies,  and  the  six 
Krittikas  resemble  the  Greek  pleiades. 

The  moral  precepts  of  Brahmanism  are 
very  simple  in  theory.  The  sovereign 
good  is  the  perfect  knowledge  of  the  di- 
vine essence.  This  knowledge  can  be  at- 
tained only  by  close,  intense,  meditation, 
which,  in  its  turn,  is  possible  only  by  the 
mortification  of  the  senses  and  all  sensual 
instincts,  gained  by  a  life  of  religious  as- 
ceticism. Those  who,  being  thus  detached 
from  their  bodies,  have  entered  into  com- 
munion with  the  divinity,  escape,  in  dying, 
all  corporal  or  material  life,  and  enter  im- 
mediately into  the  Great  All.  The  others 
enter  into  one  of  the  forms  of  life,  inferior 
or  elevated,  according  to  the  degree  of 
victory  they  have  gained  over  themselves. 
These  moral  and  theological  doctrines 
were  regulated  into  coherent  systems  by 
the  different  schools  of  philosophy  which 
succeeded  each  other  in  India,  as  Chris- 
tian metaphysics  and  ethics  were  elabor- 
ated by  the  Scholastics.  The  school  of  the 
Vedantas,  the  most  orthodox,  was  led  to 
deny  matter,  the  creation  of  which  it  was 
unable  to  explain.  The  school  Sankhia 
affirmed  the  eternity  of  matter,  and  united 
indissolubly  to  it  a  spiritual  principle, 
similar  to  the  god  of  Spinoza.  Finally, 
comes  Buddhism,  whose  doctrine  is  ex- 
plained elsewhere.  It  drove  out,  during 
the  centuries  of  our  era,  Brahmanism  from 
the  greater  part  of  India.  But  later  Brah- 
manism again  became  victorious,  although 
considerably  altered  and  weakened  from 
the  struggle.  Owing  to  the  distances  of 
the  provinces  from  each  other,  as  also 
to  the  permanency  of  the  common  classes 
for  particular  devotions  and  superstitious 
beliefs,  Brahmanism  has  resolved  itself 
into  a  number  of  sects.  The  worship  of 
Siva,  of  Vishnu,  and  of  Parvati,  has  re- 
placed the  ancient  religious  unity.  The 
priests  have  adopted  the  Buddhist  custom 
of  being  united  into  religious  communities. 
The  four  original  castes  are  each  subdi- 
vided into  eighteen  new  ones.  To-day 
the   precepts   concerning   the  life  of   the 


Brahmans  and  the  several  ethical  doctrines 
are  no  longer  followed,  except  by  a  small 
number  of  ascetics.  The  great  majority 
of  the  people  contents  itself  with  quite  a 
material  worship  offered  to  some  particu- 
lar idol.  Divine  worship  is  even  now 
given  to  irrational  animals,  as  is  shown  by 
the  honors  given,  in  many  parts  of  India, 
to  the  cow. 

Bread  {Liturgical).  —  The  matter,  as  it 
is  called,  of  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  is 
composed  of  wheaten  bread  and  wine  of 
the  grape.  The  Latin  Church,  in  imi- 
tation of  our  Divine  Saviour,  employs  un- 
leavened bread  in  the  celebration  of  the 
Blessed  Eucharist;  a  practice  which  is 
mentioned  by  Alcuin,  in  a  letter  written  in 
the  year  798.  However,  whether  the 
bread  employed  at  the  sacrifice  of  the 
Mass  be  leavened  or  unleavened  is  a  cir- 
cumstance of  pure  discipline,  which  does 
not  touch  the  essence  of  the  Eucharist. 
The  Maronites  and  Armenians  also  em- 
ploy unleavened  bread ;  while  the  Greeks 
and  other  Oriental  Churches,  orthodox 
and  schismatical,  use  leavened  bread. 

Breads  of  Proposition.  See  Altar  of 
Show  Breads. 

Brebeuf  (Jean  de). —  A  noted  French 
Jesuit  missionary  among  the  Huron  In- 
dians in  Canada;  born  at  Bayeux,  France, 
March  25th,  1593;  killed  by  the  Hurons 
March  i6th,  1649.  He  translated  the  Cat- 
echism into  the  Huron  language. 

Brendan  (St.). —  Born  atTralee,  County 
Kerry,  Ireland,  in  484;  died  in  577.  An  Irish 
monk,  a  contemporary  of  St.  Brendan  of 
Birr,  and  called  "  Son  of  Finnloga,"  or 
St.  Brendan  of  Clonfert,  to  distinguish 
him  from  the  latter.  After  completing  his 
studies  at  Tuam  he  set  forth  on  the  ex- 
pedition known  as  the  "Navigation  of  St. 
Brendan."  According  to  the  legendary 
account  of  his  travels,  he  embarked  with  a 
company  of  followers  to  seek  the  terres- 
trial paradise,  which  was  supposed  to  exist 
in  an  Island  of  the  Atlantic.  Various  mir- 
acles are  related  of  the  voyage,  but  they 
are  always  connected  with  the  great  island 
where  the  monks  are  said  to  have  landed. 
The  legend  was  current  in  the  time  of 
Columbus  and  long  after,  and  many  con- 
nected St.  Brendan's  island  with  the  newly 
discovered  America.     F.  May  i6th. 

Brethren  and  Sisters  of  the  Free  Spirit 
(also   called  "Spiritualists").  —  Fanatics 


Brethren 


ii8 


Bridget 


who  spread,  in  the  thirteenth  century, 
chiefly  through  France,  Italy,  and  Ger- 
many. Owing  to  their  professional  char- 
acter as  beggars,  they  were  also  called 
Beghards  and  Beguines.  See  these  sub- 
jects. 

Brethren  {Apostolic).  See  Apostolians. 

Brethren  of  Our  Lord. —  Those  persons 
whom  the  Gospel  calls  "  Brethren  of 
Jesus  Christ,"  were  not  His  brethren, 
properly  speaking,  but  His  first  cousins. 
These  personages  are  in  the  number  of 
four,  of  which  the  most  famous  is  James, 
not  a  son  of  Mary  the  Mother  of  Jesus,  and 
consequently  no  brother  of  Jesus,  but  a 
son  of  Mary,  the  wife  of  Cleophas,  who 
was  a  sister  of  the  Blessed  Virgin.  The 
simple  careful  reading  of  the  Gospel  is 
sufficient  to  do  away  with  this  difficulty. 
What  gave  rise  to  this  misunderstanding 
is  that  our  word  brother  had,  in  Hebrew, 
besides  the  meaning  which  it  still  has 
among  us,  another  broader  signification, 
and  which  indicated  the  kinship  to  all  the 
degrees,  such  as  those  of  cousin,  uncle, 
nephew,  etc.  Thus  Lot,  who  was  only  a 
nephew  of  Abraham,  is  called  his  brother 
by  the  sacred  writer  (Gen.  xiv.  14-16).  So 
also  Laban  calls  Jacob  his  brother,  who 
was  really  only  his  nephew  (Gen.  xxxi. 
15);  Tobias  calls  Sara  his  sister,  although 
she  was  only  a  distant  relative  of  his  (Tob. 
viii.  9). 

Brethren  {Plymouth).     See  Plymouth. 

Breviary. —  The  breviary  is  a  formulary 
of  prayers  and  sacred  reading  which  priests 
recite  and  read  daily.  Formerly  the 
psalms,  hymns,  orations,  and  spiritual 
selections,  which  all  priests  and  religious 
were  obliged  to  recite  were  of  consider- 
able length.  Pope  St.  Gregory  VII. 
abridged  this  "office,"  for  those  of  his 
pontifical  court  who  were  under  the  obli- 
gation of  saying  it.  This  abridgment 
soon  became  of  common  use  throughout 
the  Church,  under  the  name  of  "  Roman 
Breviary."  According  to  some  authors, 
it  takes  its  name  from  the  fact  of  its  form- 
ing, as  it  were,  a  summary  of  religion,  a 
compendium  of  Christian  teaching.  Ac- 
cording to  Benedict  XIV.,  breviary  signi- 
fies a  short,  brief  order  of  the  divine  office. 
It  was  also  called  ^^OJficium  divinum,  opus 
ad  agenda  Dei,''  because  its  recitation  is  a 
sacred  work  which  has  God  for  its  object. 
*'  Pensujn  servitutis,"  because  it  is  a  debt, 
a  duty  to  be  paid  to  God  by  those  who  are 


in  a  special  manner  consecrated  to  Him. 
"  Cursus,"  because  it  should  be  said,  in  its 
different  parts,  according  to  the  hours  of 
the  day.  "  HorcB  Canonicce,"  either  be- 
cause the  sacred  canons  ordain  its  recita- 
tion or  because  it  obliges  the  regular  Can- 
ons in  particular.  '■'  Synaxis"  or  '■' Col- 
lecta,"  because  in  monasteries  it  is  recited 
in  common. 

The  breviary  contains  the  divine  office, 
or  the  formal  prayers  which  the  Church 
puts  into  the  mouths  of  her  priests  and 
religious.  It  is  composed  of  seven  parts, 
called  canonical  hours,  viz.:  Matins, 
Lauds,  Prime,  Terce,  Sext,  None,  Ves- 
pers, and  Compline.  The  part  called  Mat- 
ins, which  are  said  towards  the  break  of  day, 
is  also  called  Nocttirn  or  Vigils,  because 
formerly  it  was  chanted  during  the  night. 
Lauds  are  said  after  Matins.  The  custom 
to-day  is  to  recite  these  parts  on  the  eve  of 
the  feast  or  feria  to  which  they  belong. 
There  are  yet  certain  religious  orders  which 
recite  them  during  the  night,  beginning  at 
2  A.  M.  Prime  is  said  at  sunrise  ;  Terce,  at 
the  third  hour,  or  9  a.  m.  ;  Sext,  at  the  sixth 
hour,  or  noon;  None,  at  the  ninth  hour,  or 
three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  The  gen- 
eral custom  to-day  is  to  recite  these  "  little 
hours,"  as  they  are  called,  in  the  morning. 
Vespers  followed  by  Compline  form  the 
evening  prayers.  This  division  of  the  di- 
vine office  is  not  an  obligatory  one.  The 
Church  has  made  these  divisions  in  order 
to  imitate  David,  who  sang  the  praises  of 
God  seven  times  a  day.  A  reform  being 
found  necessary,  the  Council  of  Trent 
made  it  the  object  of  a  special  decree. 
The  breviary  was  restored  to  its  primitive 
purity,  and  thus  first  edited  by  Pope  Pius 
v.,  and  then  by  Urban  VIII.,  who  pre- 
scribed the  new  edition  for  the  entire 
Church.  However,  the  Churches  of  the 
Oriental  rite,  as  also  the  dioceses  of  Milan, 
Italy,  and  Toledo,  in  Spain,  were  exempted 
by  the  papal  rescript  from  the  use  of  this 
edition.  In  the  United  States  the  Roman 
Breviary  is  obligatory. 

Brethren  {United).     See  Moravians. 

Brethren  (  White). — Visionaries  who  ap- 
peared in  Prussia  in  the  fourteenth  century 
and  who  pretended  to  have  particular 
revelations  to  go  and  deliver  the  Holy 
Land  from  the  hands  of  the  infidels ;  they 
wore  a  white  cloak  with  a  cross  of  St.  An- 
drew thereon. 

Bridget  (St.). — Virgin  and  patron  saint 
of  Ireland,  born  in  453,  died  in  523.  Found- 


Bridgittines 


119 


Brothers 


ress  and  abbess  of  several  nunneries,  the 
first  and  most  celebrated  of  which  was 
that  erected  at  Kildare  Feb.  ist,  490.  F. 
Feb.  ist.  According  to  an  ancient  Irish 
account  of  her  life,  she  was  born  at  Fo- 
chart  (now  Faugher)  and  was  the  daugh- 
ter of  Dubhthach,  by  his  bondmaid 
Brotsech  or  Broiceseach.  She  obtained 
her  freedom  through  the  intervention  of 
the  king  of  Leinster,  who  was  impressed 
by  her  piety. 

Bridgittines  (Religious). —  So  called 
from  St.  Bridget  of  Sweden,  by  whom  they 
were  founded.  St.  Bridget  was  born  about 
the  year  1302,  of  the  royal  family  of  Swe- 
den. The  state  of  marriage  which  she 
embraced  by  the  advice  of  her  parents, 
did  not  cause  her  to  lose  her  fervor  for 
the  pious  exercises  she  had  shown  from 
her  tenderest  years.  After  having  be- 
come a  widow  (1343),  she  consecrated  her- 
self entirely  to  works  of  charity  and  to 
exercises  of  piety  and  founded  the  Monas- 
tery of  Wadstena  (1344),  on  the  shores 
of  Lake  Vettern.  The  order  was  con- 
firmed, under  the  title  of  "Order  of  the 
Saviour,"  by  Urban  V.,  in  1370.  The  re- 
ligious followed  the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine 
and  the  particular  constitutions  which 
their  holy  foundress  is  said  to  have  re- 
ceived by  divine  revelation. 

Brief  {AfosioHc). —  A  letter  of  the  Pope 
or  of  the  great-penitentiary  concerning 
brief,  minor,  and  concise  affairs,  without 
preface  or  preamble.  The  briefs  which 
are  sent  through  the  Datary's  and  Secre- 
tary's offices  are  generally  written  upon 
ordinary  paper,  but  sometimes  on  parch- 
ment, sealed  with  red  wax  and  stamped 
with  the  Fisherman's  ring.  The  diflFer- 
ence  between  a  brief  and  a  bull  consists 
in  the  fact  that  the  latter  is  more  ample, 
that  it  is  always  written  on  parchment 
and  sealed  with  lead  or  green  wax.  The 
Brief  is  subscribed  by  the  Secretary  and 
not  by  the  Pope.  At  its  heading  it  con- 
tains the  name  of  the  Pope  separately,  and 
following  this,  ^''  Dilecto  filio  salutem  et 
apostolicain  benedictionem"  etc.  {To  our 
beloved  son  salutation  and  apostolic  bless- 
ing) ;  then  without  any  preamble,  it  simply 
explains  what  the  Pope  says  or  grants. 
Pope  Alexander  VI.  considerably  ampli- 
fied the  matter  of  briefs,  and  it  was  this 
Pope  who  instituted  the  College  of  Secre- 
taries. Formerly  briefs  treated  only  of  ju- 
dicial affairs;    to-day  they  are  employed 


in  the  granting  of  favors,  dispensations, 
etc.     See  Bull. 

Brothers  (  Congregations  of) . —  Reli- 
gious communities  whose  number  is  con- 
siderable:  I.  Most  prominent  among 
them  is  the  Congregation  of  the  Broth- 
ers of  the  Christian  Schools,  founded  in 
1684  by  Blessed  John  de  la  Salle  and  con- 
firmed in  1725  by  Benedict  XIII.  This 
congregation  has  to-day  over  1,400  houses 
with  13,000  brothers,  not  counting  the 
novices  and  aspirants,  and  is  in  charge  of 
2,500  schools.  In  France  there  are  1,100 
houses,  in  Belgium  53,  in  Spain  42,  in  Eng- 
land and  Ireland  14,  in  Austria  and  Ger- 
many 13,  in  Italy  22,  in  the  Levante  27,  in 
the  extreme  Orient  10,  in  Madagascar  and 
the  Island  of  St.  Maurice,  5.  Their  mother 
house  is  in  Paris,  where  the  Superior  Gen- 
eral resides. 

In  the  United  States  the  Brothers  of  the 
Christian  Schools  have  four  provinces : 
Baltimore,  with  220  brothers;  New  York, 
with  446;  St.  Louis,  with  206;  San  Fran- 
cisco, with  106. 

2.  The  second  largest  congregation  of 
brothers  is  that  of  the  Marists  or  Brothers 
of  Mary.  Their  mother  house  is  in  Saint 
Genis-Laval  in  the  Diocese  of  Lyon.  It  is 
one  of  the  few  congregations  of  the  kind 
that  have  priests  among  their  members. 
Founded  by  the  Ven.  Abbe  Chaminade  in 
the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  it 
has  grown  rapidly,  so  that  it  now  has  6,500 
members,  740  houses,  14  novitiates,  and  23 
juvenates,  so  called,  distributed  as  follows  : 
7  in  Belgium,  i  in  Denmark,  21  in  Spain, 
7  in  England,  i  in  Italy,  2  in  Switzerland, 
3  in  Turkey,  16  in  Canada,  2  in  Brazil,  4  in 
the  United  States,  13  in  Colombia,  7  in 
Africa,  10  in  Asia,  8  in  Australia,  9  in  New 
Zealand,  7  in  New  Caledonia,  3  in  Central 
Oceanica,  and  the  others  in  France.  The 
American  provincial  mother  house  is  in 
Dayton,  Ohio. 

3.  The  Congregation  of  the  Marianists 
also  has  its  seat  in  Paris.  Its  members 
wear  lay  garb  and  are  distributed  not  only 
over  France  (in  30  dioceses),  but  likewise 
in  other  European  countries,  America, 
Japan,  and  Oceanica. 

4.  A  flourishing  congregation  is  that  of 
the  Brothers  of  Christian  Instruction 
(called  Petits-frires),  which  sprang  from 
the  union  of  two  different  societies,  that  of 
the  Abbe  Deshayes  and  that  of  the  Abbe 
J.  M.  R.  de  Lamennais,  Vicar  Capitular, 
in  1819,  and  was  canonically  approved  by 


Brothers 


1 20 


Brothers 


Leo  XIII.,  on  March  13th,  1891.  It  has 
380  houses  with  some  2,000  members,  in- 
structing nearly  100,000  children,  in 
France,  Canada,  Havti,  Senegal,  Marti- 
nique, etc.  They  have  rules  similar  to 
those  of  the  Brothers  de  La  Salle. 

5.  The  Brothers  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  or  of 
St.  Gabriel,  date  back  their  foundation  to 
the  year  1705.  Their  spiritual  father  was 
the  Blessed  Maria  Grignon  de  Montfort. 
The  congregation  did  not  grow  strong 
till  after  the  storms  of  the  Revolution.  Re- 
suscitated by  the  Abbe  Deshayes  in  1835, 
it  now  has  schools  in  23  dioceses  of  France, 
in  Canada,  Egypt,  and  Italy.  The  mother 
house  is  at  St.  Laurent-sur-Sevre  in 
France.  It  also  has  priests  among  its 
members. 

6.  The  Congregation  of  the  Brothers  of 
the  Sacred  Heart,  of  Puy,  established  in 
1821,  has  its  main  seat  in  Paradis,  France, 
and  houses  in  20  French  dioceses,  as  well 
as  in  North  America  and  Algiers.  They 
are  credited  with  140  members  in  the 
United  States. 

7.  In  the  Diocese  of  Puy  there  is  the 
small  Congregation  of  St.  Francis  Regis, 
called  the  Brothers  of  Agriculture,  with 
their  mother  house  at  La  Roche-Arnaud. 
This  society  was  founded  by  P.  de  Bussy, 
S.  J.,  in  1850;  has  7  houses  and  60  mem- 
bers employed  in  the  training  of  orphans, 
especially  in  agricultural  pursuits. 

8.  The  Clerics  of  St.  Viateur,  established 
by  the  Abbe  Querbes  at  Lyons,  conduct 
schools,  assist  the  clergy  in  giving  reli- 
gious instruction,  direct  church  choirs,  etc. 
Their  mother  house  is  in  Paris.  The 
members  are* scattered  over  24  French  dio- 
ceses. Mother  house  at  Vourles  in  the 
Diocese  of  Lyon. 

The  first  house  in  the  United  States  was 
opened  in  1865  by  Vy.  Rev.  P.  Beaudoin  and 
Brothers  A.  Martel  and  J.  B.  Bernard,  at 
Bourbonnais,  Illinois.  It  grew  into  the  pres- 
ent St.  Viateur's  College.  In  1882  the  first 
and  so  far  only  American  province  was 
erected,  with  headquarters  at  Bourbonnais. 
The  number  of  priests  in  this  province  is  11, 
that  of  Brothers,  34,  according  to  Hoff- 
mann's Directory  for  1899. 

9.  In  Nancy  there  is  a  congregation  called 
the  Brothers  of  Christian  Doctrine,  of 
Lorraine,  dating  back  to  the  year  1822,  and 
having  the  Bishop  of  Nancy  for  its  Supe- 
rior-General. It  has  branches  in  9  French 
dioceses. 

10.  Thejosephites  (or  Fathers  and  Broth- 
ers  of  the   Holy  Cross)   were  founded  in 


182 1  by  the  Abbe  Dujarrie  in  the  Diocese 
of  Le  Mans,  France.  They  have  some  40 
institutions  in  France  and  Africa,  in  which 
they  devote  special  attention  to  manual 
training,  and  several  industrial  schools  and 
orphanages  in  North  America. 

11.  The  Brothers  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul 
have  their  mother  house  in  Paris.  We 
have  no  data  regarding  their  development 
and  work. 

12.  The  Brothers  of  St.  Joseph,  foimded 
in  Oullins,  France,  by  the  Abbe  Rey,  de- 
vote their  attention  to  neglected  boys,  and 
such  as  have  been  in  houses  of  refuge,, 
striving,  with  much  success,  to  bring  them 
up  as  good  Christians,  able  to  make  their 
living  as  fai-mers  or  mechanics. 

13.  The  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools 
of  Mercy,  founded  in  1842  by  the  Abbe 
Delamarre,  later  Archbishop  of  Auch,  have 
their  mother  house  at  Montebourg,  in  the 
Diocese  of  Coutances.  They  direct  between 
40  and  50  schools  in  three  French  dioceses. 

14.  The  School  Brothers  of  the  Holy 
Family,  approved  in  1874,  have  their  mother 
house  at  Belley,  France.  Their  founder 
was  P.  Gabriel  Taborin.  They  work  in  13 
French  dioceses  and,  we  are  told,  also  in 
America,  though  we  are  quite  sure  not  in 
the  United  States.  They  are  very  popular 
among  the  French  clergy  as  sacristans  and 
organists. 

15.  The  School  Brothers  of  Christian 
Doctrine  of  Matzenheim  in  Lower  Alsace 
were  founded  in  1845  by  Eugene  Mertian. 
There  are  about  a  hundred  of  them.  It 
seems  they  are  connected  with  the  Nancy 
Brothers  of  the  same  name. 

16.  The  School  Brothers  of  St.  Anthony 
were  canonically  approved  in  1823.  Their 
mother  house  is  in  Paris. 

17.  The  School  Brothers  of  Ireland, 
founded  in  Waterford,  A.  D.,  1802,  by  E. 
Rice,  after  the  model  of  the  Congregation 
of  Blessed  de  la  Salle,  have  their  mother 
house  in  Dublin  and  branches  in  various 
parts  of  Ireland,  England,  Australia,  and 
East  India. 

18.  The  Josephites  of  St.  Fuscien,  estab- 
lished in  1756  by  Bishop  de  Chabons  in 
Amiens,  conduct  primary  schools  in  sev- 
eral French  dioceses  and  act  as  organists 
and  sextons. 

19.  The  Congregation  of  the  Sons  of  St. 
Joseph  in  the  Diocese  of  Gand  was  estab- 
lished A.  D.  1817,  at  Grammont,  in  Flanders, 
by  Canon  van  Crombugghe.  It  consists 
of  priests  and  brothers,  the  former  teach- 
ing the  higher,  the  latter  the  elementary. 


Brothers  of  Charity 


121 


Brownson 


branches.  In  1880  this  congregation  had 
168  members.  The  mother  house  is  at 
Grammont. 

20.  The  Indian  Brothers  of  St.  Joseph 
are  recruited  from  among^  the  natives  of 
East  India  for  the  instruction  of  the  young 
and  the  training  of  tefichers  for  them. 

21.  The  Society  of  the  Brothers  of  St. 
Joseph  of  Klein-Zimmern  (Diocese  of  May- 
ence)  were  founded  in  1864  by  the  great 
Bishop  Ketteler.  So  far  as  we  are  aware, 
this  congregation  has  no  branches  outside 
the  Diocese  of  Mayence. 

22.  The  Brothers  of  the  Cross  of  Jesus 
originated  in  the  Diocese  of  Belley,  France, 
in  1832.  The  novitiate  is  at  Menestruel. 
They  are  in  charge  of  about  fifty  odd 
schools  and  hospitals  in  the  Dioceses  of 
Grenoble,  Lyon,  and  Saint-Claude.  This 
order  also  has  a  branch  for  females. 

23.  The  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools 
of  the  Holy  Infant  Jesus  were  founded  in 
the  seventeenth  century  by  P.  Nicholas 
Barre.  They  devote  themselves  to  the  in- 
struction of  the  yoimg,  especially  poor 
children.  They  have  a  house  in  Paris,  and 
are  spread  over  eight  provinces  of  France. 
There  is  also  a  branch  for  females  of  this 
congregation. 

24.  The  Congregation  of  the  Brothers 
of  the  Holy  Cross  is  likewise  of  French 
foundation,  dating  from  the  year  1856.  It 
consists  of  priests  and  lay  brothers ;  they 
are  especially  active  in  the  United  States 
(Notre  Dame  University,  etc.)  and  the 
British  colonies. 

25.  The  School  Brothers  of  Tilburg 
{Freres  de  Charite  de  Notre  Dame,  Mere 
de  mtsericorde),  founded  in  1844  by  J. 
Zwysen  later  Archbishop  of  Utrecht. 
They  have  ten  houses  with  about  300  mem- 
bers, and  among  these  about  twenty  priests. 

26.  The  Xaverian  Brothers,  founded 
in  1839  at  Bruges,  Belgium,  have  their 
mother  house  there.  The  novitiate  of  the 
American  province  is  at  Baltimore,  Mary- 
land. There  are  159  of  these  Brothers  in 
the  United  States,  instructing  5,729  pupils 
in  colleges,  high  schools,  academies,  in- 
dustrial and  parochial  schools. 

27.  The  Brothers  of  Our  Lady  of 
Lourdes,  who  conduct  a  college  at  South 
Park,  Washington,  and  a  protectory  for 
homeless  boys  in  Pittsburg,  having  16  mem- 
bers in  all  in  this  country,  and  have  their 
mother  house  in  Oostacker,  Belgium. 

28.  The  Brothers  of  Charity  of  St.  Vin- 
cent de  Paul,  who  conduct  the  House  of 
the  Angel  Guardian  in  Boston,  are  quite  a 


modern   institution,  having  only  recently 
received  the  Roman  approbation. 

29.  In  the  Archdiocese  of  New  York 
and  the  Diocese  of  Brooklyn  there  are  88 
Franciscan  Brothers,  in  charge  of  6  acade- 
mies, I  college,  and  11  schools.  HofTmann's 
Directory  tells  us  they  were  founded  in 
1858  by  brothers  from  Mt.  Bellew,  County 
Galway,  Ireland.* 

Brothers  of  Charity.     See  JohnofCtod. 

Brothers  of  the  Common  Life. — An  In- 
stitute of  Clerks,  established  at  Deventer, 
by  Gerhard  Groot  (died  in  1384).  It  spread 
rapidly  in  the  Netherlands  and  Germany, 
and  produced  a  number  of  distinguished 
men,  among  them  Thomas  a  Kempis. 
They  made  no  vows,  and  devoted  them- 
selves to  preaching  and  instructing  the 
youth.  There  existed  a  branch  for  females 
of  this  order. 

Brown  (Robert)  (1549-1630). — A  Puri- 
tan, known  as  the  founder  of  the  "  Brown- 
ists."  In  1561,  while  at  Cambridge,  was 
cited  to  appear  before  Archbishop  Parker 
for  heterodoxy,  and  before  he  died  he  was 
imprisoned  thirty-two  times.  In  1580,  he 
accepted  a  ministry  at  Norwich,  and  later 
went  to  Holland.  In  1585,  he  returned  to 
England  and  was  excommunicated.  See 
Puritans. 

BroTvnson  (Orestes  August). — Ameri- 
can writer,  born  at  Stockbridge,  Vermont, 
Sept.  i6th,  1803.  Agitated,  from  his  child- 
hood, by  religious  questions,  his  opinions, 
in  these  matters,  varied  a  good  deal.  He  was 
a  Presbyterian  in  1822,  then  a  Universalist 
and  Deist  in  1825 ;  three  years  later,  he 
united  himself  with  the  "  Workingmen's 
Party,"  and  became  a  passionate  admirer 
of  the  contemporary  French  philosophers. 
Then  he  published,  in  the  "  Christian  Ex- 
aminer," a  series  of  very  keen  articles;  it 
was  the  prelude  of  the  little  volume  which 
appeared  in  1836  under  the  title.  New  Views 
on  Christianity,  the  Society  of  the  Church. 
In  1837  there  is  a  new  change ;  he  entered  the 
"  Society  for  Christian  Union  and  Progress 
for  Christianity,"  and  delivered  very  re- 
markable lectures.  The  year  following,  he 
published  a  romance :  Charles  Elivood  or 
The  Infidel  Converted,  which  contains  the 
history  of  his  philosophical  and  religious 
ideas.      Finally,   in    1844,    convinced,   un- 

*See  "The  Review,"  St.  lyOuis,  Missouri,  Sept. 
15th,  1899. 


Bruno 


122 


Buddhism 


doubtedly,  of  the  impotency  of  man  to 
build  his  own  beHefs,  he  entered  the  bosom 
of  the  Catholic  Church.  From  that  time, 
until  his  death  he  defended  the  Church  in 
his  "  Review,"  which  he  published  under 
the  name  of  "  Brownson's  Quarterly  Re- 
view," with  the  vigor  and  sincerity  that 
characterized  him.  He  died  a  Catholic,  in 
Detroit,  Michigan,  April  17th,  1876. 

Bruno  (Giordano)  (1548-1600). — Born 
at  Nola,  near  Naples,  entered,  at  the  age  of 
fifteen  years,  the  novitiate  of  the  Domini- 
cans. Accused  of  heresy  before  the  Roman 
Inquisition,  he  threw,  it  is  said,  his  accuser 
into  the  Tiber,  discarded  the  habit  of  his 
Order  and  fled  (1576).  After  having  erred 
in  Italy,  France,  England,  and  Germany, 
he  landed  in  Venice,  where  his  religious 
opinions  again  brought  him  into  trouble. 
The  Roman  Inquisition  claimed  him,  and, 
after  a  few  years'  imprisonment,  he  was 
condemned  to  degradation  and  to  be 
burned  alive  on  account  of  obstinate 
heresy.  Bruno  received  little  sympathy 
among  his  contemporaries,  and,  in  the 
course  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
centuries,  the  scholars  who  occupied  them- 
selves with  researches  concerning  his  char- 
acter, or  his  works,  were  unanimous  in  re- 
garding him  with  disfavor.  In  our  days, 
on  the  contrary,  he  is  praised  for  his  knowl- 
edge of  mathematics  and  astronomy;  in 
philosophy,  it  is  stated,  he  opened  new  ave- 
nues, and,  as  to  his  death,  it  was  that  of  a 
martyr,  immolating  himself  for  the  tri- 
umph of  liberty  of  thought.  Certainly  no 
great  sagacity  is  required  to  discover  the 
motives  of  this  sudden  enthusiasm.  The 
enemies  of  the  Church  feel  that  they  have 
to  change,  from  time  to  time,  their  mode 
of  warfare ;  when  they  have  shouted  them- 
selves hoarse  against  the  pretended  respon- 
sibility in  the  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholo- 
mew, they  agitate  the  phantom  of  the 
Inquisition ;  after  having  exhausted  the 
subject  of  Galileo,  they  resurrect  Giordano 
Bruno.  This  time,  however,  their  choice 
is  a  somewhat  unfortunate  one.  The  un- 
bounded eulogies  heaped  upon  an  apostate 
monk  have  provoked  the  critical  inquiry 
of  his  doctrines,  and  Bruno  has  not  gained 
anything  thereby.  In  his  philosophy, 
Bruno  adopted  the  pantheistic  hypothesis ; 
but  this  was  known  and  refuted  a  long 
time  before  him.  In  astronomy  he  ex- 
pressed some  new  and  correct  ideas;  but 
he  did  not  master  this  science  sufficiently 
to  enable  him  to  speak  correctly  of  the 


sideral   world.     Bailh'    regards   him    as  a 
rash  innovator,  misled  by  his  imagination. 

Bruno  (St.).     See  Carthusians. 

Bruys  (Peter).     See  Petrobrusians. 

Buchanites. — A  sect  of  fanatics  which 
sprang  up  in  the  west  of  Scotland  in  the 
last  quarter  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Its 
foundress  was  Elspeth  Buchan,  born  in 
173S,  the  daughter  of  John  Simpson,  a  way- 
side innkeeper  near  Banff.  Separating 
from  her  husband,  she  began  to  preach, 
and  in  1783,  in  conjunction  with  the  Rev. 
Hugh  White,  founded  the  sect  which  bore 
her  name.  She  claimed  to  be  the  woman 
mentioned  in  the  first  six  verses  of  the 
twelfth  chapter  of  the  Apocalypse.  Ex- 
pelled from  the  town  by  the  magistrates  in 
1784,  they  established  themselves  near 
Thornhill  with  a  few  followers.  The  poet 
Burns,  in  a  letter  (August,  1784)  speaks 
of  their  idleness  and  immorality.  Mrs. 
Buchan  died  in  May,  1791 ;  the  last  sur- 
vivor of  her  sect  died  in  1848. 

Buddhism  (from  Buddha,  seventh  cen- 
tury B.C.,  name  of  the  reformer).  —  A 
philosophical  and  religious  doctrine; 
founded  in  India.  Buddhism  is  rather  a 
reformation  of  Brahmanism  than  an  orig- 
inal, independent  system.  It  admits  of  no 
distinction  of  Caste  in  religious  matters, 
and  insists  on  an  ascetic  life  of  contempla- 
tion. Buddhism,  banished  from  India, 
after  an  existence  of  a  thousand  years, 
propagated  itself  in  Thibet,  Tartary, 
China,  and  Japan.  It  would  appear  that 
this  doctrine  played  in  the  history  of  Asia 
something  of  the  role  of  Christianity  in 
Europe,  by  effecting  a  reform  or  rather  a 
total  overthrow  of  former  paganism. 

History.  —  We  must  distinguish  in 
Buddhism  the  doctrine  which  Buddha 
himself  expounded  from  that  taught  by 
his  disciples.  The  primitive  doctrine  of 
Buddha  is  found  best  elucidated  in  the 
"Treatise  on  the  Four  Truths."  This 
small  manual  teaches:  i.  That  pain  is  an 
effect  of  existence,  which  is  itself  an  illu- 
sion, a  thing  void  and  unsubstantial.  2. 
That  pain  is  produced  in  life  by  the  con- 
tinued desire  of  living  and  by  the  joy 
thereof.  3.  That  pain  ceases  when  life 
ends,  or  on  the  cessation  of  the  joy  of  liv- 
ing. 4.  That  to  end  pain  it  is  necessary  to 
cease  taking  pleasure  in  living.  The  cause 
of  life,  says  Buddha,  is  evil,  which  can  be 
expiated  only  by  suffering.  The  one  who 
walks  in  the  way  of  renunciation  will  avoid 


Buddhism 


123 


Buddhism 


sin  and  its  punishments,  will  discern  the 
motives  of  existence  and  of  pain,  will  be 
delivered  from  all  future  existence,  and  will 
merge  his  individuality  into  annihilation. 
The  Nirvana,  or  the  state  of  non-being  or 
of  blissful  repose  is  self-produced.  The 
one  who  attains  the  Nirvana  is  freed  from 
existence  and  from  the  necessity  of  being 
reborn.  Brahmanism  admitted  Metempsy- 
chosis. Buddhism  lays  down  rules  to  attain 
this  annihilation,  or  perfect  moral  inertia. 
In  the  first  place  it  is  necessary  that  the 
Buddhist  gives  up  all  impure  desires  and 
all  desires  of  vengeance  or  of  any  kind  of 
evil.  He  finally  must  give  up  all  doubt, 
all  heresy,  and  every  kind  of  wickedness. 
"Let  my  disciple,"  says  Buddha,  "pour 
out,  as  it  were,  his  good  will  over  all  be- 
ings." Then  will  he  have  attained  the 
last  stage  of  perfection.  He  will  be  free 
from  ignorance,  passion,  and  sin.  Freed 
from  the  laws  of  material  existence,  know- 
ing all  things  by  their  causes,  he  will  pass 
from  this  life  into  absolute  and  eternal 
annihilation,  the  Nirvana,  or  negation  of 
all  life,  where  exists  neither  soul  nor  God. 
In  fact,  the  cosmogony  and  philosophy  of 
primitive  Buddhism,  are  essentially  mate- 
rialistic. Without  occupying  itself  with 
material  things,  it  affirms  that  all  things 
are  subject  to  the  laws  of  cause  and  eflfect, 
to  change,  death,  decline,  and  regeneration. 
The  world,  as  well  as  everything  that  sur- 
rounds it,  must  be  destroyed  periodically 
by  fire,  air,  or  water,  and  must  always  be 
reconstituted  by  the  sum  of  sin  (desire  to 
live)  of  its  inhabitants.  The  number  of 
the  latter  will  never  increase,  except  when 
one  escapes  to  life  in  attaining  the  Nir- 
vana. 

The  24  heavens  and  the  8  hells  which 
surround  the  earth  and  which  are  inhabited 
by  mystic  beings  are  equally  subject  to  the 
la'ws  of  decline,  death,  and  regeneration. 
(For  the  Buddhists  the  human  soul  is 
nothing  but  a  vital  force  which  perishes 
with  the  body.)  An  old  person  is  regen- 
erated into  a  new  being  only  in  the  sense 
that  his  body  is  substituted  for  the  soul, 
and  represents  in  the  world  the  desire  to 
live  which  the  soul  manifested,  sinning 
thereby.  The  Karma,  the  desire  to  live, 
does  not  pass  as  an  immaterial  and  per- 
manent substance  from  the  one  to  the  other, 
but  the  Karma  of  the  one  succeeds  the 
Karma  of  the  other  as  two  identical  phe- 
nomena, peculiar  to  every  being.  The 
holy  Buddhist  must  not  trouble  the  pure 
inertia  of  his  soul,  by  desiring  eternal  hap- 


piness after  life.  When  he  speaks  of  the 
Nirvana  as  the  Christian  books  speak  of 
heaven,  he  does  so  by  the  Oriental  custom 
of  exaggeration.  Eugene  Burnouf  has 
clearly  proved  that  the  Nirvana  of  Budd- 
hism is  nothing  else  but  absolute  annihila- 
tion. 

This  void  and  desolate  system  of  reli- 
gion, in  spite  of  the  nobility  of  its  chari- 
table precepts,  would  not  have  obtained 
more  disciples  than  the  philosophy  of  the 
Sankhyas  to  which  it  approaches,  if  Bud- 
dha had  not  joined  to  his  theological  teach- 
ing social  doctrines  which  rendered  it  dear 
to  the  people.  He  boldly  attacked  the 
Brahmans  and  openly  separated  himself 
from  them,  denounced  the  inanity  of  their 
ceremonial  .regarding  their  prescriptions 
of  living,  ridiculed  their  pantheon  peo- 
pled by  an  infinity  of  gods,  but  over  and 
above  all,  he  pleased  the  people  by  denying 
the  Brahmanic  priesthood,  who  pretended 
to  be  the  only  ones  called  to  salvation.  To 
this  must  be  added  his  effective  contempt 
for  any  distinction  of  caste,  a  distinction 
absolutely  insisted  on  by  Brahmanism  and 
under  which  India  groaned.  He  preached 
as  a  mendicant  monk,  sought  to  do  good 
among  the  outcasts  of  society,  the  poor, 
the  unfortunate,  the  unclean,  and  hurled 
against  the  pharisaism  of  the  Brahmans 
anathemas  which  recall  to  mind  the  de- 
nunciations of  Christ. 

From  the  third  century  b.  c.  Buddhism 
was  spread  throughout  all  India,  This  was 
mainly  eflFected  through  the  monastic  and 
preaching  method,  by  the  Sangha,  or  order 
of  mendicant  monks.  The  opinion  which 
Cakyamuni  held  of  life,  necessarily  led 
him  to  a  life  of  asceticism,  to  which  h»  ob- 
ligated his  disciples.  He  recommended  to 
them  to  free  themselves  from  all  family 
relations,  from  all  riches  and  power,  and  to 
leave  the  world.  However,  these  rules  did 
not  originally  imply  the  creation  of  a 
sacerdotal  class.  For  the  Sramana  {those 
who  contain  it)  or  Bikschou  (the  mendi- 
cants), as  they  called  them,  had  no  power 
of  regeneration,  confirmation  or  absolution. 
To  enter  their  society,  it  was  sufficient  for 
the  monk  to  shave  himself  and  to  observe 
their  manner  of  living,  the  rule  of  which 
is  expounded  in  the  Patimohhha,  which 
dates  from  250  b.c.  The  monks  should 
eat  only  between  the  rising  of  the  sun  and 
noon  time.  They  should  beg  their  nourish- 
ment in  going  from  house  to  house  without 
saying  a  word,  abstain  from  all  flesh-meats 
and  even  filter  the  water  for  fear  of  swal- 


Buddhism 


124 


Buddhism 


lowing  some  animalcule  Thev  should 
travel  from  place  to  place  during  the  fair 
season,  and  retire  during  the  season  of 
rains  into  the  house  of  the  community. 
Their  costume,  which  they  never  should 
lay  off,  was  composed  of  three  yellow  gar- 
ments. All  sexual  relations  were  forbid- 
den to  them,  as  well  as  theft  and  murder. 
They  could  possess  only  eight  objects  :  the 
three  garments,  a  cincture,  a  bowl,  a  razor, 
a  needle,  and  a  filter.  But  the  community 
could  receive  as  a  gift  landed  property, 
houses,  and  books.  As  to  the  laymen, 
Buddha  recommends  to  them  the  observ- 
ance of  the  ordinary  moral  precepts,  never 
to  exterminate  life,  and  to  prepare  as  much 
as  possible  for  a  sinless  regeneration. 

The  disciples  of  Buddha  assembled  in 
councils,  immediately  after  the  death  of 
their  chief;  one  hundred  years  afterwards, 
at  Naisali,  and  again  in  250  b.c,  at  Patna, 
under  the  Buddhist  Emperor  Asoka.  The 
latter  ordered  the  drawing  up  of  the  sacred 
books,  containing  the  teaching  of  Buddha. 
These  books,  the  most  of  which  were  un- 
known until  then,  reproduce  exactly  the 
doctrine  of  the  master.  The  history  of 
Buddhism  in  India  is  little  known.  In  400 
A.  D.,  the  Chinese  pilgrim  Fa-Hian  found 
it  flourishing  very  generally  in  that  coun- 
try. The  pilgrim  Hiouen-Tsang  pointed 
out  its  decay.  In  the  eighth  and  ninth  cen- 
turies the  Hindoo  kings,  probably  irritated 
at  the  wealth  and  corruption  of  the  monks, 
organized  a  great  persecution  and  entirely 
destroyed  the  sect  in  the  whole  peninsula. 
Buddhism  was  introduced  at  Ceylon  in  the 
third  century,  A.  D.,  by  the  son  of  Emperor 
Asoka.  From  here,  in  the  fifth  century, 
it  passed  into  Burmah,  then,  in  the  seventh 
century,  into  Siam.  From  Kaschmir  it  was 
introduced  into  China  in  68  A.  D.  and 
from  there  into  Thibet.  Mr.  de  Schagin- 
weit  estimates  the  number  of  disciples  of 
this  religion  at  341  millions,  or  one-fourth 
of  humanity.  Recent  calculations  seem 
to  reduce  this  figure.  Buddhism,  at  pre- 
sent, little  resembles  the  doctrine  taught 
by  Gautama,  its  real  founder.  From  the 
time  of  the  first  century  after  his  death, 
divergences  of  doctrine  manifested  them- 
selves. In  the  second  Council  of  Buddhism, 
it  is  said  that  the  assembly  decided  that 
"  all  that  is  not  contrary  to  reason  must 
be  considered  as  belonging  to  the  teaching 
of  Cakyamouni."  Later  on  it  was  ad- 
mitted that  Buddha  had  adapted  his  teach- 
ing to  the  capacity  of  his  hearers,  and 
since    that    time    the    different    sects    of 


Buddhism  sought  to  interpret  the  real 
meaning  of  the  doctrines  of  their  master. 
The  principal  sects  are :  i.  The  Hina- 
f'anists,  or  "School  of  the  small  Council," 
which  holds  as  sufficient  for  salvation  a 
moral  life,  united  with  reflections  on  the 
causes  and  inanity  of  life.  2.  The  Mahaj- 
anists,  or  "School  of  the  large  Council," 
which  appeared  in  the  second  century  b.c. 
This  School  pretended  that  the  chief  du- 
ties were  asceticism  and  meditation,  which, 
according  to  them,  give  to  man  super- 
natural powers.  3.  The  Mystic  Schools, 
Kala  Tchaktra,  or  "  Schools  of  the  Wheel 
of  Time,"  which  arose  in  Central  Asia  and 
spread  throughout  India,  being  dissemi- 
nated by  the  teaching  of  the  Cachmir, 
who  asserted  that  neither  meditation  nor 
virtue  is  sufficient  for  salvation,  holding 
that  man  needs  the  aid  of  supernatural 
beings  to  shield-  him  from  demons.  This 
aid  is  obtained  by  the  use  of  certain  for- 
mulas, amulets,  and  ceremonies.  This 
sect,  which  developed  itself  in  the  ninth 
century  a.  d.,  offers  a  striking  analogy  to 
Gnosticism.  This  school,  which  eventually 
prevailed  over  all  the  others,  includes  in  its 
system  the  whole  Brahmanic  pantheon.  It 
flattered  the  people  by  its  belief  in  magic 
and  by  its  worship  of  the  dead  ;  instituted 
a  ritual,  a  number  of  prayers  and  conjura- 
tions, a  hierarchy  of  priests  endowed  with 
mystic  powers,  all  of  which  have  continued 
to  exist  in  Mongolia  and  Thibet.  In  the 
latter  countries  Buddhism  has  taken  the 
name  of  Lamaism,  and  has  become,  in 
fact,  a  religion  greatly  different  from  the 
doctrine — half-philosophical,  half-ethical — 
preached  by  Gautama.  The  essence  of 
this  religion  consists  in  a  slight  modifica- 
tion, introduced  into  the  doctrine  of  Bud- 
dha, concerning  the  perfect  life.  The 
latter  recommended  his  disciples  to  attain 
perfection  by  meditation  and  the  practice 
of  virtue,  diminishing  the  joy  of  desiring 
to  live,  and  to  reach  Nirvana  by  annihila- 
tion of  self.  The  new  egoistical  doctrine 
requires  that  its  best  disciples,  in  order  to 
save  the  world  from  iniquity,  must  trans- 
form themselves  into  Buddhists,  or  into  be- 
ings capable  of  becoming  Buddhists.  The 
primitive  books  of  Buddhism  do  not  treat 
of  precepts  necessary  to  attain  this  perfec- 
tion, while  the  new  form  of  religion  is  ex- 
pounded in  nine  books,  two  of  which  have 
been  translated  and  published,  the  Lalita 
Visiara,  bj'  M.  Foucaux,  and  Saddharma 
Pundarika,  by  M.  E.  Burnouf.  The  most 
ancient   of   these   dates   from   the   second 


BUGENHAGEN 


125 


BUGENHAGEN 


century  A.  i>.  The  chief  apostles  of  this  new 
doctrine  called  themselves  Nagasena  and 
Vasumitra. 

To  explain  the  wonderful  power  of  the 
Buddhists  it  was  asserted  that  they  were 
the  emanation  of  spiritual  Buddhas,  of 
Dhyani  Buddhas.  From  these  emanations 
the  new  school  founded  a  Trinity  and  from 
this  Trinity  were  reproduced  several  other 
Buddhas.  But  in  the  Trinity  formed  by 
Gautama,  Amithaha  (wisdom)  and  Ana- 
lokitesvara  {^conquering  love)  remained 
dominant.  Asanga,  a  monk  of  the  sixth 
century,  was  the  first  to  corrupt  this  doc- 
trine by  attaching  to  it  magical  practices 
and  joining  to  the  Buddhic  Triades  the 
bloody  gods  of  India.  About  the  seventh 
century,  king  Srong  Tsang  Gampa  intro- 
duced this  corrupted  form  of  Buddhism 
into  Thibet,  assisted  by  his  minister, 
Thumi  Sambhota,  worshiped  since  in  this 
country  as  the  incarnation  of  Amithaha, 
and  by  his  two  wives,  the  queens  Bribsun 
and  Wen-Ching,  whose  worship  still  exists 
in  the  monasteries  of  Thibet,  under  the 
name  of  "  Glorious  mothers,  incarnations 
of  the  wife  of  Siva."  Moreover,  the  Mon- 
golians and  the  Siberians  adopted  the 
worship  of  a  holy  and  miraculous  virgin, 
whom  the  sacred  images  of  these  peoples 
often  represent  with  a  child  in  her  arms. 
Owing  to  the  continual  additions  which 
the  Lamaic  pantheon  received,  this  reli- 
gion threatened  to  be  dissolved  into  a 
vague  Gnosticism,  when  it  was  consoli- 
dated by  a  powerful,  sacerdotal,  and  tem- 
poral hierarchy.  Kublai-Khan,  nephew  of 
Genghis-Khan,  founder  of  the  Mongolian 
empire,  gave  to  the  chief  of  the  convent 
Cakya,  the  title  of  sovereign  tributary  of 
Thibet,  chief  of  the  Buddhist  religion  and 
suzerain  of  all  the  other  abbots.  This 
event  took  place  in  the  year  1006.  Not- 
withstanding a  sort  of  schism  which  took 
place  in  1390,  at  the  instigation  of  the  monk 
Tsongkapa,  whose  reforms  were  directed 
particularly  against  the  dissolute  and  luxu- 
rious life  of  the  monks,  and  whose  follow- 
ers henceforth  distinguished  themselves 
by  a  yellow  bonnet  from  the  red  bonnet  of 
their  adversaries,  the  power  of  the  abbots 
of  Cakya  at  Lhassa  only  increased  the 
more.  Since  the  fifteenth  century,  Dalai 
Lama,chiefoftheYellow-Bonnets,  Abbot  of 
Gedun  Dubpa,  near  Lhassa,  and  Pantschen 
Lama,  chief  of  the  Red-Bonnets,  Abbot  of 
the  Convent  of  Kraschis  Jumpo,  were  ac- 
knowledged by  the  emperors  of  China  as 
sovereigns  of  Thibet.     Gradually  the  fol- 


lowers of  Dalai  Lama  increased  in  power 
and  influence  over  their  rivals,  the  follow- 
ers of  Pantschen  Lama. 

The  spiritual  power  of  Lama  extends 
over  Bhutan,  Sikkim,  Mongolia,  the 
country  of  the  Kalmuks  and  Burets,  and 
the  Buddhist  convents  of  Pekin.  This 
Lama  is  believed  to  be  immortal  and  is 
considered  as  the  earthly  incarnation  of 
Buddha.  At  his  corporal  death,  his  spirit 
passes  into  a  new  depository. 

The  third  class  of  ecclesiastical  function- 
aries is  formed  by  the  Chubilchanes. 
Then  come  the  conventual  authorities,  the 
abbots  {Khanpo),  the  monks,  ordained 
priests  {Gelong),  the  new  monks  {Gethul), 
and  the  lay  brothers  {Boudi).  The  secu- 
lar clergy  is  composed  of  Tchoidsche 
(scribes),  and  of  Rabdschamfas  (doctors) . 
All  these  ecclesiastics  live  in  monasteries 
and  are  bound  to  celibacy.  There  exist 
also  nunneries,  governed  by  abbesses,  in 
whom  the  saints  are  incarnated.  The  con- 
vents are  very  rich.  These  ecclesiastics 
are  intercessors,  astrologers,  exorcists,  and 
physicians.  They  copy  and  print  books, 
make  religious  images,  and  sell  relics.  They 
have  the  privilege  of  transmitting  and  cul- 
tivating both  divine  and  human  science. 
The  temples  are  quadrangular,  pointing 
toward  the  four  cardinal  directions  and 
are  divided  into  a  vestibule,  nave  and 
iconostasis  or  sanctuary.  Besides  these 
places  of  worship  there  are  chapels,  sacred 
pyramids,  columns  upon  which  prayers  are 
engraved,  prayer  mills,  and  sacred  trees. 
The  religious  wear  and  say  the  rosary. 
Their  ceremonies  end  by  distributing 
leavened  bread  among  the  faithful.  They 
also  use  blessed  water.  The  ceremonies 
must  be  celebrated  every  day  by  the  eccle- 
siastics, and  they  have  recourse  to  them 
to  assure  the  repose  of  the  dead.  In  one 
word,  the  Lamaic  worship  and  institu- 
tions resemble  so  much  the  Catholic  cere- 
monial, that  the  first  missionaries  held 
them  as  a  diabolical  imitation  of  their  re- 
ligion. 

Bugenhagen  (John). — Protestant  minis- 
ter, born  at  Wollin  (Pomerania)  in  1485, 
died  at  Wittembergin  1558.  At  first,  priest 
and  adversary  of  Luther,  he  became  his 
follower  and  one  of  his  missionaries,  taught 
theology  at  Wittemberg,  and  made  him- 
self known  by  his  oratorical  talent,  which 
contributed  a  good  deal  towards  the  pro- 
gress of  the  Reformation  in  a  great  part  of 
Germany,  Denmark  and  Norway. 


Bull 


126 


BUSENBAUM 


BulL — The  Bull  is  a  papal  decision  on  im- 
portant matters,  rendered  in  a  most  solemn 
manner.  They  are  written  on  parchment, 
in  Gothic  letters'  and  sealed  with  a  leaden 
seal,  and  most  carefully  guarded  in  the 
Chancellor's  office.  When  the  object  of 
the  Bull  is  to  proclaim  graces  granted,  the 
bands  are  of  silk ;  when  the  object  is  to  pro- 
nounce decisions  of  justice,  the  bands  are 
of  hemp.  The  following  are  the  distinc- 
tions drawn  between  the  great  and  small 
Bulls  :  the  great  Bulls  are  given  for  affairs 
which  decree  permanent  rules  of  a  general 
character;  they  contain  the  words:  "yl</ 
ferpeiuam  ret  mentor iam."  The  Pope  as- 
sumes therein  the  title  of  "Serz'us  servo- 
rum  Deiy  The  small  Bulls  are  given  for 
the  expedition  of  current  affairs,  and  do 
not  contain  the  formula  indicating  the  per- 
petuity. The  Bulls  are  designated,  gen- 
erally, by  their  initial  words;  thus,  we  say 
the  Bull  '■'■Unigenitus,^^  ^'■Unam  Sanc- 
tam,"  "  Viftcam  Domini,"  "  In  Ccena  Dom- 
ini," etc.  The  appointment  of  bishops  is 
made  by  Bulls. 

Bullarium. —  Collection  of  several  papal 
Bulls.  The  Great  Roman  Bullarium  is 
divided  into  three  parts:  i.  Until  Urban 
VIII.,  /.  €.,  until  the  year  1623  (Rome  1634). 
2.  From  Urban  VIII.  to  Clement  XIII.,  or 
from  1623  to  1758  (Luxemburg,  Geneva, 
1747  to  1758,  eleven  volumes).  3.  From 
Clement  XIII.  to  Gregory  XVI.,  or  from 
1758  to  1831  (Rome  1837-1843,  eight  vol- 
umes). Under  the  supervision  of  Cardinal 
San  Felice,  Archbishop  of  Naples,  they 
actually  print  at  Naples  a  new  edition  of 
the  Bullarium  Diplomatum  et  Privile- 
giorum. 

Burgundians  {Conversion  of  the). —  The 
Burgundians,  whose  original  territory  lay 
on  the  shores  of  the  Baltic  Sea,  penetrated 
into  Gaul  in  the  beginning  of  the  fifth 
century,  and,  settling  between  the  Alps, 
Saone,  and  the  Rhone,  established  the 
Burgundian  kingdom,  of  which  Lyons  was 
the  capital.  At  that  time  they  were  still 
pagans,  but  soon  afterwards  embraced  the 
Catholic  faith.  The  priest  Orosius,  in  417, 
commended  the  mildness  and  modesty  of 
these  Burgundians,  who  treated  their  sub- 
jects of  Gaul  as  their  Christian  brethren. 
In  450  they  were  found  professing  Arian- 
ism,'  which  was  probably  owing  to  their 
Arian  neighbors,  the  Visigoths.  However, 
Arianism  was  not  generally  adopted  by  the 
Burgundians.  King  Sigismund  returned 
to  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  year  516, 


and  Arianism  entirely  disappeared  from 
among  the  Burgundians,  after  their  king- 
dom had  passed  under  the  dominion  of  the 
Franks,  in  534. 

Burial  {Christian). — The  early  Chris- 
tians, when  sick  or  in  danger  of  death, 
following  the  precept  of  St.  James,  called 
in  the  priests  of  the  Church,  who  strength- 
ened and  sustained  them  with  the  holy 
sacrament  of  Extreme  Unction  in  the  last 
and  trying  conflict  of  the  soul.  The  mortal 
remains  of  men  were  no  longer  burned,  as 
was  the  custom  among  the  pagans.  The 
Christians,  following  the  Jewish  practice 
of  funeral  service,  placed  the  body  in  the 
earth,  accompanying  the  ceremony  with 
prayer  and  singing  of  hymns,  taken  from 
the  sacred  liturgy,  deeming  this  the  most 
fitting  way  of  paying  the  last  tribute  of  re- 
spect to  the  earthly  remains  of  man  which 
had  been  the  temple  and  dwelling  place  of 
the  Holy  Ghost,  and  which  was  to  rise 
again  immortal  and  impassible.  See 
Cemetery. 

Ecclesiastical  burial  must  be  denied  in 
the  following  instances.  1.  To  pagans, 
Jews,  and  infidels.  2.  To  apostates.  3. 
To  notorious  heretics  and  schismatics.  4. 
To  those  publicly  excommunicated  and 
interdicted.  5.  To  those  who  committed 
suicide,  if  "  before  dying,  they  did  not 
manifest  any  repentance."  Those,  how- 
ever, who  committed  suicide  while  in- 
sane, or  deranged  in  mind,  can  be  buried 
b}-  the  Church.  6.  To  those  killed  in  a 
duel.  7.  To  public  and  notorious  sinners 
who  die  in  final  impenitence.  8.  To 
those  who  died  in  the  act  of  some  grievous 
crime.  9.  Finally  to  those  who  refused 
the  sacraments  when  at  the  point  of  death. 
See  Cremation. 

Bursa  (Latin  word  which  means  apurse, 
a  bag). — Specifically,  a  receptacle  for  the 
corporal  and  chalice  cover.  It  is  square 
and  flat,  made  of  cardboard,  covered  gen- 
erally with  the  same  material  as  the 
chasuble ;  is  open  on  one  side  only,  and 
placed  over  the  chalice  veil  when  the  sacred 
vessels  are  carried  to  and  from  the  altar. 
The  bursa  was  introduced  in  the  fourteenth 
century. 

Busenbaum  (Hermann). — German  Jes- 
uit and  theologian,  born  in  1600  at  Noth- 
elen,  Westphalia,  died  in  1668.  He  wrote 
Medulla  Theologi(E  moralis,  which  work  is 
an  abstract  from  various  authors  (Munster, 
1645).     It   passed   through   more   than  50 


Butler 


127 


Caesarea 


editions.  Lacroix,  Collendall,  and  St. 
Liguori,  made  additions  and  commentaries 
thereon. 

Butler  (Alban)  (1711-1773). — Born  at 
Appletree,  Northampton,  England ;  died 
at  St.  Omer,  France.  An  English  Catho- 
lic hagiographer.  Yie  wrote  Lives  of  the 
Saints  (1745,  5  vols.), 

Byrne  (Andrew). —  Roman  Catholic 
prelate ;  born  in  Navan,  Ireland,  in  1802 ; 
died  at  Little  Rock,  Arkansas,  1862.  He 
was  educated  at  the  college  of  his  native 
town,  and  came  to  America  in  1820  with 


Bishop  England,  who  visited  Ireland  for 
the  purpose  of  securing  Catholic  mission- 
aries for  the  work  in  America.  Byrne  was 
ordained  in  1827,  and  assigned  to  duty  in 
North  and  South  Carolina.  In  1830  he 
was  appointed  to  pastoral  work  in  New 
York  city,  and  in  1844  was  made  the  first 
bishop  of  the  Diocese  of  Little  Rock.  He 
made  three  visits  to  Ireland,  on  the  last 
two  of  which  he  secured  the  services  of 
priests  and  sisters  of  mercy  to  assist  in  his 
work.  Through  his  efforts  the  Catholic 
schools  and  churches  increased  in  num- 
bers, and  their  prosperity  was  greatly  pro- 
moted. 


Cab. — A  Hebrew  measure  for  both  dry 
and  liquid  substances.  It  was  equal  to  two 
quarts,  four-sevenths  pints. 

Cabala  {reception). —  The  secret  tradi- 
tion of  the  Jews,  the  origin  of  which  may 
be  traced  to  pre-Christian  times,  but  which 
grew  up  mainly  after  the  beginning  of 
the  tenth  century,  and  flourished  for  many 
generations.  The  Cabala  was  employed 
first  in  a  mystic  explanation  of  the  Deity 
and  cosmogony,  and  in  the  creation  of 
hidden  meanings  for  the  sacred  Hebrew 
writings,  thus  drawing  into  its  province  all 
the  Hebrew  law  and  theology.  Later, 
Cabalists  pretended,  to  find  wonderful 
meanings  even  in  the  letters  and  forms  of 
the  sacred  texts,  and  made  for  themselves 
elaborate  rules  of  interpretation. 

Cades  (more  fully  Cades  Barnea). — i. 
A  place  on  the  southern  boundary  of  the 
East  Jordan  territory,  the  modern  Ain  Ka- 
dish,  in  the  country  of  the  Azarime.  It 
was  the  headquarters  of  the  Israelites  in 
their  wanderings  in  the  desert.  Miriam, 
the  sister  of  Moses,  died  here;  the  episode 
of  the  "waters  of  strife"  took  place  here; 
and  whence  the  spies  were  sent  to  explore 
Chanaan. — 2.  The  capital  of  the  Hittites, 
on  the  Orontes,  near  Tel  Nebi  Mende.  In 
the  year  1380  b.  c.  Rameses  II.  of  the  19th 
dynasty,  gained  there  a  decisive  victory 
over  the  Hittites. 

Caecilia  (St.).  —  A  Christian  martyr. 
Died  at  Rome,  230.  According  to  the  leg- 
end, she  was  compelled,  in  spite  of  a  vow 
of  celibacy,  to  marry  a  young  nobleman. 
Valerian.     She   succeeded    in    converting 


him  to  her  views  and  also  to  Christianity, 
for  which  they  suffered  death.  She  is 
generally  considered  the  patron  saint  of 
music,  and  is  represented  in  art  as  sing- 
ing and  playing  on  some  musical  instru- 
ment, or  as  listening  to  the  music  of  an 
angel  who  has  been  drawn  from  heaven  by 
her  harmony.  F.  Nov.  22d.  Through  the 
care  of  Pope  Urban  I.,  the  remains  of  St. 
Caecilia  were  first  buried  in  the  cemetery 
on  the  Appian  Way,  and  then  transferred 
to  the  Cemetery  of  St.  Callistus.  The 
palace  which  she  had  inhabited  having 
been  erected  into  a  church.  Pope  Paschal 
I.,  in  821,  rebuilt  the  ancient  basilica, 
whose  walls  threatened  to  fall  down,  and 
transferred  the  remains  of  our  saint  into 
this  Church.  In  1599,  her  tomb  having 
been  opened,  they  established  the  com- 
plete integrity  of  her  body,  which  can  be 
seen  in  the  same  position  until  to-day.  (Cf. 
Sainte  Cecile  et  la  Societi  Romaine,  by 
Dom  Gueranger,  Paris,  1878.) 

Caelestius.     See  Ccelestius. 

Caesar. — Originally  the  surname  of  the 
Julian  family  at  Rome.  After  being  dig- 
nified in  the  person  of  Julius  Csesar,  it  be- 
came the  usual  appellation  of  those  of  the 
family  who  ascended  the  Roman  throne. 
The  last  of  these  was  Nero ;  but  the  name 
was  still  retained  by  his  successors,  as  a 
species  of  title  belonging  to  imperial  dig- 
nity. 

Caesarea  (the  name  of  two  cities  in  Pal- 
estine).— I.  Caesarea  of  Palestine,  or  sim- 
ply Caesarea,  situated  on  the  coast  of  the 
Mediterranean    sea,   between    Joppa    and 


Caesarius  of  Arles 


128 


Cajetan 


Tjre,  It  was  anciently  a  small  place, 
called  the  "Tower  of  Strato,"  but  was  re- 
built with  great  splendor,  and  strongly 
fortified  by  Herod  the  Great,  and  named 
Caesarea  in  honor  of  Augustus.  It  was  in- 
habited chiefly  by  Greeks.  This  city  was 
the  capital  of  Judea  during  the  reigns  of 
Herod  the  Great  and  of  Herod  Agripp>a  I., 
and  was  also  the  seat  of  the  Roman  power, 
while  Judea  was  governed  as  a  province  of 
that  empire.  It  is  often  mentioned  in  the 
New  Testament.  About  the  end  of  the 
second  century  it  became  the  residence  of 
a  bishop,  and  possessed  a  Christian  school 
in  which  Origen  was  teaching.  The  mod- 
ern Kaisariyeh  is  a  desolate  place  of 
ruins. — 2.  Csesarea  Philippi,  a  town  in 
northern  Palestine,  situated  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Hermon.  The  modern  village  is 
called  Banias,  formerly  Paneas. 

Caesarius  of  Aries  (St.). — Archbishop 
of  Aries.  Was  born  of  pious  parents,  about 
470,  at  Chalons-sur-Saone ;  and  studied  for 
the  priesthood  at  the  Monastery  of  Lerins. 
As  his  health  became  enfeebled  by  the  aus- 
terity of  his  life,  the  Abbot  of  Lerins  sent 
him  to  Aries  where,  in  499  he  was  ordained 
priest  by  his  relative,  Bishop  yEonius, 
whom  he  succeeded  in  502.  As  bishop,  he 
exercised  a  truly  apostolic  ministry  by 
preaching,  by  attending  to  the  sick  and 
prisoners  of  war,  by  promoting  the  divine 
service,  ecclesiastical  discipline,  and  mon- 
astic observance.  Owing  to  the  false  ac- 
cusation of  some  unscrupulous  priests, 
among  them  his  own  secretary,  Caesarius 
was,  in  505,  driven  into  exile  by  Alaric, 
King  of  the  Visigoths ;  but  was  recalled 
again  as  soon  as  the  king  became  convinced 
of  his  innocence.  Somewhat  later  he  was 
likewise  accused  of  disloyalty  to  Theodoric, 
King  of  the  Ostrogoths,  but  he  completely 
cleared  himself  of  the  charge.  Pope  Sym- 
machus  took  advantage  of  his  presence  at 
Rome  to  confer  upon  him  the  pallium. 
Caesarius  held  several  synods  in  which 
many  important  disciplinary  decrees  were 
enacted.  He  presided  over  the  Council  of 
Orange  (529),  at  which  Semi-Pelagianism 
was  condemned.     He  died  in  542. 

Cahenslianism. — A  term  applied  to  an 
apparent  agitation  (since  1891)  in  the 
Catholic  Church  In  the  United  States  for 
the  purpose  of  inducing  the  Pope  to  ap- 
point bishops  and  priests,  for  Catholics  in 
the  United  States,  as  much  as  possible  of 
their  own  nationality :  so  called  from  a 
memorial  addressed  to  the  Vatican  in  1891 


by  Herr  Cahensly,  president  of  the  Society 
for  Immigrants  and  other  Europeans. 

Cain  (Hebr.  acquisition). — The  firstborn 
of  the  human  race  and  the  first  murderer. 
Presenting  to  God  an  offering  of  fruits,  his 
sacrifice  was  rejected,  while  that  of  his 
brother  Abel  was  accepted.  Hence,  through 
envy,  he  slew  his  brother  and  was  ban- 
ished by  God,  and  made  a  fugitive  and  a 
wanderer.  Cain  received  from  God  a 
sign  to  protect  him  from  the  avenger  of 
blood.  He  withdrew  into  the  land  of  Nod, 
east  of  Eden,  and  built  a  city,  which  he 
called  Enoch,  after  the  name  of  one  of  his 
sons.      (Gen.  iv.) 

Cainan. — i.  The  fourth  of  the  ten  Pa- 
triarchs anterior  to  the  Deluge.  He  was  the 
son  of  Enos,  father  of  Malaleel,  died  in 
the  year  2769  b.  c,  at  the  age  of  910  years. 
— 2.  In  the  Septuagint  (Gen.  x.  24,  and 
xxxi.  12),  and  in  St.  Luke  (iii.  36),  son  of 
Arphaxad,  consequently  great-grandson  of 
Noe,  father  of  Sale.  Several  commenta- 
tors believe  him  interpolated,  because  his 
name  is  found  neither  in  the  Vulgate  nor 
in  the  Hebrew  text,  which  makes  Sale  a 
son  of  Arphaxad. 

Cainites. — A  Gnostic  sect,  a  branch  of 
the  Valentinians,  in  the  second  century; 
so  called  because  they  revered  Cain,  Cham, 
the  Sodomites,  and  other  persons  branded 
in  Holy  Scripture.  They  despised  Jesus 
as  the  Messias  of  the  Psychites ;  Judas 
Iscariot  was  to  them  the  only  true  Apostle. 

Caiphas.      See  Annas. 

Caius  or  Gaius. —  A  disciple  of  St.  Paul, 
received  the  Apostle  into  his  house  when 
he  went  to  Corinth,  and  followed  him  to 
Ephesus.  According  to  Origen,  he  after- 
wards became  Bishop  of  Thessalonica.  (I. 
Cor.  i.  14.) 

Cains  (St.). —  Pope  (283-296),  born  in 
Dalmatia  ;  was  a  near  relative  of  Diocletian 
whose  niece  and  wife  he  converted  to  the 
faith. 

Cajetan  (Cardinal)  (1469-1534). —  Ital- 
ian Dominican  born  at  Syracuse ;  died  in 
Rome.  Cardinal  in  1517.  Professor  of 
Holy  Scripture  and  philosophy  in  the 
Sapiencia ;  defended  the  Papal  authority 
against  the  Council  of  Pisa ;  wrote,  among 
other  works,  a  treatise  on  Indulgences; 
sent,  as  papal  Legate  to  the  Diet  of  Augs- 
burg, where  he  had  three  fruitless  inter- 
views with  Luther.     He  became  Bishop  of 


Cajus 


129 


Calixtus 


Gaeta   (Cajeta,    whence    his    surname)   in 
1519- 

Cajus. —  A  learned  Roman  priest  of  the 
third  century.  The  time  and  place  of  his 
birth  are  unknown, was  most  probably  a  dis- 
ciple of  St.  Irenaeus,  and  lived  at  Rome 
under  Pope  Zephyrinus.  He  held  a  dis- 
putation with  the  Montanist  leader  Proclus, 
which  he  afterwards  published  in  the  form 
of  a  controversial  dialogue. 

Calatrava  (  Order  of). —  A  religious  and 
military  order,  founded  in  Castile,  in  1158, 
for  the  protection  and  extension  of  the 
Christian  cause  in  that  kingdom.  Mem- 
bership in  the  Order  is  now  conferred  as  a 
reward  of  merit. 

Calderon  de  la  Barca  (Pedro)  (1600- 
1681). —  A  celebrated  Spanish  dramatist 
and  poet.  Was  born  at  Malaga.  After 
having  borne  arms  as  a  gallant  soldier,  he 
became  a  priest  and  canon  of  Toledo.  He 
sang  in  sweet  and  graceful  numbers  of  the 
heroism  of  Christians  and  the  unfading 
crown  of  glory  they  shall  receive  on  wak- 
ing from  "  the  dream  of  this  life."  Much 
of  his  fertile  dramatic  genius  and  glowing 
religious  enthusiasm  was  expended  in  il- 
lustrating in  his  Autos  Sacratnentales,  or 
Corpus  Ckristi,  the  mysteries  of  the  Chris- 
tian religion.  These  dramatic  productions, 
designed  to  be  played  in  the  open  air  on 
Corpus  Christi  Day  and  other  feasts  of  the 
Church,  were  allegorical  in  character,  be- 
ing based  on  Scriptural  events,  but  com- 
bining, in  their  composition,  references  to 
incidents  related  in  the  history  of  the  peo- 
ple or  consecrated  in  their  folklore. 

Caleb  ( Hebr.  the  brave) . — Son  of  Jephone, 
of  the  tribe  of  Juda.  He  was  one  of  those 
who  were  sent  by  Moses  as  spies  into  the 
land  of  Chanaan. 

Calendar  {Ecclesiastical). — An  arrange- 
ment of  the  civil  year  employed  by  the 
Church  to  designate  the  days  set  apart  for 
particular  religious  celebration.  As  many 
feasts  of  the  Church  depend  upon  Easter, 
the  date  of  which  varies  from  year  to  year, 
either  the  calendar  must  vary  every  year 
or  must  contain  simply  the  matter  from 
which  a  true  calendar  can  be  computed 
for  each  year.  In  the  Catholic  Church, 
special  circumstances  in  the  history  of  each 
nation  affect  its  liturgical  calendar;  hence 
every  nation,  and  to  some  extent  every  re- 
ligious order,  and  even  every  ecclesiastical 
province,  has  its  own  calendar.  See  Ordo. 
9 


Calendar  (Gresforian). — The  reformed 
Julian  Calendar  introduced  by  the  Bull  of 
Pope  Gregory  XIH.,  in  February  1582,  and 
adopted  in  England  in  September,  1752. 
By  the  "  new  style "  of  distributing  and 
naming  time  the  length  of  the  year  of  the 
Gregorian  Calendar  is  regulated  by  the 
Gregorian  rule  of  intercalation,  which  is 
that  every  year  whose  number  is  the  com- 
mon reckoning,  since  the  birth  of  Christ, 
is  not  divisible  by  4,  as  well  as  every  year 
whose  number  is  divisible  by  100,  but  not 
by  400,  shall  have  365  days,  and  that  all 
other  years,  namely,  those  whose  numbers 
are  divisible  by  400,  and  those  divisible  by 
4,  and  not  by  100,  shall  have  366  days. 
The  Gregorian  year,  or  the  mean  length 
of  the  years  of  the  Gregorian  Calendar,  is 
365  days,  5  hours,  49  minutes,  and  12 
seconds,  and  is  too  long  by  26  seconds. 
The  Gregorian  rule  has  sometimes  been 
stated  as  if  the  year  4000  and  its  multiples 
were  to  be  common  years  :  this,  however, 
is  not  the  rule  enunciated  by  Pope  Greg- 
ory. The  Gregorian  Calendar  also  regu- 
lates the  time  of  Easter,  upon  which  that 
of  the  other  movable  feasts  of  the  Church 
depend.     See  Easter. 

California  {Missions  in).  See  Mis- 
sions. 

Calixtines.     See  Hussites. 

Calixtus  (name  of  three  Popes). —  Calix- 
tus I. —  Successor  of  Zephyrinus  (218-222). 
Born  a  slave,  he  governed  the  Church 
under  the  reign  of  Heliogabalus.  He  con- 
demned the  Antitrinitarian  heresy  of  Sabcl- 
lius,  as  also  the  ditheistic  doctrine  of 
Hippolytus,  who,  falling  into  the  opposite 
extreme,  made  the  Son  inferior  to  the 
Father.  CalixtusII. — Successor  of  Gelasius 
II.  (1119-1124).  One  of  the  first  actsof  Cal- 
ixtus was  to  convoke  a  Council  at  Rheims, 
which,  after  fruitless  attempts  on  the  part  of 
the  Pope  to  induce  Emperor  Henry  V.  of 
Germany  to  abandon  his  claims,  solemnly 
excommunicated  the  emperor  and  his  Anti- 
pope  Gregory  VII.,  and  released  the  Ger- 
mans from  the  oath  of  allegiance  until  their 
sovereign  should  adopt  better  sentiments. 
At  length,  the  charitable  admonitions  and 
prayers  of  Pope  Calixtus  prevailed  on 
Henry  to  come  to  an  agreement  with  the 
Holy  See.  The  Concordat  of  Worms,  or 
Calixtian  Treaty,  as  it  was  called,  was 
solemnly  ratified  by  the  First  Council  of 
Lateran,  or  Ninth  Ecumenical  Council, 
which  Calixtus  had  convoked  for  that  pur- 


Calmet 


130 


Calvin  and  Calvinism 


pose,  in  1123.  The  same  Council  renewed, 
in  twenty-three  canons,  the  censures  against 
simony  and  clerical  marriages.  Calixtus 
III. — Successor  of  Nicholas  V.  ( 1455-1458) . 
A  Pontiff  of  remarkable  firmness;  em- 
ployed all  his  endeavors  to  unite  all  Chris- 
tendom in  an  expedition  against  advancing 
Mohammedanism.  He  himself  raised  and 
equipped  an  army  to  aid  the  Hungarians 
against  the  Turks ;  and,  to  obtain  the  Di- 
vine assistance  for  the  Christian  warriors, 
he  ordered  the  Lord's  Prayer  and  the 
Angelic  Salutation  to  be  recited  by  the 
Faithful  at  noon;  whence  originated  the 
"Angelus."  To  his  efforts  mainly  is  at- 
tributed the  great  victory  of  the  Christians 
at  Belgrade,  in  1456. 

Calmet  (Augustine)  (1672-1757). —  A 
noted  French  Benedictine  scholar  and  bib- 
lical critic.  He  was  the  author  of  numer- 
ous works,  including  Commentary  on  all 
the  Books  of  the  Old  Testament  (1707-1716), 
and  Historical,  Critical  and  Chronological 
Dictionary  of  the  Bible.  These  works  are 
written  in  French. 

Calotte. —  A  plain  skull-cap  or  coif  of 
hair,  skin,  or  other  fabric,  worn  by  some 
clergymen,  to  cover  the  tonsure  when  ex- 
posed to  draft. 

Caloyers  (monks  of  the  Order  of  St. 
Basil). —  The  Caloyers  lived  particularly 
on  Mount  Athos  and  administered  to  nearly 
all  the  Churches  of  the  East ;  they  occupy, 
to-day,  only  a  few  monasteries. 

Calumny  and  Slander. — Calumny  is,  cor- 
rectly speaking,  a  false  and  injurious  charge 
against  another,  such  as  imputing  to  him 
habits  that  he  does  not  possess,  or  sins 
which  he  has  not  committed. —  Slander 
consists  in  spreading  or  exaggerating  evil 
reports,  unjustly  tending  to  injure  our 
neighbor's  reputation ;  detraction  is  the 
making  known,  without  just  cause,  the 
faults  of  another's  character.  Slander  and 
calumny  are,  therefore,  the  most  pernicious 
of  lies,  because  they  falsely  ruin  another's 
good  name;  and  unless  excusable,  from 
ignorance  or  inadvertence,  and  other  ex- 
tenuating circumstances,  are  serious,  and 
may  be  mortal  sins. 

Calvary  or  Golgotha  (Hebr.  the  place 
of  a  skull). — A  little  hill  northwest  of 
Jerusalem,  and  so  called,  it  is  supposed, 
from  its  skull-like  form,  or  else  because  it 
was   a  place   of  execution.      It   formerly 


stood  outside  the  walls  of  Jerusalem,  and 
was  the  spot  upon  which  our  Saviour  was 
crucified.  Hadrian,  having  taken  Jerusa- 
lem, entirely  destroyed  the  city,  and  settled 
a  Roman  colony  there,  calling  it  "^lia 
Capitolina."  The  new  city  was  not  built 
exactly  on  the  ruins  of  the  old,  but  farther 
north ;  so  that  Calvary  became  almost  the 
center  of  the  city  of  ^lia.  Hadrian  pro- 
faned the  mount,  and  particularly  the  place 
where  Jesus  had  been  crucified  and  His 
body  buried ;  but  the  Empress  Helena,  the 
mother  of  Constantine  the  Great,  erected 
over  the  spot  a  stately  church,  which  still 
exists. 

Calvary  (Daughters  of).  —  Benedictine 
religious,  founded  at  Poitiers  by  Antoi- 
nette of  Orleans,  of  the  House  of  Longue- 
ville.  Pope  Paul  V.  confirmed  the  order 
in  1617.  The  object  of  this  institute  is  to 
honor  the  mystery  of  the  Compassion  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin  with  the  dolors  of  Jesus 
Christ. 

Calvary  {Priests  of). — Religious  Con- 
gregation founded  near  Paris,  upon  Mount 
Valerien,  in  1634  by  Hubert  Charpentier 
(died,  1650).  On  Good  Friday  the  mem- 
bers of  this  congregation  made  to  the 
Calvary,  which  they  had  erected  on  the 
Mount,  a  pilgrimage  which  was  inter- 
dicted in  1697.  The  Congregation,  sup- 
pressed in  1791  and  restored  under  Na- 
poleon I.,  soon  disappeared.  Under  the 
Restoration  the  Jesuits  established  there  a 
house  and  a  cemetery  which  were  de- 
stroyed in  1830. 

Calvin  and  Calvinism.  —  John  Calvin 
(Chauvin)  was  born  July  loth,  1509,  at 
Noyon,  Picardy;  died  at  Geneva,  May 
27th,  1564.  Ha\ing  received  the  tonsure, 
he  was  early  provided  with  an  ecclesias- 
tical living,  but  he  was  never  admitted 
to  any  of  the  holy  orders.  He  studied 
philosophy  and  theology  at  Paris.  At 
the  request  of  4ais  father  he  went  to  study 
law  at  Bourges.  There  the  influence  of 
the  Lutheran  Volmar  won  him  over  to 
the  heresy  of  the  "Reformers."  In  1533, 
he  appeared  at  Paris,  openly  advocating 
the  new  teachings.  Being  obliged  to  leave 
France,  he  fled  to  Basle,  where,  in  1535, 
he  published  his  principal  work,  The 
Institutions  of  the  Christian  Religion. 
In  this  work,  Calvin,  with  much  skill  and 
learning,  elaborates  his  religious  system, 
which  is  based  on  the  stern  theory  of  pre 


Camaldolites 


131 


Camisards 


destination.  At  the  instance  of  Farel,  Cal- 
vin, in  1536,  settled  at  Geneva,  as  preacher 
and  professor  of  theology.  Here  he  exer- 
cised a  controlling  influence,  even  in 
temporal  aflfairs.  He  compelled  the  people 
to  abjure  the  Papacy,  abolished  all  Church 
festivals,  and  introduced  rigid  regulations 
of  discipline.  His  arbitrary  and  despotic 
measures  aroused  a  strong  opposition 
against  him,  which  resulted  in  his  expul- 
sion from  the  town.  He  went  to  Stras- 
burg,  where  he  married,  and  organized  a 
congregation  which  adopted  his  tenets  and 
discipline.  His  party  at  Geneva,  having 
meanwhile  gained  the  ascendancy,  recalled 
him,  in  1541,  and  from  this  time  Calvin 
ruled  Geneva  with  supreme  command, 
exercising  an  absolute  power  in  temporal 
as  well  as  spiritual  matters.  He  estab- 
lished a  Consistory,  or  tribunal  of  morals, 
composed  of  twelve  laymen  and  six  minis- 
ters, whose  office  it  was  to  take  cognizance 
of  all  infractions  of  morality,  including 
even  dancing  and  similar  amusements. 
Imprisonment  and  severe  penalties  were 
inflicted  for  slight  offenses.  Public  wor- 
ship was  organized  with  extreme  simplic- 
ity, preaching  and  instruction  forming  the 
chief  part  thereof.  Images  and  all  sorts 
of  decorations  were  excluded  from  the 
churches.  The  constitution  of  the  Calvin- 
istic  sect  was  rigidly  Presbyterian.  The 
distinguishing  characteristic  of  Calvinism 
is  the  doctrine  of  absolute  predestination. 
According  to  this  doctrine,  God  ordains 
some  to  everlasting  life,  others  to  ever- 
lasting punishment.  The  decree  of  pre- 
destination, the  consequence  of  Adam's 
fall,  is  eternal  and  immutable.  The  whole 
nature  of  fallen  man  is  utterly  corrupt,  and 
devoid  of  all  goodness;  man  has  an  uncon- 
querable tendency  to  do  wrong.  As  man 
is  acting  under  Divine  impulse,  which  is 
irresistible,  it  follows  that  there  can  be  no 
question  of  merits  foreseen  on  account  of 
which  God  predestines  some  to  salvation, 
others  to  eternal  damnation.  With  Luther, 
Calvin  taught  justification  by  faith  alone, 
which,  according  to  him,  consisted  not  in 
man's  real  sanctification,  but  in  the  guilt 
of  sin  not  being  imputed  to  him.  With 
Zwingle,  he  agreed  in  teaching  that  the 
Lord's  Supper  was  a  figure,  only,  of  the 
Body  and  Blood  of  Christ.  He  denied 
Transubstantiation,  but  held  that  at  the 
moment  of  communion,  a  divine  power, 
emanating  from  the  Body  of  Christ,  which 
is  now  in  heaven,  is  communicated,  but 
only  to  those  predestined  to  eternal  life. 


Camaldolites. — Religious  order  founded 
at  Camaldoli,  near  Arezzo  in  Tuscany,  by 
St.  Romuald  in  1018.  Its  members  observed 
the  Benedictine  Rule  in  its  stricter  form, 
were  divided  into  cenobites, living  in  ordi- 
nary monasteries,  and  hermits,  who  passed 
their  lives  in  lauras  and  recluses  and  who 
never  quitted  their  cells.  The  Camaldo- 
lites wear  white  robes.  Pope  Alexander 
II.,  approved  the  order  in  1072.  St.  Ro- 
muald died  June  19th,  1027,  at  the  age, 
some  claim,  of  120  years. 

Camerarius. — Name  given  to  Chamber- 
lains of  the  Pope,  of  a  cardinal,  or  any  Ital- 
ian prelate.  The  Pope  has  two  camerarii. 
One  has  charge  of  the  alms  and  the  other 
keeps  watch  over  the  silver  plate,  jewels, 
and  reliquaries.  These  prelates  wear  a 
violet  cassock  with  hanging  sleeves,  but 
without  a  cloak. 

Camerlengo. — The  chamberlain  of  the 
Pope,  having  charge  of  the  secular  interests 
of  the  Papacy.  He  takes  rank  as  one  of 
the  four  chief  officers  of  the  Pope,  the 
others  being  the  cardinal-vicar,  the  cardi- 
nal-patron and  the  cardinal-penitentiary. 
The  camerlengo  is  always  chosen  from 
the  College  of  Cardinals,  and  is,  therefore, 
usually  called  cardinal  camerlengo.  Dur- 
ing a  vacancy  in  the  Holy  See  he  takes 
charge  of  all  the  temporalities  and  pre- 
sides over  the  apostolic  chamber  or  palace. 

Cameronians. — Followers  of  Richard 
Cameron  in  Scotland,  who  refused  to  ac- 
cept the  indulgence  granted  to  the  Presby- 
terian clergy  in  the  persecuting  times  of 
Charles  II.,  lest,  by  so  doing,  they  should 
be  understood  to  recognize  his  ecclesiasti- 
cal authority.  They  were  known  at  first 
as  "The  Societies,"  but  were  afterwards  or- 
ganized as  the  Reformed  Presbyterian 
Church  of  Scotland,  most  of  the  members 
of  which,  in  1876,  were  merged  into  the  Free 
Church. 

Camillians   or  Fathers  of  a  Good  Death. 

— Members  of  a  religious  order  founded  at 
Rome  by  St.  Camillus  of  Lellis,  priest  of 
the  Diocese  of  Theate,  and  approved  by  the 
Holy  See,  March  8th,  1585.  These  religious 
take  care  of  the  sick  and  wounded  in  hos- 
pitals and  on  the  battlefield.  St  Camillus 
died  July  14th,  1614,  at  the  age  of  65  years, 
and  was  canonized  by  Benedict  XIV. 

Camisards. — Name  given  to  the  French 
Protestants  in  the  Cevennes,  who  took  up 
arms  in  defense  of  theii*  civil  and  religious 


Campbellites 


132 


Candle 


liberties  early  in  the  eighteenth  century; 
so  called  from  the  white  blouses  worn  by 
the  peasants  who  were  the  chief  actors  in 
the  insurrection. 

Campbellites. — i.  A  Protestant  denom- 
ination, otherwise  known  as  the  "Disciples 
of  Christ,"  founded  by  the  Rev.  Alexander 
Campbell  (who  died  in  1866).  He  came  to 
America  in  1809.  The  Campbellites  were 
also  called  "New  Lights." — 2.  The  fol- 
lowers of  Rev.  John  McLeod  Campbell,  a 
minister  of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  who, 
when  deposed,  in  1831,  for  teaching  the  uni- 
versality of  the  atonement,  founded  a  sep- 
arate sect. 

Campeggio  (Lawrence)  Cardinal. — 
The  eldest  of  five  sons,  born  at  Bologna, 
Nov.  7,  1472,  died  in  Rome,  July  25,  1539. 
Professor  at  Padua;  after  the  death  of  his 
wife  he  embraced  the  ecclesiastical  state; 
was  appointed  by  Julius  IL  Auditor  of  the 
Rota,  Bishop  of  Feltri,  and  Nuncio  of  Ger- 
many. Leo  X.  created  him  cardinal  and 
sent  him  into  Germany  to  try  to  win  back 
Luther;  then  into  England  to  implore  the 
assistance  of  that  country  against  the 
Turks.  In  spite  of  his  skill  he  failed  in 
these  two  missions ;  but  Henry  VHI.  was  so 
pleased  with  him  that,  in  1518,  he  gave  him 
the  Bishopric  of  Salisbury.  Under  Clem- 
ent Vn.,  he  was  sent  as  legate  to  the  Diet 
of  Nuremberg,  but  could  not  unite  the 
German  princes  against  Luther  (1524). 
Sent  back  to  England  (1528),  he  was  un- 
able to  prevent  the  divorce  of  Henry  VIIL 
from  Catherine  of  Aragon.  In  spite  of 
all  his  failures,  he  retained  the  favor  of  the 
Pope  and  continued  to  exercise  a  great  in- 
fluence over  him  until  the  end  of  his  life. 
Towards  the  close  of  his  career,  he  was 
named  Archbishop  of  Bologna. 

Cana. — A  city  of  Galilee  in  which  our 
Lord  performed  his  first  miracle,  and  be- 
longed to  the  tribe  of  Zabulon.  It  has 
been  identified  with  Kefre-Kenna  and  with 
Kana-el-Jelil,  both  near  Nazareth.  At 
the  present  day  it  contains  300  schismatic 
Christians  and  as  many  Mohammedans. 
On  the  site  where  it  is  claimed  our  Sav- 
iour wrought  his  first  miracle  is  pointed 
out  the  remnants  of  a  Christian  Church 
transformed  into  a  mosque.  In  the  actual 
Church,  which  belongs  to  schismatic 
Greeks,  two  large  stone  vases  can  be 
seen,  which  are,  it  is  asserted,  two  of  the 
six  vases  which  contained  the  water  that 
was  changed  into  wine     M.  de  Saulcy,  who 


has  carefully  examined  them,  believes  that 
they  are  at  least  contemporary  with  the 
time  of  our  Saviour. 

Ccinada  {Missions  in).     See   Missions. 

Canada  {Statistics  of  the  Church  in)  in 
1898.     (See  opposite  page.) 

Candace. — Queen  of  Ethiopia  of  whom 
there  is  mention  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apos- 
tles (viii.  27),  and  who  introduced  Chris- 
tianity' among  her  people.  She  had  been 
converted  by  her  treasurer,  the  eunuch 
Judas,  who,  in  a  voyage  which  he  made  to 
Jerusalem,  was  converted  by  St.  Philip. 

Candle  {Paschal). —  A  candle  blessed  on 
the  eve  of  Easter.  That  its  origin  is  very 
ancient  may  be  unhesitatingly  asserted, 
when  we  remember  that  St.  Jerome  and  St. 
Augustine  respectively  make  mention  of  its 
usage.  That,  in  Rome,  in  the  fifth  cen- 
tury, a  candle  was  solemnly  blessed  upon 
the  eve  of  Easter,  and  kept  burning  at  Di- 
vine service  during  Paschal  time, —  or  the 
period  which  elapses  between  the  feasts  of 
the  resurrection  and  ascension, —  is  ascer- 
tained by  a  permission  which,  the  Liber 
Pontificalis  informs  us,  was  conceded  by 
Pope  Zosimus  (417-418),  in  favor  of  the 
several  parish  Churches  throughout  Rome, 
by  which  they  were  authorized  to  bless  the 
Paschal  candle,  in  imitation  of  the  prac- 
tice then  observed  in  the  basilicas  of  that 
metropolis  of  Christianity.  The  Paschal 
candle  is  of  unusual  size,  being,  generally, 
many  feet  in  height  and  several  inches  in 
diameter.  It  is  regarded  as  an  emblem  of 
Christ.  While  it  is  unlighted,  it  is  figura- 
tive of  His  death  and  repose  in  the  tomb ; 
when  lighted,  it  represents  the  splendor 
and  glory  of  His  resurrection.  Before  it  is 
blessed,  the  officiating  deacon  inserts  the 
five  grains  of  incense,  to  signify  that  the 
sacred  body  of  our  Divine  Redeemer  was 
bound  in  linen  cloths  with  spices,  and 
thus  consigned  to  the  grave.  The  five  in- 
cisions made  to  receive  the  grains  of  in- 
cense, which  are  so  arranged  as  to  form 
the  figure  of  a  cross,  represent  the  five 
wounds  that  were  inflicted  on  the  bod}'  of 
Christ  at  His  crucifixion.     See  Exultet. 

Candle  ( Triple^ . —  In  the  service  peculiar 
to  Holy  Saturday,  or  Easter  eve,  is  in- 
cluded the  ceremony  of  the  lighting  of  the 
triple  candle,  the  branches  of  which  all 
arise  from  one  stem.  This  stem  is  affixed 
to  the  top  of  what  is  denominated  the  reed. 
This  three-branched  candle  is  intended  to 


Candlemas 


133 


Canisius 


Statistics  of  the  Church  in  Canada  in  1898.  —  General  Summary 


Archdioceses  and 
Dioceses. 


Halifax 

Antigonish  . . . 

Charlottetown 

Chatham 

St.  John 

Kingston 

Alexandria .  .  . 

Peterborough 

Montreal 

St.  Hyacinth .  . 

Sherbrooke . . . 

Valleyfield  .  . . 

Ottawa   

Pembroke  .... 

Quebec 

Chicoutimi ,  . . 

Nicolet 

Rimouski  .... 

Three  Rivers. 

P. -A.  St.  Lau- 
rent   

St.  Boniface  .  .  . 

New  Westmin- 
ster   

St.  Albert 

A.  Athabaska 
V.-Mackenzie 

V.-A.  Saskatch- 


ewan   

Toronto  

Hamilton 

London  

Vancouver's  Is- 
land  


Total 


24 


Clergy 


24 

241 

18 


3 
91 
II 

35 
6 


3 
50 


26 

28 


30 


4 

32 


16 


683 


40 
80 
45 
52 
49 
40 
16 
29 

369 

184 

94 
64 
96 

25 
424 

83 
105 
"3 


7 
44 

5 
6 


17 
56 
42 

S3 


2236 


51 
87 

45 
52 
68 

45 
16 

53 
610 
202 

94 

67 
187 

36 
459 

89 

105 

116 

86 

10 
94 

31 
34 

30 


60 
69 

14 


2919 


3  a 


103 

96 

49 
62 
61 
64 

23 
162 

285 

"S 
69 

58 
no 

83 

245 

III 

58 

200 

44 

17 
93 

90 

32 


51 
85 
81 

78 
44 


2589 


13 


4 

272 

42 

12 

10 

28 

3 

87 

29 

22 

142 


742 


High 
Schools 


25 

17 

5 

6 

5 


96 


44 
23 
3 
14 
II 

4 
19 

4 
19 

5 


32 

7 
3 


248 


*a 


4 
22 
6 
4 
4 
10 


239 


50,000 
73,000 
55>ooo 
55.000 
58,000 
37,000 
18,000 
40,000 

415,000 

119,000 
65,000 
56,125 

128,000 
40,000 

320,000 
57, 000 

79,369 
84,500 
60,568 

7,000 
27,800 

28,000 
15,000 

8,000 

8,200 
65,000 
50,000 
60,000 

9,000 


2,088,562 


indicate  a  Trinity  of  persons  in  one  God, 
or  the  light  and  glory  of  the  Triune  God 
beaming  forth  upon  mankind  through  the 
person  of  our  Redeemer  Jesus  Christ. 

Candlemas  or  the  feast  of  the  Purifica- 
tion of  the  Blessed  Virgin  is  observed  on 
the  2d  of  February.  The  Festival  of  Puri- 
fication, a  festival  common  to  the  Latin  and 
Greek  Churches,  is  rendered  peculiar  by 
the  blessing  of  wax  tapers  which  are 
carried  burning  by  those  who  form  the 
procession  which  takes  place  afterwards. 
The  symbolical  meaning  attributed  to  this 
ceremony  is,  that  the  faithful  should,  with 
the  holy  Simeon,  recognize  in  the  Infant 
Jesus  the  salvation  which   the   Lord   had 


prepared  before  the  face  of  the  people, — 
"A  light  to  lighten  the  Gentiles,  and  the 
glory  of  the  people  of  Israel"  (Luke  ii.  31- 
32)  and  be  admonished  by  the  burning 
tapers  which  they  are  carrying  in  their 
hands,  that  their  faith  must  be  fed  and  aug- 
mented by  the  exercise  of  good  works, 
through  which  they  are  to  become  a  light 
to  shine  before  men  (Matt.  v.  14-16). 

Candles  Used  in  Church.     See  Lights. 

Canisius  (Peter),  latinized  from  De 
Hand  (1524-1597). — Born  at  Nimwegen, 
in  the  Netherlands,  died  at  Freiburg,  Switz- 
erland. Jesuit  and  the  first  provincial  of 
his  order  in  Germany.  He  founded  the 
College  of  Freiburg.  Was  at  once  an  apos- 


Canonical  Hours 


134 


Canonization 


tie  and  theologian;  distinguished  himself 
in  the  Council  of  Trent;  converted  numer- 
ous heretics  and  composed  highly  esteemed 
works.  Among  others,  a  Larger  and  a 
Smaller  Catechism,  the  former  bearing 
the  title  Sumt/ia  Doctrince  Christiance ; 
and  the  latter,  an  abridgment  of  the  former, 
published  in  1561.  It  was  not  long  before 
the  Summa  was  translated  into  every  liv- 
ing language. 

Canonical  Hours.     See  Breviary. 

Canonist. — Doctor  in  canon  law,  or  au- 
thor who  has  written  on  the  laws  of  the 
Church.     See  Canon  Law. 

Canonization. — A  solemn  declaration  by 
which  the  Pope  places  in  the  catalogue  of 
the  saints,  a  person  who  has  died  in  the 
odor  of  sanctity.  Du  Gauge  informs  us 
that,  in  the  early  Church,  canonization  was 
but  a  mandate  of  the  Pope  by  which  he  com- 
manded that  the  names  of  those  who  were 
remarkable  for  their  sanctity-  should  be  in- 
serted in  the  Canon  of  the  Mass.  Father 
Mabillon,  in  the  preface  of  the  Acfa  SS. 
Bened.  (p.  88),  remarks,  very  correctl}-,  that 
the  term  canonization  is  not  as  ancient  as 
the  act  which  it  signifies.  The  word  was 
not  in  use  before  the  thirteenth  century, 
and  we  first  meet  the  term  in  the  letter  of 
Udalric,  Bishop  of  Constance,  to  Pope 
Calixtus  II.,  referring  to  the  canonization 
of  Bishop  Conrad.  We  also  find  the  word 
used  by  Pope  Alexander  III.,  in  the  canon- 
ization of  St.  Edward,  King  of  England,  in 
1 161 ;  also  in  that  of  St.  Thomas  of  Canter- 
bury in  1 173.  Father  Mabillon  distin- 
guishes between  a  general  and  a  particular 
canonization.  The  first  is  that  which  took 
place  by  a  general  council  or  by  the  Pope; 
the  second, — that  which  was  performed  by 
a  bishop,  by  a  particular  Church,  or  by  a 
particular  council.  There  are  some  in- 
stances of  canonization,  or  of  a  kind 
of  canonization,  pronounced  by  abbots. 
Thus  St.  Viboradus,  killed  by  the  Bar- 
barians, May  2d,  925, —  many  miracles 
having  been  wrought  on  his  tomb, —  Abbot 
Engilbert,  on  the  anniversary  of  his  death, 
enrolled  him  among  the  saints,  and,  after 
having  consulted  his  monks,  composed  an 
"Office"  in  his  honor,  and  celebrated  the 
Mass  Commune  Virginum.  (See  Mabillon, 
Prcef.  et  S(ec.  I,  n.  91.)  Fleury  adds  that 
he  did  this  by  the  authority  of  the  bishop. 

The  first  saints  which  the  Church  hon- 
ored were  the  holy  martyrs.  She  com- 
menced later  on  to  canonize  the  confessors. 


The  first  authentic  instance  of  a  canoniza- 
tion by  a  Pope  is  that  of  St.  Uldric  or 
Udaric,  Bishop  of  Augsburg ;  this  was  per- 
formed by  Pope  John  XV.,  June  nth,  983, 
in  the  eighth  year  of  his  Pontificate.  This 
canonization  occurred  twenty  years  after 
the  saint's  death.  The  final  process  is 
signed  by  the  Pope,  five  bishops  of  the 
vicinage  of  Rome,  nine  priests,  and  three 
cardinal-deacons.  Even  in  the  solemn  and 
formal  act  the  word  "  canonization  "  is  not 
used.  The  process  is  found  in  Baronius, 
in  the  collection  of  the  Councils  by  Labbe 
{tom.  IX,  p.  741),  and  in  the  Propyl<Eum 
ad  Acta  SS.  Mail.  Canonization  consisted 
formerly  in  putting  the  name  of  the  saint 
in  the  sacred  diptychs  or  in  the  canon,  that 
is,  in  the  catalogue  of  the  saints ;  to  erect, 
under  their  invocation,  churches,  or  ora- 
tories, with  altars,  and  to  offer  thereon  the 
holy  sacrifice  of  the  Mass ;  to  remove  their 
remains  from  their  first  burial  place,  etc. 
This  manner  of  canonizing  is  very  ancient. 
In  the  early  ages  of  Christianity,  as  we 
have  seen,  the  Pope  was  not  the  sole  au- 
thority in  canonizing.  This  privilege  was 
enjoyed  by  the  ordinaries,  especially  the 
metropolitans  and  primates.  This  was 
sometimes  exercised  on  the  occasions  of 
their  official  visits,  or  in  a  council  of  their 
province.  We  do  not  know  exactly  at 
what  period  the  right  of  canonization  was 
reserved  solely  to  the  Pope.  Some  believe 
Alexander  III.  to  be  the  author  of  this 
restriction.  The  Jesuits  of  Antwerp  in 
their  learned  Profylceum  ad  Acta  Sanc- 
torum Mail  {p.  471)  (173  B.C.),  conjecture 
that  it  had  been  established  for  two  or 
three  centuries,  by  a  custom  which  had 
passed  into  law,  but  which,  in  the  tenth 
and  eleventh  centuries,  was  not  energet- 
ically enforced.  Father  Mabillon  {Acta 
SS.  Bened.  scec.  V.  Prcef.  ^6),  also  refers  it 
to  the  tenth  century.  It  is  certain,  however, 
that  it  was  absolutely  and  generally  received 
before  Alexander  III.;  for  the  Archbishop 
of  Vienne,  in  France,  and  his  suffragans, 
acknowledged  it  authentically  in  the  year 
1231,  in  a  letter  which  they  wrote  to  Greg- 
ory IX.,  petitioning  him  for  the  canoniza- 
tion of  Stephen,  Bishop  of  Die,  who  died 
in  1208. 

The  ceremonies  of  canonization  were  not 
instituted  at  once,  but  were  of  gradual 
growth.  The  first  and  most  ancient  form 
of  canonization  consisted  in  the  simple  act 
of  the  Pope  in  declaring  an  individual 
worthy  of  public  honor  and  ordering  his 
feast  to  be  celebrated  on  the  anniversary 


Canon 


135 


Canon  Law 


of  his  death.  This  declaration  was  ordi- 
narily made  in  a  council,  though  it  was 
sometimes  pronounced  by  the  Pope  alone, 
as  in  the  qase  of  St.  Edward.  Again,  the 
declaration  was  made  in  a  great  assembly 
of  Faithful,  as  in  the  case  of  the  canoniza- 
tion of  St.  Francis  of.  Assisi.  To  render 
this  ceremony  still  more  imposing.  Pope 
Honorius  III.,  in  1225,  added  days  of  in- 
dulgences. Even  a  plenary  indulgence 
could  be  gained,  as  in  the  instance  of  the 
canonization  of  St.  Bennon  in  1523,  under 
Pope  Adrian  IV.  An  ancient  ceremonial, 
which  had  succeeded  the  Roman  Ordo, 
and  which  had  been  in  use  until  Leo  X. 
(1513-1521),  under  whose  Pontificate,  Mar- 
cellus.  Archbishop  of  Corcyra,  published 
the  new  Ceremonial,  is  the  first  book  in 
which  we  find  the  ceremonies  of  canoniza- 
tion. These  ceremonies  had  not  been  in- 
serted in  the  Roman  Ordo,  because  at  that 
time  they  were  not  performed  in  the  Church 
during  the  celebration  of  the  sacred  mys- 
teries, but  in  the  meeting  place  of  the 
council.  Thus,  it  is  believed,  that  Alex- 
ander III.  was  the  first  who  canonized  St. 
Thomas  of  Canterbury  during  the  cele- 
bration of  the  Mass.  Baronius,  in  his  Notes 
on  the  Martyrology,  and  after  him  Phce- 
baeus,  remark  that  at  the  canonization  of 
St.  Rochus,  performed  in  the  Council  of 
Constance  in  1414,  they  bore  for  the 
first  time  the  picture  of  the  saint  in  pro- 
cession through  the  city;  and  Phcebseus 
believes  that  this  was  the  origin  of  the 
banners  of  the  canonized  saint  and  of  the 
procession  made  at  the  canonization.  (See 
Bollandist,  Propyl,  ad  Acta  SS.  Mali  Dis- 
sert. XX,  p.  171,  etc.,  and  the  Preface  on 
the  Acta  Sanct.  Bened.  scec.  V.  §  vi.)  A 
mode  of  canonizing  the  saints  in  use  in  the 
tenth  and  eleventh  centuries  was  to  erect, 
with  the  permission  of  the  Holy  See,  an 
altar  over  their  remains ;  this  was  the  case, 
for  instance,  in  regard  to  St.  Romuald, 
who  died  in  1027.  The  honors  which  the 
Church  renders  to  canonized  saints  have 
been  reduced  to  seven,  i.  The  names  of 
those  saints  are  inscribed  in  the  martyr- 
ologies  and  litanies.  2.  They  are  invoked 
publicly.  3.  Churches  and  altars  are  dedi- 
cated under  their  patronage.  4.  The  sac- 
rifice of  the  Mass  is  oflfered  in  their  honor. 
5.  The  day  of  their  feast  or  the  anniversary 
of  their  death  is  celebrated.  6.  Their  pic- 
tures are  exhibited  and  are  represented  with 
an  aureola.  7.  Their  relics  are  venerated. 
Beatification  precedes  definitive  canoniz- 
ation.    It  is  the  duty  of  the  Congregation 


of  Rites  to  institute  the  process  of  canoni- 
zation. This  takes  place  only  after  the 
examination  and  verification  of  facts  and 
necessary  petitions  have  been  made  by  the 
diocesan  authorities.  Then  are  discussed 
four  questions,  or  doubts ;  the  first  three 
before  the  process  of  beatification  and  the 
resumption  of  proofs  of  new  miracles,  which 
latter  must  have  occurred  after  the  first 
process  has  been  taken.  The  first  question 
to  be  inquired  into  is  :  i.  Whether  the  re- 
quired degree  of  heroic  virtue  is  well  at- 
tested. 2.  Whether  the  required  number 
of  miracles  (two  at  least)  is  adequately 
proved.  3.  Whether  it  is  expedient  to 
proceed  to  the  beatification,  in  view  of 
the  proceedings,  proofs,  and  answer  to  the 
objections.  4.  Whether  the  canonization 
should  be  proceeded  with.  When  the 
deceased  has  left  any  written  works,  these 
are  to  be  scrupulously  and  rigorously  ex- 
amined, in  order  to  ascertain  whether  they 
are  in  accordance  with  the  rules  and  obli- 
gations of  morality  and  truths  of  religion. 
See  Beatification. 

Canon.  For  the  meaning  of  this  word, 
see  Canon  of  the  Scriptures. 

Canon  Law  (rules  or  laws  relating  to 
faith,  morals,  and  discipline,  enjoined  on 
the  members  of  the  Catholic  Church  by 
its  lawful  ecclesiastical  authority). —  In  the 
early  ages,  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  tradition, 
and  the  disciplinary  rules  laid  down  by  the 
Apostles,  or  by  apostolic  men,  constituted 
the  law  of  the  Church  in  the  East  as  well  as 
in  the  West.  Later  on,  however.  Church 
synods  formed  numerous  canons  for  the 
regulation  of  ecclesiastical  discipline  and 
the  government  of  the  particular  churches. 
Thus,  the  Council  of  Nice,  besides  its  dog- 
matic decrees,  framed  a  number  of  canons, 
which,  with  those  of  subsequent  councils, 
were  translated  into  Latin  and  widely  cir- 
culated in  the  West.  The  celebrated  and 
very  ancient  collection  referred  to  in  the 
Council  of  Chalcedon  (451)  contained  66 
canons,  enacted  respectively  by  the  Coun- 
cils of  Nice,  Ancyra,  Neo-Cssarea,  Gangra, 
Antioch,  Laodicea,  and  Constantinople. 
Up  to  this  period,  there  existed  various 
other  collections  of  canons  and  papal  decre- 
tals in  the  Latin  Church.  Of  these,  that 
of  Dionysius  Exiguus  was  most  generally  in 
use.  The  work  is  divided  into  two  parts  : 
the  first  part  contains  the  canons  of  coun- 
cils ;  the  second  the  decretal  epistles  of  the 
sovereign  Pontiffs  from  Siricius  to  Anas- 
tasius  II.     This  collection,  though  never 


Canon  of  the  Mass 


136     Canon  of  the  Scriptures 


expressly  approved  by  the  Holy  See,  at- 
tained great  influence  throughout  the 
whole  Church.  Pope  Adrian  I.  presented 
it,  with  some  additions,  to  Charlemagne, 
in  order  that  it  might  serve  as  the  code  of 
laws  for  the  government  of  the  Church 
in  the  Frankish  empire.  The  collection 
wrongly  attributed  to  St.  Isidore  of  Seville 
contained,  besides  the  canons  and  decretals 
of  Dionysius,  additions  from  the  Fathers 
and  Spanish  councils.  About  the  middle 
of  the  ninth  century,  a  new  and  largely  in- 
creased code  of  canons  came  into  use ;  first 
in  the  Frankish  empire,  and  then  in 
other  countries.  It  appeared  under  the  as- 
sumed name  of  Isidore  Mercator,  or  Peca- 
tor,  and  is  now  generally  known  as  the 
Pseudo-Isidorian  Collection,  or  False  De- 
cretals. This  collection  contains,  besides 
questions  of  ecclesiastical  l4w,  also  treat- 
ises on  dogmatical  and  moral  theology, 
liturgy,  and  penitential  discipline.  It  is 
divided  into  three  parts,  of  which  the  first 
contains  the  canons  of  the  Apostles,  and 
sixty  decretals  of  the  earlier  Popes,  from 
Clement  I.  to  Melchiades.  The  second 
part  contains  a  number  of  conciliar  canons, 
beginning  with  the  Council  of  Nice,  and 
ending  with  the  second  Council  of  Seville 
(619),  Many  of  these  canons  are  unau- 
thentic. The  third  part  is  made  up  of  the 
decretal  letters  of  the  Popes,  from  Sylves- 
ter I.  to  Gregory  II.  Of  these,  about  forty 
were  compiled  by  the  author  himself.  The 
Pseudo-Isidorian  Collection  was  regarded 
as  genuine  during  the  whole  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  that  is,  from  the  ninth  to  the  fifteenth 
centuries ;  no  one  thought  of  questioning 
the  genuineness  of  the  papal  decretals 
which  it  contained.  The  first  doubts  as  to 
their  authenticity  were  raised  about  the 
year  1400  by  Laurentius  Valla,  Canon  of 
the  Lateran.  As  early  as  143 1,  Nicholas 
of  Cusa  proved  the  forgery  of  the  Donation 
of  Constantine  as  well  as  the  writings  at- 
tributed to  Popes  St.  Clement,  St.  Anas- 
tasius,  and  St.  Melchiades.  That  the  Isi- 
dorian  Collection  is  a  forgery,  at  least  in 
part,  there  can  be  no  doubt  at  present. 
The  Pseudo-Decretals  wrought,  however, 
no  material  change  in  the  discipline  of  the 
Church.  So  much  is  certain,  that  the 
Popes  had  nothing  to  do  with  the  compila- 
tion ;  and  their  authority  derived  no  con- 
firmation, much  less  an  increase  of  power, 
from  the  False  Decretals. 

As  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  ecclesias- 
tical tribunals  extending  over  a  variety  of 
persons  and  causes,  it  became  necessary  to 


establish  a  uniform  system  for  the  regula- 
tion of  their  decisions.  Hence  Gratian,  a 
Benedictine  monk,  and  professor  of  canon 
law  at  Bologna,  published,  in  1151,  his 
celebrated  Manual,  entitled  Concordantia 
discordantinm  Canonum,  but  which  is  now 
commonly  known  as  Decretum  Gratiani. 
This  work  is  di^^ded  into  three  parts, 
treating  respectively  of  ecclesiastical  per- 
sons, ecclesiastical  jurisdiction,  and  the 
Liturgy  of  the  Church.  Gratian's  collec- 
tion of  the  canon  laws,  though  never  re- 
ceiving the  formal  approbation  of  the  Holy 
See,  acquired  great  authority  in  the  schools, 
and  superseded  all  other  collections  in  the 
West.  It  fell  short,  however,  of  what  was 
required,  in  the  progress  of  ecclesiastical 
judicature.  Hence,  Pope  Gregory  IX. 
caused  the  Five  Books  of  Decretals,  which 
bear  his  name,  to  be  published  by  St.  Ray- 
mond of  Pennafort,  in  1233.  These  con- 
sist almost  entirely  of  decretals,  issued  by 
the  Popes,  from  the  time  of  Gregory  I.  to 
that  of  Gregory  IX.  himself.  Boniface 
VIII.,  in  1298,  added  a  Sixth  Book  of  De- 
cretals, containing  papal  constitutions, 
promulgated  since  the  time  of  the  Pontifi- 
cate of  Gregory  IX.  New  collections  of 
papal  constitutions  were  published  by  sub- 
sequent Pontiffs  under  the  name  of  Clem- 
entintF,  containing  the  decretals  of  Clem- 
ent V.  and  of  Extrazagantes  of  John  XII., 
which  contain  the  constitutions  of  that 
PontiflF. 

Canon  of  the  Mass. — The  Canon  begins 
with  the  words  "  Z'^  igitur,"  and  closes 
with  the  ^^ Pater  Noster."  The  whole  is 
recited  in  an  inaudible  tone  of  voice  by 
the  celebrant  of  the  Mass.  It  is  called 
Canon,  because  as  the  meaning  of  the 
Greek  word  imports,  this  prayer  has  been 
laid  down  as  the  Rule,  or  Canon,  which 
is  to  be  rigidly  followed  by  the  priest  who 
offers  the  holy  sacrifice.  The  minutest 
variation  from  it  can  never  be  tolerated. 
The  Canon  of  the  Mass,  according  to  the 
use  of  Rome,  was  certainly  written  before 
the  middle  of  the  fifth  century,  probably, 
as  early  as  416;  prior  to  which  time  it  had 
been  handed  down  by  oral  tradition. 

Canon  of  the  Scriptures.  —  The  word 
canon,  which  is  of  Greek  origin,  means  a 
rod  or  stick,  with  which  lines  were  drawn, 
and  quantities  measured.  The  name  of 
this  instrument  denoted  the  standard  by 
which  the  quality  of  things  was  fixed,  and 
in  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century  it 
was  employed  to  distinguish  the  collection 


Canons 


137 


Canons 


of  the  Old  and  New  Testament  Scriptures, 
accepted  by  the  Church  as  the  Word  of  God 
or  inspired.  The  Scriptures  were  revered 
by  the  Jews  as  holy,  as  God's  word,  or  as  in- 
spired by  God.  For,  according  to  Jewish 
tradition,  they  contained  the  deposit  of  the 
divine  wisdom  that  God  revealed  to  Moses 
and  the  Prophets,  to  the  Psalmist,  Solomon, 
and  others.  Our  Lord  and  the  Apostles 
found  the  Jewish  Canon  in  existence,  and 
used  it  to  establish  the  mission  of  the  Mes- 
sias,  and  the  divine  origin  of  Christianity. 
It  was  the  Messianic  prophecies  that  made 
the  Old  Testament  so  valuable  in  the  New 
Law ;  and  as  the  need  arose,  the  Apostles 
and  their  disciples  composed  the  Scrip- 
tures of  the  New  Testament.  The  two 
Testaments  are  placed  side  by  side,  and 
together  constitute  "Holy  Scripture." 
Before  Christ  the  Old  Testament  num- 
bered thirty  Books  as  seen  in  the  Septua- 
gint.  In  the  first  century  after  Christ,  Jose- 
phus  tells  us  the  number  had  been  reduced 
to  twenty-two.  Later  on,  at  Babylon,  the 
number  had  been  fixed  at  twenty-four. 
This  last  enumeration  is  retained  by  the 
Jews  to  this  day.  The  Christian  Church 
adopted  the  Septuagint  Canon,  the  text  of 
which  is  used  almost  throughout  the  new 
Testament.  But,  in  controversy  with  the 
Jews,  the  place  of  honor  was  assigned  to  the 
Hebrew  Canon.  Finally,  according  to  the 
division  in  the  Vulgate,  the  Old  Testament 
comprised  thirty-six  books.  The  Church 
made  decrees  concerning  the  Canon  of 
Scripture  in  a  Roman  synod  under  Pope 
Damasus  (374),  and  in  the  synods  of 
Hippo  (393),  and  Carthage  (397).  The 
first  general  council  to  make  the  Canon 
universally  obligatory,  was  the  Council  of 
Trent,  which  in  its  fourth  session  enumer- 
ated the  following  books  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment : — 


The  books  of  the  New  Testament  were 
written  at  different  times  and  in  different 
places.  Hence  time  was  required  to  col- 
lect the  books,  and  to  complete  the  Canon. 
In  the  above-named  early  synods,  the 
Church  declared  twenty-seven  books  of  the 
New  Testament  canonical.  The  Council 
of  Trent  also  declared  twenty-seven  books 
of  the  New  Testament  canonical,  and  its 
decision  is  final.  The  Council  arranged 
the  Canon  of  the  New  Testament  imme- 
diately after  that  of  the  Old.  It  enumerates 
the  following  books  :  — 

The  Gospel  according  to  St.  Matthew; 
the  Gospel  according  to  St.  Mark;  the 
Gospel  according  to  St.  Luke;  and  the 
Gospel  according  to  St.  John.  The  Acts  of 
the  Apostles  written  by  the  Evangelist,  St. 
Luke.  The  fourteen  Epistles  of  St.  Paul : 
One  to  the  Romans ;  two  to  the  Corinth- 
ians; one  to  the  Galatians;  one  to  the 
Ephesians;  one  to  the  Philippians;  one  to 
the  Colossians;  two  to  the  Thessalonians ; 
two  to  Timothy;  one  to  Titus;  one  to 
Philemon;  one  to  the  Hebrews;  two  of 
Peter,  the  Apostle.  The  three  Epistles  of 
St.  John,  the  Apostle;  the  one  Epistle  of 
James ;  the  one  of  Jude,  the  Apostle ;  and 
the  Apocalypse  of  St.  John,  the  Apostle. 

Canons  (Catiedra/). ^DignitaTies  who 
possess  a  prebend  or  revenue  allotted  to 
them  for  the  performance  of  divine  service 
in  a  cathedral  or  collegiate  Church.  Can- 
ons were  formerly  divided  into  three 
classes :  regular,  secular,  and  honorary. 
The  regular  canons  lived  in  monasteries, 
and  added  the  profession  of  the  three  evan- 
gelical vows  to  their  other  duties.  Secular 
or  lay  canons  did  not  live  in  monasteries, 
but  were  bound  to  keep  the  canonical 
hours.  Honorary  canons  were  not  obliged 
to  keep  the  canonical  hours.    Collectively, 


Genesis                 ^  «  „• 
Exodus                     0 1 

Tobias 

Osee 

Judith 

Joel 

<n 

Leviticus               r'^S 

Esther 

Amos 

Numbers                  >^ 

Job 

Abdias 

§• 

Deuteronomy      J  b  0 

Psalms  (150) 

Jonas 

u 

Josue 

Proverbs 

Micheas 

u 

Judges 

Ecclesiastes 

Nahum 

a 

Ruth 

Canticle  of  Canticles 

Habacuc 

S 

1st  Book  of  Kings 

Wisdom 

Sophonias 

u 

2d  Book  of  Kings 

Ecclesiasticus 

Aggeus 

V 

3d  Book  of  Kings 

Isaias 

Zacharias 

^ 

4th  Book  of  Kings 

Jeremias  (with  Baruch) 

Malachias 

1st  Book  of  Esdras 

Ezechiel 

1st  Book  of  Machabees 

3d  Book   of    Esdras   (or 

Daniel 

2d  Book  of  Machabees 

Nehemias) 

Canons 


138 


Captivity  of  the  Jews 


with  the  dean  at  their  head,  the  canons 
formed  the  Cathedral  Chapter.  We  have 
no  canons  in  the  United  States.    See  Con- 

SULTORS  OF  THE  BiSHOP. 

Canons  {Penitential). —  The  nature  and 
duration  of  penances  to  be  performed  in 
the  first  and  second  centuries  were  deter- 
mined by  the  bishops  after  consulting  their 
diocesan  counselors ;  in  the  more  impor- 
tant cases,  bishops  also  asked  by  letter 
{epistola  canonica)  the  advice  of  their 
brother  bishops.  When  crimes  became 
more  frequent,  the  Church  became  very 
severe,  and  established  through  her  sacred 
canons  proper  regulations  determining  the 
nature  and  time  of  the  penance  to  be  im- 
posed. The  collection  of  these  regulations, 
which  appointed  the  manner  and  duration 
of  penances  for  different  sins,  was  called 
Penitential  Canons  or  simply  ^^Peniten- 
iiale:' 

Canticle  of  Canticles. — Canonical  book 
of  the  Old  Testament.  It  is  allegorically 
under  the  symbol  of  a  chaste  spouse,  rep- 
resented as  a  shepherd,  and  his  wife  as  the 
keeper  of  a  vineyard,  or  the  King's  daugh- 
ter, that  Solomon,  who  is  believed  to  be 
the  author,  describes  the  love  with  which 
God  cherishes  the  Synagogue,  as  well  as 
the  Christian  Church  of  which  the  Syna- 
gogue was  but  the  figure.  The  words  of 
this  Canticle  of  Canticles  are  applied  as 
descriptive  of  the  union  of  Christ  with  all 
the  just  members  of  His  Church,  and  es- 
pecially with  our  Blessed  Lady. 

Cantor. — An  officer  whose  duty  it  is  to 
lead  the  singing  in  a  cathedral,  or  in  a 
collegiate  or  parish  church ;  a  precentor. 

Canus  (Melchior).  —  Spanish  theolo- 
gian, born  at  Tarancon,  diocese  of  Toledo, 
1509,  died  at  Toledo,  1560.  Dominican, 
professor  at  Alcala  and  Salamanca,  1546; 
sent  to  the  Council  of  Trent  under  Paul 
III.  Appointed  Bishop  of  the  Canaries  in 
1552,  he  did  not  take  possession  of  his  see. 
He  was  a  friend  of  Philip  II. ;  Provincial 
of  Castile,  and  had  some  trouble  with  the 
Jesuits.  His  theological  works  are :  Lo- 
corum  theologicorum,  libri  XII  (Sala- 
manca, 1562,  often  reprinted) ;  Prcelec- 
tiones  de  Poeniteniia;  De  Sacramentis. 
Complete  works,  Cologne  (1605  and  1678), 
and  Lyons  (1674). 

Capharnaum. — In  the  time  of  Christ,  an 
important  place  on  the  western  shore  of 
the  Sea  of  Galilee,  about  three  miles  dis- 


tant from  where  the  Jordan  falls  into  the 
sea.  It  was  the  scene  of  many  incidents 
and  actions  in  the  life  of  Christ.  It  is  iden- 
tified with  the  modern  ruins  of  Tel  Hum, 
by  some  with  Khan  Minyeh. 

Caphtor. — The  name  of  a  country  in  the 
Old  Testament,  mentioned  as  the  starting 
point  of  the  migrations  of  the  Philistines, 
whence  they  are  also  called  Caphtorim 
(Deut.  ii.  23;  Jer.  xlvii.  4;  Amos  ix.  7). 
Formerly  identified  with  Cappadocia  or 
Cyprus,  but  considered  by  the  majority  of 
modern  scholars  as  identical  %vith  Crete. 
This  view  is  favored  by  many  passages  in 
which  the  Philistines  are  called  Cretans 
(Cherethites)  (Ez.  xxv.  16;  Soph.  ii.  5; 
I.  Ki.  XXX.  14),  and  is  supported  by  ancient 
writers  who  connected  the  Philistines  with 
the  island  of  Crete.  In  Gen.  x.  14,  the 
Caphtorim  are  enumerated  among  the 
descendants  of  the  Egyptians  (Mizraim), 
and  it  is  therefore  assumed  that  a  portion 
of  the  Philistines  emigrated  from  Crete  by 
way  of  Egypt  to  Palestine. 

Capital  Sins.     See  Sin. 

Capitularies. —  The  body  of  laws  or  stat- 
utes of  a  Chapter  or  of  an  ecclesiastical 
council.  This  name  is  also  given  to  the 
laws,  civil  and  ecclesiastical,  made  by 
Charlemagne  and  other  princes  in  general 
councils  and  assemblies  of  the  people. 
They  are  called  Capitularies  because  they 
are  divided  into  chapters  or  sections. 

Cappadocia. —  An  ancient  province  and 
kingdom  of  Asia  Minor,  now  part  of  Asi- 
atic Turkey.  Jews  resident  in  this  place 
were  among  St.  Peter's  hearers  on  the  day 
of  Pentecost,  and  Christians  were  among 
those  addressed  by  him  in  his  First  Epistle. 

Captivity  of  the  Jews. —  The  most  fa- 
mous captivities  in  history  are  those  of  the 
Jews  in  Egypt  under  the  Pharaos ;  at  Nin- 
ive  under  Salmanasar;  and  in  Babylonia 
under  Nabuchodonosor,  in  606  B.C.,  who 
transported  into  Babylonia  18,000  Jews ;  in 
:;99  B.  c.  a  second  and  greater  transporta- 
tion took  place;  in  588  b.c,  Nabuchodono- 
sor destroyed  Jerusalem,  and  led  away  into 
captivity  the  great  mass  of  the  people. 
The  exile  lasted  until  535  b.  c,  when,  after 
the  conquest  of  Babylon  by  Cyrus,  the 
Jews  were  permitted  to  return  to  their 
country  of  Palestine.  Thus,  from  606  to 
535  B.  c,  the  Babylonian  captivity  lasted, 
exactly  70  years,  as  it  had  been  foretold 
by  the  Prophet  Isaias  (lii.  28).     See  Jews. 


Captivity  of  the  Popes 


139 


Carmelites 


Captivity  of  the  Popes. — We  thus  char- 
acterize the  period  from  1305  to  1378,  when 
seven  Roman  Pontiffs  took  up  their  resi- 
dence at  Avignon,  France ;  also  called  the 
"  Captivity  of  seventy  years."  These 
Popes  were  Clement  V.,  1305-1314;  John 
XXII.,  1314-1334;  Benedict  XII.,  1334- 
1342;  Clement  VI.,  1342-1352;  Innocent 
VI.,  1352-1362  ;  Urban  v.,  1362-1370;  and 
Gregory  XL,  1370-1378.  All  these  Popes 
were  natives  of  France. 

Capuchins.  —  A  branch  of  the  great 
Franciscan  Order,  instituted  by  Matteo  di 
Bassi  of  Urbino,  in  1528,  and  named  from 
their  long  pointed  capoch  or  cowl  which 
is  the  distinguishing  mark  of  their  dress. 
Their  special  object  is  the  strict  observance 
of  monastic  poverty  as  prescribed  in  the 
Rule  of  St.  Francis.  They  were  to  have 
no  revenues,  but  to  live  by  begging.  In 
1528,  they  obtained  from  Clement  VII. 
permission  to  wear  beards.  The  new  Or- 
der spread  rapidly  and  became  very  popu- 
lar. The  Capuchins  labored,  with  much 
success,  in  reclaiming  to  the  true  faith 
numberless  Protestants  in  Germany,  Savoy, 
and  Switzerland.  The  Capuchins  are  most 
numerous  in  Austria.  In  the  United  States 
they  have  convents  in  the  Dioceses  of  New 
York,  Pittsburg,  Green  Bay,  Milwaukee, 
etc.     See  Franciscans. 

Capuciati. — A  short-lived,  semi-politi- 
cal, and  communistic  sect,  devoted  to  the 
Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  which  appeared  in 
Burgundy  about  1182  ;  so  called  from  their 
hood  or  capoch. 

Carchemis. —  The  ancient  capital  of  the 
Hittites.  It  was  formerly  identified  with 
the  Circessium  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
a  fortified  place  near  where  the  Chaboras 
empties  into  the  Euphrates.  Is  now  repre- 
sented by  the  ruins  of  Jerablus.  In  605 
B.C.,  the  battle  between  Nabuchodonosor 
and  Nechao  of  Egypt  took  place  under  its 
walls  (Jer.  xlvi.  12;  2  Par.  xxxv.  20),  in 
which  the  Egyptian  was  disastrously  de- 
feated. 

Cardinals. — Members  of  the  Sacred  Col- 
lege; a  body  of  ecclesiastics  who  rank  in 
dignity  next  to  the  Pope  and  act  as  his 
counselors  in  the  government  of  the 
Church.  From  early  times  the  chief  coun- 
selors and  assistants  of  the  Pope  were,  be- 
sides the  regionary  deacons  and  archpriests 
of  the  principal  Churches  at  Rome,  the 
bishops  of  adjacent  sees.  Thus  in  the  proc- 
ess of  time  an    ecclesiastical    senate — the 


College  of  Cardinals — was  formed,  to  ad- 
vise and  assist  the  Pope  in  the  government 
of  the  Church.  As  early  as  769,  seven 
cardinal-bishops  were  recorded.  The  title 
of  cardinal,  however,  has  been  in  use  only 
since  the  seventh  century.  At  first  it  was 
applied  to  all  ecclesiastics  permanently  in 
charge  of  churches,  particularly  to  those 
attached  to  .cathedrals.  Pope  Pius  V.,  in 
1567,  ordained  that  it  should  henceforth  be 
exclusively  applied  to  the  members  of  the 
Sacred  College,  or  cardinals  of  the  Roman 
Church.  The  cardinals  are  appointed  by 
the  Pope,  and  are  divided  into  three 
classes,  whose  full  titles  are  as  follows : 
cardinal-bishops  (6),  cardinal-priests  (50), 
and  cardinal-deacons  (14).  A  cardinal- 
priest  may  be  a  bishop  or  an  archbishop, 
and  a  cardinal-deacon  may  be  of  any  eccle- 
siastical grade  below  bishop.  The  dress 
of  a  cardinal  is  a  red  soutane,  or  cassock, 
a  rochet,  a  short  purple  mantle,  and  a  low- 
crowned,  broad-brimmed  red  hat  (not 
actually  worn),  with  two  cords  depending 
from  it, — one  from  either  side — each  hav- 
ing fifteen  tassels.  See  Congregations 
OF  Cardinals. 

Cardinal  Virtues.     See  Virtues. 

Carmel. — i.  A  mountain  ridge  in  Pales- 
tine which  branches  off  from  the  mountains 
of  Samaria,  and  stretches  in  a  long  line 
toward  the  Mediterranean  sea.  It  fell  with- 
in the  lot  of  the  tribe  of  Aser,  and  is  fre- 
quently mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament. 
It  was  the  scene  of  many  of  the  deeds  of 
the  two  great  Prophets  Elias  and  Eliseus. 
The  mountain  is  formed  of  hard  gray  lime- 
stone with  nodules  and  veins  of  flint;  it 
abounds  in  caves,  and  is  covered  with  rich 
vegetation.  The  highest  part  of  the 
mountain,  its  northwestern  end,  rises  1,742 
feet  above  the  sea.  Its  grottoes  were  the 
abodes  of  Christian  hermits  from  the  early 
times  of  Christianity.  In  1207  these  her- 
mits were  organized  into  the  Order  of 
Carmelites,  and  their  monastery  is  situated 
480  feet  above  the  sea,  where  the  mountain 
slopes  down  to  a  promontory  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  sea. — 2.  A  city  in  the  mountains 
of  Juda  (Jos.  XV.  55).  The  modern  ruins 
of  Kurmul  are  situated  about  seven  miles 
below  Hebron,  in  a  slightly  southeastern 
direction. 

Carmelites  (religious  order). — A 
crusader,  Berthold  of  Calabria,  is  regarded 
as  the  founder  of  the  Carmelite  Order. 
With  a  few  companions,  he  retired,  in  1156, 


Caroline  Books 


140 


Cartesianism 


to  the  Mount  of  Carmel,  in  Palestine,  where 
they  lived  as  hermits  in  separate  cells. 
The  increasing  number  of  his  followers 
made  it  necessary  to  build  a  monastery. 
The  rule  composed  for  the  use  of  the  order 
by  Albert,  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  was 
approved  by  Pope  Honorius  III.,  Jan.  30, 
1226.  The  conquest  of  Palestine  by  the 
Saracens,  made  it  impossible  for  the  Car- 
melites to  live  there  in  peace ;  they  passed 
into  Europe  and  established  themselves  in 
various  countries.  In  1245,  Innocent  IV. 
confirmed  them  as  a  Mendicant  Order  under 
the  title  of  "  Order  of  Friars  of  our  Lady 
of  Mount  Carmel."  From  their  white 
cloak  and  scapular,  they  became  popularly 
known  as  "White  Friars."  Under  St. 
Simon  Stock,  an  Englishman,  its  sixth 
general,  the  order  was  rapidly  extended. 
To  this  saint  is  ascribed  the  introduction 
of  the  scapular.  See  this  subject.  In  the 
United  States  there  are  convents  of  the 
order  in  the  Dioceses  of  Leavenworth, 
Newark,  Pittsburg,  Baltimore,  St.  Louis, 
New  Orleans,  etc.  The  three  convents 
last  named  follow  the  Rule  of  St.  Theresa, 
who  instituted  the  "  Discalced  Carmelites," 
or  reformed  branch  of  the  order,  consist- 
ing of  both  monks  and  nuns.  The  new 
institute  was  approved  by  Pope  Gregory 
XIII.,  in  1580. 

Caroline  Books. — Name  given  to  four 
books  composed  by  order  of  Charle- 
magne, to  refute  the  Second  Council  of 
Nice.  They  contain  120  accusations 
against  the  Council  of  Nice.  Pope  Adrian 
I.  had  a  Latin  translation  of  the  Seventh 
Council  made,  which  he  sent  to  Charle- 
magne. An  unfortunate  mistake  of  the 
translator  was  the  cause  of  grave  misunder- 
standing on  the  part  of  the  Prankish 
bishops  regarding  the  real  doctrine  of  the 
Council.  In  their  reply  to  the  Pope,  they 
severely  censured  and  protested  against 
the  supposed  errors  of  the  Nicene  Synod. 
Misled  by  this  same  faulty  translation,  the 
Great  Western  Council  of  Frankfort,  in 
794,  in  its  second  canon,  repudiated  the 
doctrine  wrongly  imputed  to  the  Fathers 
of  Nice,  and  charged  Pope  Adrian  with 
having  favored  the  Iconoclastic  supersti- 
tion of  the  Greeks.  A  fuller  refutation  of 
the  Seventh  Council  is  given  in  the  Caro- 
line Books.  From  this  work,  however,  it 
is  clear  beyond  doubt,  that  the  Council  of 
Frankfort  never  condemned  the  true  doc- 
trine defined  at  Nice.  What  it  did  con- 
demn was  the  opinion  falsely  attributed  to 


Bishop  Constantine,  in  Cyprus,  for  which 
it  held  the  Fathers  of  Nice  responsible, 
T'iz.:  that  Latria,  the  homage  of  adoration, 
the  same  as  that  due  to  the  Trinity,  was  to 
be  given  to  images.  Pope  Adrian,  to  set 
right  the  erroneous  apprehension  of  the 
Prankish  bishops,  forwarded  to  Charle- 
mange  a  dignified  reply  defending  the 
Council  of  Nice,  and  explaining  the  true 
doctrine  on  the  veneration  of  images. 

Carpocratians. — Egyptian  Gnostics ;  fol- 
lowers of  Carpocrates,  a  native  of  Alex- 
andria who  flourished  under  the  reign  of 
Hadrian.  He  taught  the  pre-existence  of 
human  souls,  the  community  of  property, 
the  indifference  of  all  moral  actions  and 
perfect  abandonment  to  an  antinomian  or 
lawless  life.  His  son  Epiphanes,  devel- 
oped the  system  of  his  father,  introduced 
community  of  wives  on  the  Ionian  Isle  of 
Cephalonia,  where  also  a  temple  was  dedi- 
cated to  his  honor. 

Carroll  (John)  (1735-1815). — American 
prelate;  was  born  in  Maryland.  He  was 
educated  in  France  and  was  a  member  of 
the  "  Society  of  Jesus  "  until  its  suppression 
by  Pope  Clement  XIV.,  when  he  returned 
to  America.  Pius  VI.,  appointed  him  Pre- 
fect Apostolic,  and  five  years  later,  in  1789, 
made  him  Bishop  of  Baltimore.  On  the 
breaking  out  of  the  Revolution,  he,  with 
his  relative,  the  also  illustrious  Charles  Car- 
roll of  Carrollton,  at  once  took  sides  with  his 
own  country.  During  the  war  he  was  ap- 
pointed one  of  four  commissioners  to  visit 
Canada  for  the  purpose  of  gaining  over  the 
Canadians  to  the  American  cause.  To 
provide  more  effectually  for  the  religious 
wants  of  his  flock,  Bishop  Carroll,  in  1791, 
convoked  a  diocesan  synod.  From  the 
first,  he  directed  his  efforts  toward  the 
education  of  the  young  and  the  establish- 
ment of  religious  institutions.  Under  the 
impulse  of  his  apostolic  zeal  arose  colleges 
and  convents.  The  number  of  Catholics 
having  considerably  increased  in  the  large 
towns  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  Pius  VII.,  in 
1808,  raised  Baltimore  to  metropolitan  rank, 
and  John  Carroll  became  its  first  arch- 
bishop. 

Cartesianism.  —  Philosophical  system 
pertaining  to  the  French  philosopher, 
Rene  Descartes  (1596-1650).  Cartesius,  sur- 
named  "the  father  of  modern  philosophy," 
disdained,  according  to  the  example  of  the 
Humanists,  Lutherans,  and  Jansenists,  the 
Peripatetic   philosophy,   made  doubt   the 


Carthage 


141 


Castelnau 


starting  point  and  the  first  condition  of  all 
inquiry;  repudiated  skepticism,  and  estab- 
lished, as  a  fundamental  proposition:  "I 
think,  therefore,  I  am."  Animated  with 
religious  sentiments,  Descartes  wished  to 
combat  materialism  and  the  abuses  of 
empiricism  by  placing  in  the  conscience 
the  immutable  point  to  which  one  must  at- 
tach himself  in  case  of  doubt,  and  in  the 
existence  of  God,  the  guarantee  of  the  ob- 
jective truth  of  our  knowledge.  The  sys- 
tem of  Descartes  was  put  on  the  Index  at 
Rome  until  corrected  (Nov.  20th,  1663). 

Carthage. — An  ancient  city  and  country 
in  northern  Africa  situated  on  the  Medi- 
terranean, a  few  miles  east  of  modern  Tunis. 
The  modern  Bizerta  is  located  on  its  site. 
It  was  founded  by  Phoenicians  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  ninth  century,  b.  c.  It  had  two 
harbors,  one  naval  and  one  mercantile,  and 
was  a  commercial  and  colonizing  center. 
Several  Church  councils  were  held  in  the 
city  of  Carthage. 

Carthagh  (St.)  (surnamed  "the  Early"). 
—  Bishop  of  Ireland,  died  in  657.  Founder 
of  the  Monastery  of  Kathenin,  famous 
school  of  the  seventh  century,  and  of  an- 
other in  the  province  of  Munster.  He  is 
looked  upon  as  the  first  bishop  of  Lismore, 
where  he  founded  a  monastery,  cathedral, 
and  school. 

Carthusians  (religious). —  The  founder 
of  the  Carthusian  Order  was  St.  Bruno  of 
Cologne.  With  six  companions,  Bruno 
retired  into  the  desert  of  Chartreuse,  near 
Grenoble,  France,  and  laid  the  foundation 
of  his  new  Order.  This  was  in  1086.  Fol- 
lowing the  Benedictine  Rule,  the  Carthu- 
sians were  famed  for  the  severity  of  their 
discipline.  They  lead  a  contemplative  life, 
and  devote  a  portion  of  their  time  to 
manual  labor.  Bruno  was  summoned  to 
Rome  by  Pope  Urban  II.,  who  had  been 
his  pupil.  After  founding  two  new  con- 
vents in  Calabria,  he  died  in  iioi.  Guigo, 
the  first  Prior  of  the  Chartreuse,  made  a 
compilation  of  the  customs  and  statutes 
observed  by  the  Carthusians. —  The  Car- 
thusian nuns  originated  about  1230,  and, 
with  some  modifications,  follow  the  rules 
of  the  Carthusian  monks. 

Casas.     See  Las  Casas. 

Cassianus  (John). —  Priest  and  Abbot 
of  Marseilles.  Was  born  about  360,  prob- 
ably in  Gaul  (or  according  to  Gennadius, 
in  Scythia),  of  wealthy  and  pious  parents. 


He  received  his  early  education  in  a  mon- 
astery at  Bethlehem.  In  390,  he  went  with 
his  friend  German  us  to  Egypt,  and  lived 
for  seven  years  with  the  solitaries  of  the 
Nitrian  desert.  After  a  short  visit  to  Beth- 
lehem, he  returned  to  Egypt,  and  then 
set  out  for  Constantinople.  There  he  was 
ordained  deacon  by  St.  John  Chrysostom, 
who,  a  second  time  condemned  to  exile, 
chose  him  to  be  the  bearer  of  a  letter  to 
Pope  Innocent  I.  The  lamentable  state  of 
affairs  in  the  Byzantine  Church  induced 
him  to  leave  the  East  and  withdraw  into 
Southern  Gaul,  where  he  was  ordained 
priest.  In  415  he  founded  two  monasteries 
at  Marseilles,  one  for  men  and  one  for 
women,  which  served  as  models  for  similar 
institutions,  and  as  places  of  refuge  for  in- 
nocence and  learning.  Cassianus  died,  rich 
in  merit  and  ripe  in  years,  about  435.  His 
Institutions  of  the  Monastic  Life,  and  his 
Conferences  of  the  Fathers,  were  written 
for  the  instruction  of  monks.  In  the  thir- 
teenth "  Conference,"  some  Pelagian  prin- 
ciples are  unwittingly  favored.  By  the 
request  of  the  Roman  deacon,  afterwards 
Pope  Leo  the  Great,  he  also  wrote  On  the 
Incarnation  of  Christ  in  seven  books,  a 
work  directed  against  Nestorius. 

Cassiodorus  (477-570) . —  Born  at  Scylla- 
cium,  in  Calabria.  A  distinguished  states- 
man under  Odoacer  and  Theodoric,  filling, 
under  various  titles,  the  highest  offices  of 
the  State.  When  seventy  years  of  age,  he 
retired  to  the  Monastery  of  Viviers  {mon- 
asterium  Vivariense),  which  he  had 
founded  in  Calabria.  Here  he  spent  the 
remainder  of  his  days  in  religious  and  lit- 
erary pursuits.  Under  his  direction  his 
monks  devoted  themselves  to  the  copying 
of  the  Sacred  Scriptures  and  ancient  manu- 
scripts of  Christian  and  classical  writers. 
He  himself  wrote  numerous  philosophical 
and  theological  works. 

Cassock. —  A  clerical  garment  reaching 
to  the  feet.  It  has  an  upright  collar.  That 
worn  by  priests  is  black,  by  the  bishops 
purple,  by  the  cardinals  scarlet,  and  by  the 
Pope  white.  The  cassock  is  generally  con- 
fined at  the  waist  by  a  broad  sash. 

Castelnau  (Peter  of). —  Monk  of  Cit- 
eaux,  legate  of  Pope  Innocent  III.,  who 
charged  him  to  combat  the  heresy  of 
the  Albigenses.  Having  excommunicated 
Raymond  VI.,  Count  of  Toulouse,  who  re- 
fused to  abandon  the  party  of  the  heretics, 
he  was  assassinated  in  an  inn  on  the  shores 


Casuistry 


142 


Catacombs 


of  the  Rhone  (1208),  by  two  noblemen, 
followers  of  the  Count.  This  crime  be- 
came the  signal  for  the  crusade  against  the 
Albigenses. 

Casuistry. — Part  of  moral  theology  which 
treats  of  matters  of  conscience.  We  find 
traces  of  Casuistry  in  the  acts  of  the 
Apostles,  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  and  in  the 
Letters  of  St.  Cyprian,  who  decided  the 
diflferent  cases  that  were  submitted  to  him. 
The  penitential  canons  emanated  either 
from  the  councils  or  from  important  per- 
sons in  the  Church.  These  canonical  rules 
and  regulations  determined  the  various 
penances  which  had  to  be  undergone  for 
violations  of  law,  both  of  divine  and  ec- 
clesiastical origin.  They  were,  in  their 
application,  abundant  sources  of  casuistic 
decisions.  The  different  degrees  of  pen- 
ances, being  distinguished  in  time,  one 
from  another,  made  it  necessary  to  estab- 
lish parallel  classifications  of  faults.  The 
rigorous  discipline  and  severity  of  the 
early  Church  disappeared  with  the  circum- 
stances that  called  them  forth  and  made 
them  necessary  and  applicable.  This 
modification  of  ancient  discipline  distinctly 
made  its  appearance  in  the  time  of  Pope 
Leo  the  Great.  What  had  been  preserved 
until  then  perished  almost  entirely  in  the 
ruin  of  the  old  world  and  its  civilization 
by  the  invasion  of  the  Barbarians.  But 
just  as  soon  as  the  Church  arose  again,  she 
sought  to  strengthen  the  Christian  life  by 
new  penitential  canons. 

This  was  the  work  of  the  Casuist  and 
moral  theologian,  who,  having  revived 
for  a  time,  the  ancient  rigor  of  Church 
disciplinary  laws,  were  obliged  to  modify 
this  rule  as  the  laws  gradually  fell  into 
disuse.  In  time,  indulgences,  granted 
even  in  the  early  days  of  the  Church, 
through  the  intercession  and  charity  of  the 
martyrs  and  confessors,  became  of  more 
frequent  and  usual  application.  In  place 
of  the  former  severe  canonical  penances 
were  substituted  acts  of  charity,  good 
works,  such  as  the  liberation  or  redemption 
of  slaves,  protection  of  pilgrims,  donations 
toward  the  building  of  churches,  schools, 
and  convents,  visiting  the  poor  and 
afflicted,  and  supporting  widows  and  or- 
phans. Casuistry  endeavored  to  determine 
the  particular  merit  of  each  of  these  good 
works,  and  their  proportionate  value  in 
accordance  with  the  degree  of  guilt  in- 
curred by  those  whose  reparation  and 
penance    seemed    worthy    of    mitigation 


through  the  application  of  indulgences. 
It  is  thus  that  the  various  labors  of  the 
Casuists  and  others  produced  the  Peniten- 
tial Books,  which  first  appeared  in  the 
Greek  Church.  These  works  later  on  be- 
came even  more  numerous  in  the  West. 

Casuistry  received  a  new  impetus  and  a 
more  scientific  development  through  the 
labors  of  the  great  collector  of  Decretals, 
Raymond  of  Pennafort,  who,  in  the  thir- 
teenth century,  transformed  the  Penitential 
Books  into  a  Casuistic  Sum  ma,  and  made, 
in  a  scholastic  sense,  a  science  of  this 
department  of  moral  theology.  The  vigor- 
ous impulse  given  to  this  work  incited,  in 
the  two  following  centuries,  an  active  em- 
ulation among  the  Casuists.  These  ques- 
tions and  discussions,  after  having  been  for 
a  long  time  in  abeyance  on  account  of  the 
controversies  of  princes  brought  on  by  the 
Reformation,  were  taken  up  again,  toward 
the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  by  the 
new  religious  Order  of  the  Jesuits  and 
carried  on  with  zeal.  The  Jesuits  suc- 
ceeded in  making  of  Casuistry  one  of  the 
most  fruitful  branches  of  theological  sci- 
ence. The  practical  system  of  the  sons  of 
St.  Ignatius  of  Loyola  induced  them  to  cul- 
tivate in  a  special  manner  moral  theology 
and  Casuistry.  The  doctrine  of  probabil- 
ism  gave  rise  to  heated  discussions.  The 
Jesuits  were  fiercely  attacked  by  Pascal, 
Nicole,  and  the  whole  tribe  of  Jansenists. 
This  continued  up  to  the  middle  of  the  last 
century,  when  the  controversy  seemed  to 
be  exhausted.  It  was  taken  up  again  and 
continued  even  to  our  day  by  several  Prot- 
estant writers.  The  best  work  on  this  intri- 
cate question  of  Casuistry  is  Busembaum's 
Medulla  Theologice,3.x\d  St.  Liguori's  The- 
ologia  Moralis,  who  made  Busembaum's 
book  the  basis  of'this  great  work. 

Catabaptists. — Name  of  heretics,  who, 
like  the  Socinians,  denied  original  sin,  and 
consequently  rejected  the  sacrament  of 
baptism,  especially  of  children,  and  main- 
tained that  it  had  only  a  power  to  excite 
faith. 

Catacombs.  —  Subterraneous  chambers 
and  passages,  formed  generally  in  rock 
which  is  soft  and  easily  excavated,  such  as 
iu/a.  Catacombs  are  to  be  found  in  almost 
every  country  where  such  stone  exists,  and 
in  most  cases,  probably,  originated  in  mere 
quarries,  which  afterwards  were  used  either 
as  places  of  sepulture  for  the  dead  or  as 
hiding  pfaces  for  the  living.  The  most  cele- 
brated catacombs  in  existence,  and  those 


Catafalque 


143 


Catechism 


which  are  generally  understood  when  cata- 
combs are  spoken  of,  are  those  on  the  Via 
Appia,  a  short  distance  from  Rome.  To 
these  dreary  crypts  it  is  believed  that  the 
early  Christians  were  in  the  habit  of  repair- 
ing, in  order  to  celebrate  their  new  wor- 
ship in  times  of  persecution ;  and  in  them 
were  buried  many  of  the  saints  and  martyrs 
of  the  primitive  Church.  They  consist  of 
long,  narrow  galleries,  usually  about  eight 
feet  high  and  five  feet  wide,  which  twist  and 
turn  in  all  directions,  very  much  resembling 
mines.  The  graves  were  constructed  by 
hollowing  out  a  portion  of  the  rock^  at  the 
side  of  the  gallery,  large  enough  to  contain 
the  body.  The  entrance  was  then  walled  up 
with  stone,  on  which  usually  the  letters,  D. 
M.  {Deo  Maximo)  orX.  P.  (the  first  two  let- 
ters of  the  Greek  name  of  Christ)  were  in- 
scribed. Other  inscriptions  and  marks,  such 
as  the  cross,  are  also  found.  Though  in  later 
times  devoted  to  the  purposes  of  Christian 
interment  exclusively,  it  is  believed  by 
some  authorities  that  the  Catacombs  were, 
at  an  earlier  period,  used  as  burying  places 
by  pagans  also.  At  irregular  intervals, 
these  galleries  expand  into  wide  and  lofty 
vaulted  chambers,  in  which  the  service  of 
the  Church  no  doubt  was  celebrated,  and 
which  still  have  the  appearance  of  churches. 
It  has  been  calculated  that  the  Catacombs, 
found  in  every  direction  around  the  walls 
of  Rome,  numbered  about  forty  in  all,  and 
that  the  united  length  of  the  passages  is 
300  leagues  or  900  miles,  and  their  walls 
lined  with  from  five  to  six  million  tombs. 
When  Rome  was  besieged  by  the  Lombards 
in  the  eighth  century,  many  Catacombs  were 
destroyed  ;  and  the  Popes  afterwards  caused 
the  remains  of  many  of  the  saints  and  martyrs 
to  be  removed  and  buried  in  the  churches. 
The  discovery  of  the  Catacombs  bear 
important  testimony  both  as  to  the 
practice  and  the  belief  of  the  early  Chris- 
tians. They  illustrate  to  us  the  belief  of 
the  early  Church  in  the  Primacy  of  St. 
Peter,  the  various  orders  of  hierarchy, 
the  sacrament  of  baptism,  the  forgiving  of 
sins,  the  Blessed  Eucharist,  the  veneration 
of  the  holy  Mother  of  God,  and  of  the 
saints,  supplication  for  the  departed,  etc. 
Thus  the  Catacombs  are  lasting  monu- 
ments, affording  the  most  unmistakable 
evidence,  that  the  Catholic  Church  of  to- 
day is  one  in  faith  and  dogma  with  the 
Church  of  the  first  century. 

Catafalque. — An   oblong,    bin-shaped 
erection   used    during   the  celebration  of 


Masses  for  the  dead,  when  the  deceased 
has  not  been  brought  to  the  Church.  It  is 
suitably  placed  in  a  position  near  the  altar, 
surrounded  by  lights,  and  draped  in  black. 

Cataphrygians.     See  Montakists. 

Catechism  (instruction  in  the  principles 
and  mysteries  of  faith). — The  Council  of 
Trent  recommended  the  use  of  Cate- 
chisms, and  ordered  that  a  special  book 
should  be  published  on  the  matter. 
Children,  especially  those  who  are  pre- 
paring to  receive  their  first  communion, 
should  be  instructed  in  the  Catechism  of 
their  parish  or  diocese.  They  may  not, 
without  special  authorization,  receive  any 
other  religious  instruction.  There  must 
be  a  grave  reason  in  order  to  obtain  per- 
mission to  have  children  instructed  at 
home  or  in  another  parish.  When  chil- 
dren are  attending  a  college  or  religious 
institution  it  is  the  duty  of  the  chaplain  to 
teach  them  the  Catechism.  Those  schools 
which  have  no  chaplain  must  conduct  the 
pupils  to  the  respective  parishes  to  which 
they  belong,  or  to  the  parish  church  of  the 
institution.  There  are  in  most  parishes 
three  kinds  of  Catechisms :  the  first, 
called  the  elementary  Catechism,  in- 
tended for  children  between  the  ages  of 
eight  and  10  years ;  the  second,  which  is 
most  important,  is  the  preparatory  Cate- 
chism,used  by  those  about  to  make  their  first 
communion.  To  study  this  Catechism  is 
obligatory  on  children  between  the  ages  of 
ID  and  12  years,  when  after,  at  least  one 
year's  study,  they  are  supposed  to  be  suffi- 
ciently instructed  to  receive  holy  commun- 
ion. Parents  are  expected  to  be  present 
at  some  of  these  instructions  in  order  to 
learn  what  is  necessary  for  their  children's 
moral  training,  and  the  conditions  which 
are  required  before  their  children  are  ad- 
mitted to  holy  communion.  The  Church 
requires  great  exactitude  in  this  matter, 
and  all  nonattendance  at  such  catechetical 
instruction  must  be  accounted  for.  The 
third,  or  Catechism  of  Perseverance,  is 
less  obligatory;  nevertheless,  its  study 
should  be  pursued  for  at  least  one  year. 
In  many  parishes  children  are  permitted 
to  receive  their  first  communion  only  on 
condition  of  their  making  a  promise  to 
attend  Catechism  classes  for  one  year  after 
they  have  made  their  first  communion. 
In  the  study  of  Catechism,  three  years  are 
generally  employed  in  order  to  obtain  a 
thorough  religious  training. 


Catechism  of  Trent 


144 


Catherine  of  Siena 


Catechism  of  the  Council  of  Trent. — This 
Catechism,  which  is  the  most  esteemed  of 
all,  was  not  composed  by  the  Fathers  of 
the  Council,  whose  name  it  bears,  but  in 
obedience  to  their  order.  Father  Alby,  a 
Jesuit,  assures  us  in  the  Life  of  Cardinal 
Sirlet,  that  this  cardinal  was  the  author  of 
the  Catechism  of  the  Council  of  Trent. 
Anthony  Fabrice  of  Liege,  in  a  preface 
which  he  wrote  for  this  Life,  insinuates 
that  Cardinal  Sirlet  is  not  the  only  one 
who  composed  the  Catechism,  but  that  he 
was  assisted  by  several  theologians.  The 
author  of  a  work  printed  in  1607  and  again 
in  1647,  entitled  ^uestio  theologica,  etc., 
says  that  the  principal  theologians  who 
edited  the  Catechism  of  the  Council  of 
Trent,  were  Leonard  Marin,  Archbishop 
of  Lanciano,  a  Dominican,  Gilles  Fus- 
caratio.  Bishop  of  Modena,  and  Francis 
Forerius,  also  a  Dominican.  When  these 
theologians,  with  others  named  by  the 
Pope,  had  composed  the  whole  body  of  the 
Catechism,  they  selected  tliree  learned  men 
to  write  it  in  pure,  elegant  Latin.  These 
were  Paul  Manuce,  Julius  Poggianus,  and 
Cornelius  Amaltheus, —  the  latter  a  physi- 
cian by  profession.  Thus  this  famous  Cate- 
chism is  not  only  highly  instructive  as 
regards  its  subject-matter  —  religion  —  but 
it  is  also  an  agreeable  book  to  read  on  ac- 
count of  its  beauty  of  style.  This  Cate- 
chism was  printed  by  order  of  Pope  St. 
Pius,  and  approved  by  a  Brief  of  Gregory 
IIL  in  1583.  St.  Charles  Borromeo  ap- 
proved of  it  in  five  synods,  held  at  Milan. 

Catechumenate. —  The  state  or  condition 
of  a  catechumen,  ».  e.,  a  person  under  in- 
struction to  prepare  him  for  baptism.  In 
the  apostolic  age,  as  appears  from  the  New 
Testament,  baptism  was  administered  at 
once  to  every  one  professing  an  earnest  be- 
lief in  Christianity,  and  a  sincere  sorrow 
for  past  sins.  Since  the  second  century, 
however,  instruction  preceded  reception 
into  the  Church,  and  no  one  was  admitted 
without  previous  probation.  By  prayer, 
imposition  of  hands,  and  the  signing  of 
the  Cross,  the  neophyte  was  received 
among  the  Catechumens.  Under  this  de- 
nomination all  those  were  classed  who  were 
undergoing  instruction  previous  to  the  re- 
ception of  baptism. 

Since  the  fourth  century,  there  were 
three  orders  of  Catechumens:  i.  The 
"  hearers  "  (audienfes),  or  those  who  were 
allowed  to  remain  at  the  divine  service  till 
after  the  sermon,  when  they  were  dismissed 


as  the  Mass  of  the  Faithful  began  with 
closed  doors.  2.  The  "kneelers"  {ffenu- 
flectentes),  or  those  who  remained  after  the 
sermon  to  participate  in  the  prayers  and 
receive  the  bishop's  blessing.  3.  The  "  ap- 
proved "  or  "  elected  "  {compctentes,  electi), 
who  had  passed  through  the  regular  course 
of  instruction  and  training,  and  who  at  the 
next  approaching  festival  (Easter,  Pente- 
cost, and,  among  the  Greeks,  also  Epiph- 
any), were  admitted  to  baptism.  The  time 
of  probation  varied  according  to  the  charac- 
ter or  the  age  of  the  individual;  but  the 
Council  of  Elvira  (305)  determined  that  it 
should  commonly  last  two  years.  In  the 
Apostolical  Constitution  three  years  are 
prescribed. 

Catena. —  A  methodized  series  of  selec- 
tion from  different  authors  to  elucidate  a 
doctrine  or  a  system  of  doctrines;  espe- 
cially such  a  set  of  quotations  from  the 
Church  Fathers  to  assist  in  the  studj'  of 
Christian  dogmas  or  biblical  exegeses :  as 
the  Catena  Aurea\ii  St.  Thomas  Aquinas. 

Catharine  of  Alexandria  (St.). — Virgin 
and  martyr  about  the  year  312.  Daughter 
of  Cestus,  governor  of  Alexandria  and 
pagan.  She  was  converted  by  a  hermit. 
Christ  appeared  to  her  in  a  dream,  and 
said  to  her,  that  He  would  select  her  for 
His  spouse ;  then  He  put  a  ring  upon  her 
finger  which  she  found  when  she  awoke. 
(Certain  biographers  and  painters  have 
applied  this  legend  to  St.  Catharine  of 
Siena).  After  this,  Catharine,  seized  bj-  a 
mystical  love  for  Christ,  ardently  tried  to 
gain  followers  to  the  Saviour.  According 
to  tradition,  she  even  disputed  with  philos- 
ophers, her  ancient  teachers,  whom  she 
confounded  by  her  wisdom.  She  suflFered 
martyrdom  under  Maximin  Daja,  whose 
love  she  repudiated.  Placed  on  a  wheel  of 
knives  and  sharp  iron  hooks,  she  was  de- 
livered by  an  angel ;  but  afterwards  she 
was  beheaded.  Her  remains  were  buried 
by  angels  on  Mount  Sinai,  where,  in  the 
eighth  century,  they  were  found  by  the 
Christians.  St. Catharine  is  the  patron  saint 
of  schools  and  philosophers.     F.  Nov.  25th. 

Catherine  of  Siena  (St.)  . — Born  at  Siena 
March  25th,  1347,  died  at  Rome  April  30th, 
1380.  OfiFspring  of  an  artisan  family,  she 
entered,  in  spite  of  her  parents,  the  Domin- 
ican Order  about  1364.  Her  spirit,  elo- 
quence, austerity,  zeal,  ecstasies,  and  reve- 
lations, soon  rendered  her  name  famous. 
Catharine   played   an   important   political 


Catharists 


145 


Catholics 


role.  In  the  war  which  the  united  Guelphs 
and  Ghibellines  made  on  Pope  Gregory 
XI.,  she  retained  the  cities  of  Arezzo, 
Lucca,  and  Siena  in  the  Pope's  party. 
After  that  she  went  to  Avignon  to  see  the 
sovereign  Pontiff,  reconciled  him  with  the 
Florentines,  and  induced  him  to  return  to 
Rome.  She  was  canonized  by  Pius  II.  in 
1461.     F.  April  30th. 

Catharists. — Heretics,  called  thus  from 
the  Greek  word  kataros  {pure),  because 
they  believed  themselves  purer  than  the 
rest  of  the  Christians.  The  name  was 
applied  principally  to  the  Apostatics,  Mon- 
tanists,  Patarini,  Bulgari,  and  Albigenses. 

Cathedra. — The  throne  or  seat  of  a 
bishop  in  the  cathedral  or  episcopal 
Church  of  his  diocese.  Formerly  the 
bishop's  throne  or  cathedra  was  generally 
situated  at  the  east  end  of  the  apse,  behind 
the  altar,  and  was  often  approached  by  a 
flight  of  steps ;  but  it  is  now  almost  univer- 
sally placed  on  one  side  of  the  choir,  usu- 
ally the  gospel  side.  That  of  St.  Peter's  at 
Rome  is  especially  honored  as  reputed  to 
have  been  the  chair  of  St.  Peter,  and  it  is 
now  enclosed  in  a  bronze  covering. 

Cathedral. — The  principal  church  of  a 
diocese,  which  is  especially  the  church  of 
the  bishop ;  so  called  from  the  fact  that  it 
contains  the  episcopal  chair  or  cathedra. 
Many  cathedrals,  particularly  the  French 
and  Italian,  furnish  the  most  magnifi- 
cent examples  of  the  architecture  of  the 
Middle  Ages.  Those  in  England  are  the 
most  interesting;  though,  unlike  the  con- 
tinental cathedrals,  they  were  originally 
designed,  almost  without  exception,  not 
as  metropolitan,  but  as  monastic  churches. 

Cathedral  Schools.     See  Schools. 

Catholic. — The  meaning  of  the  word 
"Catholic"  is  of  Greek  origin,  signifying 
throughout  the  -vhole,  universal,  and  is 
used  in  this  sense  in  various  connections  by 
both  Greek  and  Latin  pagan  writers.  The 
word  is  found  in  the  same  general  sense  in 
the  earliest  Christian  writers.  The  Roman 
Catholic  Church  possesses  universality  of 
doctrine  and  communion  in  the  world-wide 
area  of  its  dissemination  and  in  time.  On 
the  other  hand,  although  Protestants  may 
be  found  in  divers  parts  of  the  world,  they 
hold  opinions  heretical,  and  beliefs  never 
universally  identical ;  nor  have  they  Catho- 
licity of  time,  since  they  date  only  as  far 
back  as  the  sixteenth  century.     Our  right 


to  the  title  Catholic  is  amply  demon- 
strated by  the  designation  given  in  all 
ages  to  the  Church  of  Christ,  through  its 
diffusion  in  universality  of  communion 
throughout  the  Christian  world.  Further, 
Protestantism  not  only  varies  in  its  teach- 
ing, but  is  not  unfrequently  so  limited  in 
range  as  to  be  confined  to  the  particular 
nationality  where,  for  the  time  being,  it 
happens  to  find  acceptance.  The  very 
name  "Protestant,"  in  its  antagonism  to 
the  Catholic  Church,  is  expressive  of  ab- 
sence of  universality. 

Catholic  Emancipation  Act. — An  Eng- 
lish statute  of  1829  repealing  former  laws 
which  imposed  disabilities  upon  Roman 
Catholics,  and  allowing  them  (except 
priests)  to  sit  in  parliament,  and  to  hold 
civil  and  military  offices  with  certain  ex- 
ceptions. This  measure  had  reference 
especially  to  Ireland. 

Catholic  Epistles.     See  Epistles. 

Catholicos.  —  i.  In  the  later  Roman 
Empire,  a  receiver-general  or  deputy- 
receiver  in  a  civil  diocese. — 2.  In  Oriental 
countries,  a  primate  having  under  him 
metropolitans,  but  himself  subject  to  a 
patriarch. — 3.  The  head  of  an  independent 
or  schismatic  communion.  The  general 
force  of  the  title  seems  to  have  been  that 
of  a  superintendent-general  of  missions  or 
of  churches  on  and  beyond  the  borders  of 
the  Roman  Empire.  It  is  also  the  title  of 
the  head  of  the  Armenian  Church,  and  has 
been  used  by  the  Jacobites,  and  for  the 
Metropolitan  of  Ethiopia. 

Catholic  (Roman )  Relief  Act. — A  series 
of  English  statutes  removing  the  political 
disabilities  of  Roman  Catholics:  as  (1829) 
permitting  them  to  sit  in  parliament;  en- 
abling their  clergymen  to  perform  mar- 
riages between  Protestants  and  Catholics  ; 
abolishing  a  certain  oath  as  a  qualification 
for  Irish  voters;  repealing  statutes  against 
them;  making  all  subjects  eligible  to  the 
office  of  lord  chancellor,  etc. 

Catholics  {German).     See  Ronge. 

Catholics  {Number  of). —  The  whole 
number  of  Catholics  in  the  world  has  been 
variously  estimated.  Some  claim  there 
are  250,000,000;  others,  depending  largely 
on  statistics  compiled  from  reports  made 
to  the  Propaganda,  place  the  number  at 
about  235,000,000.  The  fact  should  not  be 
overlooked,  that  in  diocesan  reports  only 


^ 


Catholics 


146 


Celestine 


those  who  are  known  to  be  Catholics  are 
counted,  many  thus  remaining  unenu- 
merated.  This  is  especially  true  of  such 
places  as  the  United  States,  Canada,  Aus- 
tralia, Asia,  and  Africa.  Distributed  in 
round  numbers,  in  Europe  there  are  158,- 
000,000;  in  South  America,  33,000,000;  in 
Mexico  and  Central  America,  15,000,000; 
in  the  West  Indies,  3,000,000;  in  the 
United  States,  12,000,000;  in  Canada, 
2,200,000;  in  Asia,  8,312,000;  in  Africa, 
2,656,000;  in  Australia  and  adjacent  is- 
lands, 700,000 ;  making  a  total  of  234,868,000 
Catholics  throughout  the  world.  It  seems 
unnecessary  to  state  that  all  Catholics  owe 
full  civil  allegiance  to  the  governments  of 
the  countries  wherein  they  dwell.  It  may 
be  matter  of  interest  to  note  that  there  are 
under  the  flags  of  republics,  more  Catho- 
lics than  all  other  believers  of  any  kind, 
also  including  those  who  profess  no  re- 
ligious belief.  In  the  republics  of  Europe 
and  Africa  there  is  a  total  population  of 
about  43,550,000,  of  which  all  but  4,456,000 
are  Catholics.  The  total  population  of  all 
the  republics  of  North  and  South  America, 
estimating  the  United  States  at  63,000,000, 
is  about  113,000,000,  of  which  at  least 
61,500,000  are  Catholics,  51,500,000  being 
non-Catholics,  or  about  the  proportion  of 
15  Catholics  to  13  who  are  not  Catholic. 
In  the  whole  world  there  are  under  repub- 
lican forms  of  government,  about  loi  ,000,000 
Catholics  to  about  55,500,000  who  are  not 
Catholic.  Under  the  various  monarchical 
governments  of  Europe  there  are  119,000,- 
000  Catholics,  and,  including  Russia,  170,- 
000,000  who  are  not  Roman  Catholics.  See 
American  Supplement  to  Encyclopcedia 
Britannica. 

Catholics  {Old). — i.  The  name  used  by 
a  small  body  of  believers  in  Jansenism  in 
Holland,  with  an  archepiscopal  see  in 
Utrecht.  They  have  continued  since  1723 
to  recognize  the  authority  of  the  Pope  by 
sending  him  notice  of  each  new  election 
of  a  bishop,  which  he  alwa^-s  ignores. — 2. 
A  party  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
founded  after  the  proclamation  of,  and  in 
opposition  to,  the  dogma  of  Papal  Infalli- 
bility proclaimed  by  the  Vatican  Council 
in  1870.  A  schism  with  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church  was  not  intended,  but  it 
resulted  ;  the  leaders  were  excommunicated 
and  new  congregations  formed.  No  bishop 
having  joined  the  movement,  the  ordina- 
tion of  a  bishop  was  obtained  from  the  Old 
Catholic  Bishop  of  Deventer  in  Holland. 


Old  Catholics  have  departed  in  several 
respects  from  their  former  ecclesiastical 
customs  as  Roman  Catholics.  Auricular 
confession  and  fasting  are  voluntary  with 
them,  and  priests  are  allowed  to  marry. 
Mass  is  permitted  to  be  said  in  the  vernac- 
ular. They  are  found  chiefly  in  Germany 
and  in  Switzerland,  where  they  call  them- 
selves "Christian  Catholics." 

Cecilia.     See  Cecilia. 

Cedron. — A  brook  of  Palestine  that  passes 
to  the  north  and  east  of  Jerusalem,  and 
empties  into  the  Dead  Sea.  Its  source  is 
north  of  Jerusalem.  Its  banks  are  lined 
with  tombs,  ancient  and  modern.  It  was 
crossed  by  David  in  his  flight  from  Absa- 
lom and  by  our  Lord  on  His  way  to  Geth- 
semane. 

Celebrant. —  One  who  celebrates;  the 
priest  who  actually  offers  Mass,  as  distinc- 
tive from  his  assistants  at  the  altar. 

Celebret  (Latin  word). — Testimonial  let- 
ter delivered  to  a  priest  by  his  bishop  or 
ordinary,  testifying  that  there  is  no  canon- 
ical impediment  that  hinders  said  priest 
from  saying  Mass,  or  discharging  other 
ecclesiastical  functions,  in  places  where  he 
is  sojourning  or  passes  through. 

Celestine  (name  of  five  Popes). —  Celes- 
tine I.  Successor  of  Boniface  I.  (422-432). 
Was  zealous  in  suppressing  Pelagianism ; 
confirmed  the  decrees  of  the  General  Coun- 
cil of  Ephesus  and  the  sentence  of  deposi- 
tion pronounced  by  that  body  against  Nes- 
torious.  This  Pope  sent  St.  Palladius  and  St. 
Patrick  to  convert  the  Scots  and  the  Irish. 
Celestine  II.  —  Pope  from  11 43  to  1144. 
He  removed  the  ecclesiastical  censures  from 
Louis  VII.  king  of  France,  which  he  had 
incurred  under  Innocent  II.  Celestine  III. 
—  Successor  of  Clement  III.  (1191-1198). 
Crowned  Henry  VI.  of  Germany,  but  soon 
had  grounds  for  complaint  against  him. 
Henry's  tyranny  and  the  oppressions  of  his 
officials  exasperated  all  parties.  Pope  Cel- 
estine threatened  to  excommunicate  him  if 
he  did  not  release  Richard  Cceur  de  Lion,  of 
England,  who,  when  returning  from  Pales- 
tine, had  been  barbarously  seized,  and  who, 
in  further  violation  of  the  law  of  nations, 
was  imprisoned  by  the  emperor.  Celestine 
/F.— Pope  from  Sept.  20th  to  Oct.  3d  in 
1241.  Died  before  he  was  consecrated. — 
Celestine  V.  (Peter  Morrone,  a  pious  re- 
cluse). Pope  from  July  5th  to  December 
13th,  in    1294.      A   stranger    to    the  world 


Celestinians 


147 


Ceubacy 


and  its  workings  and  intrigues,  the 
holy  Pontiff  lacked  knowledge  of  men  and 
acquaintance  with  temporal  matters.  He 
transferred  his  residence  to  Naples,  and 
thus  came  completely  under  the  influence 
of  Charles  II.,  king  of  Sicily.  He  at  once 
created  twelve  cardinals,  seven  of  whom 
were  French  and  three  Neapolitans,  and 
appointed  the  king's  son,  a  youth  of  twenty- 
one  years,  Archbishop  of  Lyons.  He  lav- 
ished dignities  and  offices  with  a  profuse 
hand,  and  inconsiderately  bestowed  bene- 
fices, sometimes  giving  the  same  benefice 
to  three  or  four  persons  at  once.  The  loud 
complaints  of  the  confused  state  of  affairs, 
which  reached  his  ears,  and  the  conscious- 
ness of  his  own  unfitness  for  his  exalted  po- 
sition, induced  the  sainted  Pontiff  to  ab- 
dicate, after  having  occupied  the  Papal 
Chair  five  months.  Before  taking  this  final 
step,  Celestine  re-enacted  the  Conclave 
Law  of  Gregory  X.,  and  issued  a  new  con- 
stitution, declaring  that  the  Pope  might 
resign  his  dignity,  and  that  the  Sacred 
College  was  competent  to  receive  such 
resignation. 

Celestinians  {^Religious  Congregation) . 
— This  austere  order,  which  adhered  to  the 
Rule  of  St.  Benedict,  was  instituted,  about 
1254,  by  the  holy  hermit,  Peter  of  Mor- 
rone,  who  afterwards  became  Pope  Celes- 
tine V. 

Celibacy  {Clerical). —  At  the  beginning 
of  the  rite  for  the  ordination  of  subdeacons, 
the  bishop  addresses  a  solemn  warning  to 
the  candidates,  to  consider  well  how  great 
is  the  burden  which  they  offer  to  take  upon 
themselves;  he  warns  them  that  they  are 
still  free ;  but  that  when  once  the  Order 
has  been  received  they  will  be  free  no 
longer,  but  will  be  perpetually  bound  to 
serve  God  in  chastity;  and  the  candidates, 
taking  a  step  forward,  signify  that  they  un- 
derstand and  accept  the  obligation. 

This  obligation  of  chastity  has  from  the 
earliest  days  been  regarded  in  the  Latin 
Church  as  belonging  to  the  higher  grades 
in  the  Hierarchy;  and  at  present,  it  is  at- 
tached to  the  Subdiaconate.  No  marriage 
can  be  validly  contracted  by  a  subdeacon ; 
nor  can  a  married  man  lawfully  receive  the 
Order,  unless  his  wife  consents  to  perpetual 
separation  from  him,  and  herself  vows  per- 
petual chastity.  The  Order  is  a  dire  impedi- 
ment to  marriage. 

This  law  insisting  on  chastity,  is  of  hu- 
man institution,  and  it  can  be  dispensed  by 
authority  of  the  Holy  See.    Such  a  dispen- 


sation, however,  is  very  rarely  granted. 
Celibacy  seems  to  have  been  practiced  by 
the  higher  clergy  before  it  was  enjoined  by 
law ;  it  is  suggested  by  the  favor  promised 
by  Christ  to  such  as  leave  wife  for  His  sake 
(Matt.  xix.  27,  29) ;  and  by  the  doctrine  of 
St.  Paul,  that  there  is  danger  lest  care  for 
a  wife  call  a  man  away  from  the  service  of 
God  (I.  Cor.  vii.  32-33).  In  another  pas- 
sage of  the  same  Epistle  ( ix.  5) ,  the  Apostle 
claims  for  himself  the  privilege  to  carry 
about  a  woman,  a  sister,  as  well  as  the  rest 
of  the  Apostles;  and  writing  from  Rome 
to  the  Philippians,  he  sends  a  message 
(Phil.  iv.  3)  to  his  "sincere  companion"; 
and  we  read  of  the  care  of  St.  Peter's 
wife's  mother  (Luke  iv.  38)  at  an  early 
period  of  the  ministry  of  our  Lord.  These 
are  all  the  Scriptural  passages  which  the 
opponents  of  clerical  celibacy  have  been 
able  to  bring  together  in  support  of  their 
views.  It  is  scarcely  worth  while  to  deal 
with  them,  but  we  may  remark  that  be- 
cause St.  Peter  had  a  mother-in-law  at  one 
time,  it  does  not  follow  that  he  lived  with 
his  wife  two  years  later ;  it  is  hardly  prob- 
able that  St.  Paul  had  a  wife  living  in 
Philippi  while  he  was  at  Rome;  that  if 
the  word  translated  "  companion  "  means 
"wife,"  then  the  epithet  "sincere"  must 
mean  "  genuine  "  or  "  lawful," — a  true  wife 
and  not  a  concubine ;  and,  what  seems  to 
conclusively  demonstrate  that  the  "  com- 
panion "  was  not  a  woman,  but  a  man,  is 
that  the  adjective  "genuine"  is  in  the 
masculine  gender ;  lastly,  it  is  hardly  likely 
that  St.  Paul  would  have  furnished  his  op- 
ponents at  Corinth  (I.  Cor.  i.  12,  etc.),  with 
an  effective  argument  against  him,  if  he 
urged  others  to  adopt  a  celibate  life  while 
he  himself  enjoyed  the  companionship  of 
a  wife.  St.  Jerome  is  doubtless  right  in 
believing  that  the  "woman,  a  sister,"  was 
a  Christian  woman  who  accompanied  St. 
Paul  in  his  laborious  journeys,  and  minis- 
tered to  his  wants,  according  to  a  practice 
approved  by  Jewish  public  opinion  and 
adopted  by  Christ  Himself  (Matt,  xxvii. 
55,  and  St.  Jerome  on  the  passage;  PP. 
Lat.  xxvi.  214).  When  St.  Paul  requires 
(I.  Tim.  iii.  2)  that  a  bishop  should  be  the 
husband  of  one  wife,  the  meaning  is  that 
no  one  is  fit  for  the  dignity  who  has  taken 
a  second  wife  after  the  death  of  the  first. 

That  celibacy  was  the  practice  of  the 
clergy  in  the  earliest  times  is  proved  by 
the  absence  of  any  indications  to  the  con- 
trary. One  of  the  earliest  laws  upon  the 
subject  is,  perhaps,  the  thirty-third   canon 


Cellites 


148 


Cemetery 


of  a  Council  held  at  Elvira  in  305,  which 
requires  "bishops,  priests,  and  deacons  and 
all  clerics"  to  abstain  from  their  wives; 
and  in  the  course  of  the  same  century  we 
find  the  same  law  enforced  in  other  places 
in  the  Church.  It  is  therefore  altogether 
false  to  saj,  as  some  writers  do,  that  cler- 
ical celibacy  was  a  novelty  introduced  into 
England  by  St.  Dunstan,  and  forced  upon 
the  whole  Church  by  Pope  St.  Gregory 
VIII.  It  is  true  that  the  ravages  of  the 
Barbarians  had  led  to  great  relaxation  of 
discipline  throughout  Christendom,  and 
that  these  saints  incurred  much  odium 
through  their  zeal  in  restoring  primitive 
discipline ;  but  the  existing  monuments  of 
history  prove  that  what  they  insisted  on 
was  nothing  new. 

It  is  true  that  not  all  who  have  taken 
this  solemn  obligation  upon  themselves 
have  been  faithful  in  obser\-ing  it;  but 
their  frailty  merely  illustrates  the  weak- 
ness of  human  nature ;  and  in  the  most 
corrupt  times  the  morality  of  the  clergy 
has  stood  pre-eminent  when  contrasted 
with  the  practices  of  the  laity. 

Cellites.     See  Alkxians. 

Celsus. — An  eclectic  philosopher,  who 
flourished  in  the  latter  part  of  the  second 
century.  He  was  the  first  pagan  who  at- 
tempted to  oppose  the  advancing  Chris- 
tian faith  with  the  arms  of  science.  His 
work  entitled.  The  Word  of  Truth  is  re- 
plete with  vulgar  and  blasphemous  asser- 
tions against  Christ,  His  religion,  and  His 
followers.  The  strength  of  Celsus's  argu- 
ments lies  in  shameless  slanders  and 
cowardly  insults.  He  introduces  a  Jew  in 
whose  mouth  he  puts  the  \-ilest  calumnies 
against  the  person  of  Christ  and  his  Apos- 
tles. Then,  again,  acting  as  arbitrator,  he 
attacks  both  the  Christian  and  Jewish 
religion.  Christ  Himself  is  represented 
as  an  impostor,  justly  crucified  by  the  Jews 
for  calling  Himself  God.  His  reputed 
birth  of  a  virgin  as  well  as  His  miracles, 
prophecies,  and  resurrection,  are  described 
as  mere  fictions.  The  charges  which  Cel- 
sus brings  against  the  Christians  are  full 
of  contradictions.  The  work  of  Celsus  is 
not  extant,  but  is  sufficiently  well  known 
from  the  masterly  refutation,  in  eight  books, 
written  by  Origen  about  a  century  later. 

Cemetery  (the  word  cemetery  means  a 
dormitory). — It  was  Christianity  that  first 
gave  this  name  to  the  place  where  the  de- 
ceased rest ;  it  is  full  of  philosophy.    In  the 


eyes  of  the  Catholic  Church,  death  is  only 
a  sleep;  hence  the  place  in  which  they  who 
have  lived,  repose,  is  called  a  dormitory. 
Sleep  necessarily  supposes  an  awakening. 
Henceforth  it  will  be  impossible  to  pro- 
nounce the  name  cemetery  without  ex- 
pressing the  most  consoling  dogma  for  the 
good  and  the  most  terrible  for  the  wicked, 
— the  dogma  of  the  Resurrection.  From 
the  beginning,  the  Church  showed  the 
greatest  respect  for  the  mortal  remains  of 
her  children.  See  Burial.  It  has  even 
been  the  desire  of  the  Church  that  the 
dead  .should  be  assembled  in  one  place  near 
her  temple;  that  she  might  watch  over 
bygone  generations  as  the  mother  watches 
over  the  cradle  of  her  sleeping  child.  The 
first  temples  of  the  Catholic  Church  were 
actually  cemeteries ;  the  catacombs  were 
nothing  else.  It  was  amid  the  dead  that 
the  living  met  to  pray,  and  to  offer  up  the 
sacred  mysteries.  Later  on,  when  peace 
came,  and  it  was  lawful  to  build  Christian 
temples,  the  Church  hastened  to  conse- 
crate a  place  for  the  burial  of  her  children. 
She  wished  that  this  place  should  be  near 
her  temple,  in  order  to  preserve  the  mem- 
ory of  her  cradle,  and  to  teach  men  that  a 
mother  does  not  forget  her  children,  even 
when  they  are  no  more.  It  is  said  that  the 
custom  of  burying  in  or  near  churches  has 
become  dangerous  in  large  cities.  This 
supposition  is  more  or  less  gratuitous. 
Until  it  is  proved,  it  would  be  well  to  let 
us  hold  it  as  at  least  doubtful.  We  are  so 
much  the  more  authorized  in  doing  this, 
as  it  tends  to  impeach  the  Catholic  Church, 
and  comes  from  persons  whose  levity,  to 
say  nothing  else,  is  clear  to  a  demonstra- 
tion. It  would  also  be  well  to  let  us  bear 
in  mind  that  at  Rome,  burials  take  place 
in  churches,  and  that,  notwithstanding  the 
heat  of  the  climate,  no  inconveniences  are 
found  to  arise  therefrom.  We  will  next 
inquire  if  a  single  instance  can  be  cited 
from  history,  of  an  epidemic  engendered 
by  the  practice  of  burying  in  cities.  Be  it 
as  it  may  in  cities,  we  maintain  that  in  the 
country,  where  the  air  has  free  circulation 
and  there  is  no  danger,  the  established 
custom  should  not  be  changed.  It  is  most 
proper  that,  before  entering  the  temple  of 
the  Lord,  the  faithful  should  have  an  op- 
portunity of  resting  their  eyes  on  some 
scene  that  will  awaken  in  their  minds  a 
thought  of  the  shortness  of  this  life,  a  hope 
of  a  happier  future,  and  tender  recollec- 
tions of  their  departed  relatives  and  friends. 
See  Cremation. 


Cenites 


149 


Censure  of  Books 


Cenites. — A  people  who  dwelt  west  of 
the  Dead  Sea,  and  extended  themselves  far 
into  Arabia  Petraea.  Jethro,  the  father-in- 
law  of  Moses,  was  a  Cenite.  The  lands  of 
the  Cenites  were  in  Juda's  lot. 

Cenobite  (word  formed  from  two  Greek 
words,  which  signify  life  in  common). 
— A  religious  who  lives  in  community 
under  a  rule.  In  the  eighteenth  Con- 
ference of  Cassian,  the  Abbot  Piammon, 
speaks  of  three  different  orders  of  monks 
who  were  resident  in  Egypt:  the  "Ceno- 
bites,"  who  lived  in  common;  the  "An- 
chorites," who,  after  having  formed  them- 
selves into  communities,  retired  into  soli- 
tude; and  the  "Sarabites,"  who  were  false 
monks  and  roamers.     See  Convents. 

Censer. — A  vessel  in  which  incense  is 
burned.     See  Incense. 

Censure  {Ecclesiastical).  —  The  eccle- 
siastical censure,  the  usage  of  which  goes 
back  to  the  time  of  the  Apostles,  is  a 
spiritual  punishment,  or  infliction  by 
which  a  Christian  who  is  a  contumacious 
sinner  is  deprived,  in  whole  or  in  part, 
of  the  spiritual  goods  and  benefits  at  the 
disposition  of  the  Church.  These  are, 
principally,  the  sacraments,  indulgences, 
spiritual  jurisdiction,  sacred  functions,  as- 
sisting at  Mass,  prayers,  or  public  suffrages. 
But  the  sinner  cannot  be  deprived  of  grace 
coming  immediately  from  God.  ' 

There  atre  three  classes  of  censure:  ex- 
communication, suspension,  and  inter- 
dict. The  censures  are  either  incurred  or 
made  active  by  law,  that  is  a  jure,  or  by  sen- 
tence or  a  particular  ordinance,  when  the 
latter  is  called  censura  ab  Jiomine.  The  first 
class  of  censures  are  explicitly  laid  down  by 
the  general  laws  of  the  Church,  or  made  by 
particular  laws  of  each  diocese,  or  by  gen- 
eral and  particular  ordinances,  published 
by  the  bishop  for  the  reformation  of  morals 
and  the  general  good  of  the  diocese.  Those 
called  a5  homine  are  promulgated  or  made 
effective  by  the  superior  or  ecclesiastical 
judge  against  a  particular  individual.  These 
latter  censures  are  pronounced  judicially 
in  the  form  of  a  sentence  or  command  on 
the  part  of  the  superior.  The  censures  a 
jure  are  as  permanent  as  the  laws  which 
evoked  them ;  consequently  they  exist  after 
the  death  or  demission  of  the  legislator  or 
executive;  while  the  special  ordinance, 
command,  sentence,  by  which  a  censure 
becomes  effective,  passes  away  with  the 
officer  who  issued  the  sentence  or  censure 


ab  homine.  Yet  this  does  not  mean  that 
in  a  particular  case  where  a  censure  ab 
homine  was  actually  incurred  it  is  taken 
away  by  the  fact  of  the  superior's  death. 
Nothing  but  absolution  from  the  censure 
can  effect  this.  Again,  censures  are  said 
to  be  incurred  or  pronounced  latcB  senten- 
,  tiee ;  or ferendce  sententicB.  The  former  are 
incurred  ipso  facto;  that  is,  by  the  fact 
alone  of  the  violation  of  the  law.  Cen- 
sures ferendce  sententice  are  threatening, 
and  are  incurred  when  sentence  is  promul- 
gated by  the  superior.  The  terms  in 
which  the  law  is  conceived  and  published, 
make  known  whether  the  sentence  is  latcB 
or  ferendice  sententice. 

The  sovereign  Pontiff,  having  plenary 
jurisdiction  over  the  entire  Church,  has  ple- 
nary power  in  the  matter  of  promulgating 
censures.  The  bishop's  authority  extends 
only  to  his  diocese.  During  the  vacancy  of 
the  see,  this  power  passes  to  the  Cathedral 
chapter,  or,  in  the  absence  of  such,  to  the 
administrator,  as  in  this  country.  The 
vicar-generals  can  inflict  censures  by  virtue 
of  delegated  authority  which  they  hold  from 
the  bishop.  Finally,  superiors  of  religious 
orders  enjoy  the  right  to  punish  with  cen- 
sures those  subject  to  their  authority  or 
jurisdiction.  The  metropolitan  cannot  in- 
flict censures  on  subjects  of  his  suffragans, 
except  in  cases  of  appeal  or  when  he  vis- 
its the  dioceses  of  his  province.  In  order 
to  incur  censure  there  must  be  contumacy 
and  this  contumacy  exists  only  as  far  as  the 
delinquent  has  a  positive  knowledge  of  the 
punishment  to  which  he  is  liable.  When 
a  suspension  or  an  interdict  is  pronounced 
for  a  determinate  time,  at  the  expiration 
of  this  time  the  censure  ceases,  without 
the  necessity  of  an  absolution. 

The  censure  ab  homine  can  be  removed 
only  by  the  officer  who  pronounced  it,  or 
by  his  superior,  delegate,  or  successor. 
Among  the  censures  a  jure,  some  are  re- 
served to  the  sovereign  Pontiff,  or  to  the 
bishop,  while  others  are  not.  Every  priest 
empowered  to  hear  confession  can  absolve 
from  unreserved  censures.  He  also 
can  absolve  from  all  censures  the  penitent 
who  is  at  the  point  of  death. 

Censure  of  Books. —  The  right  which 
ecclesiastical  superiors  have  to  remove 
every  influence  contrary  to  the  unity  and 
purity  of  faith  and  the  life  of  the  Church, 
implies  also  the  right  to  censure  writings 
concerning  religion,  morals,  and  the 
Church,  if   such  writings   be   found  con- 


Central  America 


150 


Ceremonial 


trary  to  good  morals  or  to  the  teachings  of 
the  Church,  or  even  against  its  liturgical 
and  disciplinary  laws.  From  the  begin- 
ning of  Christianity,  the  bishops  of  the 
Church  exercised  this  right,  founded  on 
the  command  of  the  Apostle :  "  Keep 
that  which  is  committed  to  thy  trust, 
avoiding  the  profane  novelties  of  words, 
and  oppositions  of  knowledge  so  called  " 
(I.  Tim.  vi.  20).  When  we  read  the  his- 
tories of  heresies  and  schisms,  we  find 
traces  and  examples  of  this  kind  of  cen- 
sure. The  Church  redoubled  her  vigi- 
lance in  this  respect  when  the  invention  of 
printing  multiplied  the  number  and  in- 
creased the  circulation  of  books.  Pope 
Alexander  VI.  required  for  the  printing  of 
books  the  authorization,  or  imprimatur,  of 
the  bishop.  Leo  X.  in  the  tenth  session  of 
the  Fifth  Lateran  Council  (May  4th,  1515) 
renewed  this  rule  of  discipline.  The 
holy  Council  of  Trent  forbids  the  print- 
ing, sale,  and  reading  of  books  treating  on 
religious  matters,  if  such  books  have  not 
obtained  the  ecclesiastical  imprimatur. 
It  likewise  forbids  the  obtaining  of  any  tax 
for  the  censure,  or  the  receiving  of  any 
gift  for  the  required  ecclesiastical  permis- 
sion or  imprimatur  to  print  or  to  sell 
books  (Sess.  iv.  Dec.  de  edit,  et  usu 
Script.).  Pope  Pius  V.  (1566)  instituted 
at  Rome  a  supreme  tribunal  for  such  cen- 
sures, the  "Congregation  of  the  Index," 
and  which  Sixtus  V.  definitively  organized. 
There  is,  therefore,  from  a  religious  point 
of  view,  an  obligation  on  all  writers,  au- 
thors, and  publishers  of  works  treating  on 
religious  matters  or  on  morals,  to  submit 
such  works  to  the  judgment  of  ecclesiasti- 
cal authority'  and  to  abide  by  its  decision. 
The  same  obligation  extends  to  those 
whose  duty  it  is  to  thoroughly  examine  all 
such  works,  and  return  them  with  ap- 
proval, or  correction,  or  condemnation,  as 
each  case  may  require.  This  is  to  be  done 
gratuitously. 

Central    America    (Missions    in).    See 

Missions. 

Centuries  of  Magdeburg. —  A  history  of 
the  Christian  religion  divided  by  cen- 
turies, of  which  each  century  forms  a  vol- 
ume. The  object  of  the  "  centuries  "  was 
to  combat  the  Roman  Church,  and  espe- 
cially the  Papal  authority,  in  trying  to 
show  the  accordance  of  Lutheran  doc- 
trine with  that  of  the  primitive  Church. 
This  compilation  is  replete  with  errors, 
caused   by  the   partisan   spirit  which  di- 


rected the  pen  of  the  writers,  and  induced 
them  to  alter  the  facts  and  the  texts,  and 
also  because  of  the  inadequacy  of  their 
learning  and  criticism.  Cardinal  Baronius 
opposed  to  the  Centuries  his  Ecclesiasti- 
cal Annals,  which  are  a  solid  refutation 
thereof.     See  Annals. 

Centurion. —  A  Roman  officer  command- 
ing one  hundred  men  (Matt.  viii.  10). 

Cerdonians. —  A  Gnostic  sect  of  the  sec- 
ond century.  It  derived  its  name  from 
Cerdo,  a  Syrian,  who  had  come  to  Rome 
in  the  time  of  Pope  Hyginus.  Cerdo 
maintained  that  the  God  of  the  Old  Law 
and  the  Prophets  was  not  the  Father  of 
Jesus  Christ.  He  was  a  teacher  of  Marcion 
and  was  associated  with  him  at  Rome  in 
the  publication  of  his  peculiar  ^^ews.  See 
Marcion. 

Ceremonial  or  Ceremonies. — The  cere- 
monial is  a  system  of  rites  or  ceremonies 
enjoined  by  law  or  established  by  custom  in 
religious  worship.  If  man  were  a  disem- 
bodied spirit,  like  the  angels,  he  might 
worship  with  his  soul  only;  but  he  has 
superadded  to  his  spirit  a  body  characteris- 
tic of  his  mortal  existence.  As  long,  there- 
fore, as  his  spirit  is  the  tenant  of  this 
earthly  tabernacle,  and  animates  a  portion 
of  the  visible  creation ;  as  long  as  his  spirit 
receives  the  impress  of  its  ideas,  and  ac- 
quires its  impressions  through  the  medium 
of  the  physical  senses,  and  explains  its  own 
sensations  by  their  instrumentality,  so  long 
must  the  use  of  some  exterior  ceremonial 
be  necessary  for  man  to  exhibit  a  becom- 
ing religious  reverence  toward  his  Maker, 
who  requires  that  all  His  creatures,  both 
visible  and  invisible,  should  pay  Him  the 
homage  of  their  adoration. 

So  consonant  is  this  with  the  sentiments 
of  nature,  that  we  discover  her  dictating 
to  the  human  race  in  the  earliest  period 
of  its  existence,  certain  rites  and  ceremon- 
ies to  be  observed  for  the  outward  worship 
of  Almighty  God.  Abel  offered  sacrifice ; 
Enoch  invoked  the  name  of  the  Lord ;  and 
the  patriarchs  erected  altars. 

God  Himself  was  pleased  to  promulgate 
those  ritual  obser\ances  which  were  to  be 
practiced  by  the  Jews.  Our  divine  Re- 
deemer, though  He  could  have  wrought 
His  miracles  with  the  same  facility  with 
which  He  called  forth  the  world  from  noth- 
ing, by  a  single  word,  still,  however,  con- 
descended to  employ  certain  ceremonies 
while  He  performed  them.     He  mingled 


Cerinthus 


151 


Chalice 


spittle  with  the  clay  (John  ix.  6)  with 
which  He  restored  sight  to  the  man  born 
blind ;  He  groaned  in  spirit  and  troubled 
Himself  before  He  called  forth  Lazarus 
from  the  tomb  (John  xi.  33) ;  He  blessed 
and  broke  the  bread  before  He  converted 
it  into  His  body  and  gave  it  to  His  dis- 
ciples to  eat.  The  example  which  the 
Saviour  has  furnished  was  imitated  by  His 
disciples.  We  find  St.  Paul  exhorting  the 
Corinthians  to  "do  all  things  according  to 
order"  in  the  Church  (xiv.  40);  and  St. 
John,  to  impress  upon  our  minds  the 
grandeur  of  the  heavenly  Jerusalem,  de- 
scribes in  fervent  language  the  splendor  of 
the  awful  ritual  of  which  he  Avas  a  witness, 
as  he  saw  in  vision  the  throne  of  the  Lamb 
in  the  celestial  city ;  and  particularly 
noticed  the  four-and-twenty  elders,  with 
their  harps  and  fragrance-breathing  vials, 
full  of  the  prayers  of  the  saints,  as  pros- 
trate before  the  Lamb  without  spot,  who 
was  reclining  upon  the  golden  altar. 

Cerinthus. — Heresiarch  of  the  first  cen- 
tury. This  heretic,  coming  from  Alex- 
andria, resided  at  Ephesus  while  St.  John 
the  Apostle  dwelt  in  that  city.  He  denied 
the  identity  of  Jesus  with  Christ,  and  main- 
tained that  Jesus,  "  the  son  of  Joseph  and 
Mary,"  was  but  a  mere  man,  who  in 
baptism  received  the  Holy  Ghost,  /.  <?., 
the  Christ;  and  that  Christ  withdrew  from 
the  man  Jesus  at  the  crucifixion.  God, 
being  immaterial,  could  not,  he  said,  be 
the  Creator  of  the  material  world,  which 
was  made  by  an  angel  called  Demiurge. 
Cerinthus  believed  in  the  coming  of  the 
millennium  on  the  earth,  when  Christ 
would  found  an  earthly  kingdom,  which 
would  consist  in  the  enjoyment  of  sensual 
pleasures. 

Cerularius  (Michael). —  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople  from  1043  to  1059.  Ceru- 
larius was  an  ambitious  and  turbulent  man. 
He  revived  the  Photian  schism.  At  his 
instigation  Leo  of  Achrida,  Metropoli- 
tan of  Bulgaria,  circulated  a  document  in 
which  the  following  charges  were  brought 
against  the  Latins  as  grievances:  i.  The 
use  of  unleavened  bread  in  the  holy  sacrifice. 
2.  Fasting  on  Saturdays  in  Lent.  3.  The 
eating  of  blood  and  things  strangled.  4. 
The  omission  of  the  "Alleluja  "  in  Lent. 
Condemned  by  Pope  Leo  IX.,  excommun- 
icated by  the  papal  legates,  in  1054,  he  ex- 
communicated the  Pope  and  tried  to 
separate  from  Rome  the  patriarchs  of  An- 
tioch,    Alexandria,    and    Jerusalem.       His 


pride  and  pretensions  caused  him,  finally, 
to  be  exiled  by  the  Emperor  Isaac  Comne- 
nus  on  the  island  of  Proconesus,  where 
he  died  in  1059. 

Cesarini  (Julianus). —  Roman  prelate, 
created  cardinal  by  Martin  V.  in  1426. 
Was  sent  to  Poland,  Hungary,  and  Bohe- 
mia, to  preach  the  crusade ;  then  charged 
by  Pope  Eugenius  IV.  to  combat  the 
heresy  of  the  Hussites.  Opened  and  pre- 
sided at  the  Council  of  Basle,  in  1431, 
transferred  afterwards  to  Florence.  He 
upheld,  against  the  Greeks,  the  doctrine  of 
the  Roman  Church. 

Cesena  (Michael).    See  Fratricelli. 

Cetura. —  Abraham's  second  wife  (Gen. 
XXV.  1-2) ;  is  held  by  the  Jews  to  be  the 
same  as  Agar.  We  know  nothing  of  her 
except  as  the  mother  of  Zamran,  Jecsan, 
Madan,  Madian,  Jesboc,  and  Sue.  Abra- 
ham gave  presents  to  these  children  and 
sent  them  to  Arabia  Deserta. 

Chair  of  St.  Peter.— The  See  of  Rome, 

or  the  office  of  the  papacy ;  so  called  from 
the  fact  that  St.  Peter  was  the  first  bishop 
of  Rome. —  St.  Peter's  Chair  is  also  the 
name  of  two  festivals,  held  on  February 
22d  and  January  i8th,  in  commemoration 
of  St.  Peter  founding  the  Episcopal  sees  of 
Antioch  and  of  Rome. 

Chalcedon  {Council  of). —  The  Fourth 
Ecumenical  Council  held  in  this  city,  in 
451,  condemned  Eutychianism  and  Mono- 
physitism.  This  council  also  conferred 
high  privileges  on  the  See  of  Constanti- 
nople, confirming  and  extending  those 
given  by  the  Second  Ecumenical  Council, 
and  putting  it  nearly  on  an  equality  with 
the  See  of  Rome. 

Chalice  (Lat.  calix,  a  cuf). —  The  cup 
used  at  Mass  for  the  wine  which  is  to  be  con- 
secrated. The  chalices  and  sacred  vessels 
used  for  offering  up  the  Eucharistic  sacri- 
fice were,  in  the  early  Church,  not  unfre- 
quently  employed  on  great  solemnities  to 
ornament  the  sacred  table,  upon  which 
they  were  arranged  in  rows,  together 
with  the  Diptychs  or  carved  ivory  tablets 
(see  Diptychs).  Although  the  service 
to  which  these  vessels  were  dedicated, 
and  not  the  richness  of  the  materials 
composing  them  formed  the  criterion  of 
their  value  in  the  estimation  of  the  pious 
Christian  from  his  reverence  toward  the 
tremendous  sacrifice  —  yet,  wherever   cir- 


Challoner 


152 


Chancellor 


cumstances  permitted,  the  most  costly  sub- 
stances were  used  in  making  them,  and 
chalices,  not  only  of  glass,  and  of  silver, 
but  sometimes  of  crystal,  onyx,  sardonyx, 
and  the  purest  gold,  were  appropriated  to 
the  altar  service.  Like  the  altar,  they 
were  anciently,  as  they  are  at  present,  con- 
secrated and  anointed  before  being  used 
in  the  ser^•ice  of  religion  throughout  the 
Church,  whether  Latin  or  Greek.  At 
present  the  Rubrics  require  that  the 
chalice  be  of  gold  or  silver,  or  at  least  a 
silver  cup  which  is  gilt  on  the  inside.  It 
must  be  consecrated  by  the  bishop  with 
chrism,  according  to  a  form  prescribed  in 
the  Pontifical.  It  may  not  be  touched 
except  by  persons  in  holy  orders.  We 
know  nothing  about  the  chalice  which  our 
Lord  used  at  the  Last  Supper. 

Challoner  (Richard)  (1691-1781). — 
Born  at  Lewess,  Sussex ;  died  in  London. 
Born  of  Protestant  parents,  he  embraced 
the  Catholic  faith,  received  holy  orders,  and 
was  made  Bishop  of  Debra  in  1740,  and  vicar 
apostolic  of  London  in  1758.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  English  College  at  Douay,  and 
was  professor  of  philosophy  there  (1713— 
1720),  and  vice-president  and  professor  of 
theology  (1720-1730),  returning  to  London 
in  the  latter  3-ear.  He  published  a  large 
number  of  polemical  and  theological  works, 
including  The  Rheims  Ne-M  Testament 
and  the  Douay  B(ble,  with  Annotations 
(1749-1750).  His  version  of  the  Douay 
Bible  is  substantially  that  which  has  since 
been  used  by  English-speaking  Catholics. 

Chanaan. —  i.  The  fourth  son  of  Sem 
(Gen.  ix.  25flf;  x.  6-15).  —  2.  More  fre- 
quently "  Land  of  Chanaan,"  interpreted 
to  mean  loivland,  from  the  Semitic  cana 
{to  humble,  subdue).  It  generally  denotes 
the  country  west  of  the  Jordan  and  the 
Dead  Sea  to  the  Mediterranean.  As  the 
name  "  lowland  "  would  indicate,  it  origi- 
nally comprised  only  the  strip  of  land, 
from  ten  to  fifteen  miles  in  breadth  and 
one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  in  length,  shut 
in  between  the  Libanon  and  the  Mediterra- 
nean, and  extending  from  the  Bay  of  An- 
tioch  to  the  promontory  of  the  Carmel,  that 
is,  southern  Phoenicia.  To  this  maritime 
plain  of  the  Phoenicians  and  Philistines 
passages  like  Isa.  xxiii.  11;  Soph.  ii.  5,  re- 
fer. Later  the  name  was  extended  to  the 
whole  west-Jordanic  territory.  Thus,  also, 
in  the  Tel-el-Amarna  tablets,  which  date 
back  a  century  before  the  Exodus,  Kinakk, 
or  Chanaan,  designates  the  district  between 


the  cities  of  Philistia  and  the  country 
northward  of  Hebal  (Byblos) . — 3.  The  non- 
Israelitish  inhabitants  of  Palestine.  The 
origin  and  affinity  of  the  various  tribes  are 
still  disputed. 

Chanaanites.     See  Chanaan. 

Chancel. —  The  enclosed  space  in  a 
church,  surrounding  the  altar,  and  railed 
off  from  the  choir;  the  sanctuary.  In 
small  churches  having  no  separate  choir, 
the  altar-rails  (and,  in  some  churches,  the 
screen  or  lattice  work)  separate  the  chancel 
from  the  body  of  the  church.  In  a  wider 
sense,  the  word  chancel  and  choir  are  some- 
times used  to  include  both  the  sanctuary 
and  the  choir  proper.  In  Greek  churches 
the  bema  answers  to  the  chancel  or  sanc- 
tuary, and  the  iconostasis  (as  the  choir 
does  not  intervene  between  the  sanctuary 
and  nave)  corresponds,  in  some  measure, 
to  both  altar-rails  and  rood-screen, — to  the 
former  as  separating  the  altar  from  the 
rest  of  the  church,  and  to  the  latter,  as 
constituting  a  marked  boundary  to  the 
nave. 

Chancellor  and  Chancery. —  Chancellor 
is  an  officer  in  charge  of  records.  Under 
the  Roman  emperors,  the  chancellor  stood 
at  the  latticed  railing  inclosing  the  judg- 
ment-seat, to  keep  back  the  crowd  and  to 
introduce  such  persons  as  were  entitled  to 
pass  inside.  The  name  chancellor  seems, 
however,  to  have  been  introduced  only 
about  the  year  850.  From  the  custom  of 
the  Roman  empire,  the  ecclesiastical  court 
at  Rome  introduced  the  oifice.  From  the 
first  ages  the  Roman  Pontiffs  had  in  their 
service  some  clerics  who  wrote  and  expe- 
dited letters  in  their  name.  St.  Jerome  tes- 
tifies that  he  thus  assisted  Pope  Damasus. 
These  clerics  were  not  called  chancellors, 
but  were  designated  by  the  name  of  notaries, 
regionaries,  and  librarians.  In  the  ninth 
century,  however,  the  word  chancellor  was 
introduced.  It  was  derived,  as  some  claim, 
from  the  fact  that  the  chancellor  cancelled 
every  letter  with  a  line  drawn  through  it; 
or,  as  others  maintain,  from  the  grate  be- 
hind which  he  sat  and  gave  audience. 
Each  diocese,  and  frequently  each  of  the 
great  monastic  houses,  had  its  chancellor. 
The  Council  of  Trent  permits  the  bishop 
to  receive  a  stipend  for  the  expenses  of  the 
Chancery,  or  for  the  expedition  of  letters 
of  ordination,  dimissorials,  dispensations, 
etc.  Its  rights  are  fixed  by  Canon  Law. 
See  Taxes. 


Chancery 


153 


Chapters 


Chancery  {Roman) . —  The  Roman  Chan- 
cery is  the  oldest  tribunal  of  the  Court  of 
Rome.  Through  it  are  issued  letters  or 
acts  relative  to  affairs  discussed  and  ar- 
ranged in  consistories,  viz.:  appointments 
of  archbishops,  bishops,  abbots,  and  other 
dignitaries.  It  expedites,  at  the  present 
time,  only  those  Pontifical  letters  which  are 
made  out  in  the  form  of  bulls.  It  is  pre- 
sided over  by  the  Cardinal  of  San  Lorenzo 
in  Damaso,  who  is  assisted  by  a  director  of 
chancery  and  other  subaltern  officials.  The 
cardinal-chancellor  is  called  vice-cancel- 
larius,  probably  because  the  chancellor- 
ship is  not  properly  a  cardinal's  office ;  his 
jurisdiction  lapses  with  the  death  of  the 
Pope,  when  also  the  seal  of  the  chancery 
is  broken  in  the  presence  of  the  cardinals. 
The  mode  of  procedure  of  this  tribunal  is 
regulated  in  strict  accordance  with  the  72 
regulce  cancellarice. 

Chant.     See  Plain  Chant;  Music. 

Chapel. —  A  subordinate  place  of  wor- 
ship. The  right  to  grant  the  erection  of 
chapels  or  oratories  in  private  houses  is  re- 
served to  the  Pope.  When  this  is  done  by 
the  bishop,  it  is  in  virtue  of  a  papal  indult. 
The  oratory  must  be  surrounded  by  walls 
which  separate  it  from  the  household  in- 
terior, and  from  all  domestic  usages ;  it  must 
beinspected  by  the  bishop,  who  assures  him- 
self that  all  its  accessories  are  becomingly 
and  decently  arranged.  The  bishop  alone 
can  grant  permission  to  say  Mass  therein. 
Mass  cannot  be  said  in  a  private  oratory  or 
chapel  on  the  days  of  Easter,  Pentecost, 
Christmas,  Ascension,  Annunciation,  As- 
sumption, the  feasts  of  the  Apostles  Peter 
and  Paul,  the  feast  of  Transfiguration,  nor 
on  the  day  of  the  patron  saint  of  the  parish. 

Chaplain. —  Chaplains  are  priests  at- 
tached to  hospitals,  prisons,  and  similar 
places  for  the  purpose  of  exercising  the 
sacred  ministry.  Their  peculiar  rights  and 
duties  are  usually  determined  by  the  ordi- 
nary, according  to  the  requirements  of  the 
institutions  or  places  with  which  they  are 
connected.  There  are  various  kinds  of 
chaplains,  namely:  chaplains  of  nuns  or 
convents ;  of  colleges  or  other  similar  insti- 
tutions ;  of  hospitals,  asylums,  protectories, 
prisons,  and  the  like;  of  military  com- 
panies, etc.  Chaplains  of  nuns  or  sisters 
should  be  of  mature  age.  Military  chap- 
lains, in  order  to  be  able  to  administer  the 
sacraments  of  penance.  Holy  Eucharist, 
and  extreme  unction  to  soldiers  in  garrison, 


stationary  camps,  or  forts,  must,  as  a  rule, 
be  approved  by  the  bishop  of  the  place 
where  the  quarters  are  situated,  unless  they 
have  special  faculties  from  the  Holy  See. 
Exempted  nuns  (or  rather,  their  regular 
superiors)  have  the  right  to  nominate  their 
chaplains.  As  there  are  no  exempted  nuns 
in  the  United  States,  the  chaplains  of  con- 
vents are  all  appointed  by  the  bishop. 

Chapter  (an  assembly  of  canons  or  reli- 
gious).—  In  diocesan  organizations,  the 
chapter  is  a  body  of  priests  attached  to  a 
cathedral  church  for  the  celebration  of  the 
divine  office,  with  the  charge  to  assist  the 
bishop  in  the  government  of  his  diocese 
when  the  see  is  occupied,  or  to  supply  his 
place  during  the  vacancy,  and  in  certain 
cases  of  impediment.  Chapters  can,  at 
present,  be  established  only  by  the  Pope, 
and  not  by  the  bishop.  This  applies  not 
merely  to  chapters  of  cathedrals,  but  also 
to  those  of  collegiate  churches.  We  have 
no  cathedral  chapters  in  the  United  States. 
See  CoNSULTORS. 

Chapters  {The  Three).— ''Three  Chap- 
ters "  was  a  term  applied  to  :  i.  The  per- 
son and  writings  of  Theodore,  Bishop  of 
Mopsuestia.  2.  The  writings  of  Theodoret, 
Bishop  of  Cyrus,  in  favor  of  Nestorius  and 
against  St.  Cyril,  as  well  as  the  Synod  of 
Ephesus.  3.  The  Letter  of  Ibas,  Bishop 
of  Edessa,  to  the  Persian  Bishop  Maris. 
Emperor  Justinian,  with  his  usual  eager- 
ness to  engage  in  theological  disquisitions, 
published,  in  544,  an  edict,  in  which,  under 
the  name  of  the  "Three  Chapters,"  he 
condemned  the  works  of  the  above  named 
authors.  The  imperial  edict  usurped  the 
form  of  a  confession  of  faith,  and  trans- 
gressed on  the  exclusive  prerogative  of 
the  Church  to  anathematize  the  expounders 
of  erroneous  doctrines.  The  authors  of 
these  writings  had  subscribed  to  a  confes- 
sion of  orthodox  faith  and  rejected  the  er- 
rors which  had  been  attributed  to  them ; 
the  Council  condemned  neither  their  per- 
sons, nor  their  writings,  the  errors  of  which 
latter  it,  however,  rejected.  Hence  the  im- 
perial edict  appeared  as  an  attack  on  the 
Council  of  Chalcedon.  The  bishops  of  the 
East  subscribed  to  the  edict  through  fear  of 
being  deposed.  Those  of  Illyricum,  Spain, 
Gaul,  and  especially  of  Africa,  vigorously 
resisted.  Justinian  proposed  a  Council  at 
Constantinople, whither  Pope  Vigilius  went 
himself.  The  latter,  in  a  document,  "■Judi- 
ca/i^w,"  condemned  the  "Three  Chapters" 
under  the  saving  clause,  "without  prejudice 


Charity 


154 


Charlemagne 


to  the  Council  of  Chalcedon."  Then  it 
was  agreed  to  withdraw  both  the  edict  and 
the  yudicatum,  and  to  allow  full  liberty  to 
the  future  Council.  But  before  the  Council 
assembled,  Justinian,  in  551,  issued  a  second 
edict  against  the  "Three  Chapters"  ad- 
dressed to  the  whole  Christian  world,  and 
the  Pope  drafted  anew  his  own,  in  the 
Constitutum.  Vigilius  did  not  assist  at 
the  Council,  was  banished,  and  died  in 
Sicilj.  The  decisions  of  the  Council  of 
Constantinople,  however,  were  confirmed 
by  Vigilius  shortly  before  his  death.  His 
successor,  Pope  Pelagius,  also  confirmed 
its  decrees,  and,  under  Pope  Sergius,  in  619, 
the  last  dissidents  in  regard  to  this  Coun- 
cil were  in  the  West.  The  schism  of 
Aquileja  held  out  longest.  It  was  not  until 
700,  that  the  last  of  the  schismatics  re- 
turned to  the  unity  of  the  Church. 

Charity. — A  virtue  which  moves  us  to 
love  God  above  all  things,  and  to  feel  con- 
tented with  what  it  has  pleased  Providence 
to  bestow  upon  us.  Also  to  love  our  neigh- 
bor as  ourselves ;  thereby  wishing  good  to 
him  as  earnestly  as  to  ourselves;  and  it 
diverts  our  ambition  from  earthly  success 
toward  the  attainment  of  heavenly  treas- 
ures. 

Charity  (Sisters  of). — A  congregation 
which  owes  its  origin  to  a  confraternity 
founded  at  Chatillon-les-Dombes,  France, 
under  the  title  of  "Servants  of  the  Poor," 
by  Louise  de  Marillac,  widow  of  Antoine 
le  Gras,  secretary  of  the  Queen.  Trans- 
ferred to  Paris  in  1633.  St.  Vincent  of 
Paul  transformed  it  into  a  community,  to 
which  he  gave  a  rule  and  constitutions 
which  were  approved  in  1655  by  the  Car- 
dinal of  Retz,  Archbishop  of  Paris.  They 
are  also  called  "Gray  Nuns"  and  "Sisters 
of  St.  Vincent  of  Paul."  As  a  rule,  they 
attend  to  the  sick  in  hospitals  and  have 
charge  of  orphans.  They  have  many 
houses  in  the  United  States  and  Canada. 
See  Sisters. 

Charlemagne  or  Charles  the  Great. — 

King  of  the  Franks  and  Emperor  of  the 
West,  born  in  742,  died  at  Aachen  in  814. 
He  was  the  son  of  Pepin  the  Short,  king 
of  the  Franks,  at  whose  death  in  768,  he 
succeeded  to  the  throne,  conjointly  with  a 
brother,  Karlmann.  On  the  death  of  the 
latter,  he  became  master  of  the  entire 
government  (771).  Having  become  mas- 
ter of  all  the  countries  that  had  formed  the 
empire  of  the  West,  he  seems  to  have  had 


a  triple  policy:  r.  To  organize  the  Ger- 
manic tribes  under  his  rule.  2.  To  es- 
tablish a  close  alliance  between  Church 
and  State,  "  For  I  cannot  believe,"  he 
said,  "that  those  who  are  disobedient  to 
the  priests  of  God,  can  be  loyal  to  the 
State."  3.  To  secure  for  his  people  the 
twofold  benefit  of  a  Christian  civiliza- 
tion. 

Being  desirous  to  continue  the  work  of 
St.  Boniface,  he  endeavored  to  propagate 
Christianity  among  the  Saxons.  The 
latter,  a  cruel  and  treacherous  people, 
made  frequent  predatory  inroads  on  the 
kingdom  of  the  Franks.  This,  together 
with  their  refusal  to  embrace  Christianity, 
led  to  a  war  which  lasted  for  a  period  of 
thirty-three  years.  Their  complete  subju- 
gation being  necessary  to  the  security  of 
the  empire,  Charlemagne  cut  down  45,000 
of  the  insurgents  near  the  river  Aller. 
His  forcing  the  Saxons  to  embrace  Chris- 
tianity was  a  political  measure  disapproved 
by  the  Church  and  by  his  distinguished 
friend,  Alcuin.  His  conduct  toward  the 
conquered  Saxons  was  otherwise  mild  ;  he 
left  them  their  laws  and  liberties ;  he  de- 
manded no  taxes  from  them,  but  merely 
tithes  for  the  support  of  churches  and 
schools.  On  Christmas  Day  (800)  Pope 
Leo  in.  bestowed  on  Charlemagne  the  im- 
perial crown  and  saluted  him  "  Emperor  of 
the  Romans."  This  act  revived  the  em- 
pire of  the  West,  which  had  been  extinct 
since  the  time  of  Augustulus,  324  years  be- 
fore. It  was  an  ideal  empire,  one  which 
imposed  upon  the  emperor  a  twofold  right 
and  duty:  i.  To  propagate  and  direct 
the  Church.  How  well  Charlemagne  un- 
derstood his  duty  is  manifest  from  the 
manner  in  which  he  inscribed  his  name: 
"  Charles,  king  and  most  faithful  protector 
of  the  Apostolic  See  in  all  things."  2.  To  es- 
tablish a  universal  Christian  monarchy. 
As  the  Church  creates  spiritual  unity 
among  the  nations,  so  should  the  em- 
peror establish  temporal  unity,  not  by 
subjugating  princes  and  peoples,  but  by 
superior  direction  over  the  union  of 
Christian  states.  For  this  reason  the  em- 
pire was,  after  962,  called  the  Holy  Roman 
Empire  of  the  German  nation.  The  rela- 
tion between  Pope  and  emperor  was  that 
of  mutual  support  and  dependence.  The 
Pope  was  subject  to  the  emperor  as  the 
latter  was  the  supreme  temporal  ruler; 
the  emperor  being  a  member  of  the 
Church  was  subject  to  the  Pope,  its  head. 
Both  exchanged  oaths  of  fealty. 


Chastity 


155 


Cheverus 


Chastity. — The  virtue  opposed  to  lust  is 
chastity,  which  renders  us  circumspect  in 
all  that  might  tend  to  impurity,  and  induces 
us  to  abstain  from  what  is  immoral.  Chas- 
tity is  obligatory  on  all  in  a  general  sense, 
but  it  is  a  special  duty  for  ecclesiastics  and 
those  in  religious  communities,  who  have, 
by  their  vow,  bound  themselves  to  an  in- 
creased obligation  of  obedience  to  the 
sixth  commandment.  It  is  a  virtue  of  ex- 
ceeding rarity  when  accorded  as  a  peculiar 
privilege  to  the  few  who  may  be  said  to 
possess  angelic  chastity;  for  "  incor- 
ruption  bringeth  near  to  God  "  ( Wis.  vi.  20) . 
Man  is  under  moral  obligation  to  cultivate 
purity  of  thought  and  action  by  avoiding 
any  occasion  of  defilement;  fleeing  from 
the  world  of  dissipation,  and  devoting  him- 
self to  serious  occupations;  seeking  help 
by  prayer,  mortification  of  the  senses,  and 
penance. 

Chasuble. — The  sixth  and  last  vestment 
which  the  priest,  who  is  about  to  offer  up 
the  holy  sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  puts  on,  is 
called  the  chasuble,  from  the  Latin  casula 
diminutive  of  casa.  This  upper  garment 
consists  of  a  broad  flat  back  piece,  and  a 
narrower  front  piece,  the  two  being  con- 
nected over  the  shoulders  only.  The  chas- 
uble is  generally  ornamented  with  a  cross 
and  flowers.  It  derives  its  origin  from  a 
species  of  cloak  which,  among  the  ancient 
Romans  was  caWedfcenula,  and  is  supposed 
by  many  commentators  on  the  Scriptures 
to  be  the  same  kind  of  mantle  as  that  left 
by  St.  Paul  at  Troas  with  Carpus,  and  which 
he  requested  Timothy  to  bring  with  him 
to  Rome  (II.  Tim.  iv.  13).  The  pienula, 
which  was  substituted  for  the  toga,  was  per- 
fectly circular  in  shape,  with  an  aperture  in 
the  center  of  the  garment  to  admit  the 
head,  and  it  enveloped  the  entire  person 
of  the  wearer;  and  precisely  similar  was 
the  chasuble  worn  by  the  priest  at  Mass 
during  more  than  twelve  hundred  years. 
In  the  Greek  Church  this  vestment  still  re- 
tains its  ancient  form  of  a  large  round 
mantle  covering  the  whole  figure,  and  is  not 
unfrequently  starred  all  over  with  a  multi- 
tude of  small  crosses.  Up  to  the  sixth 
century  the  paenula  was  a  civic  habit,  worn 
without  discrimination  by  laymen  and 
ecclesiastics.  Its  reservation  for  use  within 
the  sanctuary  seems  to  have  been  formally 
adopted  toward  the  close  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury. 

Chateaubriand  (FRANgois  Augustk,  Vi- 
COMTK    de)   (1769-1848). — French  writer, 


born  at  St.  Malo  in  the  Bretagne ;  was  in- 
tended for  the  navy,  studied  for  the  Church 
and  finally  entered  the  army.  He  was  in 
Paris  during  the  early  part  of  the  Revolu- 
tion, but  in  1791  sailed  to  America,  where 
he  wandered  among  the  Indians.  Return- 
ing the  following  year,  he  joined  the  first 
emigration  and  took  refuge  in  London,  re- 
maining there  till  1800.  His  chief  works 
are  Atala  and  Rene  (1802)  ;  Le  Genie  du 
Christianisme  (1803),  and  Memoirs. 

Chatel  (FRANCib)  Abbe  (1795-1857). — 
French  schismatic  priest,  born  at  Gannat 
(Allier).  Founder  of  a  so-called  "French 
Catholic  Church."  Successively  vicar  of 
the  Cathedral  of  Moulins,  curate  of  Mone- 
tay-sur-Loire,  and  chaplain  of  the  army 
from  1823  to  1830.  He  wrote  in  the  "/?<?- 
fortnatettr,"  and  in  the  ^^Echo  de  la  Reli- 
gion ei  du  Siecle,"  articles  of  an  equivocal 
orthodoxy,  which  caused  his  suspension. 
After  the  July  revolution,  he  recruited 
some  followers  among  the  clergy,  settled 
in  a  house  in  the  rues  des  Sept-  Voies, 
where  he  said  Mass  in  French  and  ended 
by  proclaiming  himself  bishop  and  primate 
of  his  Church.  Since  a  consecrator  was 
necessary  for  this  dignity,  he  found  a  more 
or  less  authentic  one  in  Dr.  Fabre-Palaprat, 
who  claimed  to  have  received  the  episcopal 
consecration  from  the  Bishop  of  San  Do- 
mingo. But  division  soon  entered  among 
the  chiefs  of  the  French  Church.  The  Abbe 
Auzon,  who  had  joined  Chatel,  ashamed 
of  his  error,  retracted  and  went  to  ex- 
piate his  fault  in  a  Carthusian  convent. 
Abbe  Chatel  had  only  partial  success,  and, 
involved  in  financial  erribarrassment,  left 
Paris  to  settle  at  Clichy-la-Garenne.  The 
quondam  bishop  and  primate  finally  found 
employment  in  the  post  office  of  Saone-et- 
Loire  where  he  died  in  oblivion. 

Chemos. — Deity  of  the  Ammonites  and 
Moabites.  St.  Jerome  {On  Tsaias  L.  V.) 
tells  us  that  there  was  an  idol  of  this  name 
upon  Mount  Nebo.  The  Moabites  are 
called  people  of  Chemos.  It  was  to  Chemos 
that  Mesa  offered  his  son  (II.  Ki.  iii.  27), 
and  in  the  inscription  on  the  Moabite 
stone  the  same  king  attributes  to  Chemos 
his  victories. 

Cherubim. —  Supernatural  beings  who 
guarded  the  entrance  to  Paradise,  after  the 
Fall.  Angels  of  the  second  choir  of  the 
first  hierarchy.     See  Angels. 

Cheverus  (John  Louis  Lefebvre) 
(1768-1836). —  A  French  prelate;  was  born 


Chili 


156 


Christian  Alliance 


at  Mayenne,  France;  died  at  Bordeaux. 
Refusing  the  constitutional  oath,  he  was 
cast  into  prison,  but  escaped  in  June,  1792, 
and  reached  England.  He  landed  at  Bos- 
ton in  1796,  and,  receiving  facuhies  from 
Bishop  Carroll,  set  to  work  among  the 
scattered  Catholics  in  Maine.  Became 
the  first  Roman  Catholic  Bishop  of  Bos- 
ton, Massachusetts,  in  1808.  Archbishop 
of  Bordeaux  (1827),  and  cardinal  (1837). 

Chili  {Missions  in).     See  Missions. 

Chiliasm.     See  Millennium. 

China  (  Christianity  in).     See  India. 

Chodorlahomor. —  King  of  Elam,  who 
for  twelve  years  made  the  five  cities  of  the 
Plain  his  tributaries,  and  on  their  rebel- 
ling in  the  thirteenth  year,  went  with  four 
allied  kings  and  overran  the  whole  country 
south  and  east  of  the  Jordan.  Lot  was 
among  his  captives,  but  was  rescued  by 
his  uncle  Abraham  with  his  own  depend- 
ents and  neighbors  (Gen.  xiv).  Chodor- 
lahomor's  name  is  found  on  Chaldean 
bricks  recently  discovered. 

Choir. —  That  part  of  a  church  which  is 
appropriated  to  the  use  of  the  singers.  In 
churches  built  according  to  ancient  archi- 
tecture (see  Architecture)  it  is  that  part 
between  the  nave  and  the  apse  which  is 
reser\'ed  for  canons,  priests,  monks,  and 
choristers,  during  divine  service.  In  cruci- 
form churches,  the  choir  usually  begins 
at  the  transepts  and  occupies  the  head  of 
the  cross,  including  the  altar;  but  some- 
times, especially  in  monastic  churches,  it 
extends  bej-ond  the  transepts,  thus  en- 
croaching upon  the  nave.  In  churches 
without  transepts  the  choir  is  similarly 
placed.  In  mediaeval  examples,  especially 
after  1250,  it  was  usually  surrounded  by 
an  ornamental  barrier  or  grating,  and  sep- 
arated from  the  nave  by  a  rood-screen. 
See  Chancel. 

Choir  Bishops  (also called  rural  bishops). 
—  Ecclesiastical  dignitaries  in  the  early 
Church,  some  of  whom  had  received  epis- 
copal consecration,  but  the  majority  of 
whom  remained  simply  priests.  Although 
assistants,  and  subordinate  to  the  bish- 
ops of  cities,  or  sees,  the  choir  bishops 
must  not  be  confounded  with  suffragan 
bishops.  The  choir  bishops  could  ordain 
readers,  exorcists,  and  subdeacons ;  but  not 
deacons  or  priests,  without  the  permission 
of  the  bishop  of  the  city. 


Chosroes  II.     See  Cross. 

Chrism. —  A  compound  of  oil  and  balsam 
consecrated  by  a  bishop,  and  used  for 
anointing  with  the  sign  of  the  cross  at  con- 
firmation, as  well  as  in  baptism,  ordina- 
tion, consecration  of  altar-stones,  chalices, 
churches,  and  in  the  blessing  of  baptismal 
water.  The  component  parts  of  chrism — of 
olive  oil  and  balsam  —  signify  the  two  na- 
tures in  Christ;  the  oil  symbolizes  the 
human  nature,  the  balsam  the  divine  na- 
ture. 

Christ.     See  Jesus  Christ. 

Christian. —  It  was  about  the  year  40 
A.  D.  when  the  first  Pagano-Christian  com- 
munity was  formed  at  Antioch  on  the 
Orontes,  and  it  was  also  there,  about  the  year 
43,  that  the  Faithful  were  first  called  Chris- 
tians. The  Acts  of  the  Apostles  relate  this 
fact  (Acts  xi.  26),  and  it  is  evident  that  the 
Christianoi  meant  nothing  else  than  the 
disciples,  the  adherents  of  Christ.  It  is 
very  probable  that  the  name  Christians 
was  first  used  by  the  pagans,  and  very  prob- 
ably by  the  Romans.  They  called  the  fol- 
lowers of  Christ,  Christiant,  as  they  called 
the  followers  of  Caesar,  Casariani,  those 
of  Pompey,  Pompeiani.  It  is  not  prob- 
able that  the  Christians  themselves  adopted 
this  name,  for  they  generally  called  them- 
selves Disciples,  Brethren,  the  Saints,  the 
Faithful ;  besides  the  word  Christianoi,  at 
the  beginning,  was  applied  as  an  epithet  of 
contempt,  as  can  be  seen  from  the  texts 
(Acts  xxvi.  28;  I.  Pet.  ix.  14,  16).  Neither 
were  the  Jews  the  authors  of  this  name; 
for  certainly  they  did  not  give  to  a  race  so 
odious  to  them  a  title  of  honor  such  as, 
"followers  of  the  Messias,"  "  Disciples  of 
the  Anointed  or  of  the  Christ."  We  know 
that  they  generally  made  use  of  such  ex- 
pressions as  Nazarenes,  Galileans,  or  of 
other  disrespectful  terms. 

Christian  Alliance. — A  religious  asso- 
ciation organized  in  1887,  with  its  head- 
quarters at  692  Eighth  avenue.  New  York 
city.  It  was  founded  by  Rev.  A.  B.  Simp- 
son, who  has  been  its  president  from  the 
date  of  its  organization.  Its  membership, 
as  described  b>-  its  founder,  "  consists  of 
all  professing  Christians  who  subscribe  to 
its  principles  and  enroll  their  names."  Its 
objects  are  stated  to  be  "  the  wide  diffusion 
of  the  Gospel  in  its  fullness,  the  promo- 
tion of  a  deeper  and  higher  Christian  life, 
and  the  work  of  evangelization,  especially 
among  the  neglected  classes,  by  highway 


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157 


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missions  and  any  other  practical  methods." 
At  the  end  of  1895  the  organization  is 
said  to  have  established  265  missions  in 
China,  India,  Japan,  Haiti,  and  Congo 
Free  State.  In  New  York  city  special 
work  is  done  for  fallen  women  by  means 
of  "The  Door  of  Hope,"  a  branch  "home" 
opened  by  the  Alliance. 

Christian  Brothers.     See  Brothers. 

Christian  Endeavor  {The  United  So- 
ciety of) . — A  Protestant  association  formed 
at  Wiliston  Church,  Portland,  Maine,  in 
the  year  1881,  and  which,  in  1896,  had  in- 
creased to  44,596  societies,  with  a  member- 
ship of  2,630,000  in  the  United  States,  Can- 
ada, Great  Britain,  and  missionary  lands. 
The  purpose  of  the  association  is  to  pro- 
mote an  earnest  and  useful  Christian  life 
on  the  part  of  each  member,  to  increase 
mutual  acquaintance  between  members, 
and  to  train  young  converts  in  the  practi- 
cal duties  of  Christianity. 

Christianity  (Christendom,  the  totality 
of  the  Christian  nations). —  The  four  Gos- 
pels, written  according  to  St.  Matthew,  St. 
Mark,  St.  Luke,  and  St.  John,  give  us  the 
details  of  the  divine  mission  of  the  Saviour 
from  His  birth  to  His  passion,  death,  and 
resurrection.  This  is  the  basis  of  Chris- 
tianity, taught  by  the  lessons  and  precepts 
of  Christ,  developed  afterwards  by  His 
Apostles,  and  formulated  in  an  abridgment 
in  their  Symbol  or  Apostles'  Creed.  But  in 
'ts  source,  Christianity  goes  further  back; 
it  is  intimately  connected  with  the  divine 
facts  related  in  the  Old  Testament.  The 
Bible,  in  its  entirety,  is  the  exposition  of 
the  Christian  religion,  based  upon  the 
primitive  revelation  which  followed  the 
creation  of  man,  and  which  Christ  came  to 
complete  in  fulfilling  the  Old  Testament 
prophecies.  Thus  both  Testaments  unite 
in  a  grand  and  wonderful  harmony.  The 
religious  needs  and  aspirations  of  the  soul, 
and  an  unbiased,  complete  examination  of 
facts  and  proofs,  certainly  lead  to  the  re- 
ligion of  Christ,  to  the  divine  faith  which 
He  came  on  earth  to  establish.  This  divine 
religion,  expounded  by  Christianity,  alone 
answers  to  the  cries  and  needs  of  our  nature, 
—  a  nature  both  corporal  and  spiritual ;  this 
alone  victoriously  combats  the  principle  of 
evil  which  is  within  us  as  an  original  stain; 
this  alone  can  sanctify  the  individual,  the 
family,  and  society ;  this  alone  is  the  voice 
of  truth  and  life ;  finally,  this  alone,  regu- 
lates with  authority  the  duties,  guides  faith 


in  its  hesitations,  hope  in  its  waverings, 
charity  in  its  works,  and  is  the  source  of 
all  good  and  of  expiation,  in  view  of  eternal 
life. 

Let  us  read  the  Gospels,  in  order  to  ar- 
rive at  the  starting  point  of  Christian 
preaching,  at  the  foundation  of  Christian- 
ity. The  Messias  who  was  announced  from 
the  beginning  of  the  world,  and  again  and 
again  foretold  by  the  Prophets,  has  fulfilled 
His  divine  mission.  In  His  "Sermon  on 
the  Mount,"  He  has  given  us  a  summary 
of  His  sublime  doctrine ;  He  has  spread  the 
good  news,  and  transmitted  to  His  Apos- 
tles the  doctrine  which  should  be  taught  by 
them  to  the  whole  world  :  ^^  Docete  omnes 
genfes.'"  He  has  established  among  them  a 
chief,  to  whom  He  said  :  "Thou  art  Peter, 
and  upon  this  rock  I  shall  build  my 
Church."  This  chief  will  represent  the 
unity  and  authority,  and  his  successors  will 
continue  in  possession  of  this  deposit  of 
unity  and  supreme  authority  until  the  end 
of  time.  The  power  to  bind  and  to  loose 
will  be  given  to  them.  Jesus  Christ  dies 
upon  the  Cross  :  '■^consummatum  est.'^  Tri- 
umphantly He  comes  forth  from  the  grave, 
and  appears  to  His  disciples  in  order  to 
confer  on  them  His  divine  mission  and 
confirm  them  in  the  truths  thereof.  Soon 
the  effects  of  the  Redemption  make  them- 
selves felt.  The  Jews  who  denied  and 
crucified  Him  are  no  longer  the  chosen  and 
privileged,  the  only  repository  heretofore 
of  the  faith  revealed  by  God.  The  Old 
Law  must  give  place  to  a  new  covenant  of 
grace  and  love ;  all  nations  and  peoples, 
tribes  and  tongues  are  called  to  share  in 
its  benevolent  effects.  The  Holy  Ghost 
who  descended  in  the  Upper-Room  upon 
the  Apostles,  loosened  their  tongues,  and 
communicated  to  them  the  divine  spirit. 
Two  sermons  of  Peter  at  Jerusalem  make 
eight  thousand  converts,  who  gladly  con- 
fess the  faith  of  Christ,  and  thus  the  first 
Church  of  Christians  is  founded.  These 
new  Faithful,  in  their  fervor  and  zeal,  de- 
posit their  goods  at  the  feet  of  the  Apos- 
tles for  equitable  division  among  the 
Community. 

Soon,  however,  the  Synagogue  becomes 
suspicious  and  wrathful ;  the  Apostles  are 
put  into  prison,  scourged,  and  forbidden  to 
preach.  They  answer  that  "  they  must  obey 
God  rather  than  man,"  and  continue  to 
preach  Christ  crucified.  Seven  deacons  are 
chosen  bj'  the  Apostles ;  the  first  of  these  is 
Stephen,  who  became  the  first  glorious  mar- 
tyr.   Paul,  struck  with  blindness  on  his  way 


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158 


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to  Damascus,  whither  he  was  going  to  per- 
secute the  Christians,  beholds  the  scales  fall 
from  his  eyes,  and  from  a  relentless  per- 
secutor becomes  the  great  Apostle  of  the 
Gentiles.  Reunited  with  Peter  in  that  Capi- 
tal which  groans  under  the  tyranny  of  a 
Nero,  they  together  seal  with  their  blood  the 
faith  of  Christ.  Rome  will  become  the  See 
of  the  universal  Church.  John  teaches  and 
labors  in  Asia  Minor,  Philip  in  Upper 
Asia,  Andrew  among  the  fierce  Scythians. 
Thomas  preaches  among  the  Parthians, 
and  even  pushes  his  labors  till  he  embraces 
the  Indies,  whither  he  is  followed  bj- 
Bartholomew ;  Matthew  labors  in  Ethiopia, 
and  Simon  in  Persia.  The  pagan  world  is 
shaken,  astonished,  amazed,  by  the  new 
doctrine  which  affirms  only  one  God,  a 
God  made  man  in  order  to  save  man ; 
which  proclaims  men  equal  and  brethren  ; 
which  preaches  renouncement,  mortifica- 
tion, fasts,  devotedness,  the  despising  of 
this  world  in  order  the  better  to  win  a 
celestial  one.  The  wise  and  the  powerful 
wrap  themselves  up  in  their  pride  and 
folly,  but  the  poor,  the  humble,  the  miser- 
able, feel  themselves  carried  along  by  these 
words  of  peace  and  love  which  show  to 
them  beyond  their  life  of  trials,  a  reward 
of  eternal  happiness.  The  pagans  believe 
that  they  can  smother  the  divine  voice  by 
torments  and  death.  '*  The  Christians  to 
the  lions ! "  and  the  wild  beasts,  fire,  the 
most  cruel  torments,  were  employed  in 
vain  on  these  resigned  victims.  But,  says 
Tertullian,  "  The  blood  of  the  martyrs  be- 
came the  seed  of  Christians."  They 
hid  in  the  Catacombs  the  mysteries  of 
their  precious  worship;  and  here,  too,  they 
buried  the  victims  of  imperial  barbarity. 
There  are  counted,  during  the  first  three 
centuries,  ten  general  persecutions  di- 
rected against  the  Christians  (see  Perse- 
cutions). However,  the  Christians  were 
not  enemies  of  the  empire ;  on  the  con- 
trary, obedience  to  all  laws  not  contrary  to 
morality  or  conscience  was  to  them  a  re- 
ligious duty.  But  to  the  blinded  and 
hardened  pagans,  liberty  of  conscience 
was  revolt  and  disloyalty ;  and  paganism, 
with  all  its  revolting  rites  and  ceremonies, 
was  an  integral  part  of  the  constitution 
and  of  social  life.  Even  the  emperors,  be- 
sotted voluptuous  tyrants,  were  deified, 
and  to  kill  Christians  appeared  to  them 
a  measure  of  public  safety.  But  truth 
always  ends  in  triumph,  and  the  Chris- 
tian Church  in  the  person  of  Constantine, 
after    his    victory    over    Maxentius,    was 


triumphant,  but  she  had  not  completed 
her  work.  She  had  to  strengthen  and  ex- 
tend herself,  to  give  herself,  after  three 
centuries  of  struggle,  an  organic  constitu- 
tional form  of  government.  She  had,  too, 
to  prepare  herself  to  enter  upon  a  new, 
and  though  bloodless,  yet  more  dangerous 
struggle, —  the  combat  within  her  fold, 
against  error  and  heresy.  There  had 
already  commenced  in  the  desert  of  The- 
biad  that  wonderful  institution  of  Monas- 
ticism,  based  upon  the  spirit  of  penance 
and  the  desire  to  more  closely  approach 
heaven  by  means  of  contemplation,  prayer, 
and  the  strict  practice  of  ascetic  virtues. 
St.  Paul,  St.  Anthony,  and  St.  Pachomius, 
were  the  first  Apostles  and  models  of  this 
eremitic  life  —  a  mode  of  life  soon  to  be  re- 
placed by  that  of  the  cenobitic  or  com- 
munity life.  The  East  became  covered 
with  monasteries  to  which  St.  Basil  gave 
his  Rule.  When  the  monks  passed  into 
the  West,  following  St.  Athanasius,  they 
strengthened  and  consolidated  themselves 
by  the  aid  of  a  new  force.  This  auxiliary 
was  the  joining  to  prayer  and  contempla- 
tion of  manual  labor.  Indefatigable  in 
all  kinds  of  labors,  they  soon  became  the 
pioneers  of  European  civilization.  "  They 
cleared  it  in  great  part,"  says  Guizot,  *'  in 
joining  agriculture  with  preaching." 
This  religious  militia  was  one  of  the  great- 
est forces  of  Christianity  and  a  vigorous 
element  of  civilization.  The  monasteries 
became  the  nurseries  of  priests,  asylums 
of  study,  centers  of  schools,  and  barriers 
against  the  inroads  of  Barbarians. 

In  proportion  as  the  Church  established 
the  hierarchy  of  patriarchs,  metropolitans, 
bishops,  and  pastors,  to  oversee  and  propa- 
gate her  doctrine,  she  beheld  rising  around 
her  errors  which  she  was  bound  to  com- 
bat and  suppress.  From  the  first  century, 
at  her  very  cradle,  she  had  to  confute  and 
confound  Simon,  the  Magician,  Apollon- 
ius  of  Tj-ana  and  the  Ebionites.  The  Gnos- 
tics and  the  Montanists  appeared  in  the 
second  century,  and  in  the  third  and  fourth 
the  Manicheans  and  the  Arians.  The  latter, 
though  powerful  and  numerous,  and  having 
the  support  of  several  emperors,  failed,  in 
spite  of  craft,  power,  and  numbers,  to  over- 
throw the  Church.  They,  indeed,  cor- 
rupted and  won  over  a  part  of  the  Episcopate 
court  prelates,  and  many  of  the  Barbarians 
who  had  recently  been  converted  from 
paganism.  Then  arose  the  Donatists,  Pe- 
lagians, Nestorians,  and  Eutychians,  all  of 
whom,  in  various  ways,  denied  some  of  the 


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159 


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Christian  dogmas,  and  tried  to  destroy  the 
purity,  unity,  and  integrity  of  the  Church. 
To  all  of  these  heresies  and  heresiarchs, 
the  Church  opposed  her  victorious  cham- 
pions,—  St.  Justin,  Athenagoras,  Tertul- 
lian,  and  others.  To  these  apologists  was 
added  the  lofty  and  powerful  eloquence  of 
the  early  Fathers :  St.  Athanasius,  St. 
Basil,  St.  Chrysostom,  St.  Jerome,  St. 
Ambrose,  and  St.  Augustine.  She  affirmed 
and  established  her  dogmas  with  incom- 
parable authority  in  the  assemblies  of  her 
Ecumenical  Councils,  where  all  the  bish- 
ops, supported  by  the  authority  of  the  Ro- 
man Pontiff,  formulated  their  decisions 
and  anathematized,  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
leave  no  subterfuge  unexposed,  nor  its 
abettors  unmasked. 

In  the  second  century,  Gaul  had  re- 
ceived Christianity  through  the  teaching 
and  labors  of  St.  Pothinus,  who  was  mar- 
tyred at  Lyons  under  Marcus  Aurelius,  to- 
gether with  a  number  of  the  Faithful.  The 
Church  of  the  Gauls  flourished  by  the 
great  learning,  wisdom,  and  virtues  of 
her  bishops,  when  Clovis  and  his  Franks 
came  to  bow  their  heads  and  received  the 
faith  from  St.  Remigius,  at  Rheims.  The 
other  Barbarians,  who  had  been  infected 
with  Arianism  were  brought  back  to  the 
true  faith.  Ireland,  converted  by  St.  Pat- 
rick, became  a  home  and  a  center  of  Mon- 
astic zeal  and  all  Christian  virtues.  From 
her  famous  Monastery  of  Bangor,  St.  Co- 
lumbanus  and  St.  Gall  went  forth  to  evan- 
gelize the  regions  of  the  Vosges  and  of  Hel- 
vetia. In  596,  the  Anglo-Saxons  were  con- 
verted by  St.  Augustine.  In  690,  twelve 
English  monks,  led  by  St.  Willibrord,  went 
to  convert  the  Frieslanders,  while  another 
Irish  monk,  St.  Killian,  spread  the  faith 
in  Franconia.  In  the  year  716,  St.  Win- 
frid  (or  Boniface)  went  to  destroy  the 
idols  and  plant  the  faith  in  Thuringia, 
Saxony,  and  Bavaria,  establishing,  wher- 
ever he  came,  bishoprics,  churches,  and 
schools. 

The  religious  faith  and  spirit,  so  alive 
and  active  in  the  West,  had  grown  cold  in 
the  East.  Here  a  general  relaxation  of 
morals  and  the  subtleties  of  heresies  had 
produced  woeful  effects.  On  the  other 
hand,  Mohammed  inflamed  with  fanati- 
cism the  Arabian  race,  and  with  it  marched 
to  victory  and  made  conquests  which  ex- 
tended from  the  shores  of  the  Euphrates 
and  Nile  to  the  Pyrenees.  From  this  point, 
his  followers  after  penetrating  Gaul,  threat- 
ened Christian  civilization  with  ruin.     The 


sword  of  Charles  Martel,  fortunately,  ar- 
rested their  progress  on  the  plains  of  Poi- 
tiers, in  732.  It  required  eight  centuries 
of  heroic  struggle  on  the  part  of  the  Chris- 
tians of  Spain  to  drive  forever  from  her 
soil  the  Moslem  power.  This  power  was 
eventually  shaken  in  the  Orient,  and  the 
Holy  Sepulchre  was  restored  to  the  Chris- 
tians. 

The  benevolent  action  of  Christianity 
had  continued  to  exercise  its  influence  and 
agencies  upon  the  Western  nations.  Char- 
lemagne, in  the  eighth  century,  had  by 
his  power  and  example  strengthened  it  in 
Germany,  and  introduced  It  into  several 
provinces  hitherto  unenlightened  by  its 
beneficient  rays.  In  the  following  century 
Denmark  and  Sweden  received  the  faith 
through  the  preaching  and  labors  of  St. 
Ansgar.  St.  Cyril  and  St.  Methodius  ef- 
ected  the  conversion  of  the  Slavs.  The  Nor- 
man Pirates  brought  into  France  by  Rol- 
lin  also  bowed  their  necks  under  the  sweet 
yoke  of  Christ. 

But  schism  and  heresy  were  still  very 
active  in  the  East.  In  the  eighth  century, 
the  Church  was  afflicted  by  the  Iconoclast 
heresy,  and  still  more  by  that  of  Photius, 
who  effected  the  separation  of  the  Eastern 
Churches  from  the  center  of  authority  — 
Rome.  The  Papacy  had  ever,  and  has 
still,  to  war  for  the  cause  of  that  divine 
faith,  the  integrity  of  which  it  must  pro- 
tect and  preserve.  It  triumphed  in  the 
twelfth  century  over  the  errors  of  the 
Waldenses  and  Albigenses,  and  again  in 
the  long  and  bitter  quarrel  concerning  the 
right  of  Investiture.  It  finally  forced  the 
emperors  of  Germany  to  respect  the 
rights  and  dignities  of  the  priesthood.  It 
also  created  for  its  work  and  defense  mili- 
tant orders  of  monks :  The  Knights  and 
Hospitalers  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem 
(1100);  the  Templars  (11 18);  the  Teu- 
tonic Knights  ( 1190) ;  the  Knights  of  Avis, 
in  Spain  and  Portugal  (1146);  of  Cala- 
trava  (1158);  of  Alcantara  (1213) ;  and, 
finally,  the  Sword  Bearers  of  Livonia 
(1202).  On  the  other  hand,  the  great  mon- 
astic orders  had  received  from  St.  Bene- 
dict of  Monte  Cassino,  the  famous  Bene- 
dictine Rule,  which  became  in  time  the 
basis  of  all  conventual  institutions.  The 
great  "Schism  of  the  West"  (1378-1449) 
arose  to  trouble  the  Church,  and,  by  its 
sorrowful  effects,  lessened  the  prestige  of 
the  Papacy.  Religious  unity  received  an 
almost  fatal  blow.  The  spirit  of  revolt 
manifested  itself  in  the  heresies  of  Wycliffe, 


Christianity  in  America 


1 60 


Christianity  in  America 


of  John  Huss,  and  of  Jerome  of  Prague. 
These  heresiarchs,  with  their  errors,  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  separation  finally 
completed  by  Luther  in  Germany,  Zwingli 
in  Switzerland,  Calvin  in  France,  and 
Henry  VIII.  in  England.  The  Councils 
of  Basle  and  of  Constance  were  powerless 
to  heal  the  schisms  which  now  divided 
Europe,  and  brought  in  their  train  bloody 
wars.  By  God's  providence,  a  new  re- 
ligious order,  that  of  the  Jesuits,  sprung 
up,  and  soon  became  famous  for  its  loyalty 
to  the  Holy  See,  giving  to  it  stanch  de- 
fenders, men  remarkable  for  their  learn- 
ing and  sanctity.  These  men  devoted 
themselves  principally  to  the  education 
of  youth  and  to  the  defense  of  Christian 
dogmas.  The  Council  of  Trent  (1545- 
1563)  assembled  to  fix  the  dogmas,  regu- 
late the  discipline,  establish  the  infalli- 
bility of  the  Church,  and  correct  the  abuses 
with  which  they  reproached  her.  The 
"Peace  of  Augsburg,"  in  1555,  granted  to 
the  Protestants  liberty  of  conscience,  but 
yet  division  continued  to  remain  among 
the  Christian  bodies.  In  pretending  to 
bring  back  Christianity  to  its  primitive 
purity,  the  Protestant  Reformation  had 
essentially  altered  its  essence  and  shaken 
its  very  foundation.  It  introduced  the  ra- 
tionalistic element  as  a  negation  of  author- 
ity, for  where  there  is  no  authority,  disorder 
and  anarchy  must  inevitably  prevail.  While 
Catholicity  remained  firm  and  unchange- 
able. Protestantism  became  split  into  a 
multitude  of  sects, —  Lutherans,  Calvinists, 
Anabaptists,  Moravians,  Anglicans,  Presby- 
terians, Puritans,  Independents,  Quakers, 
Methodists,  Pietists,  Unitarians,  etc.,  hav- 
ing their  common  foundation  in  Rational- 
ism, under  the  cloak  of  liberty  of  conscience. 
To-day,  the  sovereign  Pontiff  has  lost  his 
temporal  power,  which  protected  and 
guaranteed  his  independence;  neverthe- 
less, he  remains  all-powerful  and  absolute 
in  his  spiritual  sway,  and  never  was  the 
matchless  unity  of  Christ's  mystical  body 
— the  Church — so  great  and  true  as  to- 
day. The  temporal  powers  still  gladly 
make  the  successor  of  St.  Peter  the  um- 
pire of  their  many  disputes.  He,  and  he 
alone,  in  undiminished  power,  is  the  living 
representative  and  vicegerent  of  Christ, 
who  lives,  reigns,  and  commands. 

Christianity  in  America. — The  discov- 
ery of  America  (1492),  by  the  pious 
Christopher  Columbus,  opened  a  new 
field    for    the    missionary    labors   of    the 


Church.  Pope  Alexander  VI.  commis- 
sioned Ferdinand  the  Catholic  to  have 
Christianity  introduced  into  the  New 
World.  The  first  missionaries  were  Bene- 
dictines, Hieronymites,  Franciscans,  and 
Dominicans.  Their  labors  were  in  great 
measure  frustrated  by  the  avarice  and 
cruelties  of  the  Spanish  settlers,  who  com- 
pelled the  natives  to  work  as  slaves.  The 
missionaries  stoutly  denounced  the  en- 
slavement of  the  Indians  as  being  a  vio- 
lation of  their  natural  rights  and  the  laws 
of  Christianity.  At  an  early  period, 
negroes  were  brought  from  Africa,  to  re- 
place the  Indian  slaves.  After  the  death 
of  Ferdinand,  Cardinal  Ximenes,  regent 
of  Spain,  prohibited  this  practice.  Bar- 
tholomew de  Las  Casas,  a  member  of  the 
Dominican  order,  wished,  under  cer- 
tain restrictions,  to  have  the  negroes  who 
were  slaves,  employed  in  the  labors  of  the 
colonies,  instead  of  the  weaker  Indians. 
For  this  reason,  he  has  been  unjustly  ac- 
cused of  introducing  the  slave  trade, 
whereas  he  was  the  true  apostle  of  the 
Indians,  the  stanch  defender  of  their  per- 
sonal freedom.  He  crossed  the  Ocean 
sixteen  times  to  defend  their  rights.  (See 
Las  Casas).  The  friends  of  slavery  as- 
serting that  the  Indians  were  but  irrational 
beasts  and  born  to  slavery.  Pope  Paul  III., 
in  a  Bull  issued  in  1537,  vindicated  the 
liberty  of  the  Indians  and  maintained 
that,  as  they  belong  to  the  human  race, 
they  are  heirs  to  the  rights  of  man.  The 
decrees  of  the  Bull  were  frequently  re- 
newed by  succeeding  Popes.  Their  ex- 
ample was  followed  by  the  kings  of  Spain. 
The  missionaries  were  the  zealous  apostles 
of  peace  and  true  friends  of  the  persecuted 
natives.  They  compiled  grammars,  dic- 
tionaries, and  other  works  in  the  native 
tongue  of  the  aborigines,  and  thus  won 
the  most  savage  tribes  to  Christianity. 
Together  with  the  other  religious  orders, 
the  Jesuits  labored  in  Peru,  Chili,  and 
Mexico.  Bishoprics  were  established  in 
the  different  parts  of  Spanish  America, 
seminaries  founded,  and  provincial  and 
diocesan  synods  held  to  promote  the  cause 
of  religion.  The  clergy  and  religious  were 
animated  with  zeal  for  souls.  St.  Louis 
Bertrand  labored  in  Columbia,  St.  Francis 
Solano  in  La  Plata  and  Peru.  St.  Peter 
Claver  became  the  apostle  of  the  slaves. 
St.  Rose  of  Lima  is  the  first  canonized 
saint  of  America.  To  the  Catholic 
Church  America  owes  her  discovery  and 
her  civilization.     See  Missions. 


Christians 


i6i 


Chronology 


Christians  or  Christian  Connection. — 

The  name  adopted  by  a  religious  denomi- 
nation in  the  United  States,  which  origi- 
nated, in  1793,  in  a  secession  from  the 
Methodists  of  Virginia  and  North  Caro- 
lina, led  by  the  Rev.  J.  Q'Kelley,  and  at 
first  called  "Republican  Methodists."  The 
name  was  changed  that  it  might  express 
their  renunciation  of  all  sectarianism. 
This  sect  must  not  be  confounded  with  the 
"Christian  Churches"  or  "Disciples  of 
Christ."  They  are  widely  scattered 
throughout  the  United  States,  and  in  1895 
had  1,300  Churches,  1,380  ministers,  and 
9,500  communicants.  Their  principles 
create  each  congregation  into  an  inde- 
pendent body  and  the  Bible  is  their  only 
rule  of  faith,  which  every  person  is  at 
liberty  to  interpret  for  himself.  Member- 
ship is  obtained  by  a  simple  profession  of 
belief  in  Christianity.  As  a  rule  they  are 
antitrinitarians  and  immersionists. 

Christians  {Chaldean). — The  Chaldean 
Christians,  or  converted  Nestorians,  are 
to  be  found  chiefly  in  Persia,  Kurdistan, 
Mesopotamia,  and  Turkish  Armenia. 
They  are  ruled  by  the  "  Chaldean  Patri- 
arch of  Babylonia,"  who  resides  at  Mosul 
and  Bagdad.  He  has  under  him  two  arch- 
bishops and  ten  bishops.  In  1892,  the  Nes- 
torian  patriarch  Marchisnu,  with  the  last 
remnants  of  his  sect,  sought  union  with  the 
Holy  See,  thus  putting  an  end  to  what  was 
once  known  as  the  Nestorian  schismatic 
Church.  In  Persia  and  the  surrounding 
countries  the  Catholics  of  various  rites 
number  about  63,000.  See  Oriental 
Rites. 

Christians  of  St.  Thomas. —  Name  given 
to  the  ancient  Christians  which  the  first 
Portuguese  conquerors  found  spread  around 
Calicut,  and  who  pretended  to  be  descend- 
ants of  the  people  whom  St.  Thomas  con- 
verted in  his  apostolate  of  the  Indies.  They 
are  Nestorians  of  the  Chaldean  rite  and 
belong  to  the  Nestorian  patriarchate  of 
Babylonia. 

Christmas  (Feast  of  the  Nativity  of  our 
Lord). —  The  institution  of  this  feast,  which 
is  celebrated  on  December  25th,  is  attrib- 
uted to  Pope  Telesphorus,  in  the  year  138. 
Originally,  Christmas  Day  was  often  con- 
founded with  the  feast  of  Epiphany.  On 
the  feast  of  Christmas  Day,  the  Catholic 
priest  is  permitted  to  say  three  Masses, 
in  commemoration  of  the  temporal,  spirit- 
ual, and  eternal  birth  of  Christ.  When- 
II 


ever  Christmas  Day  falls  on  Friday,  it  is 
permitted  to  eat  flesh-meat. 

Christology. —  That  part  of  theology 
which  treats  of  the  person  and  work  of 
Christ.  Dogmatic  theology  is  divided  into 
Ontology  and  Christology. 

Christolytes. — Name  given  to  heretics  of 
the  sixth  century  who  pretended  that  Christ 
descended  into  hell  with  both  body  and  soul, 
that  He  left  both  therein,  and  ascended  into 
heaven  only  with  His  divinity. 

Christopher  (St.). —  A  martyr  of  the 
third  century.  He  is  said  to  have  lived  in 
Syria,  and  to  have  been  of  prodigious 
stature  and  strength.  As  a  penance  for 
having  been  a  servant  of  the  devil,  he  de- 
voted himself  to  the  task  of  carrying  pil- 
grims across  a  river  where  there  was  no 
bridge.  Christ  went  to  the  river  one  day, 
in  the  form  of  a  child,  and  asked  to  be  car- 
ried over,  but  his  weight  grew  heavier  and 
heavier  till  his  bearer  was  nearly  broken 
down  in  the  midst  of  the  stream.  When 
they  reached  the  shore,  the  child  said, 
"  Marvel  not,  for  with  Me  thou  hast  borne 
all  the  sins  of  the  world."  Christopher  is 
usually  represented  as  bearing  the  infant 
Christ  and  leaning  upon  a  great  staflf.  F. 
July  5th. 

Chrodegang  (St.). —  Bishop  of  Metz; 
was  born  in  Brabant,  in  712.  Kinsman  of 
Pepin  the  Short;  became  chancellor  of 
Charles  Martel,  to  which  office  was  joined 
that  of  Bishop  of  Metz  (742).  He  was  a 
great  statesman  and  ecclesiastic.  We  owe 
to  him  a  famous  rule  concerning  the  can- 
ons of  his  cathedral.  He  died  March  6th, 
766. 

Chronicles.     See  Paralipomena. 

Chronology. — There  is  nescience  so  full 
of  difficulties  as  that  which  treats  of  events 
lost  in  the  night  of  ages.  It  strikes  against 
uncertain  periods,  where  it  is  fain  to  de- 
pend upon  inference  and  conjecture. 
Where  written  documents  are  wanting, 
we  are  reduced  to  calculate  the  number  of 
generations,  to  invoke  astronomical  ac- 
counts, the  eclipses,  and  to  examine  mon- 
uments. A  passage  of  Confucius  which 
indicates  thirty-five  eclipses  of  the  sun, 
has  permitted  us  to  calculate  that  the 
facts  of  which  he  speaks  must  have  taken 
place  between  the  years  720  to  481  b.  c, 
but  this  is  only  one  point  in  the  space  of 
ancient  times.     The  first  people  of  Italy, 


Chronology 


162 


Chronology 


Gaul,  and  Germany,  had  no  chronology 
properly  speaking.  We  find  a  limited 
ancient  chronology,  beginning  with  the 
tenth  century  b.c.  Thanks  to  the  discov- 
ery of  the  "Marbles  of  Paros,"  we  have 
been  enabled  to  recover  the  chief  events  of 
the  annals  of  Greece,  from  the  foundation 
of  Athens,  about  1558  b.c,  until  the  year 
200  of  our  era.  The  Roman  chronology 
has  been  determined  according  to  the 
"Consular  Fathers"  or  "Capitoline  Mar- 
bles," which  were  unearthed  in  the  ancient 
Forum  in  1547.  For  Egypt  we  have  the 
"History  of  Manetho"  in  the  extracts 
transmitted  to  us  by  Julius  Africanus  and 
Eusebius ;  moreover,  the  hieroglyphics  re- 
cently deciphered,  the  continual  excava- 
tions and  the  discoveries  made  in  the 
hypogene  of  the  land  of  the  Pharaos,  have 
furnished  new  secrets  to  chronology. 
Finally,  the  Bible  offers  to  chronology 
the  most  authentic  and  precise  sources,  and 
according  to  the  accounts  it  furnishes  has 
been  established  the  era  followed  by  all  the 
Christian  peoples. 

The  first  thing  to  obser\-e  in  the  chron- 
ological calculations,  is  the  measure  of 
time,  the  year  which  has  served  to  estab- 
lish the  calendar,  either  according  to  the 
solar  month,  or  according  to  the  lunations. 
It  is  requisite  also  to  study  the  cycles 
•which  are  periods  of  time  succeeding  one 
another  in  determined  intervals.  Among 
the  Romans,  the  cycle  of  indication  was 
composed  of  fifty  jrears  or  three  lustres, 
but  without  connection  with  the  astronom- 
ical movements.  The  word  era  desig- 
nates a  memorable  epoch  which  serves  as 
a  starting  point  for  the  calculation  of  the 
years,  anterior  and  posterior  to  the  event 
which  it  designates.  History  mentions  at 
least  twenty  different  eras,  the  best  known 
of  which  are :  the  Era  of  the  Olympiads, 
776  B.  c. ;  the  Era  of  the  Foundation  of 
Rome,  752  B.C.;  the  Julian  Era,  45  b.  c. ; 
the  Era  of  Mohammed  or  Hegira,  622  a.d.  ; 
finally  the  Christian  Era  or  the  Incarna- 
tion of  Jesus  Christ.  The  latter,  to  which 
is  referred  all  the  others,  is  based  upon  the 
text  of  the  Bible,  but  since  we  have  three 
principal  ones  (the  Hebrew,  the  Samaritan, 
and  the  Greek  of  the  Septuagint)  notable 
divergences  have  resulted  from  it  in  regard 
to  certain  dates,  so  that  from  the  creation 
of  the  world  till  the  birth  of  Jesus  Christ 
is  counted,  according  to  the  Septuagint 
and  Vulgate,  5228  years ;  according  to  the 
Samaritan,  4293  years,  and  according  to 
the  Hebrew,  3992  years.     A  learned  chro- 


nologist  of  the  sixteenth  century,  Usserius, 
has  modified  these  calculations  and  fixed 
the  period  before  Christ  at  4000  years. 
Then  came  the  Benedictines  of  the  eight- 
eenth century,  who,  in  their  learned  work, 
Art  to  Verify  the  Dates,  fixed  the  dura- 
tion of  the  world  before  Christ  at  4963 
years.  Finally,  in  our  time,  a  new  system 
has  been  established  by  the  Abb6  Chev- 
alier, who,  by  means  of  observations,  en- 
deavors to  bring  into  agreement  the 
diflferent  texts  of  our  Sacred  Books,  and 
reconcile  them  with  the  accounts  given  by 
the  most  ancient  authors,  as  well  as  with 
those  that  result  from  modern  discoveries 
in  Assyria  and  Egypt ;  thus  he  attempts  to 
fix  the  origin  of  the  world  in  the  year 
5949  B-  c. 

Chronology  (Biblical). —  We  do  not 
find  in  the  Bible  a  complete  chronology, 
nor  a  fixed  era  or  epoch  at  which  the 
numeration  of  the  years  commences,  and  in 
this  sense  we  can  say,  repeating  the  words 
attributed  to  Silvestre  de  Sacy :  "  There 
is  no  Biblical  chronology."  But  there 
are  in  the  Scriptures  some  figures,  dates, 
and  chronological  accounts,  which  may 
serve  to  form  a  system  of  Biblical  chro- 
nology. It  is  the  same  with  the  Egyptian 
monuments,  which  only  indicate  the  years 
of  a  reign,  with  the  help  of  which  the 
chronologists  calculate  the  dates  of  Egyp- 
tian history.  We  have,  therefore,  as  much 
right  to  speak  of  a  Biblical  chronology  as 
of  an  Egyptian  chronology. 

But  the  Bible  does  not  contain  an  ordi- 
nary history :  it  is  the  work  of  God ;  it  has 
been  written  under  the  inspiration  of  the 
Holy  Ghost.  Hence  we  may  ask  whether  the 
Biblical  chronology  is  inspired  and  whether 
it  forms  a  part  of  the  divine  revelation. 
Certainly,  the  sacred  writers  have  written, 
under  divine  impulse,  some  dates,  and  fur- 
nished chronological  accounts  which  were 
inspired  by  God,  and  consequently  exact. 
These  teachings  which  formed  part  of  the 
di^^ne  revelation,  would  constitute  a  re- 
vealed chronology,  if  it  were  certain  that 
the  inspired  authors  desired  to  point  out 
the  age  of  the  world  and  the  regular  suc- 
cession of  time  and  historic  events  in  Israel, 
and  that  they  have  indicated  all  the  neces- 
sary dates.  Some,  undoubtedly,  had  the 
design  to  fix  chronologically  the  epoch  of 
the  events  which  they  related ;  but  not  all 
took  this  care,  and  the  chronographers 
establish  in  their  writings  many  breaks 
or    simple   chronological  approximations. 


Chronology 


163 


Chronology 


The  Bible  contains,  therefore,  chronolog- 
ical accounts  which  are  incomplete  and 
insufficient  to  form  a  revealed  and  certain 
chronology.  We  might  arrange  them 
systematically,  but  the  calculation  result- 
ing therefrom  would  remain  doubtful 
and  faulty.  It  would  not  enforce  the  as- 
sent of  any  Catholic,  who  would  always 
have  the  right  to  discuss  and  reject  it. 
Moreover,  all  the  figures  of  the  Bible 
have  not  reached  us  in  their  primitive 
integrity,  and  the  dates  present  themselves 
to  us  with  such  variations  that  criticism  is 
unable  to  restore  with  any  certainty  the 
original  text.  This  evident  alteration  of 
dates  still  further  increases  the  uncertainty 
of  chronological  calculations.  Further- 
more, the  Catholic  Church  never  had  an 
official  chronology.  She  has  always  per- 
mitted discussion  of  the  numerical  varia- 
tions of  the  sacred  text,  and  liberty  of 
reckoning  the  duration  of  the  Biblical 
periods.  We  shall  set  forth  briefly  the  re- 
sults obtained  by  the  chronologists,  pass- 
ing successively  over  the  principal  epochs 
of  the  Biblical  history. 

I.  Date  of  the  Creation  of  the 
World. —  The  Bible  does  not  fix  the  era 
of  this  supreme  event;  it  narrates  only 
that  God  created  heaven  and  earth  "  in 
the  beginning,"  without  fixing  precisely 
the  epoch  of  this  "beginning."  It  also 
describes  the  primordial  condition  of  the 
terrestrial  globe  as  a  state  of  chaos,  of 
confusion,  and  of  disorder,  during  which 
dense  darkness  covered  the  surface  of  the 
chaotic  elements  (Gen.  i.  i,  2).  It  does 
not  inform  us  as  to  the  duration  of  this 
primeval  period.  Until  the  nineteenth 
century,  critics  generally  did  not  dis- 
tinguish the  date  of  the  creation  of  the 
world  from  that  of  the  creation  of  man, 
from  which  it  was  separated,  they  com- 
monly believed,  only  by  six  days  of 
twenty-four  hours.  Previously,  however, 
some  more  perspicuous  writers,  such  as 
St.  Justin,  St.  Gregory  of  Nazianz,  Gen- 
nadius  of  Marseilles,  and  Petavius,  had  ad- 
mitted an  indefinite  period  between  the 
creation  of  primordial  matter  and  its  defin- 
itive organization.  (Cf.  Motais,  Origine 
du  Monde  d'apres  la  Tradition,  c.  ii.,  pp. 
17-42.)  The  present  interpreters  acknowl- 
edge almost  unanimously  that  Moses  is 
silent  as  to  the  space  of  time  that  elapsed 
between  the  primitive  creation  and  the 
production  of  the  light  on  the  first  geneti- 
cal  day.  Several  even  consider  the  days 
of  creation  as  periods  of  an  indeterminate 


duration  (see  Cosmogony),  and  all  critics 
leave  to  the  astronomers  and  geologists 
the  task  of  determining  the  time  neces- 
sary for  the  formation  of  the  planetary 
bodies  and  the  geological  strata.  Besides, 
science,  no  more  than  exegesis,  possesses 
the  means  of  estimating  this  time  with 
precision  and  certainty.  Reliable  time 
gauges  are  wanting.  However,  geolo- 
gists, in  accord  with  astronomers,  allow 
centuries  to  the  igneous  state  of  the 
earth,  and  it  is  a  fact  demonstrated 
beyond  question  that  its  planetary  phase 
goes  back  to  a  very  ancient  origin.  The 
earthly  stratifications,  the  configuration 
of  the  continents,  the  changes  of  the 
flora  and  fauna,  have  required  centuries. 
The  geologists  who  venture  to  fix  by  fig- 
ures the  age  of  the  world  arrive  at  very 
dififerent  conclusions.  Their  calculations, 
which  start  from  diiTerent  hypotheses,  are 
based  on  the  time  necessary  for  the  action 
of  existing  causes.  But,  while  always  iden- 
tical in  their  essence,  the  forces  of  nature 
must  certainly  have  varied  in  their  mode 
of  action.  Their  intensity  has  been  more 
or  less  powerful,  and  their  associations, 
more  or  less  complex,  have  deviated  in  a 
large  measure  from  the  combinations  at 
present  existing.  Hence  we  can  admit 
only  with  great  reserve  the  numerical  re- 
sults at  which  different  scientists  have 
claimed  to  arrive.  Reputable  geologists 
do  not  believe  they  exaggerate  in  estimat- 
ing at  some  millions  of  years  the  time 
necessary  for  the  geological  formations. 
According  to  this  the  figures  might  vary 
from  I  to  20,  sometimes  from  i  to  100, 
millions  of  years  without  any  one  of  the 
extreme  results  meriting  less  confidence 
than  another.  Hence,  it  would  not  be  un- 
reasonable to  place  between  20  and  100 
millions  of  years  as  the  duration  of  time 
involved  in  the  sedimentry  formations. 

II.  Date  of  the  Creation  of  Adam. 
—  The  Biblical  times  can  be  measured  only 
from  the  appearance  of  man  upon  earth. 
However,  the  sacred  text  does  not  deter- 
mine chronologically  the  origin  of  man  in 
a  formal  and  precise  manner.  Nowhere  is 
it  said  :  Adam  was  created  at  such  a  date. 
This  date  is  the  result  of  the  calculation  of 
all  the  chronological  references  contained 
in  the  Old  Testament.  Now,  with  the 
same  data  and  employing  the  same  proc- 
esses, chronologists  have  arrived  at  very 
divergent  figures.  Alphonse  des  Vignolles 
has  collected  more  than  two  hundred  dif- 
ferent calculations,  "  of  which  the  shortest 


Chronology 


164 


Chronology 


counts  onlj  3,483  years  from  the  creation 
of  the  world  to  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  long- 
est counts  6,984  years.  This  is  a  difference 
of  thirty-five  centuries."  Ricoli  has  drawn 
up  a  table  of  seventy  of  these  systems. 
Father  Tournemine,  at  the  end  of  his  edi- 
tion of  Menochius,  gives  the  ninety-two 
most  famous.  The  Art  of  Verifying- 
Dates  notes  one  hundred  and  eight.  The 
modern  Jews  place  the  creation  in  3761  be- 
fore our  era;  Scaliger,  in  3950;  Petavius, 
in  3983;  Usserius,  in  4004;  Clinton,  in 
4138;  the  new  edition  (1820)  of  the  Art  of 
Verifying  Dates,  in  4963;  Hales,  in  541 1 ; 
Jackson,  in  5426 ;  the  Church  of  Alexandria, 
in  5504;  the  Church  of  Constantinople,  in 
5510;  Vossius,  in  6004;  Panvinio,  in  631 1 ; 
the  Alphonsine  tables,  in  6984.  These  very 
different  conclusions  result  from  the  fact 
that  chronologists  follow  diverse  accounts 
of  the  sacred  text  and  combine  after  their 
own  fashion  the  chronological  data  of  the 
Bible.  Further  on  we  shall  discuss  the  bases 
of  these  systems,  and  we  shall  have  to  deter- 
mine whether  there  is  reason  to  increase, 
as  many  of  our  contemporaries  believe,  the 
age  of  man  upon  earth.  Our  discussion 
will  not  be  hampered  by  any  dogmatic  de- 
cision. The  Roman  Church,  which  has 
chosen  the  Vulgate  as  the  official  edition 
of  the  Bible,  has  kept  in  the  Martyrology, 
which  forms  a  part  of  her  liturgy,  the  date 
of  5199,  drawn  from  the  Septuagint,  for 
the  creation  of  man.  The  Fathers  and  the 
Catholic  exegetists  have  differed  on  this 
subject,  and  nobody  disputes  the  right  of 
geologists,  paleontologists,  and  chronolo- 
gists to  search  out  scientifically  the  time 
that  elapsed  from  the  creation  of  man  to 
the  birth  of  Jesus  Christ. 

Certain  supporters  of  prehistoric  arch- 
aeology have  abused  this  liberty  and  as- 
signed a  very  remote  antiquity  to  mankind. 
Abbe  Hamard,  a  great  authority  on  this 
subject,  is  of  the  opinion  that  neither  ge- 
ology nor  prehistoric  archaeology  obliges 
lis  to  fix  the  date  of  the  creation  of  man 
many  thousands  of  years  earlier  than  is 
commonly  thought.  Yet  we  must  ac- 
knowledge that,  while  rejecting  the  fan- 
tastic figures  of  some  writers,  Catholic 
scholars  admit  the  appearance  of  man  upon 
earth  at  a  more  remote  date  than  that  which 
results  "from  the  highest  Biblical  chronol- 
ogy. M.  de  Lapparent,  a  noted  French 
authority,  believes  that  the  origin  of  man 
is  interglacial  and  that  it  goes  back,  as  far 
as  it  can  be  expressed  in  figures,  to  thirty 
or  thirty-two  thousand  years.     Others  be- 


lieve that  man  is  of  postglacial  origin, 
and  the  Marquis  de  Nadaillac  has  repeat- 
edly attributed  to  the  existence  of  man 
upon  earth  a  duration  from  ten  to  twelve 
thousand  years.  Be  this  as  it  may,  we  shall 
have  to  examine  further  back,  whether, 
in  default  of  geology  and  paleontology, 
history  obliges  us  to  raise  the  date  of  the 
origin  of  man  and  to  increase  the  duration 
of  the  existence  of  mankind  upon  the  earth. 
We  have  also  to  determine  in  what  Biblical 
epoch  the  chronological  increase  can  and 
ought  to  be  made. 

III.  From  Adam  TO  THE  Deluge. — The 
time  which  elapsed  in  this  interval  is  cal- 
culated according  to  the  genealogy  of  the 
descendants  of  Adam  in  the  line  of  Seth 
(Gen.  v.  1-31).  This  genealogy  comprises 
ten  patriarchs  and  nine  generations;  it 
notes  the  age  of  the  patriarch  at  the 
time  of  his  paternity,  the  number  of  years 
he  lived  after  the  birth  of  his  son,  and 
the  total  duration  of  his  life.  By  adding 
the  ten  figures  of  the  age  of  the  patriarchs 
to  the  birth  of  their  sons,  we  easily  obtain 
the  duration  of  the  period.  This  simple 
calculation  gives,  however,  notably  diver- 
gent sums,  because  it  is  computed  from  dif- 
ferent dates.  We  possess,  indeed,  three 
accounts  of  the  Pentateuch ;  the  first  is 
represented  by  the  version  of  the  Septua- 
gint, the  second  by  the  massoretic  Hebrew 
text  and  the  Vulgate  of  St.  Jerome,  and 
the  third  by  the  Hebrew  text  of  the  Samari- 
tans. The  following  table  will  enable  us 
to  judge  at  a  glance  the  difference  in  the 
figures : — 


Age  at  the  Birth 
OF  THE  Sons 


Names  of  the 
Patriarchs 


Adam 

Seth 

Enos 

Cainan 

Malaleel 

Jared 

Henoch 

Mathusala 

Lamech 

Noe 

From  Noe  to  the  Deluge, 

Total 


Greek 


230 
205 
190 
170 
165 
163 
J65 
167 
188 
500 
100 


2,242 


130 
105 
90 
70 
65 
162 
65 
187 
182 

500 
100 


1,656 


Samar- 
itan 


130 
105 
90 
70 
65 
62 
65 
67 
53 
500 
100 


1.307 


We  see  here  that  the  Hebrew  and   Sa- 
maritan   computations    are    generally    in 


Chronology 


165 


Chronology 


accord,  and  present  with  the  Septuagint  a 
divergence  of  one  hundred  years  for  the 
epoch  of  paternity  of  the  several  patriarchs, 
except  for  Noe,  about  whom  the  three  texts 
are  in  accord.  But  there  are  among  them 
differences  of  detaiL  The  Samaritan  di- 
minishes by  one  hundred  years  the  age  of 
Jared  at  the  birth  of  Henoch  ;  by  120  years, 
that  of  Methusala  at  the  birth  of  Lamech, 
and  by  129  years  that  of  Lamech  at  the  birth 
of  Noe ;  it  differs,  therefore,  from  the  He- 
brew by  349  years  and  from  the  Septua- 
gint by  935  years.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
manuscripts  of  the  Septuagint  present  dif- 
ferences. We  have  adopted  the  figures  of 
the  Vaticanus;  the  Alexandrintcs  has 
twenty  years  more,  and  this  total  coincides 
with  the  calculations  of  Julius  Africanus. 
Josephus  arrived  at  a  total  of  2,156.  We 
are  reduced  to  conjecture  to  explain  the 
origin  of  these  divergences.  They  are  too 
numerous  to  make  us  believe  that  they  are 
due  to  the  carelessness  or  ignorance  of  the 
copyists.  Undoubtedly,  nothing  is  altered 
in  the  transcription  of  manuscripts  so 
easily  as  figures.  But  if  we  had  to  attribute 
the  established  divergences  solely  to  this  ac- 
cidental cause,  we  could  not  account  for 
the  almost  regular  process  of  increase  or 
subtraction  of  one  hundred  years.  It  is 
also  necessary,  it  seems,  to  suspect,  with 
St.  Augustine  (De  Civ.  Dei,  xv.  13),  a 
willful  juggling  with  the  figures,  without 
our  being  able  to  say  when,  where,  by 
whom,  and  how  it  was  done.  Whom  shall 
we  hold  responsible,  the  Jews  of  Palestine 
or  the  Alexandrine  Jews .?  Was  the  process 
one  of  addition  or  subtraction.?  All  these 
hypotheses  are  admissible.  Certain  critics 
have  supposed  that  the  Jews  of  Palestine 
reduced  the  age  of  the  first  men.  "One 
might  say  that  the  Israelite  desired,  by 
systematically  abridging  the  duration  of  the 
succession  of  the  patriarchs,  to  cut  short 
the  numberless  genealogies,  which  were 
nothing  else  but  cosmogonies,  like  that  of 
Berosus  and  of  Sanchoniathon,  and  thus  to 
combat  polytheism,  of  which  they  were  a 
constant  source."  (Ph.  Berger.)  And  F. 
Lenormant  adds  :  "Perhaps  it  would  be 
permissible  to  suppose  that  it  was  about 
the  epoch  of  the  Captivity  that  the 
Hebrews,  just  when  they  had  knowledge  of 
the  fabulous  periods,  begotten  by  the  spec- 
ulative imagination  of  the  Chaldeans,  begap 
to  feel  scruples  about  the  figures  of  their 
own  books,  and,  wishing  to  guard  against 
the  possible  danger  of  an  analogous  tempta- 
tion, shortened  their  primitive  chronology 


in  order  to  prevent  its  indefinite  extension 
like  that  of  the  Gentiles."  Paul  Pezron, 
thought  that  the  Rabbi  Akiba  had  dared  to 
set  hand  on  the  divine  Scriptures  and  had 
abridged  the  years  in  the  Hebrew  text. 
Other  critics  have  made  analogous  suppo- 
sitions. Lenormant,  who  admits  the  willful 
shortening  of  the  Hebrew  account,  also  be- 
lieves in  a  systematic  lengthening  of  the 
Septuagint.  The  authors  of  the  Alexan- 
drine version  revised  the  Hebrew  text  to 
put  it  in  accord  with  the  calculations  of  the 
Chaldeans,  and  increased  by  one  hundred 
years  the  age  of  the  patriarchs  at  the  birth 
of  their  first  son.  St.  Augustine  {loc.  cit.) 
recognized  these  intentional  revisions ;  but 
instead  of  making  the  Septuagint  respon- 
sible, he  attributes  them  to  a  later  scribe, 
who  is  supposed  to  have  introduced  them 
intr.  his  copy  of  the  Greek  version  of  the 
Pentateuch.  The  Samaritan  version  might 
be  no  more  exempt  from  willful  alteration, 
and  its  chronology  might  be  the  result  of 
an  artificial  combination.  The  shortening 
of  the  Hebrew  text  is  clear,  and  its  purpose 
is  to  square  the  dates  thus  obtained  with 
the  cycle  of  the  sabbatic  years.  ( Lenormant, 
Les  Oriffines.) 

We  may  admit  that  the  figures  of  the 
three  versions  of  the  Pentateuch  are  not 
certain,  and  that  its  true  version  may  never 
be  known.  But  we  cannot  admit  with 
Lenormant  that  the  figures  of  duration  of 
life  of  the  antediluvian  patriarchs  are 
"cyclic  numbers."  We  maintain  their 
historical  character  which  they  had  in  the 
original  text,  and  which  they  would  still 
have  if  the  text  had  come  down  to  us  in  its 
entirety.  Some  critics  have  thought  they 
found  it  in  one  of  the  three  versions. 
Pezron  followed  the  version  of  the  Septua- 
gint. Father  Hummelhauer  regards  it  as 
certainly  faulty,  because  it  makes  Mathu- 
sala  survive  the  Deluge  fourteen  years. 
Its  figures  are  less  certain  than  those  of  the 
Hebrew  text.  The  Samaritan  version  ap- 
pears preferable  even  to  that  of  the  Masso- 
rets.  They  differ  only  for  Jared,  Mathu- 
sala,  and  Lamech.  Now,  while  the 
Hebrew  dates  the  death  of  Mathusala 
only  from  the  year  of  the  Deluge,  the 
Samaritan  makes  Jared  and  Lamech  die  in 
the  same  year.  According  to  the  opinion 
of  Father  Hummelhauer,  the  Hebrews  re- 
vised the  figures  in  regard  to  these  two 
patriarchs  in  order  not  to  confound  them 
with  the  impious  generation  swallowed  up 
by  the  waters.  But  we  are  also  permitted 
to  suppose  that  the  Samaritans  arranged 


Chronology 


1 66 


Chronology 


these  figures  in  order  to  terminate  the  life 
of  the  three  patriarchs  in  the  last  year  of 
their  chronological  system.     Mgr.   Lamy 
favors  the  massoretic  text,  which  represents 
the  text  received  in  Palestine  and  is  proven 
to  be  not  less  ancient  than  the  version  of 
the  Septuagint.     One  conclusion  is  forced 
upon  every  impartial  reader,  namely,  that 
for  this  period  the  Biblical  chronology  is 
altogether  uncertain.    Critics  even  discuss, 
as  we  shall  see  very  soon,  the  chronological 
meaning   of   the   patriarchal   genealogies, 
which  they  suppose  to  be  incomplete. 

IV.     From  the  Deluge  to  Abraham. 
— The  duration  of  this  period  is  measured 
by   the   genealogy   of    Sem,    son  of    Noe 
(Gen.  xi.   10-26),  and  is  reckoned  by  the 
same   method   as   the   length  of   the  pre- 
ceding period.      Here,   also,    we    possess 
three  versions,  which  differ  from   one  an- 
other and  have  not  the  same  relation  be- 
tween  them   as   in   the   preceding.      The 
following  table  sums  up  the  data  which 
serve  for  calculation : — 

of  Alexandria,  until  the  vocation  of  Abra- 
ham, 1250. 

The  figures  of  the  genealogy  of  Sem  are 
still  more  corrupted  than  those  of  the  gen- 
ealogy of  Seth,  and  criticism  is  powerless 
to  restore  them  to  their  pristine  state.  Ac- 
cording to  Father  Hummelhauer,  the  Sa- 
maritan text  is  less  sure  and  less  authentic 
at  this  point  than  previously,  because  it  pre- 
sents only  the  total  duration  of  the  lives  of 
the  patriarchs  of  this  line.  The  diflference 
of  one  hundred  years  in  the  age  of  the  ances- 
tor at  the  birth  of  his  son  is  the  result  of  a 
subtraction  or  addition.  The  subtraction 
must  have  been  wrought  in  the  Hebrew 
text,  it  is  said,  in  order  that  the  postdi- 
luvian patriarchs,  whose  lives  are  dimin- 
ished, might  not  have  begotten  their  sons 
at  a  more  advanced  age  than  the  antedilu- 
vian patriarchs.  The  reason  is  futile,  for 
the  genealogical  list  of  Sem  may  omit  the 
first  generation  of  this  patriarch,  to  speak 
only  of  that  of  the  ancestors  of  Abraham. 
One  may  maintain,  for  a  stronger  reason, 
that  the  figures  of  the  Hebrew  have  been 

Names  of  the 

Age  AT  THE  Birth 
OF  Their  Sons 

diminished.  While  this  text  gives  to  Na- 
chor  only  29  years  at  the  birth  of  Thare, 
both  the  Samaritan  and  Greek  attribute  to 

Patriarchs 

Greek 

Samar- 
itan 

He- 
brew 

him  79  years.  Why  this  inferior  number 
and  not  129  years,  if  an  addition  of  one 
hundred  years  had  been  made  to  the  pre- 

Sem (after  the  Deluge) . . . 

2 

135 
130 
130 
134 
130 
132 
130 
79 
70 

75 

2 
35 

130 
134 
130 
132 
130 

79 
70 

75 

2 
35 

30 
34 
30 
32 
30 
29 
70 

75 

ceding  figures.?  We  can  understand  better 
the  different  reading  in  the  hypothesis  of  a 

Cainan 

subtraction.  If  they  have  cut  off  a  hundred 
years  from  the  figures  above  one  hundred. 

Sale 

Heber 

Phaleg 

this  operation  has  been  found  impossible 
on    the    figure    79.      The    calculator    re- 

Reu  

Sarug 

moved  only  fifty  years  and  obtained  the 
number  of  29  years.  The  authenticity  of 
Cainan    in   the   Septuagint  has  been  dis- 

Thare          

Abraham  (until  his  voca- 

TOTAL  

1,147 

917 

367 

puted.  The  affirmative  is  supported  on 
the  presence  of  this  personage  in  the  gen- 

Thus the  three  texts  a 
the   years   of   Thare 
Samaritan,  which  in  t 
was  generally  in  accor 
follows  it  now  only  or 
age  of  Arphaxad.     It 
Septuagint  for  six  ge 
five  have  each  one  hun 
the  Hebrew,  and  one, 
fifty  years.     The  Gree 
ation  more  than  the 
Cainan ;   finally,    its 
variations  which  have 
results.     Eusebius  cou 
until  Thare,  945  years 
tioch,  1070 ;  Julius  Af r 

re  in  a< 
ind  Al 
le  pre( 
d  with 
ice,  na 

coinci 
neratic 
dred  ye 
that  of 
k  coun 
two  ot 
manusc 

prodi 
nts  fro 
;   Thee 
Lcanus, 

;cord  0 
jraham 
"eding 

the  H 
tnely,  i 
des   w 
)ns,  of 
ars  mo 

Nacho 
ts  one 
hers,  1 
ripts   ] 
iced  di 
m  the  ■ 
philus 

993;  c 

nly  for 
.     The 
period 
ebrew, 
or  the 
th  the 
which 
re  than 
r,  only 
gener- 
hat  of 
jresent 
flferent 
)eluge 
of  An- 
lement 

ealogy  of  Jesus,  drawn  up  by  Luke  (iii. 
36).  Although  the  textual  criticism  of  the 
Gospels  is  favorable  to  the  insertion  of 
Cainan  in  this  genealogy  by  the  Evangelist 
himself,  several  Catholic  exegetists  pre- 
sume that  the  name  of  Cainan  was  inter- 
polated quite  early  into  the  text  of  St. 
Luke  by  a  copyist  who  desired  to  make  the 
Evangelist  agree  with  the  Septuagint. 
However  it  may  be  as  to  this  particular 
point,  we  are  forced  once  more  to  the  con- 
clusion that  we  are  not  certain  of  possess- 
ing the  true  figures  written  by  Moses  in 
Genesis,  and  that  we  cannot  draw  from 
them  a  sure  chronology. 

While  the  commentators  have  always 
believed  that  Moses  had  the  intention  of 

Chronology 


167 


Chronology 


giving  in  the  genealogies  of  Seth  and  of 
Sem  a  real  chronology,  which  it  is  impos- 
sible to  recover  to-day,  modern  apologists 
have  maintained  that  the  author  of  Genesis 
had  not  the  intention  of  furnishing  the 
elements  of  a  general  chronology.  The 
ancient  chronologists  were  persuaded  that 
there  were  no  breaks  in  the  chain  of  the 
patriarchal  generations,  and  that  the  gene- 
alogical lists  were  continuous.  Now,  the 
Bible  presents  examples  of  intentional 
omissions  and  missing  links  in  the  gene- 
alogies. In  order  to  have  three  series  of 
fourteen  names  in  the  genealogy  of  Jesus, 
St.  Matthew  (i.  8)  omits  three  kings  — 
Ochozias,  Joas,  and  Amasias  —  between 
Joram  and  Ozias.  The  list  of  the  high- 
priests  (I.  Esdr.  vii.  i)  is  certainly  short- 
ened, and  to  convince  ourselves  of  this  it 
is  enough  to  compare  it  with  I.  Par.  vi.  i. 
Esdras  himself  (I.  Esdr.  vii.  1-5)  shortened 
his  own  genealogy,  and  between  Azarias, 
whom  he  calls  son  of  Maraioth,  and  Marai- 
oth  himself,  he  omits  five  members,  Jo- 
hanan,  Azarias,  Achimaas,  Achitob,  and 
Amarias,  named  in  I.  Par.  vi.  7-14. 

Now,  in  these  fragmentary  genealogies, 
the  disjoined  members  are,  however,  re- 
united in  the  generative  account,  "he  be- 
got," or  by  the  name  of  "son."  The 
consequence  of  this  is  that  in  the  Bible,  as 
might  be  proved  by  other  examples,  the 
verb  "to  beget"  and  the  name  "son" 
mark  the  relation  between  a  grandfather 
and  a  remote  descendant  as  naturally  as 
between  a  father  and  his  son.  The  use  of 
the  verb  "to  beget"  in  the  genealogy  of 
Sem  is,  therefore,  not  necessarily  a  proof 
of  the  continuity  of  the  generations,  and 
it  permits  the  insertion  of  omitted  mem- 
bers there  as  well  as  in  the  genealogy  of 
Jesus  in  St.  Matthew.  It  has  been  ob- 
jected, it  is  true,  to  this  conclusion  that 
the  particular  form  of  the  patriarchal 
genealogies,  in  which  the  names  are  in- 
cluded in  two  or  three  series  of  numbers, 
excludes  the  idea  of  a  lapse  of  continuity, 
and  it  appears  contrary  to  the  obvious  and 
natural  sense  of  the  Mosaic  account  to 
translate  Gen.  xi.  10  by :  "  Sem,  at  the  age 
of  100  years,  begot  a  son  from  ivhom  is 
descended  Arfhaxad,^'  when  in  verses  12 
and  13  his  very  name  designates  Arphaxad 
himself.  To  this  objection  Father  Brucker 
answers  judiciously  that  in  this  interpreta- 
tion the  same  signification,  perfectly  deter- 
mined,is  attributed  to  the  name  of  Arphaxad 
in  the  whole  context.  The  metonymy  is 
not  in  the  names,  which  always  remain  the 


names  of  distinct  individuals;  it  is  in  the 
v&rh genuit,  "he  begot,"  which  we  must 
understand  in  the  sense  genuit  mediate, 
"  he  begot  mediately."  Therefore,  the 
genealogies  may  be  discontinued  and  pass 
generations,  even  when  the  mention  of  a 
patriarch  is  accompanied  by  figures  of 
years.  Against  the  hypothesis  of  breaks 
Mgr.  Granclaude  has  appealed  to  all  tradi- 
tion. According  to  him,  all  the  Fathers 
of  the  Church,  in  the  quality  of  authorized 
interpreters  of  the  Bible,  and  after  them 
all  the  Catholic  exegetists  down  to  our 
days,  have  received  the  Biblical  genealo- 
gies as  the  absolute  rule  of  chronological 
calculations  and  have  never  supposed  the 
least  omission  therein.  Hence,  there  is 
here  a  common  sentiment,  which  cannot 
be  abandoned  without  rashness,  unless  it 
is  clearly  indefensible.  This  unanimous 
opinion  of  the  Fathers  does  not  exist,  be- 
cause they  have  diflferently  interpreted  the 
figures  of  Genesis,  and  their  view  does  not 
constitute  a  traditional  teaching  against 
which  we  may  not  be  permitted  to  go. 
Therefore,  we  can  without  rashness  main- 
tain that  the  Biblical  genealogies  are  not 
continuous. 

Moreover,  this  lack  of  sequence  in  the 
genealogy  of  Sem,  in  itself  possible  and 
probable,  must  necessarily  be  admitted  if 
we  wish  to  put  sacred  history,  from  the 
Deluge  to  Abraham,  in  accord  with  pro- 
fane history.  Compared  with  the  antiq- 
uity of  the  ancient  peoples,  the  chronol- 
ogy drawn  from  the  Hebrew  text  is 
insufficient  with  its  367  years;  the  longer 
one  of  the  Septuagint  is  certainly  very 
restricted,  if  not  too  much  so.  We  shall 
not  insist  on  the  great  antiquity  of  the 
Chinese  and  Hindoos,  for  their  traditions 
are  certainly  fabulous.  Father  Gaubil  has 
commenced  the  dated  history  of  the  Chi- 
nese with  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Yao, 
in  the  year  2357  before  our  era.  Yet,  in 
this  epoch  China  had  already  been  thickly 
inhabited  and  much  advanced  in  civiliza- 
tion ;  but  the  time  necessary  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Celestial  Empire  is  easily 
reconciled  with  the  Septuagint.  The  con- 
nected history  of  the  Hindoos  goes  back 
only  to  the  fifteenth  century  before  our  era. 
Assyriologists  generally  admit  that  the 
first  kings  of  Chaldea  existed  about  thirty 
or  even  forty  centuries  before  our  era,  that 
is,  one  thousand  or  even  two  thousand 
years  before  the  epoch  of  Abraham.  Al- 
though the  chronological  accounts  fur- 
nished by  Berosus  may  be  in  great  part 


Chronology 


1 68 


Chronology 


fabulous,  the  high  antiquity  of  Chaldean 
history  is  revealed  to  us  by  monuments 
recently  brought  to  light.  Assurbanipal 
(668-628)  relates  that  in  his  conquest  of 
Susiana,  in  633,  he  brought  back  to  Erech 
a  picture  of  the  goddess  Nana  that  Kudur- 
Nakhundi  had  carried  off  1,635  years  be- 
fore, consequently  2,274  years  before  our 
era.  A  more  ancient  date  is  inscribed  on 
a  cylinder  of  Nabonidus,  King  of  Babylon. 
While  repairing  the  Temple  of  the  Sun,  at 
Sippara,  this  prince  found,  thirty-two  feet 
under  ground,  the  dedication  composed 
by  the  first  builder,  Naram-Sin,  son  of 
Sargina,  3,200  years  previously.  Since 
Nabonidus  reigned  about  550  b.  c.,his  cal- 
culation carries  back  the  reign  of  Naram- 
Sin  to  about  the  year  3800  b.  c.  The  Del- 
uge, which  was  known  to  the  Chaldeans 
and  Babylonians,  therefore  goes  back  more 
than  4,000  years,  for  Naram-Sin  had  pre- 
decessors posterior  to  this  cataclysm. 
(Cf.  Lenormant,  Histoire  Ancienne  de 
ihOrient.)  The  postdiluvian  chronology  of 
the  Septuagint,  which  is  the  highest,  is 
therefore  insufficient.  The  same  conclu- 
sion is  deduced  from  the  history  of  Egypt. 
Manetho,  a  Sebennytan  priest  of  the  third 
century  before  our  era,  attributed  to  Egypt 
an  antiquity  of  30,000  years  before  Alex- 
ander the  Great.  Passing  by  the  mythic 
reigns,  there  still  remain  thirty  historical 
dynasties,  which  begin  with  Menes  and 
■which  fill  a  space  of  about  5,000  years. 
Now,  the  history  of  Manetho,  beginning 
with  the  eighteenth  dynasty,  has  been 
confirmed  by  the  royal  lists  reproduced  in 
the  papyrus  of  Turin  and  the  tables  of 
Abydos,  of  Saqqarah,  and  of  Karnak. 
Nevertheless,  Egyptologists  still  disagree 
on  the  subject  of  the  total  duration  of  the 
Egyptian  history,  because  they  adopt  dif- 
ferent starting  points,  and  dispute  about 
the  continuity  or  the  simultaneousness  of 
the  dynasties.  If  all  have  been  successive, 
their  history  goes  back  5,000  years ;  if 
many  have  been  contemporaneous  or  col- 
lateral, their  history  may  be  reduced  to  the 
limits  of  the  chronology  of  the  Septuagint. 
But  it  appears  that  if  some  have  reigned 
simultaneously,  the  majority  of  them  have 
succeeded  one  another,  and  the  duration 
of  their  existence  exceeds  that  of  the  fif- 
teen generations  which  the  Bible  places 
between  the  Deluge  and  Moses.  Besides, 
were  it  absolutely  impossible  to  determine 
in  a  precise  manner  the  beginning  of  his- 
torical times  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile,  it 
remains  proven  that  the  beginnings  of  this 


country  are  very  ancient.  From  the  period 
that  it  becomes  known  to  us,  Egypt  ap- 
pears with  a  very  advanced  civilization, 
highly  developed  pol3-theistic  religion,  and 
every  indication  of  an  already  lengthy  exis- 
tence. Considering  it  only  as  it  was  in  the 
time  of  Moses,  "can  we  (without  suppos- 
ing omissions  in  the  genealogies  of  chapter 
xi.  of  Genesis)  comprise  within  the  space 
of  fifteen  generations  the  multiplication 
of  mankind  after  the  Deluge;  the  disper- 
sion of  the  peoples ;  the  forgetting  of  re- 
vealed or  natural  religion;  the  rise  of 
polytheism  and  of  idolatry;  the  coloniza- 
tion of  Egypt;  the  formation  of  a  civiliza- 
tion different  from  the  Asiatic,  wnth  its 
language,  its  writing,  and  peculiar  religion ; 
the  differentiation  of  the  races,  white, 
black,  colored ;  the  succession,  generally 
from  father  to  son,  of  more  than  one  hun- 
dred kings  known  by  their  monuments  to 
have  governed  the  whole  of  Egypt,  without 
taking  into  account  a  much  larger  number 
that  reigned  over  that  country,  but  of 
whom  we  have  not  yet  discovered  any 
monuments  or  inscriptions.?"  (E.  Pan- 
nier, JLa  Chronologic  des  Temps  Primi- 
tifs.) 

If  profane  history  obliges  us  to  lengthen 
the  Biblical  history,  it  is  in  the  period 
which  extends  from  the  Deluge  to  Abraham 
that  the  increase  should  take  place.  To 
what  extent  this  is  necessary  we  cannot  ex- 
actly tell.  Some  Egyptologists  find  them- 
selves only  "somewhat  inconvenienced" 
to  make  the  history  of  Egypt  coincide  with 
the  chronology  of  the  Septuagint.  Others 
require  an  increase  of  thousands  of  years. 
The  exegetists  cannot  say  between  what 
links  of  the  genealogy  of  Sem  they  should 
insert  those  that  are  missing.  It  cannot  be 
between  Noe  and  Sem,  nor  between  Thare 
and  Abraham,  whose  direct  relations  of 
paternity  and  filiation  are  expressly  marked 
in  Scripture ;  it  may  be  between  other  links 
of  the  genealogical  chain,  whose  bonds  are 
less  close. 

V.  From  the  Call  of  Abraham  to 
THE  Departure  from  Egypt. —  The  Bible 
expressh'  marks  the  principal  dates  of  this 
period.  Abraham  was  75  years  old  when 
he  left  Haran  to  go  into  the  country  of 
Chanaan  (Gen.  xii.  4).  He  was  100  years 
old  when  the  birth  of  Isaac  was  announced 
to  him  (xN-ii.  i,  17;  xxi.  5).  At  the  age  of 
40,  Isaac  married  Rebecca,  and  20  years 
afterAvards  Esau  and  Jacob  were  born  (xxv. 
20,  26).  Hence,  85  years  had  elapsed  be- 
tween the  arrival  of  Abraham  in  Palestine 


Chronology 


169 


Chronology 


and  the  birth  of  his  grandsons.  Jacob  was 
130  years  old  when  he  went  to  Egypt 
(xlvii.  9).  His  sons  dwelt  in  this  coun- 
try 430  years  (Ex.  xii.  40).  All  these  fig- 
ures added  give  to  this  period  a  total  of 
645  years. 

The  date  of  the  sojourn  of  the  Israelites 
in  Egypt  alone  is  contested.  The  version 
of  the  Septuagint  and  the  Samaritan  Pen- 
tateuch present  (Ex.  xii.  40)  a  notable  dif- 
ference, which  is  confirmed  by  the  Targums 
of  the  pseudo- Jonathan  and  of  Jerusalem : 
"The  time  which  the  children  of  Israel 
and  their  fathers  dwelt  in  Egypt  and  in 
the  country  of  Chanaan  was  430  years." 
This  computation  has,  therefore,  for  its 
starting  point  the  arrival  of  Abraham  in 
Palestine.  Now,  as  from  this  epoch  until 
the  coming  of  Jacob  into  Egypt  215  years 
elapsed,  the  sojourn  of  the  Hebrews  in  the 
land  of  Gessen  had  also  a  duration  of  215 
years.  Josephus  reproduces  this  calcula- 
tion, and,  according  to  Calmet,most  of  the 
commentators  adopt  this  view  and  follow 
the  reading  of  the  Septuagint.  But  this 
reading  was  not  found  in  all  the  ancient 
manuscripts  of  the  Greek,  version,  for  St. 
Theophilus  {Ad  Autolycnm)  wrote  that  the 
Israelites  sojourned  430  years  in  Egypt. 
St.  Chrysostom,  who  proposes  the  period 
of  215  years  (/«  Genesim,  Horn,  xxxvii.), 
admits,  however,  elsewhere  (/«  Act.  Afost. 
Horn,  xvi.),  that  the  Hebrews  remained  in 
the  country  of  the  Pharaos  400  years  and 
more.  The  Talmud  of  Jerusalem,  treatise 
on  Meghilla,  points  out  verse  40  of  chapter 
xii.  of  Exodus  as  one  of  the  thirteen  pass- 
ages which  the  Septuagint  has  modified 
in  its  translation  of  the  Pentateuch  on 
account  of  King  Ptolemy.  Besides,  the 
words,  "  and  their  fathers,"  .  .  .  "and 
in  the  land  of  Chanaan,"  are  hardly  in 
agreement  with  the  context,  which  speaks 
only  of  Egypt,  and  appear  to  be  glosses 
added  to  the  original  text. 

The  adherents  of  the  shortest  date  con- 
firm their  opinion  by  the  testimony  of  St. 
Paul  (Gal.  iii.  17)  and  by  the  less  extended 
genealogy  of  Moses.  The  Apostle,  indeed 
speaks  incidentally  of  the  date  of  the  pro- 
mulgation of  the  Law,  made  430  years  after 
the  promise.  But  he  does  not  fix  precisely 
the  starting  point  of  these  430  years,  and 
instead  of  putting  it  at  the  first  promise  of 
God  to  Abraham,  on  his  entry  into  the  land 
of  Chanaan,  we  might  refer  it  to  the  later 
promises  repeated  to  Abraham,  Isaac,  and 
Jacob.  As  to  the  genealogy  of  Moses,  we 
may  properly  consider  it  as  one  of  those 


abridged  genealogies  of  which  we  have 
spoken. 

The  Hebrew  text  which  gives  a  duration 
of  430  years,  does  not  stand  alone.  It  is  re- 
produced in  the  Targum  of  Onkelos,  the 
Peshito,  the  Latin  Vulgate,  the  Arabic  ver- 
sion of  Saadias,  and  the  Greek  version  of 
Venice.  It  is  confirmed  by  other  Biblical 
accounts.  The  time  of  the  captivity  of  the 
Hebrews  had  been  foretold  by  God  to  Abra- 
ham :  "Know  thou  beforehand  that  thy 
seed  shall  be  a  stranger  in  a  land  not  their 
own,  and  they  shall  bring  them  under  bond- 
age and  afflict  them  four  hundred  years." 
(Gen.  XV.  13.)  This  prophecy  recalled  by 
St.  Stephen  (Act.  vii.  6-7),  is  also  found  in 
the  version  of  the  Septuagint,  as  well  as 
in  the  Hebrew  text,  and  announces  in  round 
numbers,  the  length  of  the  sojourn  of  the 
Israelites  in  Egypt.  God  adds  (verse  16) 
that  the  posterity  of  Abraham  shall  return 
into  Palestine  in  the  fourth  generation  (He- 
brew :  dor).  The  word  dor  signifies  "period 
of  the  human  life,"  and  may  be  understood 
as  the  space  of  one  century.  Interpreters 
refer  also  to  this  prophecy  the  words  of 
St.  Paul  in  his  discourse  in  the  synagogue 
of  Antioch  of  Pisidia  (Act.  xiii.  19-20). 
They  adopt  the  reading  of  the  Vulgate, 
which,  from  the  critical  pointof  view,  isthe 
best,  and  they  understand  the  number  of 
about  if^o  years  in  the  400  years  of  Genesis 
XV.  13,  plus  the  40  years  of  sojourn  in  the 
desert  and  the  seven  years  of  the  conquest 
of  Palestine  by  Josue.  Achior,  general  of 
the  Ammonites,  reported  later  on  to  Holo- 
fernes  that  the  Israelites  had  multiplied 
in  Egypt  during  four  hundred  years  to  such 
an  extent  that  they  formed  a  numberless 
army  (Judith  v.  9).  According  to  some 
interpreters,  Ezechiel  (iv.  5-6)  foretold  a 
second  bondage  of  Egypt,  the  duration  of 
which  is  estimated  at  390,  plus  40  days,  that 
is  430  years,  for  the  days  designate  years. 

To  these  exegetical  proofs  we  may  add 
in  favor  of  the  figure  430  an  argument 
drawn  from  the  history  of  Egypt.  It  is 
very  probable  that  Joseph  was  led  away 
into  Egypt  under  the  Shepherd  Kings,  and 
it  is  generally  believed  that  it  was  under 
the  Pharao  Apapi  II.,  whom  Manetho 
calls  Apophis.  Now,  between  the  reign  of 
this  king  and  that  of  Menephtah,  under 
whom  the  exodus  took  place,  "  we  must 
place  the  150  years  which  at  least,  accord- 
ing to  the  Egyptologists,  were  necessary 
for  the  indigenous  chiefs  to  destroy  the 
domination  of  the  Shepherds ;  then  the 
whole  duration  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty 


Chronology 


170 


Chronology 


and  of  a  portion  of  the  nineteenth,  that  is, 
more  than  sixteen  reigns,  of  which  two 
(those  of  Thotmes  III.  and  of  Rameses 
II.)  alone  embraced  121  years."  (J.Brucker, 
in  The  Controversy  of  Sept.  15th,  1886.) 
The  duration  of  the  sojourn  of  the  He- 
brews in  Egypt  has  been,  therefore,  really 
430  years.  Consequently,  if,  as  Oppert  be- 
lieves, the  exodus  took  place  in  1493  b.  c, 
the  entering  of  the  Israelites  into  Egypt 
goes  back  to  1923,  Jacob  was  born  in  2053, 
and  Abraham  arrived  in  Palestine  in  2138. 
But  these  figures  are  far  from  being  certain. 

VI.  From  the  Exodus  to  the  Build- 
ing OF  the  Temple  of  Solomox. — All 
the  Egyptologists,  guided  by  the  synchro- 
nism of  the  epochs  and  by  the  entirety  of  the 
facts,  are  agreed  in  placing  the  departure 
of  the  Hebrews  under  the  nineteenth  dy- 
nasty, but  they  are  divided  as  to  the  name 
of  the  king  under  whom  this  great  event 
took  place.  Some,  like  Maspero,  say  it  was 
Seti  II.;  Lepsius,  Rouge,  and  Chabas,  fol- 
lowed by  almost  all  the  learned  investiga- 
tors of  France,  England,  and  Germany,  by 
Lenormant,  Sayce,  Brugsch,  Ebers,  etc., 
think  it  was  Menephtah  I.  This  divergence 
of  opinions  does  not  notably  aflFect  the  date 
of  the  exodus.  In  fact,  we  cannot  fix  it  ex- 
actly according  to  the  chronology  of  the 
kings  of  Egypt,  which  is  yet  too  uncertain. 
We  have  to  determine  it  according  to  the 
Bible  and  the  history  of  the  kings  of  Juda 
and  Israel.  Oppert  refers  it  to  the  month 
of  April,  1493  B.C.  The  other  chronologists 
deviate  from  him  only  by  a  few  years. 

The  intervi'al  that  separates  the  exodus 
from  the  building  of  the  temple  of  Solo- 
mon is  measured  in  precise  figures  (III. 
Ki.  vi.  i) ;  it  was  480  years  according  to  the 
Hebrew  text  and  440  years  according  to 
the  Septuagint.  This  date  has  been  much 
discussed.  Critics  have  contested  its  au- 
thenticity; they  have-wished  to  make  this 
a  cyclic  figure,  because  480  is  twelve  times 
forty.  Some  chronologists  found  it  too 
low  and  wished  to  raise  it ;  others  regard  it 
too  high  and  wish  to  lower  it.  The  former 
support  their  contention  on  the  chro- 
nology of  the  Book  of  Judges.  The  dura- 
tion of  each  judicature  is  indicated  by  the 
sacred  writer,  and  the  total  sum  of  the 
Biblical  figures  is  410  years.  If  we  add 
the  judicature  of  Heli,  which  was  40  years 
(I.  Ki.  iv.  18),  and  the  interval  from  Heli 
to  the  fourth  year  of  Solomon  (an  interval 
of  84  years) ,  we  obtain  the  sum  of  534  years. 
With  the  65  years,  which  elapsed  from  the 
going  out  of  Egypt  until  the  death  of  Josue, 


by  omitting  the  two  unknown  figures  of  the 
judicature  of  Samuel  before  the  coming  of 
Saul  and  from  the  time  that  separates 
Othoniel  from  Josue,  we  reach,  at  the  low- 
est figure,  a  total  of  599  years.  It  coin- 
cides close  enough  with  the  calculation  of 
592  years  which  Josephus  counts  from  the 
going  out  of  Egypt  until  the  building  of 
the  temple.  The  commentators  of  the 
Acts,  who  in  this  book  (xiii.  20)  adopt  the 
reading  of  the  "  text  received,"  grant  to 
the  period  of  the  Judges  a  duration  of  450 
years  and  reject  the  date  of  III.  Ki.  vi.  i. 
In  order  to  reconcile  these  apparently  con- 
tradictory accounts,  Danko  has  gratui- 
tously supposed  that  the  author  of  the 
Book  of  Kings,  writing  in  the  theocratic 
sense,  passed  over  in  silence  the  years  dur- 
ing which  the  Israelites  had  given  them- 
selves up  to  idolatry  and  had  been  reduced 
to  bondage.  The  only  valid  reconciliation 
is  to  admit  that  several  judges  were  contem- 
poraneous. A  careful  study  of  the  text, 
moreover,  suggests  this  solution,  although 
we  can  only  conjecture  which  judges 
have  lived  contemporaneously.  Some 
Egyptologists  have  pushed  still  further  the 
hypothesis  of  the  simultaneousness  of  the 
judicatures,  and  with  the  design  of  estab- 
lishing a  perfect  synchronism  between 
sacred  history  and  the  history  of  Egypt, 
they  have  reduced  from  300  or  350  years  the 
period  of  the  wanderings  in  the  desert,  of 
Josue,  the  Judges,  and  David.  But  Egyp- 
tian chronology  beyond  the  twenty-second 
dynasty  is  not  certain  enough  to  weaken  the 
account  of  the  Book  of  Kings,  which  we 
uphold  until  there  is  proof  to  the  contrary. 
If,  therefore,  the  exodus  took  place  in 
1493,  Solomon  would  have  commenced  the 
building  of  the  Temple  of  the  Lord  in 
1013  B.  c. ;  but  the  synchronisms  of  ancient 
history  seem  to  establish  that  it  was  only 
some  years  later  that  Solomon  undertook 
this  great  work. 

VII.  From  the  Building  of  the 
Temple  of  Solomon  Until  its  De- 
struction BY  the  Chaldeans. — The 
dates  of  this  period  have  been  carefully 
noted  in  the  last  Books  of  Kings.  The 
author,  who  had  consulted  sources  lost  to- 
day, gives  two  royal  lists,  that  of  the  kings 
of  Israel  and  that  of  the  kings  of  Juda. 
Their  reconciliation  is  extremely  difficult, 
and  the  difficulties  arising  are  not  yet 
solved.  St.  Jerome,  who  had  noticed 
them,  wrote  to  the  priest  Vitalis  {Epist. 
lii.  5)  that  to  stop  at  these  questions  was 
rather  the  affair  of  an  idle  man  than  that 


Chronology 


171 


Chronology 


of  a  busy  student.  On  the  throne  of  Juda, 
Roboam  reigned  17  years  (IH.  Ki.  xiv.  21 ; 
II.  Par.  xii.  13) ;  Abias  (III.  Ki.  xv.  2  ;  II. 
Par.  xiii.  2);  Asa  41  (III.  Ki.  xv.  10;  II. 
Par.  xvi.  13) ;  Josaphat  25  (III.  Ki.  xxii. 
42 ;  II.  Par.  xx.  31) ;  Joram  8  (IV.  Ki.  viii. 
17;  II.  Par.  xxi.  20);  Ochozias  r  (IV.  Ki. 
viii.  26;  II.  Par.  xxii.  2);  Athalia  6  (IV. 
Ki.  xi.  3;  II.  Par.  xxii.  12);  Joas  40  (IV. 
Ki.  xii.  i;  II.  Par.  xxiv.  i) ;  Amasias  29 
(IV.  Ki.  xiv.  2;  II.  Par.  xxv.  1);  Ozias  52 
(IV.  Ki.  XV.  2;  II.  Par.  xxvi.  3);  Joatham 
iff  (IV.  Ki.  XV.  33;  II.  Par.  xxvii.  i) ; 
Achaz  16  (IV.  Ki.  xvi.  2 ;  II.  Par.  xxviii.  i) ; 
Ezechias  29  (IV.  Ki.  xviii.  2;  II.  Par. 
xxix.  i) ;  Manasses  55  (IV.  Ki.  xxi.  i ;  II. 
Par.  xxxiii.  i) ;  Amon  2  (IV.  Ki,  xxi.  19; 
II.  Par.  xxxiii.  21) ;  Josias  31  (IV.  Ki. 
xxii.  I ;  II.  Par.  xxxiv.  i) ;  Joachaz, 
3  months  (IV.  Ki.  xxiii.  31;  II.  Par. 
xxxvi.  2) ;  Joakim,  11  years  (IV.  Ki.  xxiii. 
36;  II.  Par.  xxxvi.  5);  Jechonias,  or  Joa- 
chin,  3  months  and  10  days  (IV.  Ki.  xxiv. 
8;  II.  Par.  xxxvi.  9);  Sedecias,  11  years 
(IV.  Ki.  xxiv.  18;  II.  Par.  xxxvi.  11).  In 
the  kingdom  of  Israel,  Jeroboam  I.  reigned 
22  years  (III.  Ki.  xiv.  20) ;  Nadab  2  (t'bt'd. 
XV.  25) ;  Baasa  24  (xv.  33) ;  Ela  2  (xvi.  8) ; 
Zambri,  7  days  (xvi.  15) ;  Amri,  12  years 
(xvi.  23);  Achab  22  (xvi.  29) ;  Ochozias  2 
(xxii.  52);  Joram  12  (IV.  Ki.  iii.  i);  Jehu 
28  (ibid.  X.  36) ;  Joachaz  17  (xiii.  i) ;  Joas 
16  (xiii.  10) ;  Jeroboam  II.  41  (xiv.  23) ; 
Zacharias,  6  months  (xv.  8) ;  Phaceia  2 
(xv.  23) ;  Phacee  20  (xv.  27) ;  Osee  9  (xvii. 
i).  Several  of  these  figures  do  not  agree 
with  other  chronological  data  of  the  Books 
of  Kings  and  of  Paralipomena,  but  it  does 
not  enter  into  our  design  to  discuss  them 
here. 

A  more  general  difficulty  springs  from 
the  difference  which  the  totals  of  these 
lists  present  in  the  period  of  their  coinci- 
dence. In  fact,  if  we  add  the  figures  from 
the  first  years  of  Roboam,  when  the  sepa- 
ration of  the  two  kingdoms  commences, 
until  the  sixth  year  of  Ezechias,  during 
which  Samaria  was  taken  (IV.  Ki.  xviii.  10), 
we  find  for  the  kings  of  Juda  a  sum  of  261 
years,  and  for  those  of  Israel  only  240  years. 
Hence  there  is  a  disagreement  between  the 
two  lists  of  about  twenty  years.  Numerous 
theories  of  reconciliation  have  been  sup- 
posed. Recent  critics  have  diversely 
lengthened  the  reigns  of  Jeroboam  II.  and 
of  Phacee;  others  have  admitted  associa- 
tions of  kings  on  the  throne  of  Juda.  More 
generally  it  is  believed  that  the  succession 
was  regular  and  constant  on  the  throne  of 


David,  and  critics  have  introduced  into 
Israel  two  inter-reigns  or  periods  of  an- 
archy. The  first,  which  lasted  eleven  years, 
is  placed  between  the  reign  of  Jeroboam  11. 
and  that  of  his  son  Zacharias,  who  com- 
menced to  reign  only  in  the  thirty- eighth 
year  of  Azarias  or  Ozias  of  Juda  (IV.  Ki. 
XV.  8).  The  second,  of  nine  years,  is  sup- 
posed to  have  existed  between  Phacee  and 
Osee.  But  the  sacred  text  seems  to  state 
that  these  princes  succeeded  one  another 
consecutively,  and  it  is  hardly  probable  that 
the  throne  of  Israel  remained  unoccupied 
at  two  difTerent  times  during  several  years. 
These  inter-reigns,  which  have  no  direct 
foundation  in  the  Bible,  are  therefore 
hypotheses,  invented  by  embarrassed  chro- 
nologists,  and  they  may  be  an  indication 
that  the  ordinary  chronology  of  the  Jewish 
kings  is  too  long. 

There  has  been  discovered  at  Ninive  an 
Assyrian  chronological  canon,  which  agrees 
with  the  Biblical  figures  only  on  condition 
of  reducing  about  forty  years  the  total 
period  of  the  reigns  of  the  kings  of  Juda. 
It  is  a  list  of  personages  called  litnmu  or 
eponyms,  who  gave  their  names  to  the  year 
like  the  archons  at  Athens  and  the  consuls 
at  Rome.  It  commences  in  the  reign  of 
Binnirar  II.,  in  893  b,  c,  and  extends  at  least 
to  647.  It  therefore  permits  us  to  check  the 
corresponding  Biblical  data.  If  the  two 
chronologies  are  in  perfect  harmony  for 
the  taking  of  Samaria  by  the  Assyrians  in 
721,  there  is  manifest  disagreement  be- 
tween them  on  several  points.  The  critics 
until  now  have  been  unable  to  agree  on 
the  reconciliation  of  the  divergent  figures. 
Some  defend  the  Biblical  chronology, 
others  abandon  it.  As  it  is  artificial,  and 
as  the  disagreement  of  the  figures  of  the 
existing  text  of  the  Bible  is  certainly  the 
result  of  the  faults  of  copyists  in  the  trans- 
cription of  the  numbers,  we  may  hold,  "  at 
least  provisionally,  that  the  persons  whose 
names  are  found  mentioned  together  in 
the  cuneiform  inscriptions  and  which  cor- 
respond with  the  Biblical  names  have  been 
contemporaries,  whatever  embarrassment 
may  be  experienced  in  reconciling  the 
dates  furnished  by  the  Bible,  on  the  one 
hand,  and  by  the  Assyrian  monuments,  on 
the  other."  (F.  Vigouroux,  La  Bible  et 
les  Decouvertes  Modernes.)  Let  us  ex- 
amine the  points  of  contact  that  create 
difficulty. 

According  to  the  Biblical  chronology 
generally  received,  Achab,  king  of  Israel, 
died  in  the  year  897  b.  c.      Now  the  As- 


Chronology 


172 


Chronology 


Syrian  inscriptions  record  that  he  was  de- 
feated with  the  confederate  kings  at  Kar- 
kar,  by  the  king  of  Ninive,  Salmanasar  II., 
in  854,  that  is,  more  than  forty  years  after 
the  date  usualh'  assigned  to  his  death.  The 
declaration  of  the  cuneiform  texts  is  clear 
and  precise,  while  the  calculations  of  the 
Biblical  chronologists  may  be  erroneous. 
Therefore  we  have  to  admit,  it  seems,  that 
Achab  and  Salmanasar  II.  were  contem- 
poraries. 

Ozias,  king  of  Juda,  reigned,  it  is  asserted, 
from  809  to  758.  Now,  the  inscriptions  of 
Theglathphalasar  II.  chronicle  him  as  be- 
ing at  war  with  the  latter  king  in  the  j-ear 
742  or  740,  sixteen  or  eighteen  years  after 
his  death.  Manahem,  king  of  Israel,  oc- 
cupied the  throne  from  770  to  759,  and 
twenty-one  years  after  the  end  of  his  reign 
in  738,  the  same  Theglathphalasar  enumer- 
ates him  among  his  tributaries.  To  uphold 
the  Biblical  chronology  Oppert  believes 
that  the  Azriyahu  of  the  inscriptions  is 
not  Azarias  or  Ozias,  father  of  Joatham 
and  grandfather  of  Achaz,  but  a  usurper, 
the  son  of  Tabeel,  of  whom  Isaias  speaks 
(vii.  6).  As  to  Manahem,  who  paid  tribute 
to  Phul,  he  is  distinct  from  Manahem  II., 
tributary  of  Theglathphalasar.  This  ex- 
planation is  inadmissible,  and  we  have  to 
acknowledge  that  Azarias,  king  of  Juda, 
Manahem,  king  of  Israel,  and  Theglath- 
phalasar, king  of  Ninive,  whom  it  seems  we 
have  to  identify  with  Phul  (IV.  Ki.  xv.  19- 
20;  I.  Par.  V.  26),  are  contemporaneous. 

The  Biblical  and  cuneiform  documents 
are  found  in  disagreement  on  another  point. 
The  fourth  Book  of  Kings  (x^•iii.  13)  tells 
us  that  Sennacherib  marched  against  the 
cities  of  Juda  in  the  fourteenth  year  of  the 
reign  of  Ezechias,  that  is,  in  713,  because 
the  Jewish  king  had  mounted  the  throne  in 
727.  Now,  according  to  the  canon  of  the 
eponyms,  Sennacherib  became  king  in  705, 
and  his  expedition  against  Palestine  took 
place  in  701.  The  sickness  of  Ezechias  and 
the  embassy  of  Merodach-Baladan,  king 
of  Babylon,  would  have  taken  place  only 
after  the  disaster  of  Sennacherib  (IV.  Ki. 
XX.  I,  12).  Now,  Merodach-Baladan,  would 
have  reigned  from  722  to  710.  The  best 
answer  to  this  difficulty  is  to  acknowledge 
that  the  Biblical  account  has  disarranged 
the  order  of  events.  The  sickness  of  Eze- 
chias really  took  place  in  the  fourteenth 
year  of  his  reign,  because  the  king  lived 
fifteen  years  after  his  recovery,  and  his 
reign  lasted  29  years.  The  embassy  of 
Merodach-Baladan  is  posterior  to  Ezechias 


and  may  be  placed  in  703  or  702,  when 
Merodach-Baladan,  a  native  of  Lower 
Chaldea,  after  having  been  driven  away 
from  Babylon,  had  again  taken  possession 
of  the  throne  of  this  city.  The  invasion 
of  Sennacherib  took  place  in  701.  If  the 
Fourth  Book  of  Kings  put  these  three 
facts  in  an  inverted  order,  it  is  probably 
because  its  author  adopted  the  unchrono- 
logical  arrangement  of  the  prophet  Isaias 
(xxxvi.-xxxix.).  The  date  (IV.  Ki.  xviii. 
13)  ought  to  be  changed  and  put  at  the 
head  of  the  account  of  the  sickness  of 
Ezechias. 

It  was  the  empire  of  Babylon  that  over- 
threw the  throne  of  Juda.  Before  entering 
on  his  reign,  Nabuchodonosor  made  a 
campaign  against  Nechao,  king  of  Egypt; 
Joakim,  king  of  Juda,  acknowledged  him- 
self as  his  tributary.  But  he  revolted  and 
refused  to  pay  the  tribute.  When  Nabu- 
chodonosor arrived  at  Judea,  Joakim  was 
dead  and  replaced  by  his  son  Jechonias. 
At  the  end  of  a  three  months'  reign  the  lat- 
ter was  led  away  into  captivity  at  Babylon. 
His  uncle  Sedecias  was  placed  on  the 
throne;  he  also  revolted.  Nabuzardan 
besieged  Jerusalem,  which,  reduced  by 
famine,  capitulated  in  599,  after  a  long  re- 
sistance. This  date  ends  the  period  which 
we  are  studying. 

Thus  it  is  seen  that  the  chronology  of 
the  kings  of  Israel  and  of  Juda  is  not  so  clear 
and  certain  as  is  commonly  believed.  It 
needs  to  be  brought  into  agreement  with 
the  Assyrian  chronology.  Father  Bru- 
nengo  has  made  the  attempt  to  do  this, 
and  he  has  set  the  beginning  of  the  schism 
of  the  ten  tribes  in  the  year  930  b.c,  in- 
stead of  976  B.  c,  the  date  ordinarily  as- 
signed to  it.  Adopting  this  view,  we  will 
reproduce  here  the  chronological  list  of 
the  Jewish  kings,  adopted  by  Lenormant 
and  Babelon :  Saul,  1050-1012;  David, 
1012-973 !  Solomon,  973-932.  In  the  king- 
dom of  Israel:  Jeroboam  I.,  932-911;  Na- 
dab,  911-909;  Baasa,  909-886;  Ela,  886- 
885;  Zambri,  885;  Amri,  885-873;  Achab, 
873-843;  Ochozias,  843-842;  Joram,  842- 
830 ;  Jehu,  830-802  ;  Joachaz,  802-785  ;  Joas, 
785-769;  Jeroboam  II.,  769-744;  Zacharias, 
744;  Sellum,  744;  Manahem,  Phaceia,  and 
Phacee,  overthrown  and  restored  one  after 
another,  744-732;  Osee,  732-724.  Fall  of 
the  kingdom  of  Israel,  in  721.  In  the 
kingdom  of  Juda  :  Roboam,  932-915  ;  Abia, 
915-912:  Asa,  912-870;  Josaphat,  870-836; 
Joram,  836-831 ;  Ochozias,  831-830;  Atha- 
lia,  830-823;  Joas,  823-783;  Amasias,  783- 


Chronology 


173 


Chronology 


764;  Ozias,  or  Azarias,  764-739;  Joatham, 
739-735;  Achaz,  735-729;  Ezechias,  729- 
688;  Manasses,  688-645;  Amon,  645-643; 
Josias,  643-612;  Joacaz,  612;  Joakim,  612- 
600;  Jechonias,  or  Joachin,  600-599; 
Sedecias,  599. 

VIII.  From  the  Babylonian  Captiv- 
ity Until  the  Birth  of  Jesus  Christ. 
—  For  this  period  a  first  date  is  furnished 
by  Jeremias  (xxv.  11) ;  but  the  commenta- 
tors are  not  in  agreement  as  to  the  starting 
point  of  the  duration  of  the  seventy  years' 
captivity.  Some  date  it  from  the  first  de- 
portation, which  took  place  in  the  fourth 
year  of  Joakim,  in  606  (or  608),  according 
to  the  ordinary  calculations,  and  find  sev- 
enty years  until  the  edict  which  Cyrus  pub- 
lished in  536  (or  538),  giving  to  the  Jews 
the  right  to  rebuild  the  Temple  of  Jeru- 
salem (I.  Esdr.  i.  i).  Others  take  as  first 
date  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  (II.  Par. 
xxxvi.  21-23) ,  in  599,  and  as  last  the  resump- 
tion of  the  building  of  the  Temple,  which 
took  place  in  the  second  year  of  Darius, 
son  of  Hystaspes  (Aggeus  i.  1-14;  I.  Esdr. 
V.  I),  in  519. 

Be  it  as  it  may  in  regard  to  the  com- 
mencement of  the  captivity  of  Babylon,  as 
foretold  by  Jeremias,  in  the  first  year  of 
Cyrus  at  Babylon,  in  536,  many  captives 
returned  into  Judea,  under  the  leadership 
of  Zorobabel  and  of  the  high-priest  Josue, 
and  as  soon  as  they  had  arrived  they  made 
the  necessary  preparations  to  rebuild  the 
Temple  of  Jerusalem.  But,  on  account  of 
numerous  obstacles,  the  building  could  be 
completed  only  in  the  sixth  year  of  Darius, 
that  is,  in  516  (I.  Esdr.  vi.  15).  In  the  sev- 
enth year  of  Artaxerxes,  Esdras  brought 
other  captives  back  into  Judea  (I.  Esdr. 
vii.  7).  In  the  twentieth  year  of  Arta- 
xerxes, Nehemias,  cupbearer  of  this  prince, 
obtained  the  permission  to  rebuild  the 
walls  and  gates  of  Jerusalem  (II.  Esdr.  ii. 
1-8).  The  identity  of  this  king  is  disputed. 
Most  of  the  exegetists  admit  that  Es- 
dras and  Nehemias  were  able  to  gain,  thir- 
teen years  apart,  the  favor  of  the  same 
king,  whom  they  identify  with  Artaxerxes 
I.,  called  Longo-Manus,  who  reigned  from 
464  to  424.  Therefore,  Esdras  could  have 
brought  back  his  caravan  in  457,  and  Ne- 
hemias could  have  restored  the  walls  of 
Jerusalem  in  444,  and  he  would  have  re- 
mained in  Palestine  until  433,  the  thirty- 
second  year  of  the  reign  (II.  Esdr.  v.  14). 
Saulcy  and  Kaulen  hold  that  it  was  Arta- 
xerxes II.,  surnamed  Mnemon.  VanHoon- 
acker  claims  a  distinction  between  the  two 


kings.  He  believes  that  Nehemias  returned 
to  Judea  the  twentieth  year  of  Artaxerxes 
I.,  but  that  Esdras,  instead  of  having  ef- 
fected his  return  thirteen  years  previously, 
revived  the  Jewish  religion  only  fifty- 
nine  years  afterwards,  under  Artaxerxes 
Mnemon  (404-358). 

From  Nehemias,  whose  end  is  unknown, 
until  the  Machabees,  there  elapsed  a  period 
of  260  years  about  which  we  know  very  lit- 
tle and  the  chronology  of  which  the  Bible 
has  not  fixed.  But  the  two  Books  of  the 
Machabees  date  the  events  which  they  re- 
late after  the  era  of  the  Seleucides.  This 
era  starts  with  the  autumn  of  312  B.C.  It 
is  easy,  then,  to  determine  the  dates  of  the 
Books  of  the  Machabees.  Mathathias  rose 
against  Antiochus  Epiphanes  in  the  year 
145  of  the  Seleucides,  consequently  in  the 
year  167  b.c.  ;  he  died  in  the  year  follow- 
ing (I.  Mach.  ii.  70).  His  son  Judas  was  at 
the  head  of  the  revolt  until  his  death  in 
161  (I.  Mach.  ix.  3,  18).  Jonathas,  brother 
of  Judas,  continued  the  struggle  until  143. 
In  the  year  142,  the  first  year  of  Simon, 
the  Jewish  nation  became  again  independ- 
ent (I.  Mach.  xiii.  41-42).  Simon,  who 
died  in  135,  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
John  Hyrcanus  (I.  Mach.  xvi.).  For  the 
remainder  of  the  Jewish  history  the  Bible 
notes  no  other  date  except  the  death  of 
Herod  the  Great.  In  the  interval,  the 
princes  or  kings  who  governed  Judea 
were  John  Hyrcanus  I.,  135-107;  Aristo- 
bolus  I.,  107-106;  Alexander  Janneus,  106- 
79;  Hyrcanus  II.,  79-66;  Aristobolus  II., 
66-63;  Hyrcanus  II.,  restored,  63-40; 
Herod  I.,  40-4  b.  c. 

IX.  Duration  of  the  Life  of  Jesus. 
— The  beginning  of  the  Christian  era  was 
fixed,  in  the  sixth  century,  by  a  monk, 
Dionysius  the  Small,  as  occurring  in  the 
year  754  of  the  foundation  of  Rome.  Ac- 
cording to  him,  our  Lord  was  born  on 
December  the  25th  of  the  year  of  Rome  753. 
But  he  was  mistaken  in  his  calculations, 
and  made  the  Christian  era  begin  too  late. 
The  date  of  the  birth  of  our  Lord  is  con- 
troverted. What  is  certain  is  that  Jesus 
Christ  was  born  under  Herod  (Matt.  ii.  i), 
at  the  time  when  a  census  was  taken,  as 
ordered  by  Augustus  (Luke  ii.  1-5).  The 
determination  of  these  two  facts  of  the 
evangelical  account  marks  the  precise 
epoch  of  the  birth  of  Jesus.  According 
to  Josephus,  Herod  reigned  thirty-seven 
years,  if  we  count  the  years  of  his  reign 
from  the  acknowledgement  of  his  royalty 
by  the  Roman  senate,  and  thirty-four,  if 


Chronology 


174 


Chronology 


we  calculate  his  effective  reign  beginning 
with  his  entry  into  Jerusalem.  Now  the 
senate  declared  Herod  king  of  Palestine 
under  the  consulate  of  Domitius  Calvinus 
and  of  Asinius  Pollion,  in  the  jear  of 
Rome  714,  or  40  b.  c.  Herod  took  Jeru- 
salem under  the  consulate  of  Vipsanius 
Agrippa  and  of  Caninius  Gallus,  in  the 
year  of  Rome  717,  or  37  B.C.  The  last 
year  of  the  reign  of  Herod  was,  therefore, 
in  the  year  of  Rome  750,  or  four  years  be- 
fore our  era.  According  to  the  duration 
of  the  reigns  of  his  sons  and  successors, 
we  can  conclude  that  Herod  died  before 
the  7th  Nisan  or  the  2d  of  April  of  this 
year.  If  Jesus  were  bom  on  December 
the  25th,  it  could  not  have  been  later  than 
on  December  the  25th,  749. 

Other  dates  will  inform  us  whether  the 
birth  of  Jesus  goes  back  a  few  years 
earlier.  St.  Luke  (ii.  i)  says  that  it  took 
place  when  the  first  census  of  the  Roman 
world  was  made,  Quirinius  (Vulgate: 
Cyrinus)  being  governor  of  Syria.  Now, 
according  to  Josephus,  Quirinius  was  sent 
into  Syria,  with  the  mission  of  taking  the 
census  of  Jndea,  the  thirty-seventh  year 
after  the  tattle  of  Actium,  that  is,  about 
ten  years  after  the  death  of  Herod,  when 
Archelaus  was  deposed  from  the  throne 
and  Jndea  reunited  with  the  empire.  To 
'reconcile  these  apparently  contraditory 
accounts,  all  kinds  of  hypotheses  have 
been  imagined.  Some  have  translated  the 
text  thus :  "  This  census  took  place  before 
the  one  that  was  made  when  Quirinius 
governed  Judea."  But  Th.  Mommsen  has 
proved  that  an  inscription  found  at  Tivoli 
in  1764  could  refer  only  to  Publius  Sulpicius 
Quirinius.  Now,  it  affirms  that  he  was 
twice  legate  to  Syria.  Hence  it  is  no 
longer  necessary  to  have  recourse  to  an 
apparently  forced  interpretation.  How- 
ever, the  difficulty  remains,  for  the  first 
legation  of  Quirinius  into  Syria  can  have 
taken  place  only  in  the  year  of  Rome  751, 
or,  at  the  earliest,  about  the  end  of  750, 
consequently  after  the  death  of  Herod. 
To  solve  this  difficulty,  it  has  been  thought 
that  the  census  of  which  St.  Luke  speaks 
had  been  commenced  before  the  year  of 
Rome  750,  by  the  governor  at  that  time, 
who  might  have  been  Sentins  Satuminus, 
mentioned  by  Tertullian  (  Contra  Marcion, 
IT,  19) ;  but,  interrupted  by  the  death  of 
Herod,  it  could  be  completed  only  about 
751,  when  Quirinius  took  possession  of  his 
province.  Thus  understood,  the  text  of 
St.  Luke  would  confirm  the  opinion  which 


places  the  birth  of  the  Saviour  before  the 
year  of  Rome  750.  In  fact,  the  edict  of 
the  general  census  of  the  empire  must  have 
been  posterior  to  the  universal  pacifica- 
tion, marked  by  the  closing  of  the  temple 
of  Janus,  at  Rome.  This  fact  took  place 
only  in  the  middle  of  summer  of  the  year 
746,  eight  years  before  the  present  era. 
Hence  the  birth  of  Christ  ought  to  be  fixed 
on  December  the  25th  of  one  of  the  three 
years  747,  748,  or  749. 

Most  of  the  chronologists  select  one  of 
these  three  years  and  justify  their  prefer- 
ence by  the  relation  which  they  establish 
between  the  birth  of  the  Saviour  and  the 
other  chronological  accounts  of  the  Gospel. 
Now,  St.  Luke  further  informs  us  (iii.  i, 
23)  that  St.  John  the  Baptist  commenced 
his  mission  in  the  fifteenth  year  of  Tiberius, 
and  that  Jesus  was  about  30  years  old  when 
He  received  baptism  from  the  hands  of  His 
precursor.  But  the  years  of  Tiberius  have 
been  computed  in  two  different  ways.  If 
we  adopt  the  ordinary  fashion  of  counting, 
the  reign  of  Tiberius  begins  with  the  death 
of  Augustus,  which  took  place  on  Aug. 
19th,  in  the  year  of  Rome  767.  The  fif- 
teenth year  of  Tiberius  runs,  therefore, 
from  Aug.  19th,  781,  to  Aug.  19th,  783,  or 
28-29  of  our  era.  By  cutting  off  exactly 
thirty  years  the  birth  of  Jesus  would  fall  in 
751 ;  but  this  date  would  not  agree  with  the 
death  of  Herod,  which  took  place  in  750. 
Therefore,  we  must  understand  the  words 
"about  thirty  years  "  in  a  broader  sense, 
and,  according  to  the  opinion  of  Keppler, 
they  may  be  said  of  a  man  who  is  more 
than  twenty-five  years  old  and  less  than 
thirty-five  years.  If  we  suppose  Jesus  bom 
in  747,  He  would  have  been  from  thirty- 
four  to  thirty-five  years  of  age  in  the  fif- 
teenth year  of  Tiberius;  if  He  was  bom 
only  in  749,  then  He  would  have  been  from 
thirty-two  to  thirty-three  years  of  age. 
Several  chronologists  have  counted  the 
fifteenth  year  of  Tiberius  not  from  the 
death  of  Augustus,  but  from  the  associa- 
tion of  Tiberius  to  the  tribunitial  power, 
in  the  year  of  Rome  765  or  764.  Thus  it 
would  fall  in  779  or  778.  Consequently, 
Jesus,  had  He  been  bom  about  747,  would 
have  been  at  the  time  of  His  baptism 
about  thirty-one  years  old. 

As  to  the  duration  of  the  public  life  of 
Jesus,  it  has  been  reduced  to  one  year  by 
some  ancient  writers  for  reasons  having  lit- 
tle foundation,  and  which  St.  Iraeneus  has 
ably  refuted.  Eusebius  extended  it  to  three 
and  one-half  years.     Some  modem  com- 


Chronology 


175 


Chronology 


mentators  adopt  this  estimate  bj-  support- 
ing themselves  upon  the  Paschs  expressly 
mentioned  by  St.  John,  and  understanding 
by  this  solemnity  "  the  festival  of  the 
Jews,"  of  which  there  is  mention  in  John 
V.  I.  However,  many  give  to  the  preach- 
ing of  the  Saviour  only  a  duration  of  two 
and  one-half  years,  and,  with  St.  Irseneus 
and  St.  Jerome  (/«  /saiam,  I.  ix.),  they 
acknowledge  only  three  Paschs.  The  first 
soon  followed  the  baptism  (John  ii.  13) ; 
the  second  was  immediately  preceded  by 
the  multiplication  of  the  loaves  of  bread 
(vi.  4) ;  the  third  was  that  of  the  Passion 
(xiii.  j).  If,  therefore,  our  Lord  were 
baptized  in  the  fifteenth  year  of  Tiberius, 
the  first  Pasch  of  His  ministry  took  place 
in  the  year  of  Rome  782,  the  twenty-ninth 
of  the  present  era,  and  the  last,  that  of 
the  Passion,  in  the  year  a.  d.  31  or  32;  of 
Rome,  784  or  785. 

Thus  the  date  of  the  death  of  Jesus  would 
almost  be  fixed  to  a  year,  and  we  could 
verify  it  by  determining  in  which  year  the 
day  of  Jesus's  death  was  found  to  be  a  Fri- 
day (Mark  xv.  42;  Luke  xxiii.  54;  John 
xix.  31).  Unfortunately,  this  very  simple 
question  is  rendered  very  complicated,  be- 
cause there  is  question  whether  this  Friday 
was  the  14th  or  15th  Nisan.  Now,  on  this 
point  the  chronologists  and  commentators 
are  divided  into  two  camps.  If  the  Friday 
of  the  death  of  the  Saviour  was  the  14th 
Nisan,  we  have  to  eliminate  the  year  32, 
during  which  the  14th  Nisan  commenced 
on  Saturday  evening,  and  to  accept  the 
year  33,  during  which  this  day  fell,  accord- 
ing to  the  Jewish  method  of  counting,  from 
Thursday  evening  to  Friday  evening.  If 
we  prefer  the  15th  Nisan,  in  order  to  re- 
strict the  inquiry  to  the  years  28  1034,  this 
day  of  the  first  month  happened  to  be  a 
Friday  only  in  the  years  30,  31,  and  34  of 
the  popular  era.  We  can  see.  then,  by  this 
short  summary,  that  the  dates  and  the 
duration  of  the  life  of  Jesus  Christ  are  un- 
certain. However,  the  labors  of  the 
learned  have  notably  reduced  the  limits  of 
uncertainty.  The  result  seems  to  be  that 
we  must  fix  the  time  of  the  birth  of  the 
Saviour  between  the  years  of  Rome  747 
and  749,  or  7  and  5  before  the  Christian 
era,  and  those  of  His  death  between  the 
years  29  and  33  of  our  era.  The  duration 
of  the  life  of  Jesus  will  range  between  a 
minimum  of  thirty-three  and  a  maximum 
of  thirty-eight  years. 

X.  Chronology  of  the  History  of 
THE  Apostles. — To  fix  this  we  have  only 


some  dates  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  and 
of  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul.  The  apostolic 
history  commences  with  the  ascension  of 
Jesus,  which  took  place  forty  days  after 
His  resurrection.  Ten  days  later  the  Holy 
Ghost  descended  upon  the  Apostles  (Act. 
ii.  i).  These  facts  occurred  within  the 
same  year  of  the  death  of  the  Saviour; 
their  date  varies,  therefore,  according  to 
that  adopted  for  the  latter  event.  The 
death  of  Herod  Agrippa  I.,  related  in  Acts 
xii.  19-23,  determines  the  time  of  the  mar- 
tyrdom of  St.  James  and  of  the  imprison- 
ment of  St.  Peter.  According  to  Josephus, 
this  king  was  then  celebrating  games  in 
honor  of  the  Emperor  Claudius.  This  was 
in  the  year  44  of  our  era.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary, however,  to  say  that  the  persecution 
of  Herod  Agrippa  against  the  Christians 
took  place  in  the  same  year  as  his  death, 
and  we  may  suppose  with  Patrizi  and 
Fouard  that  there  elapsed  several  years  in 
the  interval.  These  critics  also  place  the 
death  of  St.  James  and  the  imprisonment 
of  St.  Peter  in  the  j-ear  42. 

The  first  mission  of  Saul  and  Barnabas 
is  posterior  to  the  death  of  Herod  Agrippa. 
Hence  we  have  to  fix  it  at  the  earliest 
about  the  end  of  the  year  44.  This  date 
may  serve  as  the  starting  point  in  the  life  of 
St.  Paul.  The  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles, 
before  his  voyagje  to  Jerusalem,  had  passed 
one  year  at  Antioch  (Act.  xi.  26).  If  we 
keep  account  of  his  return  to  Tarsus  and 
his  three  years  in  Arabia  and  Damascus 
(Act.  ix.  30;  Gal.  i.  17,  21),  we  have  to  re- 
fer his  conversion  to  five  or  six  years 
previous.  Other  considerations  confirm 
these  conclusions,  which  are  only  approx- 
imate. Aretas,  king  of  Arabia,  reigned 
at  Damascus  when  St.  Paul  had  to  leave 
this  city  (II.  Cor.  xi.  32).  Now,  it  is  gen- 
erally believed  that  this  king  re-took  this 
city  after  the  death  of  Tiberius,  which  oc- 
curred March  i6th,  in  the  year  37.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  persecution  of  the 
Christians  bv  the  Jews,  in  which  Saul  took 
part  (Act.  viii.  57),  could  have  taken  place 
only  after  the  departure  of  Pilate. 

Another  certain  date  is  furnished  to  us 
by  the  relations  of  St.  Paul  with  the  pro- 
curator Felix.  The  Apostle  was  captive  at 
Ca^sarea  for  two  years,  when  Felix  was  re- 
placed by  Portius  Festus  (Act.  xxiv.  37). 
Now,  Felix  was  recalled  to  Rome  by  Nero 
in  the  year  60  or  61.  Before  Festus,  St. 
Paul  appealed  to  Ciesar ;  he  traveled  the 
whole  winter  and  arrived  in  Rome  in  the 
spring  of  the  year  61  or  62.     He  remained 


Chronology 


176 


Chronology 


a  prisoner  for  two  years  (Act.  xxviii.  30). 
Hence  it  was  in  63  or  64  when  the  last 
events  related  in  the  Acts  took  place,  and 
when  this  history  probably  was  composed. 
Such  is  the  extreme  date  of  the  inspired 
history  of  the  Apostles.  But  the  date  of 
the  departure  of  Felix  assists  us  in  deter- 
mining the  chronological  position  of  the 
anterior  events.  If  St.  Paul  left  Caesarea 
in  61,  his  captivity  in  this  city  had  com- 
menced in  59.  He  had  left  Ephesus  one 
year  before  (Act.  xx,  i;  I.  Cor.  xvi.  8), 
and  his  sojourn  in  tliat  city  lasted  nearly 
three  years  (Act.  xix.  8,  10;  xx.  31). 
After  his  second  mission,  which  extended 
over  one  year  at  least,  the  Apostle  stayed 
one  year  and  six  months  at  Corinth  (Act. 
xviii.  11).  Therefore,  six  years  had  elapsed 
before  the  Council  of  Jerusalem  (Act.  xv. 
4-6),  which  thus  convened  in  the  year  52. 
If  we  count  the  fourteen  years  that  pre- 
ceded the  presence  of  St.  Paul  at  this 
Council  (Gal.  ii.  i),  and  the  three  years 
that  separated  his  conversion  from  his 
first  voyage  to  Jerusalem  (Gal.  i.  18),  we 
would  conclude  in  dating  the  conversion 
in  the  year  34.  While  estimating  an  in- 
terval of  seventeen  years  to  have  elapsed 
between  the  Council  of  Jerusalem  and  the 
conversion  of  St.  Paul,  we  can  place  this 
latter  in  37,  when  we  remember  "  that 
the  Jews  are  in  the  habit  of  counting  the 
unfinished  and  incomplete  year  as  if  it 
were  a  full  one."  (Fouard,  Sf.  Pierre,  p. 
527.)  By  counting  thus,  the  first  voyage 
of  St.  Paul  to  Jerusalem  would  have  taken 
place  in  39  and  the  second  in  52.  The 
dates  of  the  composition  of  the  Epistles 
and  of  the  Apocalypse  are  matter  for  the 
domain  of  Biblical  Introduction  and  do 
not  belong  to  sacred  chronology,  strictly 
speaking. 

XI.  Chronological  Table  of  the 
Principal  Biblical  Events. —  This 
table  will  give  a  summary  of  the  present 
article  and  will  present  the  principal  dates 
of  the  Bible.  All  those  dates  that  precede 
the  taking  of  Samaria  are  more  or  less  un- 
certain. We  will  indicate  them,  beginning 
with  the  call  of  Abraham,  according  to 
the  chronology  usually  accepted  ;  although 
it  is  doubtful  to  the  establishment  of  the 
monarch}-.  Even  in  this  epoch,  there  is 
reason  to  believe  that  it  locates  too  early 
the  reigns  of  the  kings  of  Juda  and  of  Israel 
before  the  taking  of  Samaria,  which  date 
is  assured  and  incontestable:  — 

Creation  of  the  world  and  of  man . .  Dates  unknown 
Deluge Date  unknown 


B.  c. 

Arrival  of  Abraham  in  Palestine 2138 

Birth  of  Isaac 2113 

Birth  of  Esau  and  Jacob 2053 

Descent  of  Jacob  into  Egj'pt 1923 

Exodus  and  the  promulgation  of  the  Decalogue  1493 
Death  of  Aaron  and  of   Moses.     End  of  the 

sojourn  in  the  desert 1453 

Conquest  of  the  Promised  Land  by  Josue.  1453-1446 

Death  of  Josue 1428 

Bondage  under  Chusan  Rasathaim 1409-1401 

Othoniel  and  the  peace  which  followed. .  1401-1361 

Bondage  under  the  Moabites 1361-1343 

Aod  and  peace  in  the  south  of  Palestine. .  1343-1263 
Bondage  of  the  north  of  Palestine.    Debora 

and  Barac 1323-1263 

Bondage  under  the  Madianites 1263-1256 

Gedeon  and  peace 1256-1216 

Abimelech 1216-1213 

Thola 1213-1190 

Jair iigo-1168 

Heli  and  bondage  under  the  Philistines  (west 

of  Palestine) 1168-1128 

Exploits  of  Samson 1148-1128 

Samuel  until  the  battle  of  Masphath  ....  1128-1108 
Bondage  under  the  Ammonites  (east  of  the 

Jordan) 1168-1150 

Jephte 1150-1144 

Abesan 1144-1137 

Abialon 1 137-1 127 

Abdon 1127-1119 

Samuel  from  the  battle  of  Masphath   until 

Saul 1108-1095 

Saul 1095-1055 

David 1055-1015 

Solomon 1015-  975 

Building  of  the  Temple loii 

Accession  of  Roboam  and  of  Jeroboam  1 975 

Death  of  Roboam  and  accession  of  Abia 958 

Death  of  Abia  and  accession  of  Asa 955 

Nadab  succeeds  to  Jeroboam  1 954 

Assassination  of  Nadab  and  accession  of  Baasa    953 

Ela  succeeds  Baasa 930 

Zambri  reigns  seven  days 930 

Amri  replaces  him 930 

Accession  of  Achab gi8 

Accession  of  Josaphat  in  Juda 914 

Accession  of  Ochozias,  son  of  Achab 897 

Accession  of  Joram,  son  of  Achab S96 

Accession  of  Joram  in  Juda 889 

Accession  of  Ochozias 884 

Accession  of  Jehu 884 

Accession  of  Athalia 883 

Accession  of  Joas 877 

Accession  of  Joachaz,  son  of  Jehu *  856 

Accession  of  Joas,  son  of  Joachaz 840 

Accession  of  Amasias 838 

Accession  of  Jeroboam  II 824 

Accession  of  Ozias,  or  Azarias 809 

Accession  of  Zacharias,  son  of  Jeroboam  II. . .     772 

Accession  of  Sellum 772 

Accession  of  Manahem 771 

Accession  of  Phaceia.  his  son 761 

Accession  of  Phacee 759 

Accession  of  Joatham 757 

Accession  of  .\chaz 74' 

Accession  of  Osee 7*9 

Accession  of  Ezechias 726 

Taking  of  Samaria 7*1 

Accession  of  Manasses 697 

Accession  of  Amon 642 

Accession  of  Josias 640 

Accession  of  Joachaz 609 

Accession  of  Joakim 609 

First  deportation  to  Babylon 606 

Accession  of  Jechonias  or  Joachin 598 


Chrysologus 


177 


Chrysostom 


B.C. 

Accession  of  Sedecias  598 

Taking  of  Jerusalem 587 

Edict  of  Cyrus  to  rebuild  Jerusalem,  and  re- 
turn of  Zorobabel 536 

Finishing  of  the  second  Temple 516 

Return  of  Esdras 457 

Return  of  Nehemias 445 

Definitive  departure  of  Nehemias  for  the  court  433 

Alexander  visits  Jerusalem 332 

Era  of  the  Seleucides 312 

Antiochus  Epiphanes  takes  Jeru-salem 170 

Insurrection  of  Mathathias 167 

His  death  and  the  accession  of  Judas  Macha- 

beus 166 

Restoration  of  the  Temple 164 

Death  of  Judas  Machabeus 161 

Jonathas,  high-priest 161-  143 

Simon,  ethnarch  and  high-priest 143-  135 

Independence  of  the  Jewish  nation 142 

Death  of  Herod  the  Great  and  birth  of  Jesus.  4 

A.  D. 

Deposition  of  Archelaus  and  Coponius,  first 

procurator  of  Judea 6 

Jesus  in  the  midst  of  the  Doctors 8 

Marcus  Ambivius,  second  procurator 9 

Annius  Rufus,  third  procurator 12 

Death  of  Augustus  Tiberius,  emperor 14 

Valerius  Gratus,  fourth  procurator 15 

Pontius  Pilate,  fifth  procurator 26 

Beginning  of  the  public  life  of  Jesus 26 

Death  of  Jesus  ;  Ascension  and  Pentecost 29 

Death  of  Philip  the  tetrarch 33 

Conversion  of  St.  Paul 34 

Removal  of  Pilate,  who  is  replaced  by  Marcel- 

lus,  sixth  procurator 36 

Death  of  Tiberius  and  accession  of  Caligula. .  37 
Herod  Agrippa  becomes  tetrarch  of  Trachoni- 

dis 37 

Exile  of  Herod  Antipas 39 

Herod  Agrippa  becomes  tetrarch  of  Galilee 

and  of  Perea 39 

First  voyage  of  St.  Paul  to  Jerusalem 39 

Murder  of  Caligula  and  accession  of  Claudius  41 

Herod  Agrippa  is  king  of  Judea 41 

Death  of  St.  James  and  imprisonment  of  St. 

Peter 42 

Death  of  Herod  Agrippa.    Juda  is  placed  un- 
der the  direct  domination  of  Rome  ;  Cus- 

pius  Fadus,  seventh  procurator 44 

First  mission  of  St.  Paul 44 

Tiberius  Alexander,  eighth  procurator 45 

Cumanus,  ninth  procurator 48 

Felix,  tenth  procurator 52 

Council  of  Jerusalem  and  second  mission  of 

St.  Paul   52 

Herod  Agrippa  II.  becomes  tetrarch 53 

Accession  of  Nero 54 

Third  mission  of  St.  Paul 55 

St.  Paul  leaves  Ephesus  after  a  sojourn  of 

three  years 58 

Captivity  of  St.  Paul  at  Csesarea 59 

Fortius  Festus,  eleventh  procurator 60 

St.  Paul  leaves  Csesarea  for  Rome 61 

Albinus,  twelfth  procurator 62 

St.  Paul  at  Rome,  and  end  of  the  account  of 

the  Acts 63 

Gessius  Floras,  thirteenth  procurator 64 

Vespasian,  imperial  legate  to  Syria 67 

Martyrdom  of  St.  Peter  and  of  St.   Paul  at 

Rome 67 

Accession  of  Galba .68 

Accession  of  Otho,  Vitellius,  and  of  Vespasian  69 

Taking  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus 7° 

12 


Chrysologus  (St.  Peter)  (406-450). — 
Peter,  surnamed  on  account  of  his  elo- 
quence Chrysologus,  was  born  at  Imola, 
and  baptized  by  Bishop  Cornelius,  from 
whom  he  also  received  his  ecclesiastical 
training  and  ordination  to  the  deaconate. 
After  studying  the  spirit  of  Asceticism  in 
a  monastery,  he  was  consecrated  Bishop  of 
Ravenna  by  Pope  Sixtus  III.,  in  433.  By 
his  ever  watchful  solicitude,  his  untiring 
practice  of  prayer,  and  his  constant  fidelity 
to  the  duties  of  his  office,  he  was  a  shining 
disciple  of  the  Good  Shepherd.  His  method 
of  life  was  that  of  an  ordinary  priest,  and 
he  labored  successfully  in  converting  the 
pagans,  as  well  as  in  combating  the  Manich- 
ean,  Novatian,  Pelagian,  and  Nestorian 
errors.  By  word  and  example  he  encour- 
aged the  practice  of  Christian  virtue,  and  in 
his  sermons  freely  denounced  prevailing 
vices,  and  exhorted  the  Faithful  to  avert, 
by  works  of  penance,  the  divine  chastise- 
ment. The  Archmandrite  Eutyches,  who 
was  trying  to  win  supporters  for  his  new 
heresy  in  the  West,  he  entreated  to  submit 
to  the  authority  of  the  Pope,  "because 
through  him  St.  Peter,  who  continues  to 
sit  in  the  Chair  of  Rome,  makes  known  the 
true  faith  to  the  sincere  inquirer."  St. 
Chrysologus  was  on  intimate  terms  with 
Pope  Leo  I.  He  died  and  was  buried  at 
Imola.  F.  Dec.  4th.  St.  Peter  Chrysolo- 
gus left  quite  a  number  of  works  which  can 
be  found  in  Migne,  Pat.  lat.  LII,  9-680. 

Chrysostom  (St.  John)  (347-407). — The 
incomparable  John  of  Constantinople,  from 
his  sanctity  and  eloquence  called  "Chrysos- 
tom" or  "Golden-mouthed"  was  born  at 
Antioch.  After  spending  six  years  in 
monastic  solitude,  where  he  devoted  him- 
self to  prayer  and  the  study  of  the  Sacred 
Scriptures,  he  was  baptized  in  369.  In  386, 
he  became  a  priest  and  in  397  he  was  ad- 
vanced to  the  see  of  Constantinople.  In 
his  new  post,  John  displayed  a  wonderful 
zeal  and  energy.  Greatly  loved  as  he  was 
by  the  people,  his  bold  denunciation  of 
vice  made  him  numerous  enemies,  espe- 
cially at  court,  who  in  403,  procured  his 
banishment.  Although  almost  instantly  re- 
called, he  was,  at  the  instigation  of  the 
licentious  Empress  Eudoxia,  again  exiled 
the  following  year  to  Cucusus  in  Armenia. 
Three  years  after,  a  new  decree  banished 
John  to  Pityus,  in  Colchis,  the  farthest 
limits  of  the  empire;  but  before  reaching 
that  place,  he  died  at  Comana  in  Pontus. 
F.  Jan.  27th. 


Church 


178 


Church 


Of  all  the  Greek  Fathers,  the  writings  of 
St.  Chrysostum  are  the  most  voluminous. 
They  consist  of  numerous  commentaries 
and  homilies  on  the  Bible,  of  sermons,  dog- 
matical and  moral  treatises,  and  of  a  mass 
of  letters.  His  homilies  and  commentaries 
on  the  Bible  alone  fill  nine  volumes,  and 
embrace  nearly  all  the  sacred  books  of  both 
Testaments.  Besides  these,  our  saint  com- 
posed a  number  of  excellent  sermons  and 
homilies  on  Christian  doctrine  and  Chris- 
tian virtues  and  duties.  Most  of  his  hom- 
ilies he  preached  at  Antioch  while  yet  a 
presbyter.  Of  his  moral  works,  must  be 
mentioned  his  incomparable  treatise  on  the 
Priesthood  in  six  books,  which  he  com- 
posed to  excuse  himself  to  his  friend  Basil, 
for  whom,  by  his  flight,  he  had  left  open 
the  way  to  episcopal  dignity.  With  the 
exception  of  a  few,  his  letters  to  the  num- 
ber of  243,  were  written  during  his  exile. 
Of  these,  two  are  addressed  to  Pope  Inno- 
cent I.  The  Liturgy  bearing  the  name  of 
St.  Chrysostom  is  used  to  this  day  through- 
out the  East,  by  the  Catholics  and  Schis- 
matics alike. 

Church. —  The  assembly  of  Christians  in 
general,  and,  in  a  more  restricted  sense, 
every  assembly  or  communion  of  persons 
united  by  the  same  Christian  faith.  Both 
the  words  and  acts  of  Jesus  prove  that  He 
wished  to  perpetuate  His  teaching  in  a 
doctrinal  society  or  organized  body,  which 
is  the  Church.  He  speaks  explicitly  of  this 
Church  which  will  be  founded  upon  the 
chief  of  the  Apostles  as  the  corner  stone. 
He  promises  to  him  divine  assistance  which 
should  continue  till  the  end  of  the  world. 
The  Apostles  show  us  how  they  understood 
the  realization  of  the  divine  plan.  With 
them  the  first  Christian  community  unites 
itself  at  Jerusalem.  They  rule  and  direct 
this  community,  which  constitutes  the 
primitive  Church.  They  receive  the  prize 
of  the  goods  of  the  Faithful,  judge  their  dif- 
ferences, and  hear  their  complaints.  They 
found  the  hierarchy  by  the  imposition  of 
hands,  that  is,  through  ordination ;  punish 
by  excommunication,  instruct  by  their 
preaching  and  by  letters.  Finally,  all  an- 
tiquity proclaims  the  Bishop  of  Rome  the 
successor  of  St.  Peter  and  heir  of  his 
power.  St.  Clement  of  Rome,  St.  Igna- 
tius, St.  Polycarp,  immediate  disciples  of 
the  Apostles,  assume  every^^•here  in  their 
letters  the  episcopal  and  sacerdotal  author- 
ity and  the  submission  of  the  Faithful  to 
this  power.     Such  a  constitution  existing 


in  fact  implies  the  institution  of  Christ 
and  proves  it  historically.  From  that 
time,  the  Church  appears  to  us  as  a  per- 
fect society.  It  has  its  peculiar  aim, 
which  is  the  sanctification  of  souls,  and 
also  the  means  to  realize  this  end,  namely, 
the  sacraments.  It  is  an  obligatory  so- 
ciety for  all  men  to  whom  it  is  sufficiently 
known,  and  it  is  in  this  sense  that  outside 
the  Church  there  is  no  salvation.  We  dis- 
tinguish in  the  Church  a  threefold  min- 
istry :  the  doctrinal  ministry,  or  the  word 
of  God  taught  by  the  members  of  the  hier- 
archy; the  decision  of  controversies  be- 
longing only  to  the  successors  of  the 
Apostles,  to  the  bishops  and  Pope;  the 
sacerdotal  ministry,  or  the  application  of 
the  grace  of  the  sacraments  to  the  indi- 
viduals ;  finally,  the  disciplinary  or  admin- 
istrative ministry,  by  which  the  exterior 
life  of  the  members  of  the  Church  is  di- 
rected so  that  the  whole  Church  really 
represents  the  society  or  community 
founded  by  Christ,  in  the  march  to  God. 
The  Church,  being,  therefore,  an  exterior, 
visible,  hierarchical,  and  doctrinal  society, 
must  be  recognizable,  and  it  will  be  this  by 
means  of  marks,  namely  :  unity,  holiness, 
apostolicity,  and  catholicity.  The  Church 
is  one,  because  we  cannot  speak  of  several 
churches  without  contradicting  Christ, 
who  speaks  of  only  one  flock,  and  of  only 
one  pastor.  She  is  one,  by  one  and  the 
same  Lord,  Jesus  Christ,  by  one  and  the 
same  Gospel,  by  one  and  the  same  baptism, 
by  one  and  the  same  Holy  Ghost  —  who 
operates  in  the  souls, —  and  by  one  and  the 
same  visible  head,  the  Pope.  The  Church 
is  holy  by  her  vocation,  by  the  means  she 
offers  to  efface  sin,  by  the  heroic  virtues 
which,  in  all  centuries  have  been  the  at- 
tributes of  many  of  her  members,  and 
which  have  been  proved  by  the  miracles 
wrought  by  their  sanctity.  The  Church  is 
catholic,  because  she  is  destined  to  become 
the  universal  religious  society,  and  carries 
within  herself  all  that  is  necessary  to  be- 
come universal;  because,  in  fact,  she  is 
spread  all  over  the  world  and  is  accessible 
in  all  regions  to  men  of  good  will,  who  are 
anxious  about  their  salvation.  In  such  a 
manner,  however,  is  she  catholic  that  on  ac- 
count of  the  liberty  of  each  one  in  the  order 
of  salvation,  the  catholicity  of  the  number 
may  be  changeable  in  the  different  coun- 
tries,—  now  superabundantly  enlightened 
by  the  light  of  the  Gospel,  anon  more  or  less 
abandoned  by  that  same  light  whose  lumin- 
ousness  reveals  itself  in  other  places.     The 


Church 


179 


Church 


Church  is  apostoHc,  not  only  because  his- 
torically she  dates  back  to  the  Apostles,  but 
also  because  she  perseveres  in  the  spirit  and 
essential  form  which  she  received  from 
the  Apostles,  and  because  she  is  always 
the  same,  in  the  presence  of  the  mutabil- 
ity of  earthly  things.  The  Church  is  a 
doctrinal  society,  because  she  is  not  only 
the  guardian  of  a  morality  more  perfect 
than  that  of  philosophers,  but  the  deposi- 
tary of  truths  or  dogmas  which  she  incul- 
cates into  all  generations.  Christ  has  taught 
His  divinity,  and  founded  upon  this  dogma 
the  mission  of  His  Church.  He  has 
taught  the  prophetic  relation  of  the  Old 
Testament  with  the  Gospel  and  with  His 
person;  the  mystery  of  the  Most  Holy 
Trinity;  the  dogma  of  the  responsibility 
for  works ;  of  the  resurrection  of  the  dead 
and  of  the  judgment ;  the  dogmas  of  grace, 
of  human  liberty,  of  redemption,  and  of 
man's  communication  with  God  through 
prayer.  He  has  taught  the  existence  of 
a  Church,  destined  to  pursue  her  work  of 
sanctification,  and,  consequently,  the  in- 
defectibility  of  the  Church,  whose  corol- 
lary is  her  infallibility.  This  infallibility 
is  exercised  in  the  progress  of  the  centuries 
by  the  decision  of  controversies,  remitted  to 
the  judgment  of  the  pastors,  and  especially 
to  the  chief  of  the  Apostles.  Thus  there 
exists  in  the  Church  an  always  living  mag- 
istery,  destined  to  guide  and  direct  the 
Faithful.  The  Church  had  always  a  creed, 
or  confession  of  faith,  to  which  she  at- 
tached herself. 

Church  (Greek).     See  Schism. 

Church  ( The,  in  the  United  States). — 
The  first  Catholic  bishop  in  the  United 
States  was  Most  Reverend  John  Carroll  of 
Baltimore,  appointed  in  1790.  Under  him, 
at  that  time,  were  20  priests  and  30,000 
laity  scattered  throughout  the  thirteen 
states,  but  particularly  in  Maryland,  Penn- 
sylvania, and  the  territory  northwest  of 
Ohio.  Most  of  these  were  native  born. 
Bishop  Carroll's  calculation  fixes  the  num- 
ber at  44,000.  In  1803,  with  the  annexa- 
tion of  Louisiana,  30,000  Catholics,  born  in 
that  state,  were  added  to  the  natural  in- 
crease, so  that  in  1810  there  were  90,000 
native  born  and  30,000  foreign  born  Catho- 
lics. In  1830,  the  Catholics  born  in  the 
United  States  had  gained,  by  natural  in- 
crease, 81,000,  making  231,500  out  of  a  total 
population  of  361,000.  In  1850  the  Catho- 
lic population  was  about  1,876,470,  of  whom 
not   more   than   800,000   were    of    foreign 


birth.  In  1S60  the  Catholic  population 
was  3,000,000,  of  whom  at  least  1,701,470 
were  natives,  the  natural  increase  by  births 
over  deaths  being  at  least  625,000.  In  1870 
there  were  4,685,000  Catholics,  of  whom 
2,786,470  were  born  in  the  United  States. 
The  total  foreign  born  population  that 
year  was  5,567,229,  of  whom  1,898,530  were 
Catholics.  In  1880,  out  of  7,000,000  Cath- 
olics, 4,468,470  were  native  born.  The 
foreign  born  Catholics  were  2,531,530,  out 
of  a  total  foreign  born  population  of  6,679,- 
943,  as  reported  by  the  census.  In  1890 
the  Catholic  population  was  certainly  10,- 
000,000.  Of  these,  over  6,750,000  were  na- 
tives and  3,250,000  of  foreign  birth.  These 
figures  are  substantiated,  also,  by  a  calcu- 
lation made  according  to  the  English 
tf bles  of  morality ;  for,  taking  the  number 
of  Catholic  births  from  the  year  1800,  and 
enumerating  the  survivors,  there  must 
have  been,  not  including  Indians  and  ne- 
groes, over  6,000,000  native  born  Catholics 
in  1890.  In  1896  there  were  surely  12,000,- 
000  Catholics  in  the  United  States,  of 
whom  no  fewer  than  8,250,000  were  native 
born.  From  those  figures  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  great  body  of  Catholics  in  the 
United  States  is,  and  always  has  been, 
mostly  native  born  and  English  speaking, 
and  that  those  of  American  parentage  far 
outnumber  those  born  in  America  of  for- 
eign parentage.  Cf.  Art.  "  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church,"  by  Cardinal  Gibbons,  in 
Supplement  to  Encyclofcedia  Britannica. 
On  the  following  pages  will  be  found  a 
General  Summary  of  the  Catholic  Church, 
taken  from  Hoffmann's  Catholic  Directory 
of  the  year  1898.  According  to  our  Sum- 
mary, it  is  far  from  being  complete,  at 
least  in  regard  to  the  number  of  Catholics 
in  the  United  States. 

Church  ( The)  and  Basilica  as  Place  of 
Worship.  (The  name  basilica  is  derived 
from  the  Lat.  basilica,  which  means  royal 
house.  A  royal  palace,  or  public  building 
where  judgment  was  rendered,  or  where 
the  merchants  assembled  for  the  consid- 
eration of  affairs). — During  the  early  times 
of  Christianity,  many  basilicas  were  util- 
ized as  churches,  some  of  which  retained 
the  ancient  name  of  these  edifices  after 
their  transformation  into  places  of  wor- 
ship. Among  the  Romans,  the  basilica 
was  a  large  building  of  an  elongated  form, 
divided  inside  by  colonnades  surmounted 
by  galleries.  The  most  famous  and  also 
the  most  ancient  of  Roman  basilicas  were 


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(i8i) 


Church  and  Civilization 


182 


Church  and  Civilization 


that  of  Porcius  Cato,  which  history  re- 
cords as  having  been  erected  in  the  year 
184  B.  c. ;  the  Julian,  Emilian,  Ulpian  ba- 
silicas, and,  finally,  that  of  Constantine,  the 
latest  in  date  and  the  most  solid  in  struc- 
ture, for  it  was  entirely  arched,  whereas 
the  more  ancient  basilicas  were  merely 
roofed  with  ceilings.  Aside  from  the  pub- 
lic basilicas,  the  wealthy  Roman  patricians 
and  the  principal  citizens  of  other  Italian 
cities  possessed  private  basilicas  where  the 
master  of  the  house  granted  audience  to 
his  dependents  and  adjudicated  their  af- 
fairs. 

The  edifices  for  worship  of  the  Christian 
Church  originated  from  the  private  basil- 
ica. When  the  Faithful  left  the  Cata- 
combs, and  were  destitute  of  the  means  for, 
or  could  not  as  yet  venture,  in  those  pagan 
times  the  erection  of  public  buildings  con- 
secrated to  their  worship,  they  found  in 
the  basilicas  of  the  converted  patricians 
structures  eminently  fitted  for  their  assem- 
blies, and  which  they  reproduced,  by 
slightly  modifying  them,  in  their  first  tem- 
ples. For  this  reason,  the  latter  were  also 
called  basilicas,  a  name  which  was  still 
employed  in  the  Middie  Ages  and  also  in 
our  days  to  designate  either  large  churches, 
or  churches  venerated  under  various  titles 
or  enjoying  certain  liturgical  privileges. 
The  ancient  basilicas  were  composed  of 
three  parts.  See  Architecture.  Ma- 
jor Basilicas  and  Minor  Basilicas  are  hon- 
orary titles  to  which  correspond  certain 
canonical  privileges.  There  are  Major 
Basilicas  only  in  Rome ;  these  are  the  five 
principal  churches:  St.  John  Lateran,  St. 
Peter  of  the  Vatican,  St.  Paul  Without 
the  Walls,  Santa  Croce  in  Gerusalemme, 
and  St.  Lawrence  Without  the  Walls. 
They  are  also  called  patriarchal  churches, 
because  they  correspond  to  the  five  great 
patriarchates  of  the  Catholic  Church. 
Santa  Maria  Majore  and  St.  Sebastian,  on 
the  Apennine  road,  are  also  counted  among 
the  number  of  Major  Basilicas.  The  title 
of  Minor  Basilicas  is  granted,  in  Rome 
and  outside  of  Rome,  to  other  churches 
famous  for  their  antiquity  or  on  account 
of  the  veneration  the  Faithful  have  toward 
them.  In  Rome,  there  are  six  Minor  Ba- 
silicas :  Santa  Maria  de  Transtevere,  St. 
Lawrence  in  Damaso,  Santa  Maria  in  Cos- 
medin,  St.  Peter  in  Chains,  Santa  Maria 
in  Monte  Santo,  and  the  Church  of  the 
Twelve  Apostles.  The  Roman  States  also 
contain  some  Minor  Basilicas.  In  remem- 
brance of  the  coronation  of  Napoleon  I., 


Pius  VII.  raised,  by  a  Bull  of  Feb.  28th, 
1805,  the  Church  of  Notre  Dame  de  Paris 
to  the  rank  of  a  Minor  Basilica.  There  are 
two  other  churches  in  France  which  share 
the  honor  of  the  metropolis  of  Paris :  the 
cathedral  of  Valence,  where  there  is  pre- 
served the  heart  and  bowels  of  Pius  VI. 
who  died  in  that  city,  and  the  Church  of 
Our  Lady  of  Lourdes. 

Church  and  Civilization.— Christianity 
in  general,  and  the  Catholic  Church  in 
particular,  have  been  the  most  influential 
factors  in  civilizing  the  world.  Modern 
civilization  proves  herself  ungrateful  toward 
the  mother  that  bore  her.  No  other  religion 
has  exercised  such  a  mighty  civilizing  in- 
fluence as  Christianity.  Its  chief  influence 
lay  in  the  direction  of  mind  and  will,  that 
is  to  say,  of  intellectual  and  moral  prog- 
ress, both  of  which,  especially  the  latter, 
are  most  closely  bound  up  with  the  great 
social  problem. 

Neither  the  false  religion  of  the  heathen 
nor  even  the  true,  but  imperfect  religion 
of  Israel,  were  able  to  regenerate  the  world. 
To  heal  the  woes  and  miseries  of  mankind, 
a  new  covenant,  a  nobler  religion,  was 
needed.  That  religion  is  Christianity  and 
the  Spirit  of  God.  It  alone  goes  to  the 
root  of  the  evil.  Embracing  all  people  and 
classes  without  distinction,  it  brings  re- 
demption from  error,  sin,  and  death.  It 
sets  before  all,  the  life  to  come  as  their 
true  end ;  it  views  this  life  as  a  stepping 
stone  to  eternity,  and  earthly  goods  as  a 
means  for  laying  up  treasures  in  heaven. 
It  thus  overcomes  the  base  charms  of 
sensual  enjoyment,  and  plants  in  the  hearts 
of  men  a  new  and  indestructible  principle 
of  life — divine  charity  (Rom.  v.  25).  The 
Incarnation  of  the  Son  of  God  has  changed 
the  face  of  the  earth ;  the  very  name  of 
its  founder,  Jesus  (Saviour,  Redeemer) 
suggests  the  deliverance  of  mankind  from 
the  bondage  of  sin,  death,  and  the  devil. 
By  His  example  He  has  taught  us  in  the 
most  elevated  way  how  to  sacrifice  our 
lives.  He  was  meek  and  humble,  and 
emptied  Himself,  took  the  form  of  a  serv- 
ant. He  called  none  of  this  world's  goods 
His  own,  for  He  had  not  where  to  lay  His 
head.  And  yet,  He  healed  the  sick,  fed 
the  hungry,  and  comforted  the  sorrowful. 
He  spoke  as  one  having  authority,  and 
His  words  struck  a  chord  in  the  heart 
of  suffering  humanity.  From  sheer  love 
of  men.  He  chose  to  suffer,  to  be  perse- 
cuted, and  to  endure  a  most  cruel  death. 


Church  and  Civilization 


183 


Church  and  Civilization 


Jew  and  Gentile  united  to  strike  Him 
down.  But  He  who  was  thus  sacrificed,  in 
the  simple  words  of  the  Apostle,  was  the 
Author  of  Life  (Acts  iii.  15),  and  the  Cross 
became  henceforth  the  tree  of  life  to 
mankind.  All  eyes  would  now  be  turned 
to  Calvary  (John  xix.  37) ;  thither  all 
hearts  would  be  drawn  (John  xii.  32). 

The  disciples  and  Faithful  generally  imi- 
tated the  example  of  Jesus,  and  put  in 
practice  His  teaching.  They  evinced  their 
Christian  charity  by  their  good  deeds 
in  lending  a  helping  hand  to  the  unfor- 
tunate, and  to  those  in  bodily  and  spiritual 
distress.  When  the  neglect  of  widows 
gave  rise  to  dissatisfaction  at  Jerusalem, 
deacons  were  appointed  for  the  special 
purpose  of  ministering  to  the  poor  (Acts 
vi.  iff.).  St.  Paul,  who  maintained  him- 
self by  the  work  of  his  hands,  ordered 
collections  to  be  made  in  all  the  Churches 
he  had  founded  for  the  poor  in  Jerusalem. 
He  also  urged  the  Faithful  in  the  several 
Churches  to  esteem  and  support  one  an- 
other. And  he  rebuked  the  Corinthians 
for  not  keeping  the  Agape  or  love-feasts 
in  common  (L  Cor.  xi.  21-22).  He  admon- 
ishes the  Romans  to  minister  to  the  neces- 
sities of  the  saints,  pursuing  hospitality 
(Rom.  xii.  13). 

The  most  wretched  and  abject  class  of 
the  poor  were  the  slaves,  who  swarmed  not 
only  in  the  East,  but  also  among  the  Greeks 
and  Romans,  and  even  amongthe  Germans. 
They  were  not  accounted  as  men,  but  as 
implements,  chattels,  and  beasts,  destined 
from  their  birth  to  bear  the  yoke.  Their 
physical  and  moral  wretchedness  clamored 
to  heaven  for  vengeance.  So  hard  was  the 
condition  of  the  slave  that  one  year  of 
slavery  would  suffice  to  thrust  him  into 
the  rank  of  a  veterator,  that  is,  to  cast  him 
aside  as  a  worn-out  commodity.  The 
least  offense  might  entail  loss  of  life  or 
limb.  He  was  subject  to  the  most  cruel 
outrages.  Husbands  were  torn  away  from 
their  wives,  children  from  their  parents. 
Where  were  they  to  look  for  comfort  in 
their  misery,  or  for  strength  to  endure 
their  sufferings.?  Not  in  the  religion  of 
their  masters.  The  hearts  of  men  were 
closed  against  them.  The  asylums  and 
sanctuaries  erected  for  their  benefit,  hardly 
produced  a  noticeable  mitigation  of  their 
lot.  A  master,  like  Pliny,  who  treated  his 
slaves  humanely,  was  a  phenomenon. 
Those  who  treated  them  with  every  refine- 
ment of  cruelty  were  far  more  numerous. 
Slaves  were  even  thrown  as  food  for  fishes  ! 


Yet  Christianity  was  able  to  deal  with  the 
inveterate  canker  that  had  been  gnawing 
at  the  vitals  of  the  social  life  of  those 
times.  It  strove  to  elevate  these  unhappy 
beings,  spiritually  and  morally,  to  temper 
their  harsh  lot,  and  gradually  to  abolish 
slavery  as  a  blot  on  Christianity  and  a  dis- 
grace to  mankind.  Nor  was  the  manner 
in  which  Christianity  accomplished  this 
great  social  revolution  less  admirable.  On 
the  one  hand,  the  Apostles  exhorted  slaves, 
for  the  love  of  God,  and  in  the  hope  of  an 
eternal  reward,  to  bear  their  hard  lot  with 
patience,  and  to  be  faithful  even  to  cruel 
and  froward  masters.  On  the  other  hand, 
they  entreated  and  enjoined  on  masters,  to 
consider  their  slaves  as  brethren  in  Christ, 
since  all  had  been  redeemed  by  the  same 
precious  blood  of  Jesus  Christ.  Only  when 
society  had  been  penetrated  with  the  spirit 
of  Christianity,  could  slavery  as  an  insti- 
tution be  wholly  abolished  without  danger 
of  a  social  upheaval.  But  it  was  owing  to 
the  Christian  spirit  that  a  great  portion  of 
mankind  recovered  their  full  human  rights 
and  dignity,  and  domestic  life  was  estab- 
lished on  a  new  basis.     See  Slavery. 

In  the  heathen  world,  sympathy  with 
suffering  and  charity  to  the  poor,  were  un- 
known. The  attempts  which  it  was  con- 
strained to  make  toward  alleviating  the 
most  frightful  misery,  were  utterly  inade- 
quate. The  few  attempts  made  in  Greece 
and  Rome  to  care  for  the  poor  cannot 
compare,  either  in  comprehensiveness  or 
in  motive,  with  the  works  of  Christian 
chacity.  They  were  essentially  for  giving 
State  support  to  citizens  incapacitated  from 
work,  and  for  distributing  free  supplies  of 
corn  to  the  poor.  In  the  reign  of  Nerva 
and  Hadrian  spasmodic  efforts  were  made 
to  establish  schools  for  the  education  of 
foundlings.  The  collegia,  or  brotherhoods, 
were  each  supposed  partly  to  care  for  their 
own  poor.  No  one,  in  the  vast  Roman 
empire,  dreamt  of  almshouses  or  hos- 
pitals. 

How  different  was  the  action  of  the 
Christian  Church !  The  care  of  the  sick 
and  poor,  from  religious  motives,  for 
God's  sake,  was  a  Christian  work  in  which 
every  Christian  community  was  occupied. 
Widows  and  orphans,  the  poor  and  the 
sick,  were  tended  and  supported  as  re- 
deemed in  Christ,  and  made  conformable 
to  Him  in  suffering.  The  pagans,  who 
treated  poverty  with  contempt,  and  closed 
their  eyes  to  the  wretchedness  of  their 
fellow-men,  frequently  flung  in  the  teeth 


Church  and  Civilization       184      Church  and  Civilization 


of  Christians  the  taunt  that  none  but  the 
outcasts  and  scum  of  society  and  credulous 
women  were  found  to  listen  to  their  teach- 
ing. Tertullian  goes  so  far  as  to  say  that 
there  was  hardly  a  rich  man  in  the  house 
of  God.  Consequently,  poverty  and  dis- 
tress found  a  place  of  refuge  in  the  Chris- 
tian Church.  Besides  receiving  relief  for 
the  bodily  wants,  the  unfortunate  pariahs 
of  society  learned  how  to  bear  their 
wrongs  patiently,  for  they  felt  that  they 
were  redeemed,  elect,  and  brethren.  How 
those  blunted,  deadened  hearts  must  have 
beat  with  joy  when  they  learned  that  even 
they  were  the  object  of  that  pre-eminently 
Christian  virtue  of  brotherly  love,  and 
that  God  the  Son  had  shed  His  blood  even 
for  them ! 

According  to  the  Canons  of  Hippolytus, 
the  bishop  has  charge  of  the  poor.  The 
Apostolic  Constitutions  likewise  enjoin  on 
the  bishop  to  care  for  the  widows  and 
orphans.  He  is  to  distribute  the  offerings 
of  the  Faithful,  and  he  will  have  to  render 
to  God  an  account  of  his  stewardship  in 
this  matter.  The  Synod  of  Orange,  held 
in  511,  decreed  (c.  i6) :  "  The  bishop  shall 
provide  for  the  sick  and  poor,  who  are  in- 
capacitated from  work,  %vith  food  and  cloth- 
ing, as  far  as  it  is  in  his  power."  When 
it  was  a  question  of  relieving  the  distress 
of  the  poor  or  of  ransoming  captives,  not 
even  the  sacred  vessels  of  the  Church 
were  spared.  To  provide  a  wider  scope 
and  application  and  greater  efficiency  in 
the  works  of  mercy,  the  Christian  bishops 
made  early  attempts  at  the  organization  of 
charity  by  establishing  hospitals  and  alms- 
houses, as  was  done  by  St.  Basil  in 
Caesarea.  The  establishment  of  houses  for 
the  poor  and  for  strangers  was  mentioned 
at  the  Synod  of  Chalcedon.  The  Synod 
of  Tours  (567)  ordered  every  city  to  make 
provision  for  the  poor.  Pope  Gregory  the 
Great  took  active  measures,  both  by  his 
personal  action  and  by  his  decrees,  in  pro- 
viding for  the  poor. 

The  wider  Christianity  spread,  and  the 
more  it  penetrated  with  its  spirit  the 
masses  and  classes  of  men,  the  greater  and 
more  flourishing  became  the  work  of 
Christian  charity.  The  rise  of  monas- 
teries marks  a  new  epoch  in  this  respect. 
They  became  the  homes  of  the  poor.  For 
not  only  did  a  poor  man  never  knock  in 
vain  at  the  monastery  door,  but  the  mon- 
asteries frequently  maintained  poorhouses, 
hospitals,  and  schools.  In  these  works, 
Benedictines,    Cistercians,    and    Premon- 


stratensians  vied  with  one  another.  More- 
over, numerous  guilds  or  brotherhoods 
were  established,  which  devoted  them- 
selves in  a  special  manner  to  ministering 
to  the  sick  and  poor,  v.  g-.,  the  Brothers  of 
the  Holy  Ghost,  the  Brothers  of  St.  An- 
thony, the  Beguines,  the  Orders  of  Knights, 
etc.  In  our  time,  hundreds  of  religious 
institutions  were  established  for  the  same 
purpose.  Reformation,  on  the  other  hand, 
destroyed  many  of  these  houses,  confis- 
cated the  goods  of  the  poor,  and  handed 
them  over  to  the  rich.  The  poor  were  de- 
prived of  their  asylums,  and  the  unselfish 
exercise  of  Christian  charity  and  brotherly 
devotion  was  rendered  impossible. 

The  position  of  woman  and  wife  in  an- 
cient times,  was  often  very  little  better 
than  that  of  female  slaves,  and  in  this  respect 
non-Christian  nations  of  to-day  resemble 
pre-Christian  heathen.  The  Church,  how- 
ever, took  the  doctrine  of  Holy  Scripture  on 
the  equality  of  woman  and  the  sanctity  of 
family  and  married  life  and  erected  it  into 
a  maxim  :  Una  lex  est  de  viris  et  feihinis. 
Marriage,  invested  with  the  sacramental 
blessing,  has  rights  and  duties,  which  are 
correlative.  The  object  of  marriage  became 
mutual  sanctification  and  the  bringing  of 
children  to  heaven  —  a  duty  shamefully 
neglected  by  Greeks  and  Romans.  Mar- 
riage might  not  be  dissolved.  Fidelity  and 
chastity  were  held  in  high  honor.  Even 
second  marriage  was  looked  upon  as  a  spe- 
cies of  incontinency.  The  detestable  prac- 
tices of  abortion  and  the  exposure  of  infants 
were  stringently  condemned.  The  oldest 
Christian  writings  contain  a  prohibition 
against  child-murder,  either  by  procuring 
abortion  or  by  infanticide.  It  also  incul- 
cated on  women  their  duties  as  Christian 
housewives.  St.  Chrysostom,  for  example, 
severely  denounced  the  unworthy  and  cruel 
behavior  of  mistresses  to  their  female  slaves. 
The  same  saint  has  also  recorded  how 
high,  as  a  rule.  Christian  women  stood 
in  the  estimation  of  their  heathen  neigh- 
bors, by  reason  of  their  continency  and 
chastity.  The  reverse  of  the  picture  is 
given  in  Rottiger's  Sabina  and  Wiseman's 
Fabiola.  The  glimpse  which  they  give 
into  the  home  life  of  heathen  women  is  by 
no  means  pleasant  reading. 

The  effects  of  this  sanctification  of  family 
life  on  social  and  economic  science  cannot 
be  appraised  too  highly.  Both  public  and 
private  life  were  ennobled.  The  social 
intercourse  of  men  and  women  with  one 
another  could  not  but  be  governed  by  a 


Church  and  Civilization        185       Church  and  Civilization 


gentler  and  nobler  spirit,  as  St.  Jerome's 
letters  to  noble  Roman  ladies  abundantly 
testify.  This  accession  of  dignity  to  the 
married  state  also  healed  the  gaping  wounds 
which  lax  morals  had  inflicted  on  the  social 
fabric  of  Greece  and  Rome.  Lasciviousness, 
adultery,  and  slavery,  are  largely  responsi- 
ble for  the  devastation  and  depopulation  of 
countries  that  were  once  flourishing.  In 
this  respect,  too,  the  countries  blighted  by 
Islamism  render  conspicuous  by  contrast 
the  blessings  that  Christianity  has  brought 
in  its  train. 

Christian  Science  has  ever  been  unfold- 
ing her  banner  for  fresh  victories.  How- 
ever much  her  fortunes  may  vary,  her 
conquests  are  as  assured  as  they  are  unde- 
niable. No  matter  how  philosophers, 
especially  modern  ones,  may  have  cast 
themselves  adrift  from  Christian  philoso- 
phy, they  cannot  wholly  emancipate  them- 
selves from  its  influence.  Even  they  are 
indebted  to  Christianity  for  what  they 
have.  Consciously  or  unconsciously,  they 
have  drawn  whatever  of  merit  there  is  in 
them  from  the  well-spring  of  Christianity. 
The  very  fact  that  the  condition  of  modern 
philosophy  grows  hopeless  in  proportion  to 
its  abandonment  of  Christianity  is  a  proof 
of  it.  Society  is  shaken  to  its  very  founda- 
tion because  of  the  intellectual  confusion  of 
the  age.  Skepticism  and  infidelity  have 
passed  from  the  classes  to  the  masses.  What 
wonder,  then,  that  the  highest  authority 
in  Christendom  has  uttered  the  watch- 
word :  "Go  back  to  St.  Thomas  !  " 

The  study  of  philosphy  was  likewise  fa- 
vorable to  the  study  of  the  classics.  That 
the  Fathers,  especially  the  Greek  Fathers, 
were  well  versed  in  them  goes  without  say- 
ing. St.  Chrysostom's  style  is,  not  with- 
out reason,  called  the  Attic  style  of  St. 
Paul.  In  the  West,  St.  Jerome  is  a  model 
classic.  In  the  monasteries  the  ancient 
masterpieces  were  carefully  preserved, 
copied,  and  studied.  Had  it  not  been  for 
the  monasteries,  the  rich  literature  of  the 
ancients  would  have  been  lost  in  the  stormy 
ages  that  followed.  The  Humanists,  in- 
deed, revived  classic  studies,  collated  man- 
uscripts, and  rendered  them  generally 
accessible.  But  who  preser\'ed  them  but 
that  Church  which,  for  centuries,  had 
been  almost  the  exclusive  gvtardian  of 
science?  The  Popes,  even  in  the  days  of 
Humanism,  were  among  the  most  vigorous 
promoters  of  these  studies.  And  the  mon- 
asteries were  as  solicitous  for  education 
as  for   science.     The    Church  established 


upper  and  lower  schools.  The  most 
famous  libraries,  notably  the  Vatican,  owe 
their  origin  and  maintenance  to  the 
Church. 

Nowadays  all  scientific  studies  center  in 
the  Natural  Sciences.  The  great  strides 
made  in  theory  and  practice  in  modern 
times  are  due  to  them.  Our  present  in- 
dustrial and  commercial  system  is  of  their 
creation.  And  it  is  often  maintained  that 
this  triumph  of  realism  is  a  protest  against 
ideal  Christian  science,  and  the  religious 
life  inculcated  by  Christianity.  This  con- 
tention seems  to  derive  confirmation  from 
the  bent  of  these  sciences,  which  is  natural- 
istic and  materialistic.  The  history  of 
these  natural  sciences,  from  first  to  last, 
is  represented  as  a  series  of  skirmishes  and 
conflicts,  in  which  science  vindicates  the 
right  of  free  inquiry  against  the  Church 
and  finally  emerges  from  the  conflict 
triumphant.  No  matter  how  much  the 
changes  are  rung  and  the  theme  varied,  the 
contention  is  untrue  in  the  main,  and  exag- 
gerated in  detail ;  moreover,  its  ultimate 
consequence  would  be  the  rejection  of  all 
religion,  and  with  it  the  downfall  of  civili- 
zation. 

The  abuse  which  modern  historians  and 
scientists  have  heaped  upon  the  Church, 
as  if  she  were  opposed  to  social  and 
scientific  progress,  induced  the  Vatican 
Council  to  declare  itself  in  the  Chapter  on 
Faith  and  Reason.  It  teaches:  "Not  only 
can  faith  and  reason  never  be  opposed  to 
one  another,  but  they  are  of  mutual  aid, 
one  to  the  other.  For  right  reason  demon- 
strates the  foundations  of  faith,  and,  en- 
lightened by  its  light,  cultivates  the 
science  of  things  divine;  while  faith  frees 
and  guards  reason  from  errors,  and 
furnishes  it  with  manifold  knowledge  So 
far,  therefore,  is  the  Church  from  opposing 
the  cultivation  of  human  arts  and  sciences, 
that  it  in  many  ways  helps  and  promotes 
it.  For  the  Church  neither  ignores  nor 
despises  the  benefits  to  human  life  which 
result  from  the  arts  and  sciences,  but  con- 
fesses that,  as  they  came  from  God,  the 
Lord  of  all  science,  so,  if  they  be  rightly 
used,  they  lead  to  God  by  the  help  of  His 
grace.  Nor  does  the  Church  forbid  that 
each  of  these  sciences,  in  its  sphere,  should 
make  use  of  its  own  principles  and  its  own 
methods;  but,  while  recognizing  this  just 
liberty,  it  stands  watchfully  on  guard  lest 
science,  setting  itself  against  the  divine 
teaching,  or  transgressing  its  own  limits, 
should  invade  and  disturb  the  domain  of 


Church  History 


Circumcision 


faith."  Christianity,  then,  and  the  Church 
have  no  reason  to  fear  the  history  of 
civilization  and  progress. 

Church  History.  —  The  history  of  the 
Christian  religion  and  of  the  Church 
forms  the  most  important  part  of  the  gen- 
eral history  of  mankind,  and  is  intimately 
connected  not  only  with  the  political  his- 
tory of  the  world,  but  also  with  the  history 
of  philosophy,  literature,  and  civilization. 
The  sources  and  authorities  of  this  history 
are  extremely  various,  and  their  due  ap- 
preciation often  requires  as  much  judgment 
as  their  exploration  requires  toil.  Church 
history  is  either  general, —  embracing  a 
view  of  the  affairs  of  the  Church  in  the 
whole  world,  from  the  beginning  to  the 
present  day;  or  particular,  —  relating  to 
some  particular  country,  or  time,  or  por- 
tion of  the  Church.  By  some  authors 
Church  history  has  been  treated  chiefly 
with  regard  to  the  outward  affairs  of  the 
Church,  and  by  others  with  reference  to 
doctrine,  morals,  and  the  evidences  of 
spiritual  life;  while  still  others  have  de- 
voted their  attention  chiefly  to  the  forms 
of  worship,  the  constitution  of  the  Church, 
and  other  subjects  generally  comprehended 
under  the  name  of  ecclesiastical  antiquities. 

Churching  of  Women. — In  the  Jewish 
law  (Lev.  xii.)  women,  for  forty  days  after 
the  birth  of  a  boy,  and  for  eighty  days 
after  the  birth  of  a  girl,  were  regarded  as 
unclean,  excluded  from  the  temple  and  re- 
quired, at  the  expiration  of  such  time,  to 
bring  a  lamb  as  a  holocaust,  and  a  dove  as  a 
propitiatory  sacrifice  to  the  temple,  and 
then  be  pronounced  pure  by  the  prayer  of 
the  priest.  This  law  does  not,  it  is  true,  ap- 
ply to  Christian  women,  because  the  Church 
has  abolished  the  Jewish  ceremonies.  But, 
the  Church,  nevertheless,  permits  them  to 
remain  absent  from  divine  service  for  six 
weeks,  or  as  long  as  circumstances  conse- 
quent upon  the  birth  of  a  child  may  require. 
This  should  be  remembered  by  husbands, 
who  should  see  that  their  wives  have  the 
necessary  quiet  and  attendance  which  na- 
ture requires  for  their  recovery  after  giving 
birth  to  a  child.  The  Church  desires  that 
at  the  end  of  this  time  the  mother,  follow- 
ing the  example  of  the  Blessed  Virgin 
Mary,  should  resort  to  the  Church  to  ob- 
tain the  blessing  of  the  priest,  and  thank 
God  for  her  delivery,  offer  the  child  to 
God,  praying  with  the  priest  for  the  grace 
to  train  her  offspring  in  sanctity  and  piety. 
This  comprises  the  Churching  of  Women, 


which  is  a  very  old  and  praiseworthy  cus- 
tom and  should  not  be  neglected.  This 
practice  was  not  instituted  to  prevent 
mothers  from  being  harmed  by  the  devil, 
by  malicious  persons,  or  by  ghosts,  and  it 
would  be  not  only  a  foolish  fear,  but  an  ab- 
surd superstition  to  be  condemned,  if  one 
were  to  suppose  that  a  woman  were  liable 
to  harm  if  she  should  go  abroad  before  she 
were  churched. 

Ciborium. —  A  vessel  used  in  Catholic 
Churches  to  hold  the  sacred  Host;  it  is 
made  of  gold  or  silver,  and  generally 
ornamented  with  a  cross.  There  anciently 
prevailed  a  custom  of  enclosing  the  Blessed 
Sacrament,  reserved  under  the  form  of 
bread,  for  administration  to  the  dying,  in 
a  vessel  of  gold  or  silver,  made  in  the  form 
of  a  tower  or  of  a  dove,  which  was  sus- 
pended by  a  chain  from  the  center  of  the 
altar-canopy  or  ciborium,  beneath  a  small 
tent  or  tabernacle  of  silk  or  other  rich  ma- 
terial. In  process  of  time  this  custom  was 
changed  in  many  churches,  and  the  Blessed 
Sacrament,  deposited  in  a  pyx,  was  placed 
within  a  tabernacle  erected  on  the  altar, 
and  which  was  accessible  only  to  the  priest 
who  possessed  the  key  to  its  miniature 
portal.  In  France  the  use  of  the  suspended 
dove  or  pyx  was  retained  in  many  churches 
until  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century ; 
and  in  the  cathedral  of  Amiens  and  a" 
few  other  churches  the  custom  was  ad- 
hered to  up  to  a  quite  recent  date.  The 
ancient  practice  of  keeping  the  Blessed 
Eucharist  reserved  for  the  communion  of 
the  sick,  and  for  the  perpetual  adoration 
of  the  people,  in  a  pyx  suspended  above 
the  altar  was  observed  in  Catholic  England 
down  to  the  fifteenth  century,  and  in  many 
churches  until  the  schism. 

Cingulum.     See  Girdle. 

Circumcelliones  (or  "  Hut-rovers  "  ). — A 
sect  of  fanatics  which  sprang  up  among 
the  Donatists.  In  the  name  of  religion 
they  committed  all  kinds  of  excesses  and 
depredations  against  the  Catholics,  pillag- 
ing and  burning  their  houses,  blinding 
and  murdering  their  priests. 

Circumcision  {Feast  of). —  Festival  cele- 
brated on  the  1st  of  January  to  remind  us 
of  the  humility  of  our  Lord  in  allowing 
Himself  to  be  seemingly  numbered  among 
sinners,  by  submitting  to  the  law  of  the 
Jews.  Circumcision  was  a  religious  prac- 
tice among  the  Jews  in  the  observance  of 
which  a  distinctive  mark  was   placed  on 


Cistercians 


187 


Clement 


male  children  the  eighth  day  after  their 
birth,  and  on  all  adults  who  embraced  their 
religion.  It  was  established  as  a  distinc- 
tive sign  of  the  people  of  God,  a  sign  of 
the  covenant  made  by  God  with  Abraham, 
and  as  the  figure  of  baptism  in  the  New 
Law.  The  feast  of  Circumcision  is  very 
ancient  in  the  Church,  as  is  proved  by  the 
homilies  and  sermons  of  the  Fathers  of 
the  Church. 

Cistercians. —  Religious  order,  founded 
by  St.  Robert  of  Molesme  (died  in  mo). 
Robert  left  the  monastery  which  he  had 
founded  at  Molesme,  and  with  twenty  zeal- 
ous monks  retired  into  the  thick  forest  of 
Citeaux,  where  he  formed  a  new  order. 
Its  statutes  received  the  approbation  of 
Calixtus  II.  in  irig.  The  austerities  prac- 
ticed at  Citeaux  seemed  at  first  to  threaten 
the  community  with  extinction.  The  ac- 
cession of  St.  Bernard  with  thirty  young 
men,  mostly  of  noble  birth,  gave  it  new 
life.  By  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century, 
the  number  of  abbeys  had  increased  to 
five  hundred ;  a  century  later,  to  eighteen 
hundred.  About  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  the  Order  counted  1,800  monas- 
teries for  men  and  1,400  for  women.  The 
Cistercians  have  abbeys  in  the  United 
States  at  Gethsemane,  in  Kentucky,  and 
near  Dubuque,  in  Iowa. 

Clarendon  (  Constitutions  of). — A  coun- 
cil of  the  kingdom  summoned  by  Henry 
II.  of  England  at  Clarendon,  in  1164.  Six- 
teen ordinances,  known  as  "  The  Consti- 
tutions of  Clarendon,"  and  purporting  to 
declare  the  Ancient  Customs  of  the  realm, 
were  submitted  to  the  assembly  as  the 
"  Laws  of  the  Realm,"  for  the  settlement 
of  the  relation  between  Church  and  State, 
in  matters  of  jurisdiction.  These  consti- 
tutions, by  restraining  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  bishops  and  bringing  the  clergy  under 
secular  jurisdiction,  by  inhibiting  canoni- 
cal censures,  appeals  to  the  Pope,  and  all 
intercourse  with  the  Holy  See,  save  with 
the  royal  permission,  and  by  other  odious 
provisions,  tended  to  destroy  all  ecclesi- 
astical liberty,  and  to  reduce  the  English 
clergy  to  perfect  subjection  to  the  Crown, 
even  in  spiritual  matters. 

Clares  {Poor). — Besides  his  order  for 
men,  St.  Francis  founded  one  also  for  wo- 
men, commonly  called  Poor  Clares,  after 
St.  Clara  of  Assisi,  who  was  the  first  of 
her  sex  to  embrace  this  manner  of  life.  In 
1224,  St   Francis  gave  a  written  rule  to  St. 


Clara  and  her  community,  which  was  ap- 
proved by  Innocent  IV.,  in  1246.  Within 
a  few  years  the  order  had  many  houses  in 
Italy,  France,  and  Spain.  The  Poor  Clares 
also  have  several  houses  in  the  United 
States.  St.  Clara  died  in  1253,  and  was 
canonized  already  in  1255.     F.  Aug.  12th. 

Claudius. — Iconoclast  bishop  of  Turin, 
born  in  Spain,  died  in  839.  Wrote  an 
Apology  against  Theodomir,  which  was 
condemned  by  a  council  of  Paris. 

Claudius  Apollinaris  (St.). — Bishop  of 
Hierapolis,  highly  esteemed  by  his  con- 
temporaries on  account  of  his  great  knowl- 
edge and  virtues,  wrote  an  Apology  to  the 
Emperor  Marcus  Aurelius,  which  was 
much  praised  by  St.  Jerome.  He  also 
wrote,  as  we  learn  from  Eusebius,  five 
books  against  the  heathen,  and  two  on 
truth  against  the  Montanists.  All  these 
writings,  however,  with  the  exception  of 
a  few  fragments,  have  been  lost. 

Claver  (Peter).     See  Peter  Clavkr. 

Clemangis  (Nicholas  of).  See  Nich- 
olas. 

Clement. — Heretic ;  a  native  of  Scotland ; 
lived  in  the  eighth  century  and  was  an  epis- 
copus  vagus.  He  was  an  adversary  of  St. 
Bonifice,  apostle  of  Germany.  He  assailed 
some  of  the  teachings  and  practices  of  the 
Church  with  great  vigor  and  pretentious 
display,  but  with  little,  if  any,  real  ability. 
He  objected  to  the  Judaico-theocratic  con- 
stitution of  the  Church,  denied  that  the 
canons  of  councils  and  the  writings  of  the 
Fathers  are  a  safe  rule  of  faith,  and,  drift- 
ing still  further  from  the  true  spirit  of 
Catholic  teaching,  held  erroneous  opinions 
on  some  doctrines  of  the  Church,  such  as 
predestination.  He  also  held  that,  when 
Christ  descended  into  the  regions  of  the 
dead,  He  set  free  all  those  who  had  been 
confined  in  hell,  whether  believers,  infidels, 
or  idolaters.  He  advocated  and  practiced 
lax  principles  of  morality,  rejected  celi- 
bacy, and  continued  to  exercise  episcopal 
functions,  though  living  with  a  concubine, 
by  whom  he  had  two  sons.  He  was  con- 
demned to  a  life  of  confinement,  by  order 
of  the  Synod  of  Rome  (745). 

Clement  (name  of  fourteen  Popes). — 
Clement  I. —  Pope  from  91  to  100.  A  dis- 
ciple and  third  successor  of  St.  Peter.  He 
is  supposed  to  be  the  same  Clement  men- 
tioned by  St.  Paul  (Phil.  iv.  3)  as  one  of 


Clementinae 


Cleobians 


his  fellow-laborers.  By  another  account 
Clement  was  the  immediate  successor  of 
St.  Peter,  St.  Linus  and  St.  Cletus  being 
only  the  Apostle's  vicars  at  Rome  in  his 
absence.  St.  Clement,  in  96,  wrote  an 
Epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  "in  the  name 
of  the  Roman  Church,"  which  for  a  long 
time  continued  to  be  read  in  the  ancient 
Churches.  He  suffered  martyrdom  under 
Trajan,  Clement  II. —  Pope  from  1046  to 
1047.  Formerly  Suidger  of  Bamberg. 
Reigned  only  nine  months.  Clement  III. — 
Pope  from  1187  to  1191.  Was  elected  at 
Pisa  and  entered  Rome  March  13th,  1188. 
He  reconciled  the  Papacy  with  the  Roman 
city,  which  had  for  fifty  years  disputed  its 
authority.  Clement  IV. —  Pope  from  1265 
to  1568.  Clement  V. —  Pope  from  1305  to 
1314.  Formerly  Bertrand  de  Got,  Arch- 
bishop of  Bordeaux ;  was  elected  through 
the  influence  of  the  French  King,  Philip 
the  Fair.  Notwithstanding  the  urgent  in- 
vitations of  the  cardinals,  he  declined  to  live 
in  Rome,  had  the  ceremony  of  his  coro- 
nation performed  at  Lyons,  and  fixed  his 
residence  at  Avignon,  He  absolved  Philip 
from  all  censures,  allowed  him  an  ecclesi- 
astical tithe  for  five  years,  and  created  nine 
French  cardinals.  He  convoked  the  Fifth 
General  Council,  which  opened  at  Vienne, 
in  131 2.  In  the  same  year  he  dissolved 
the  Order  of  the  Templars.  Clement  VI. — 
Pope  from  1342  to  1352.  He  established 
the  Jubilee  for  every  fifty  years,  and  pur- 
chased Avignon  in  1342.  During  his 
Pontificate,  Lola  de  Rienzi  attempted  to 
re-establish  the  republic  at  Rome.  Clem- 
ent VII. —  Pope  from  1523  to  1534.  He  was 
the  posthumous  son  of  Julian  de  Medici,  as- 
sassinated in  the  conjuration  of  the  Pazzi. 
The  legitimacy  of  his  birth,  contested  at 
first,  was  acknowledged  under  Leo  XL  He 
entered  into  a  league  with  France,  England, 
Venetia,  and  other  Italian  States,  against 
the  emperor,  Charles  V.,  of  Spain,  and, 
being  besieged  in  Rome  by  the  imperial 
army  under  the  Constable  de  Bourbon, 
was  compelled  to  capitulate,  Jan.  5th,  1527. 
He  fled  to  Orvieto,  but  concluded  a  peace 
with  Charles  in  1529,  and  crowned  him 
emperor,  at  Bologna,  in  1530.  He  forbade 
(1534)  the  divorce  of  Henry  VIII.  of  Eng- 
land from  Catharine  of  Aragon.  Clement 
VIII.  {Aldobrandini). — Pope  from  1592  to 
1605,  Called  Baronius,  Bellarmin,  and 
other  learned  celebrities  into  the  College 
of  Cardinals,  undertook  the  publication  of 
the  revised  edition  of  the  Vulgate,  and 
appointed  the  so-called  "  Congregation  de 


Auxiliis."  Clement  IX.  {Rospigliosi). — 
Pope  from  1667  to  1669.  Negotiated  the 
Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1668,  restored 
diplomatic  intercourse  between  Portugal 
and  the  Apostolic  See,  and  assisted  the 
Venetians  against  the  Turks.  Clement 
X. —  Pope  from  1670  to  1676.  At  the  re- 
quest of  France,  he  raised  the  Church  of 
Qiiebec  to  a  bishopric.  Clement  XI. — 
Pope  from  1700  to  1721.  A  learned  man, 
and  an  able  prince  of  the  Church ;  had  a 
difficult  Pontificate.  He  was  compelled  to 
place  the  kingdom  of  Sicily  under  inter- 
dict, and  published  bulls  directed  against 
the  Jansenists  :  '*  Vincam  Domini^^  (1705), 
and"  Uniffenitus^'  (1713).  Clement  XII. 
—  Pope  from  1730  to  1740.  Restored  the 
good  understanding  with  Portugal; 
founded  the  Museum  of  Roman  antiquities, 
and  sent  the  learned  Assemani  into  the 
East  to  buy  manuscripts.  This  Pope,  in 
1738,  pronounced  excommunication  on  the 
Order  of  Freemasons.  Clement  XIII. — 
Pope  from  1758  to  1769.  Agitation  against 
the  Jesuits  reached  a  high  pitch  of  excite- 
ment under  the  Pontificate  of  this  Pope. 
Yet  he  firmly  refused  to  accede  to  the  de- 
mands of  Portugal  and  of  the  Bourbon 
courts  for  the  suppression  of  the  oraer. 
Clement  XIII.  conferred  on  the  Empress 
Maria  Theresa  and  her  successors,  the 
title  of  "Apostolic  Majesty"  {Rex  apos- 
iolicus).  Clement  XIV. —  Pope  from  1769 
to  1774.  Had  less  firmness  of  character 
than  his  predecessor,  Clement  XIII.  He 
created  the  brother  of  Pombal,  minister 
of  Portugal,  cardinal ;  abolished  the  prac- 
tice of  annually  reading  the  Bull  "/«  Ccena 
Domini,^'  and  suppressed  the  Order  of  the 
Jesuits. 

Clementinae,     See  Canon  Law. 

Clement  of  Alexandria. — Was  born  at 
Athens  and  was  a  disciple  of  Pantaenus, 
through  whose  influence  he  embraced 
Christianity.  When  Pantaenus  went  as 
missionary  to  India,  in  180,  Clement,  who 
in  the  meantime  had  been  ordained  priest, 
succeeded  his  master  at  the  head  of  the 
Catechetical  School  of  Alexandria.  The 
persecution  under  Severus,  compelled  him 
to  withdraw,  first  to  Cappadocia  and  after- 
wards to  Jerusalem,  where  he  is  said  to 
have  opened  another  school.  Little  is 
known  of  the  later  years  of  his  life.  He 
died  in  217. 

Cleobians. — Members  of  a  Christian  sect 
at  Jerusalem  in  the  apostolic  times.    Their 


Clergy 


189 


Cloister 


chief  was  a  certain  Cleobulus,  or  Clobius, 
Avho  denied  the  authority  of  the  prophets, 
God's  almighty  power,  and  the  resurrec- 
tion. They  attributed  the  creation  of  the 
world  to  an  angel. 

Clergy  and  Laity.-:-The  priesthood  is 
described  in  the  Sacred  Scriptures  as  two- 
fold :  internal  and  external.  The  former 
extends  to  all  the  Faithful,  whom  St.  Peter 
calls  a  "holy  priesthood  to  offer  up 
spiritual  sacrifices,  acceptable  to  God 
through  Jesus  Christ"  (I.  Pet.  ii.  5).  The 
external  priesthood,  however,  does  not 
extend  to  the  great  body  of  the  Faithful, 
but  is  appropriated  to  a  certain  class  of 
persons,  who,  by  the  imposition  of  hands 
and  the  solemn  rite  of  ordination,  "are  set 
apart  for  the  Gospel  of  God,"  and  devoted 
to  some  particular  office  of  the  sacred  min- 
istry. Hence  appears  the  distinction  in 
the  Church  between  teacher  and  people, 
ruler  and  subjects,  clergy  and  laity.  Those 
ecclesiastics  who  filled  the  office  of  the 
priesthood  were,  as  St.  James  says,  called 
"Clergy,"  clerici,  from  klerus  {lot  or  ker- 
itage),  "either  because  they  are  chosen  by 
lot  to  be  the  Lord's,  or  because  the  Lord  is 
their  lot  or  heritage."  This  distinction  was 
clearly  pointed  out  by  our  Lord,  when, 
selecting  His  Apostles  from  the  crowd.  He 
ordained  them  and  authorized  them  to 
teach  all  nations  and  rule  His  Church. 
The  discrimination  between  the  clergy  and 
laity,  therefore  dates  from  the  very  begin- 
ning of  the  Church ;  it  was  strongly  marked 
even  in  the  time  of  the  Apostles,  as  appears 
from  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  (i.  i), 
and  from  the  Acts  (vi.  and  xiii.)  where 
mention  is  made  of  the  election  of  the 
seven  deacons  and  the  appointment  of  Paul 
and  Barnabas,  who  by  order  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  were  set  apart  for  the  ministry  of 
the  Gospel.  The  same  truth  is  manifest 
from  the  fact  that  the  power  of  the  priest- 
hood, ever  since  the  time  of  the  Apostles, 
is  conferred  in  the  Church  by  prayer  and 
the  imposition  of  hands.  St.  Clement  of 
Rome,  speaking  of  this  distinction  between 
the  clergy  and  laity,  says:  "A  bishop  has 
a  particular  charge  laid  upon  him,  and  the 
priest  exercises  functions  special  to  his 
office ;  the  Levite  has  his  own  proper  min- 
istry, but  laymen  are  concerned  only  with 
the  laws  that  pertain  to  their  own  order." 

Next  to  the  bishops  ranked  the  presby- 
ters or  priests,  who  had  the  power  to 
preach,  to  offer  up  the  Holy  Sacrifice,  and 
to  administer  the    sacraments    (excepting 


ordination)  to  the  Faithful.  They  were 
considered  the  bishop's  vicars,  or  assistants, 
and  constituted  his  advisory  council 
(presbyter ium).  After  the  priests  came 
the  deacons,  who  constantly  accompanied 
the  bishop,  attended  him  when  preaching, 
and  assisted  him  at  the  altar  and  in  the 
administration  of  the  sacraments ;  they 
also  administered  Holy  Communion  and 
baptism.  To  the  deacons  was  committed 
the  distribution  of  the  goods  of  the  Church. 
The  office  of  .subdeacons,  who  are  first 
mentioned  by  St.  Cyprian,  was  to  serve 
the  deacons  in  their  sacred  ministrations. 
The  inferior  officers  of  the  Church  were 
the  acolytes,  lectors,  exorcists,  and  ostia- 
ries,  or  porters  (see  these  subjects).  Pope 
Cornelius  enumerates  all  these  grades,  or 
ranks  of  the  hierarchy,  in  his  Letter  to 
Bishop  Fabius  of  Antioch,  stating  "  that 
there  were  at  that  time  (250)  in  Rome  46 
priests,  7  deacons,  and  as  many  sub- 
deacons,  42  acolytes,  52  exorcists,  lectors, 
and  ostiaries."  To  the  deaconesses,  who 
originated  in  the  time  of  the  Apostles 
(Rom.  xvi.  i;  Tim.  v.  9),  was  entrusted 
the  instruction  of  females  and  the  various 
offices  in  connection  with  their  baptism. 
Aged  widows  were  generally  selected  for 
this  office.     See  Order  {Holy). 

Clerks  Regular. — Are  in  general,  those 
ecclesiastics  bound,  by  solemn  profession, 
to  the  rules  of  religious  orders,  in  con- 
tradistinction to  secular  ecclesiastics.  In 
a  more  restricted  sense,  those  ecclesiastics, 
leading  a  life  in  common,  according  to 
the  example  of  the  Clergy  of  St.  Augustine. 
The  discipline  introduced  into  many 
Churches  since  the  twelfth  century,  gave 
rise  to  Canons  Regular.  Since  the  six- 
teenth century,  a  great  many  congrega- 
tions of  Clerks  Regular  have  been  founded  : 
Theatines,  Piarists,  Lazarists,  Mechitar- 
ists,  etc. ;  or  quasi  Clerks  Regular  (less 
austere  in  discipline  and  without  particular 
vows) ;  Oratorians,  Bartholemites,  etc. 

Cletus. —  See  Anacletus. 

Clinic  Baptism,  or  baptism  on  a  sick  bed. 
In  the  early  Church  given  only  to  those  at 
the  point  of  death,  and  hence  were  called 
clinici. 

Cloister  (from  the  Lat.  claustrum,  an 
enclosing  -wall). —  Originally  an  archway 
encircling  a  monastic  establishment,  which 
was  usually  located  in  the  center  of  the 
group  of  buildings.     The  purpose  of  the 


Clovis  and  Clotilda 


190 


Coat 


cloister  was  to  afford  a  place  in  which  the 
monks  could  take  exercise  and  recreation. 
See  MoNASTiciSM. 

Clovis  and  (St.)  Clotilda.— St.  Clotilda 
was  born  about  475,  died  at  Tours,  France, 
545.  Queen  of  the  Franks,  daughter  of  Chil- 
peric,  king  of  the  Burgundians.  Her 
father,  mother,  and  two  brothers,  were 
murdered  by  her  uncle  Gundebald,  joint 
king  of  the  Burgundians,  by  whom  she  was 
educated  in  the  Christian  faith.  She  mar- 
ried (493)  Clovis  I.,  king  "of  the  Franks, 
whose  conversion  from  heathenism  was  ac- 
complished chiefly  through  her  instrumen- 
tality. Clovis,  by  reason  of  his  great  victory 
over  the  Alemanni  at  Zuelpich,  near  Bonn, 
in  496,  was  induced  to  embrace  the  Cath- 
olic faith.  Within  the  same  year,  Clovis, 
true  to  the  vow  which  he  had  made  on  the 
occasion,  was  instructed  in  the  Christian 
religion  by  St.  Vedastus  of  Toul,  and 
baptized  at  Rheims  on  Christmas  day,  by 
St.  Remigius.  With  him  were  baptized 
three  thousand  of  his  followers.  Clovis 
died  in  511. 

Cluny  {Abbey  of).  —  One  of  the  most 
famous  monasteries  of  the  West,  founded 
in  909  by  William  the  Pious,  Duke  of  Ac- 
quitaine,  and  by  Bernon,  its  first  abbot.  St. 
Odon,  successor  of  Bernon,  establshed  in 
his  house  a  reform  of  the  Benedictine  insti- 
tute, which  was  soon  adopted  by  nearly  two 
hundred  abbeys  that  affiliated  themselves 
with  Cluny.  As  a  sign  of  vassalage,  the 
superiors  of  the  latter  took  the  title  of 
simple  Priors.  From  the  Abbey  of  Cluny, 
which,  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries, 
acquired  great  celebrity,  always  flowed 
forth,  as  from  a  fountain,  an  eager  desire 
for  learning  and  literary  pursuits.  It  was 
especially  famous  as  a  center  of  ecclesias- 
tical training.  The  Abbot  Peter  the  Ven- 
erable, contemporary  and  friend  of  St. 
Bernard,  was  recognized  by  two  thousand 
monasteries,  all  dependent  on  the  Abbey 
of  Cluny. 

Coadjutor  Bishop. —  Coadjutors  are 
those  ecclesiastical  officers  who  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  proper  superior  to  assist 
bishops  in  the  administration  of  the  dio- 
cese. Coadjutors,  therefore,  must  be  dis- 
tinguished from  auxiliary  bishops.  The 
latter  assist  bishops  in  the  discharge  of 
the  functions  of  the  episcopal  order;  the 
former  in  the  exercise  of  the  episcopal 
jurisdiction.  By  reason  of  their  duties, 
coadjutors  are  divided  into  two  classes, 
temporal  and  spiritual.    The  latter  are  ap- 


pointed to  assist  the  bishop  in  the  per- 
formance of  his  spiritual  duties,  whether 
of  order  or  jurisdiction,  and  not  unfre- 
quently  also  in  the  management  of  Church 
property.  In  order  to  be  able  to  exercise 
^'■pontificalia,''^  they  are  consecrated  as  titu- 
lar bishops  ;  the  temporal  coadjutors  assist 
only  in  the  administration  of  the  tempor- 
alities of  the  diocese,  and  consequently 
need  not  be  consecrated.  Again,  by  reason 
of  their  tenure  of  office,  they  are  divided 
into  two  classes,  those  who  hold  office  tem- 
porarily,—  until  the  bishop's  death  or  re- 
covery,— and  those  who  hold  office  perma- 
nently, that  is,  who  are  appointed  with  the 
right  of  succession  at  the  death  of  the 
bishop.  The  right  of  appointing  coadjutors, 
belongs  solely  to  the  Holy  See.  In  certain 
exigencies,  however,  x'.^.,  if  the  diocese  be 
at  a  great  distance  from  the  Holy  See,  a 
bishop,  who,  by  reason  of  age  or  infirmity, 
is  unable  to  discharge  his  duties,  may 
himself,  by  virtue  of  papal  authority,  select 
a  temporary  coadjutor,  with  the  advice  and 
consent  of  his  chapter;  and,  in  case  of  the 
insanity  of  the  bishop,  the  chapter  itself,  •' 
provided  two-thirds  of  the  canons  consent, 
may  appoint  such  a  coadjutor ;  but  a  report 
of  the  whole  case  should  be  sent  to  Rome 
as  soon  as  possible.  In  the  United  States, 
when  appointing  coadjutors  to  bishops  or 
archbishops,  with  the  right  of  succession, 
the  rules  laid  down  for  the  appointment 
of  a  bishop  must  be  observed.  Where, 
however,  a  coadjutor  bishop  or  archbishop 
is  to  be  appointed  who  shall  have  the  right 
of  succession,  it  is  sufficient  for  the  bishop, 
who  wishes  the  appointment  of  such  a  co- 
adjutor, to  present  to  the  Holy  See  the 
name  and  credentials  of  the  ecclesiastic 
whom  he  wishes  to  have  appointed. 

Coat  {The  Holy). — The  world-famous 
relic  in  the  cathedral  of  Treves,  is  the 
seamless  coat  of  Christ,  for  which  His 
executioners  cast  lots  at  the  crucifixion 
(Matt,  xxvii.  35).  The  Empress  Helena, 
having  obtained  possession  of  it  in  the  Holy 
Land,  is  said  to  have  given  it  to  the  city  of 
Treves,  where  she  resided  for  a  considerable 
time.  In  1196,  the  coat  was  deposited  in 
the  main  altar.  It  was  exposed  repeatedly 
for  veneration  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
On  account  of  the  disastrous  events  of  the 
time,  it  was  carried  to  Augsburg,  in  1794, 
but  was  brought  back  to  Treves  in  1810. 
A  multitude  of  pilgrims,  numbering  over 
two  hundred  thousand,  visited  Treves  to 
celebrate  this  joyful  restoration.      But  the 


Codex 


191 


Color  of  Vestments 


most  striking  and  successful  exposition 
was  that  of  1844,  when  eleven  bishops  and 
more  than  a  million  of  the  laity  flocked  to 
Treves  from  all  sides  during  the  period 
that  the  holy  coat  was  exhibited.  Its  last 
exhibition  took  place  in  i8qi. 

Codex. — A  name  applied  to  ancient  man- 
uscripts, especially  of  the  classics  or  of  the 
Scriptures.  Of  the  latter  class  the  princi- 
pal are  the  "  Codex  Sinaiticus,"  discov- 
ered in  1844  and  1859  in  the  Monastery  of 
Mount  Sinai  by  Tischendorf,  and  the 
"Codex  Vaticanus,"  both  of  the  fourth 
century;  the  "Codex  Alexandrinus"  and 
the  "Codex  Ephraemi"  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury. 

Ccele-Syria.     See  Syria. 

Ccena  Domini  (/«). — A  celebrated  papal 
Bull ;  is  the  work  of  several  Popes.  Its  first 
composition  dates  from  the  fourteenth 
century.  Pope  Urban  VIII.,  in  1627,  had 
it  revised,  since  which  time  it  has  received 
no  essential  alteration.  It  contains  a  cata- 
logue of  such  crimes  as  subject  the  of- 
fender to  excommunication.  It  especially 
condemns  public  heretics,  schismatics, 
apostates,  falsifiers  of  Pontifical  writings, 
pirates,  etc. ;  those  who  appeal  from  the 
Pope  to  an  ecumenical  council,  or  from 
the  spiritual  to  the  secular  courts;  those 
who  are  robbers  of  Church  property,  or 
who  plunder  pilgrims ;  those  who  assist  the 
enemies  of  religion,  especially  the  Turks, 
with  implements  of  warfare ;  those  who  levy 
unjust  taxes,  etc.  Pope  Pius  V.  (1566-1572), 
the  original  author  of  the  Bull,  decreed  that 
it  should  be  proclaimed  every  year  through- 
out Christendom  on  Holy  Thursday ;  hence 
thename/w  Ccena  Domini.  In  i77oClement 
XIV.  suspended  the  proclamation  of  this 
Bull  and  Pius  IX.  abolished  many  censures 
thereof. 

Ccenobites.     See  Monasticism. 

Collation. — i .  Term  for  the  gift  of  a  bene- 
fice by  a  bishop,  either  as  patron,  or  one 
which  came  to  him  by  lapse.  2.  Also  for 
the  spare  meals  on  days  of  abstinence,  con- 
sisting of  bread  or  fruit,  but  no  meat.  3. 
The  readings  from  the  lives  or  collations 
of  the  Fathers  in  a  monastery  before  Com- 
pline. 

Collect. — Certain  short  prayers  of  com- 
prehensive brevity,  collected  together,  and 
said  in  the  Mass  at  different  times.  See 
Station. 


Colleges.     See  Missions. 

Collegiants. — Members  of  a  sect  founded 
near  Leyden,  Holland,  in  1619,  the  soci- 
eties of  which  are  called  "colleges."  The 
sect  spread  rapidly  in  the  Netherlands,  and 
is  still  maintained  there  and  in  Hanover. 
In  doctrine  and  in  practice  the  Collegiants 
resemble  the  Quakers,  having  no  creed  or 
organized  ministry;  but  they  believe  in  the 
necessity  of  baptism,  which  they  admin- 
ister by  immersion. 

Collegiate  Churches,  in  England.  One 
of  those  churches  which,  while  not  being 
a  cathedral,  nevertheless  possess  a  college 
or  chapter,  consisting  of  a  dean  or  provost 
and  canons,  attached  to  them.  They  date 
from  the  ninth  century,  when  such  foun- 
dations in  large  towns  became  frequent. 
They  are  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
bishop  of  the  diocese  in  which  they  are 
situated,  and  he  exercises  visitorial  powers 
over  them.  Examples  of  such  are  West- 
minster Abbey  and  St.  George's  Chapel, 
Windsor.  In  the  United  States  the  term 
is  applied  to  a  collection  of  churches 
having  their  pastors  in  common,  as  the 
Dutch  Collegiate  Church  of  New  York. 

Collydrians. — An  Arabian  sect  of  the 
fourth  century.  They  worshiped  the 
Blessed  Virgin  as  a  goddess,  offering  sac- 
rifice to  her  in  the  form  of  small  cakes 
{colly  dria). 

Color  of  Vestments. — In  her  vestments 
the  Church  employs  five  different  colors. 
On  the  feasts  of  our  Lord,  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin,  of  the  angels,  and  of  those  saints 
who  were  not  martyrs,  she  makes  use 
of  white,  not  only  to  signify  the  stain- 
less purity  of  the  Lamb  and  of  His  Vir- 
gin Mother,  but  also  to  symbolize  the 
"great  multitude,  which  no  man  could 
number,  of  all  nations,  and  tribes,  and 
peoples,  and  tongues,  standing  before  the 
throne  and  in  sight  of  the  Lamb,  clothed 
with  white  robes"  (Apoc.  vii.  9).  On  the 
feasts  of  Pentecost,  of  the  Finding  and  the 
Exaltation  of  the  Cross,  of  the  Apostles 
and  martyrs,  she  employs  red,  to  signify 
those  fiery  tongues  that  alighted  on  the 
heads  of  the  Apostles  when  the  Holy  Ghost 
rested  visibly  upon  them  and  in  reference 
to  the  effusion  of  blood  by  Christ  and  His 
followers.  On  some  Sundays  (when  the 
office  is  of  the  day)  the  vestments  are  green. 
Purple  is  the  color  assigned  for  the  peni- 
tential times  of  Advent  and  Lent,  for  the 


COLUMBA 


192 


COLUMBANUS 


Ember  days,  and  for  several  vigils  through- 
out the  year;  while  black  is  reserved  for 
the  office  of  Good  Friday  and  Masses  for 
the  dead.  Rose  color  is  used  on  Gaudet 
and  Laetare  Sundays;  and  on  the  fourth 
Sunday  in  Advent,  when  it  falls  on  the 
24th  of  December.  Cloth  of  gold  may  be 
substituted  for  white.  Yellow  {color  flavus) 
and  heavenly  blue  {color  ccBruleus)  are  ex- 
pressly forbidden  (S.  R.  C.  16  Mart.  1833 
in  Veron). 

Columba  or  Columkil  (St.). — Apostle  of 
the  Caledonians  or  Northern  Picts.  This 
remarkable  man,  who  was  a  scion  of  the 
royal  houses  of  Ireland,  was  born  at  Gar- 
tan,  in  the  county  of  Donegal,  Dec. 
7th,  521,  and  was  educated  in  the  famous 
school  of  St.  Finnian  of  Maghbile,  who 
had  himself  studied  at  Rome.  Before 
Columba  had  reached  his  twenty-fifth 
year  he  had  founded  a  great  number  of 
monasteries  in  Ireland,  the  most  cele- 
brated of  which  was  that  of  Derry,  in  his 
own  native  province,  which  was  long  the 
seat  of  a  great  Catholic  bishopric,  and  is 
now  known  under  the  modern  name  of 
Londonderry.  He  had  received  deacon's 
orders  from  St.  Unnian,  and  in  the  year 
550  was  raised  to  the  priesthood,  but  his 
humility  was  such  that  he  would  never 
consent  to  take  upon  him  the  episcopal 
office  and  dignity.  In  the  year  563,  when 
in  the  forty-second  year  of  his  age,  Co- 
lumba set  out  from  his  native  land,  accom- 
panied by  twelve  companions,  and,  in  one 
of  those  large  osier  boats,  covered  with 
hide,  which  the  Celtic  nations  used  for 
purposes  of  navigation,  sailed  to  the  north, 
and  landed  on  the  shores  of  the  island  of 
lona,  or  Hy,  to  which,  in  memory  of  the 
saint,  the  name  of  Hy-Columkil  was  after- 
wards given.  He  and  his  companions  im- 
mediately set  about  building  a  monastery, 
which  was  of  the  rudest  description,  con- 
sisting only  of  a  frame  covered  with  the 
interlaced  branches  of  trees.  It  was  not 
till  some  years  later  that  a  more  substan- 
tial edifice  was  erected,  with  much  danger 
and  labor,  as  the  large  oaks  to  be  used  in 
its  construction  were  brought  across  the 
waters  from  the  neighboring  shores.  Such 
was  the  beginning  of  the  great  monastic 
center  whence  issued  those  devoted  heroes 
who  carried  the  blessing  of  religion  and 
civilization  to  Scotland  and  Great  Britain. 
God  deigned  to  give  the  divine  sanction  to 
the  mission  of  Columba  by  granting  him 
the  grace  of  miracles.     Purity  of  life  and 


humility  were  his  two  distinguishing  vir- 
tues. In  the  year  590,  Columba  returned 
to  Ireland.  In  virtue  of  his  privileges  as 
founder  of  the  Church  in  both  Northern 
and  Southern  Scotland,  he  exercised  eccle- 
siastical jurisdiction  throughout  both  of 
these  countries.  After  a  long  and  labo- 
rious life,  Columba  died  as  he  had  lived. 
After  journeying  over  the  entire  island  and 
taking  a  tender  farewell  of  the  monks  at 
work  in  the  field, and  praying  in  the  cloister, 
he  withdrew  to  his  own  cell,  and,  when  the 
bell  rang  at  midnight  for  matins,  rose  and 
preceded  his  brethren  to  the  Church. 
Here  he  was  found  by  his  faithful  children, 
prostrate  before  the  altar,  and  in  a  dying 
condition.  Raising  his  right  hand,  he 
blessed  the  community,  and  expired,  June 
9.  597-     F.  June  9th. 

Columbanus  (St.). — Irish  monk,  born  in 
545  in  the  province  of  Leinster,  died  in 
615.  Well  educated  in  literary  pursuits, 
he  wished  to  fly  the  temptations  of  the 
world  and  retired  into  the  monastery  of 
Bangor,  then  famous  through  the  zeal  of 
its  monks.  An  inner  voice  moved  him  to 
leave  his  country.  Accompanied  by  twelve 
companions,  he  came  to  Gaul,  preaching 
on  his  route  the  Christian  virtues.  In 
Bourgogne,  King  Gontran  induced  him  to 
settle  in  his  country.  He  gave  him  the 
old  Roman  Castle  of  Annegray,  and  here 
Columbanus  passed  some  years  in  the 
practice  of  austere  penance.  The  number 
of  his  disciples  increased  continually. 
Gontran  offered  to  him  the  ancient  castle  of 
Luxeuil,  at  the  foot  of  the  Vosges,  which 
became  the  center  of  his  order.  After- 
wards he  established  a  third  community 
at  Fontaines.  Labor  alternated  with  prayer 
in  these  pious  asylums  which  the  strong 
hand  of  Columbanus  directed.  Twentj' 
years  he  spent  thus  with  his  religious. 
His  reputation  and  influence  became  very 
great.  However,  he  had  disagreements 
with  the  Gaulish  episcopate,  especially  in 
regard  to  the  feast  of  Easter,  which  he 
always  wished  to  celebrate  according  to 
the  Irish  custom, — the  fourteenth  day  of 
the  moon, — even  when  the  feast  came  on 
Sunday,  instead  of  the  custom  of  the  Latin 
Church  which  celebrated  it  the  Sunday 
after  the  fourteenth  day.  The  favor  which 
Columbanus  enjoyed  was  followed  by 
hatred  and  persecution.  After  the  death 
of  Gontran,  he  was  banished  from  the 
country.  He  was  led  to  Nantes,  and  put  on 
board  a  boat  bound  for  Ireland.     But  land- 


Columbus 


193  Commemoration  IN  Liturgy 


ingon  the  shores  of  the  Rhine,  he  preached 
the  Gospel  to  the  Alemanni  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  lake  of  Zurich,  and  to- 
gether with  his  companion  Gall,  con- 
verted many  idolaters.  Gall  remained 
in  Helvetia  to  continue  his  apostolate, 
while  Columbanus  went  to  Lombardy, 
where  he  founded  the  famous  monastery 
of  Bobbio.  Finally,  Columbanus  retired  to 
a  cave  on  the  shores  of  the  Trebbia,  there 
to  devote  himself  to  the  austerities  of 
penance.  Here  he  died,  leaving  to  his 
religious  a  stricter  rule  than  that  of  St. 
Benedict.  In  ten  chapters  it  prescribed 
perpetual  silence,  complete  abstinence 
from  flesh-meat,  daily  fast,  labor,  reading, 
prayer,  poverty,  humility,  and  chastity. 
The  tenth  chapter,  entitled  ^^Penitenitale,^' 
punished  the  infractions  of  the  rule  with 
200  strokes  of  the  whip,  which  was  the 
maximum.     F.  Nov.  27th. 

Columbus  (Christopher). — Born  at  or 
near  Genoa,  Italy,  probably  in  1446;  died 
at  Valladolid,  Spain,  May  20th  or  21st, 
1506.  The  discoverer  of  America.  His 
parents  were  wool-combers.  He  was 
educated  at  Pavia,  and  after  many  years  of 
seafaring  life,  settled  at  Lisbon  in  1470  as 
a  maker  and  seller  of  maps.  Becoming 
convinced  of  the  existence  of  land  beyond 
the  Atlantic,  he  vainly  sought  assistance 
from  Portugal  and  England,  but  finally 
set  sail  from  Palos  with  three  ships  under 
the  auspices  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella, 
king  and  queen  of  Spain,  and  after  two 
months  of  despair  and  mutiny  on  the  part 
of  the  sailors,  on  October  12th,  1492, 
sighted  Guanahani,  or  San  Salvador,  one 
of  the  Bahama  islands.  Sailing  on,  he 
discovered  several  of  the  West  India 
islands,  including  Hispaniola  (St.  Dom- 
ingo), where  he  founded  a  colony.  On 
his  return  he  was  received  with  honor  at 
the  courts  of  Portugal  and  Spain.  He 
made  several  other  voyages  of  discovery, 
but  through  the  calumnies  of  his  enemies 
was  deprived  of  the  government  of 
Hispaniola  and  sent  back  to  Spain  in 
chains.  He  died  in  poverty  at  Valla- 
dolid. 

The  providential  discovery  of  America 
obtained  for  Columbus  the  title  of  Am- 
bassador of  God.  His  mission,  virtues, 
and  the  services  which  he  rendered  to  the 
Church  and  the  world,  and  other  facts 
about  which  religious  authority  has  not 
yet  pronounced  itself,  have  caused  to  be 
introduced  at  the   court   of    Rome  (as  an 

13 


extraordinary   and    exceptional   case)    his 
process  of  Beatification. 

Commandments. — The  Commandments 
of  the  Christian  religion  were  taken  from 
the  Mosaic  religion,  with  modifications 
made  by  the  divine  authority  of  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ  and  of  His  Church.  They 
are  laws  expressing  the  will  of  our  Creator, 
and  are  imposed  by  Him  on  all  men 
throughout  the  universe.  They  are  the 
twofold  fundamental  precepts  of  God ;  the 
development  of  the  great  law  of  Charity. 
They  are  obligatory,  general,  just,  useful, 
permanent,  legitimate,  and  promulgated 
for  the  well-being  of  our  transitory  exist- 
ence in  this  world  with  a  view  to  our  ulti- 
mate salvation.  Therefore,  the  violation 
of  one  commandment  may  involve  for- 
feiture of  attainment  of  eternal  happiness, 
for  it  is  written,  "  Whosoever  shall  keep 
the  whole  law,  but  offend  in  one  point,  is 
become  guilty  of  all  "  (James  ii.  10).  The 
Commandments  of  God  are  called  the 
Decalogue,  which  is  a  word  derived  from 
the  Greek,  meaning  ten  words;  they  are 
also  called  the  Tables  of  the  Law,  because 
God  gave  them  to  Moses  on  Mount  Sinai, 
engraved  on  two  tables  of  stone.  The  first 
three  concern  our  duties  toward  God,  and 
the  seven  others  our  duty  toward  our 
neighbor;  and  they  were  ratified  by  our 
Lord  when  He  said,  "  On  these  two  com- 
mandments dependeth  the  whole  law  and 
the  prophets"  (Matt.  xxii.  40).  All  Chris- 
tians, having  reached  the  age  of  reason,  are 
required  to  know  the  words  of  the  Deca- 
logue, and  the  meaning  of  the  Command- 
ments, at  least  as  to  substance.  Among 
other  ecclesiastical  lawsof  various  descrip- 
tions regarding  hierarchical  superiors, 
parish  priests,  religious  orders,  etc.,  cer- 
tain commandments  have  been  constituted 
by  the  legislative  power  of  the  Church, 
through  the  divine  authority  of  govern- 
ment and  teaching  established  by  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  when  He  said,  '*  Whatsoever 
thou  shalt  bind  upon  earth,  it  shall  be 
bound  also  in  heaven ;  and  whatsoever  thou 
shalt  loose  upon  earth,  it  shall  be  loosed 
also  in  heaven"  (Matt.  xvi.  19;  xviii.  18). 
These  commandments  are  for  the  direction 
of  all  the  members  of  the  Church,  and 
to  help  us  in  the  better  accomplishment  of 
the  Commandments  of  God  and  the  maxims 
of  the  Gospel.  For  the  Commandments  of 
God  and  of  the  Church,  see  Decalogue. 

Commemoration  in  Liturgy. — The  men- 
tion which  the  Church  makes  of  a  saint. 


COMMODIANUS 


194 


Communion 


whose  proper  office  cannot  be  celebrated, 
because  there  is  a  more  important  feast  on 
that  day.  The  commemoration  consists  of 
a  Collect,  Secret,  and  Post-Communion, 
at  Mass,  and  in  an  Antiphon,  verse,  and 
oration,  at  Lauds  and  Vespers.  We  make 
also  a  commemoration  of  the  octaves  of 
the  major  feasts.  By  commemoration  is 
also  meant  the  remembrance  in  prayer  of 
the  living  and  the  dead.  In  the  Canon  of 
the  Mass  before  the  Consecration,  there 
is  a  commemoration  for  the  living,  and 
later  on  in  the  service  another  for  the 
dead. 

Commodianus. — Christian  poet  of  an  un- 
certain period,  probably  of  the  third  cen- 
tury, very  possibly  a  native  of  Gaza,  in 
Africa.  Commodianus  is  the  author  of  two 
important  poems  for  the  history  of  the 
Latin  language  and  Latin  meter.  In- 
structiones  adxersus  Gentium  Deos,  pro 
Christiana  disciflina,  and  Carmen  Apolo- 
geticum  adversus  yud(Bos  et  Gentcs.  The 
Instructions  are  contained  in  Migne's 
Patrology.  The  Apology  (of  1,020  verses 
in  47  sections)  was  published  for  the  first 
time  in  1852,  in  the  Spicilegium  Solis- 
mense  of  Dom  Pitra  (vol.  I). 

Communion  {Eucharistic)  (the  receiv- 
ing of  the  Blessed  Eucharist). — The  re- 
ceiving of  Communion  is  obligatory  for  all 
members  of  Christ's  Church  who  have  at- 
tained an  age  when  they  fully  possess  the 
requisite  qualifications  alluded  to  in  the 
fourth  commandment  of  the  Church  to  '•  re- 
ceive communion  annually,  at  Easter  or 
thereabouts."  Wilful  disregard  of  this 
commandment  is  a  mortal  sin.  It  was  our 
Lord  Himself  who  established  communion 
as  a  means  necessary  for  our  salvation, 
when  he  said  :  "  Except  you  eat  the  flesh 
of  the  Son  of  Man,  and  drink  his  blood, 
you  shall  not  have  life  in  you  "  (John  vi. 
54).  Communion  is  obligatory  on  mem- 
bers of  the  Church  who  have  attained  the 
age  of  twelve  years,  according  to  St.  Al- 
phonsus ;  though  they  may  be  admitted 
earlier,  and  as  soon  as  they  can  "  discern 
the  body  of  our  Lord,"  that  is,  are  capable 
of  understanding  the  importance  and  so- 
lemnity of  the  act,  and  of  appreciating  the 
requisite  dispositions  of  respect  and  hu- 
mility with  which  all  should  approach  the 
Blessed  Sacrament.  "  Whosoever  shall 
eat  this  bread,  or  drink  the  chalice  of  the 
Lord  unworthily,  shall  be  guilty  of  the 
body  and  the  blood  of  the  Lord  "  (I.  Cor. 
xi.   27,   28,   29).     Therefore,    "let  a   man 


prove  himself,  and  so  let  him  eat  of  that 
bread." 

Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  said :  "  Unless 
you  eat  the  flesh  of  the  Son  of  Man  and 
drink  His  blood,  you  shall  not  have  life  in 
you"  (John  vi.  54).  Therefore,  we  can 
scarcely  accomplish  this  divine  precept 
unless  by  receiving  holy  Communion  at 
least  once  a  year;  and,  indeed,  how  can 
we  expect  to  be  received  by  our  Saviour 
into  the  eternal  happiness  of  heaven,  if  we 
give  ourselves  so  little  trouble  to  receive 
Him  here  on  earth,  and  with  Him,  His 
promise  and  pledge  of  that  everlasting 
life?  The  partaking  of  the  holy  commun- 
ion at  Easter  is  an  obligation  inseparable 
from  the  commemoration  of  the  institution 
of  the  most  Blessed  Sacrament  by  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ;  and  to  impress  us  with  a  vivid 
remembrance  of  our  Saviour's  passion 
and  death,  of  which  the  Holy  Eucharist  is 
the  perpetual  and  living  memorial,  accord- 
ing to  Christ's  own  words  as  given  to  us 
by  St.  Paul :  "As  often  as  you  shall  eat 
this  bread,  and  drink  the  chalice,  you  shall 
show  the  death  of  the  Lord,  until  He 
come"  (I.  Cor.  xi.  26).  It  is  desirable, 
but  not  obligatory,  that  the  Easter  Com- 
munion should  be  received  in  the  Church 
of  the  parish  to  which  we  belong,  for,  by 
doing  this,  we  can  ofTer  good  example, 
one  to  another;  we  strengthen  the  union 
that  should  exist  between  ourselves  and 
the  minister  of  Christ  under  whose  super- 
vision we  are  placed,  by  public  acknowl- 
edgment of  his  authority;  and  enable  him 
to  recognize  those  who  have  acquitted 
themselves  of  their  duty,  that  he  may 
strive  to  bring  defaulters  to  repentance. 

As  the  Holy  Eucharist  is  a  sacrament  of 
the  living,  the  necessary  dispositions  for 
rightly  receiving  communion,  consist  in 
being  in  a  state  of  grace,  that  is,  con- 
scious of  being  entirely  free  from  mortal 
sin.  Otherwise  we  should  commit  a  sac- 
rilege, and  expose  ourselves  to  severe 
spiritual  and  temporal  physical  punish- 
ments. For,  according  to  the  words  of 
St.  Paul :  "Whosoever  shall  eat  this  bread, 
or  drink  the  chalice  of  the  Lord,  unworth- 
ily, shall  be  guilty  of  the  body  and  blood 
of  the  Lord  .  .  .  For  he  that  eateth 
and  d  r  i  n  k  e  t  h  unworthily,  eateth  and 
drinketh  judgment  to  himself,  not  discern- 
ing the  body  of  the  Lord"  (I.  Cor.  xi.  27, 
29).  Dispositions  not  strictly  obligatory, 
but  nevertheless  most  expedient,  are  the 
purifying  of  the  soul  from  venial  sins  with 
a  strong  desire  to  avoid  falling  into  temp- 


Communion 


195 


Communion 


tation,  and  the  making  serious  effort  to 
correct  ourselves  of  faults  displeasing  to 
God,  and  to  adorn  our  souls  with  holy 
thoughts,  firm  resolves  of  good,  and  the 
meritorious  actions  performed  in  the 
strength  of  faith,  the  confidence  of  hope, 
the  generous  love  of  charity,  as  well  as 
other  virtues  springing  from  these  three 
theological  virtues.  As  to  the  requisite  dis- 
positions of  our  bodies,  it  is  absolutely 
essential  that  we  should  be  fasting  from 
midnight,  scrupulously  avoiding  anything 
whatsoever  to  eat  or  drink,  either  by  inten- 
tion or  inadvertence ;  leaving  no  possible 
chance  of  violating  the  precept,  not  to 
swallow  any  substance  that  has  entered 
the  mouth  from  without.  Our  outward 
behavior  should  be  such  as  is  suitable, 
and  should  be  eminently  consistent  with 
reserve,  propriety,  modesty,  and  purity, 
both  in  our  attire  and  deportment.  We 
should  approach  the  altar-rail  with  the 
utmost  gravity  of  demeanor,  receiving 
the  Holy  Host  from  the  hand  of  the 
priest,  without  unnecessary  contact  with 
the  lips  or  teeth,  and  retiring,  without  pre- 
cipitation, to  quiet  meditation,  adoration, 
and  other  prayer,  in  which  we  should  spend 
some  length  of  time,  say,  a  quarter  of  an 
hour.  For  what  moment  can  be  so  pro- 
pititious  for  the  supplications  we  have  to 
make,  and  for  offering  grateful  recognition 
of  the  favors  we  have  received,  as  when  we 
are,  temporarily,  the  living  tabernacle  of 
our  Lord  Jesus  Christ?  We  should  ex- 
press to  Him  the  worship  and  gratitude  of 
our  whole  hearts,  imploring  aid  for  our 
own  spiritual  and  temporal  needs,  for  those 
of  the  living  and  the  dead  who  share  our 
prayers,  and  for  all  the  Faithful  of  Holy 
Church ;  making  good  resolutions  for  our 
future  conduct,  and  asking  help  of  grace 
in  the  accomplishment  of  our  desires  and 
resolves.  It  is  furthermore  well  to  keep, 
throughout  the  day,  a  devout  remembrance 
of  the  inestimable  favor  received,  and 
even  a  pious  recollection  of  our  First  Com- 
munion. 

Communion  {Liturgical).  See  Post- 
Communion. 

Communion  of  Saints. — By  "Commun- 
ion of  Saints"  is  understood  the  belief  in 
the  communication  of  spiritual  goods  be- 
tween the  members  of  the  Church  here 
upon  earth,  those  in  purgatory,  and  those 
in  heaven,  all  of  whom  form  one  body : 
"  For  the  body  also  is  not  one  member,  but 
many.     If  the  foot  should  say,  because  I  am 


not  the  head,  I  am  not  of  the  body ;  is  it 
therefore  not  of  the  body?"  (I.  Cor.  14- 
15.)  "  For  as  in  one  body  we  have  many 
members,  but  all  the  members  have  not 
the  same  office;  so  we,  being  many,  are  one 
in  Christ,  and  every  one  members,  one  of 
another"  (Rom.  xii.  4-5).     See  Saints. 

Communion  under   Both   Kinds. — The 

disciplinary  regulations  of  the  Western 
Church  at  the  present  day  forbid  the 
Faithful  to  receive  the  Holy  Eucharist 
under  the  form  of  wine,  except  in  the  case 
of  the  priest  who  is  saying  Mass.  All  the 
sects  which  arose  out  of  the  Protestant 
Reformation,  allow  all  who  share  in  their 
eucharistic  rites  to  receive  the  cup,  and 
even  in  the  fifteenth  century  the  obligation 
of  receiving  communion  under  both  forms 
was  urged  by  John  Huss  and  his  Bohemian 
followers.  They  received  the  name  of 
Utraquists,  from  the  Latin  word  uterque, 
signifying  both.  The  point  has,  in  fact, 
for  nearly  five  centuries,  been  a  test  ques- 
tion between  the  Catholic  Church  and  her 
heretical  opponents. 

It  is  a  curious  fact  that  in  the  fifth 
century  it  was  a  badge  of  heresy  in  a  lay- 
man to  refuse  to  partake  of  the  Eucharistic 
chalice.  Some  sects  of  the  Manicheans 
held  that  wine  was  created  by  an  evil  being 
and  not  by  God ;  in  consequence,  they 
refused  to  taste  it,  and  extended  their  ob- 
jection even  to  the  Precious  Blood  under 
the  form  of  wine.  These  heretics,  never- 
theless, desired  to  be  reputed  as  belonging 
to  the  Catholics,  whose  assemblies  they  fre- 
quented ;  and  St.  Leo  bade  the  Faithful  to 
observe  if  there  were  any  who  habitually 
communicated  under  the  form  of  bread 
alone.  (Serm.  42.)  This  abstinence  from 
the  cup  would  betray  the  lurking  Mani- 
chean.  It  seems  clear  from  this  anecdote, 
that  in  the  days  of  St.  Leo,  the  Faithful 
were  at  liberty  to  receive  communion 
in  their  public  assemblies,  in  the  form  of 
bread  and  wine,  or  with  but  one  of  those 
forms,  as  they  preferred ;  in  earlier  times 
communion  under  the  form  of  bread  alone 
was  certainly  held  to  be  valid,  for  we  read 
stories  of  the  Sacred  Host  being  carried  to 
confessors  of  the  faith  in  prison,  which 
could  not  be  done  with  the  wine.  After- 
wards, the  mode  of  communicating  con- 
tinued to  be  optional,  but  the  superior 
convenience  of  receiving  the  sacred  em- 
blem under  the  form  of  bread  alone  caused 
this  mode  to  prevail  exclusively,  although 
not  enjoined  by  any   express    law.      This 


Communism 


196 


CONCURSUS 


practice  prevailed  in  England  as  early  as 
616,  and  it  was  fully  established  through- 
out the  West  by  the  end  of  the  twelfth 
century,  although  it  was  a  custom  long 
after,  to  give  to  each  communicant  an 
ablution  of  unconsecrated  wine,  to  assist 
him  in  swallowing  the  Host.  The  fif- 
teenth century  saw  the  rise  of  the  Hussite 
heresy,  which,  among  other  things,  taught 
that  partaking  under  both  emblems  was  a 
divine  ordinance.  In  opposition  to  this 
error,  the  Council  of  Constance,  in  1418, 
passed  a  decree  establishing  the  present 
law.  This  was  a  disciplinary  enactment. 
The  doctrine  that  there  is  no  divine  com- 
mand for  receiving  communion  under 
both  sacred  emblems,  was  declared  to  be 
of  faith  by  the  Council  of  Trent. 

Communism.     See  Property. 

Competentes.      See  Catechumenatb. 

Compline.     See  Breviary. 

Concanen  (Richard  Luke). —  Ameri- 
can prelate;  was  a  native  of  Ireland,  died 
in  Naples,  Italy.  Entered  the  Order  of 
St.  Dominic  in  the  convent  of  the  Holy 
Cross  in  Lorraine.  Became  distinguished 
for  his  learning  and  virtue,  and  after  his 
ordination  was  Prior  of  the  Irish  Domin- 
icans in  Lisbon  and  at  Rome.  At  the  re- 
quest of  Bishop  Carroll,  he  was  appointed 
bishop  for  the  newly  erected  see  of  New 
York,  in  1808.  The  French,  however, 
then  had  full  sway  in  Italy,  and  all  British 
subjects  were  liable  to  arrest.  In  vain  did 
he  try  to  obtain  passage  to  America.  The 
anxiety  and  difficulty  brought  on  a  danger- 
ous illness,  and  Bishop  Concanen  closed 
his  edifying  life  in  the  great  convent  of  St. 
Dominic  in  Naples. 

Conception  {Immaculate).  See  Immac- 
ulate Conception. 

Conceptualism. — Philosophical  system. 
The  adherents  (Conceptualists)  of  this 
system  drew  a  distinction  between  objec- 
tive reality,  intellectual  conception,  and 
the  word  expressing  the  idea  formed  by 
the  mind.  They  held  that  as  the  intellect 
could  not  adequately  comprehend  all  the 
component  parts  of  an  object,  so  neither 
could  language  adequately  express  them, 
and  that  the  intellectual  comprehension 
held  a  place  midway  between  an  object 
and  the  word  by  which  it  was  designated. 
Abelard,  it  appears,  was  the  author  of 
Conceptualism. 


Conclave.     See  Pope  (Election  of  the). 

ConcoTaitaince(Sacramental). — Doctrine 
of  the  Catholic  Church,  as  established  by 
the  Council  of  Trent,  that  the  Body  and 
Blood  of  Christ  are  given  either  under  the 
form  of  bread  or  under  that  of  wine ; 
hence  that  Christ  is  received  whole  and 
entire  when  received  under  the  species  of 
bread  alone  or  wine  alone. 

Concordance  (from  the  Lat.  concordare, 
to  agree). — .Denotes  a  collection  of  pas- 
sages which  in  some  respects  agree  with 
one  another.  Such  collections  can,  of 
course,  be  made  from  the  works  of  any 
author.  But  the  idea  originated  from  the 
study  of  the  Bible,  and  developed  gradually 
with  the  increasing  demands  of  that  study. 
The  very  first  work  of  the  kind  was  the 
Concordantia  S.  yacobi,  made  in  Latin 
upon  the  Vulgate  by  Cardinal  Hugo  de  S. 
Caro,  in  1244,  and  named  after  its  place  of 
preparation,  the  convent  of  St.  Jacques,  in 
Paris.  There  now  exist  complete  Hebrew 
concordances  to  the  Old  Testament,  Greek 
to  the  New  Testament,  and  French,  Ger- 
man, English,  etc.,  to  the  respective  trans- 
lations oif  the  whole  Bible. 

Concordats. — A  concordat  is  in  the  na- 
ture of  a  treaty  between  the  sovereign  Pon- 
tiff as  supreme  governor  of  the  Catholic 
Church  and  the  head  of  a  State,  whereby, 
in  consideration  of  certain  undertakings  on 
the  part  of  a  civil  ruler,  the  Pope  expresses 
himself  content  to  abstain  from  urging,  for 
the  present,  certain  rights  to  which  he  is 
entitled ;  with  the  result,  that  all  Catholics 
may,  with  a  safe  conscience,  act  in  accord- 
ance with  the  concordat.  The  real  effect 
of  a  concordat,  according  to  the  intention 
of  the  Pontiff,  is  often  wider  than  the 
words ;  and  if  any  doubt  arises  concerning 
the  binding  effect  of  the  Canon  Law  in  any 
country,  it  must  be  solved  by  application 
to  the  bishop,  who  if  he  sees  fit,  will  obtain 
instructions  from  Rome.  It  is  a  settled 
doctrine  of  Catholic  canonists  that  the 
Pope  never  absolutely  cedes  purely  spirit- 
ual powers.  Thus,  in  the  presentation  to 
bishoprics,  while  a  king  might  nominate 
or  elect,  the  Pope  always  reserved  to  him- 
self the  power  of  "canonical  institution." 

Concupiscence.     See  Sin  (Original). 

Concursus. — An  examination  into  the 
qualifications  of  candidates  for  ecclesiasti- 
cal benefices  with  cure  of  souls.  The  Coun- 
cil of  Trent,  desirous  that  parishes  should 


CONDIGNITY,  CONGRUITY 


197 


Confession 


be  provided  with  worthy  and  competent 
pastors,  ordained  that  appointments  to  par- 
ishes must  be  made  by  concursus  or  compet- 
itive examination.  Hence,  it  ordained 
that  when  a  parish  becomes  vacant,  the 
bishops  shall  fix  a  day  for  the  competitive 
examination.  On  the  day  appointed,  all 
those  whose  names  have  been  entered  for 
examination  shall  be  examined  by  the 
bishop  or  his  vicar-general,  and  by  at 
least  three  synodal  examiners.  The  vacant 
parish  can  be  conferred  by  the  bishop  only 
on  one  of  those  who  have  successfully 
passed  the  examination.  If  several  have 
been  approved  or  passed  by  the  exami- 
nation, the  bishop  must  confer  the  parish 
on  the  one  who  is  the  senior  or  most 
worthy  among  them.  All  appointments 
made  contrary  to  these  prescriptions,  are 
irregular,  and  are,  therefore,  null  and 
void. 

This  is  the  general  rule.  However,  there 
are  exceptions,  partly  indicated  by  custom, 
and  partly  sanctioned  by  the  Holy  See. 
Thus,  no  concursus  is  required:  1.  In  the 
appointment  of  rectors  or  parish  priests 
ad  nutum  amovibtles;  for  the  Council  of 
Trent  speaks  merely  of  beneficia  curata 
which  are  perpetual,  that  is,  those  parishes 
which  have  irremovable  rectors.  2.  Nor 
in  appointments  to  parishes  whose  rev- 
enues are  so  small  as  not  to  admit  of  the 
trouble  of  such  examination.  3.  Nor  if 
there  be  danger  of  grievous  quarrels  and 
tumults  resulting  from  the  concursus.  4. 
Nor  in  the  appointment  of  vicars  of  par- 
ishes united  to  monasteries,  chapters,  and 
the  like.    See  Rector. 

Condignity,  Congruity . — T  h  e  o  1  og  i  ca  1 

terms,  having  reference  to  meritorious 
works.  Theologians  distinguish  two  kinds 
of  merit  pleasing  to  God, —  merit,  strictly 
so  called  {de  condiffno),  which  rests  upon 
the  performance  of  the  action ;  and  merit 
of  a  wider  sense  {de  cong-ruo),  which  is 
not  grounded  on  justice,  but  on  a  certain 
fitness.     See  Merit;  Grace. 

Conferences. — Reunions  of  priests  of  a 
certain  district,  ordained  by  the  bishop, 
who  determines  their  programme,  in  order 
to  preserve  and  increase  in  the  clergy  the 
necessary  knowledge  for  the  exercise  of 
their  ministry.  It  was  only  after  the  Coun- 
cil of  Trent,  that  St.  Charles  Borromeo 
regulated  the  Conferences  in  their  actual 
form.  The  Third  Plenary  Council  of  Balti- 
more also  prescribes  them  for  the  clergy 
of  the  United  States. 


Confession,  as  part  of  the  sacrament  of 
penance,  is  the  self-accusation,  made  to  a 
duly  authorized  priest,  of  all  grievous  sins 
committed  after  baptism,  or  since  the  last 
confession.  Our  Lord  instituted  Confession 
when  He  gave  power  to  His  Apostles  to 
remit  sin.  The  necessity  of  confession, 
being  implicitly  included  in  the  words: 
"Whose  sins  you  shall  forgive,  they  are 
forgiven  them ;  and  whose  sins  you  shall 
retain,  they  are  retained"  (John  xx.  23). 
The  priest,  acting  in  God's  name,  can  only 
judge  from  what  the  penitent  makes  known 
to  him,  whether  a  sinner  is  worthy  or  un- 
worthy of  absolution,  and  can  forgive  or 
retain  only  those  sins  of  which  he  is  given 
full  knowledge.  Therefore,  he  cannot  ful- 
fill his  office,  except  through  the  means  of 
the  penitent's  self-accusation  in  confession. 

In  the  Catholic  Church,  it  has  always 
been  understood  that  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ 
Himself,  instituted  Confession  for  the  re- 
mission or  retention  of  sins,  through  the 
instrumentality  of  His  ministers.  It  is 
evident,  that  through  so  many  ages,  this 
practice,  so  naturally  repugnant  to  human 
sensibilities,  would  not  have  been  followed, 
had  it  not  been  certainly  instituted  by  our 
Saviour,  who,  in  His  infinite  goodness, 
gave  us  this  means  of  healing  the  wounds 
of  venial  sin  and  of  curing  the  more  ma- 
lignant injury  of  mortal  sin.  Confession 
is,  according  to  the  regulations  of  the 
Church,  strictly  obligatory  once  a  year, 
and  before  receiving  any  sacrament  of  "the 
living,"  when  one  has  had  the  misfortune 
to  commit  a  mortal  sin.  It  is  more  in  ac- 
cordance, however,  with  the  spirit  of  the 
Church's  teaching  to  confess  any  mortal 
sin  without  delay,  that  by  so  doing  we  neg- 
lect not  an  indispensable  means  of  salvation 
and  voluntarily  risk  death,  while  a  crime, 
rendering  us  an  enemy  of  God,  is  upon  our 
conscience.  "The  beginning  of  the  pride 
of  man,  is  to  fall  from  God  "  (Ecclus.  x.  14), 
and  confession  humbles  that  pride  which 
"is  the  beginning  of  all  sins  "(Ecclus.  x.  15). 
Humility  before  God  in  the  self-accusation 
of  our  sins  to  a  minister  of  Christ's  Church 
brings  honor  to  the  soul ;  for  an  humble 
avowal  of  sin,  and  sincere  repentance  is 
always  deserving  of  a  sentiment  of  esteem 
for  the  penitent  sinner.  "Before  destruc- 
tion, the  heart  of  man  is  exalted  ;  and  before 
he  be  glorified,  it  is  humbled"  (Prov.  xviii. 
12).  Confession  improves  the  character, 
redoubles  our  energy  in  the  correction 
of  our  faults,  and  saves  us  from  the 
shame  of  acknowledging  our  weakness  by 


Confession 


198 


Confirmation 


falling  anew  into  the  same  sin ;  and  that  we 
may  persevere  in  a  state  of  grace,  and  begin 
new  life  in  peace  with  God  and  man.  It 
comforts  the  heart,  soothes  the  conscience, 
infuses  new  hope,  and  lightens  the  burdens 
of  sin  that  weighed  down  our  souls  and 
rendered  us  more  ready  to  yield  to  fresh 
temptations.  The  confessor  instructs  us 
in  our  ignorance;  enlightens  us  in  our 
doubts,  scruples,  or  illusions;  calms  our 
remorse  or  desolation ;  counsels  us  in  temp- 
tation or  apprehension  of  danger;  encour- 
ages us  to  bear  our  trials  with  patience,  and 
with  willingness  to  incur  sacrifices  that 
insure  our  sanctification  and  eternal  sal- 
vation. 

A  sincere  confession  should  be  marked 
with  completeness,  humility,  prudence, 
and  simplicity.  Confession  is  marked  with 
completeness  when  the  penitent  confesses 
at  least  all  grievous  sins  which  he  remem- 
bers, together  with  their  number  and  the 
necessary  circumstances.  With  humility, 
that  is,  the  penitent  ougTit  to  be  humble 
in  his  exterior ;  ought  to  appear  at  the  con- 
fessional with  plain  and  modest  dress, 
kneeling  as  criminal  and  suppliant,  with- 
out arms,  without  gloves,  without  gaudy 
finery.  With  prudence,  that  is,  confession 
must  be  made  in  terms  as  respectful  and 
pure  as  the  subject  admits  of.  With 
simplicity,  that  is,  the  penitent  ought  to 
declare  his  sins  without  exaggerating  them, 
modifying  or  excusing  them,  but  in  plain 
language,  unadulterated  with  purposeless 
and  profuse  phrases,  and  without  the  ob- 
scurity of  meaning  that  often  leads  us, 
though  not  intentionally,  to  a  misrepresen- 
tation of  facts  we  desire  to  communicate, 
thereby  deceiving  the  confessor  in  his 
judgment  of  us,  whether  favorable  or  un- 
favorable. 

A  worthy  confession  must  be  especially 
marked  with  contrition.     See  Penance. 

Confession  (the  tomb  of  a  martyr  or  con- 
fessor).— In  the  early  Church  if  an  altar  was 
erected  over  the  grave  of  a  martyr  or  confes- 
sor, the  name  was  extended  also  to  the  altar 
and  to  the  subterranean  chamber  in  which  it 
stood.  In  later  times,  a  basilica  was  some- 
times erected  over  the  chamber ;  the  high 
altar  was  placed  over  the  altar  on  the  tomb 
below,  and  so  this  high  altar  also,  and  sub- 
sequently the  entire  building,  was  called 
Confession.  Several  of  such  Confessions 
may  be  seen  in  European  countries,  espe- 
cially in  Rome,  of  which  the  most  famous 
is  that  of  St.  Peter  in  the  Vatican  basilica. 


Confessional. — The  place  where  the 
priest  hears  confessions.  Originall}-  this 
was  an  open  chair,  upon  which  the  priest 
sat  to  hear  the  confession  of  the  penitent 
who  was  kneeling  before  him.  This  cus- 
tom still  exists  in  certain  religious  com- 
munities. In  monasteries  of  women,  there 
is  often  a  special  room  in  which  to  hear 
confession.  This  is  so  arranged  that,  while 
the  confessor  is  sitting  in  the  confessional 
of  the  church,  the  religious  may  make  her 
confession  to  him  from  this  room,  a  closely 
grated  opening  serving  for  the  communi- 
cation of  the  word.  The  Monastery  of 
Martorana,  at  Palermo,  affords  an  example 
of  this  arrangement.  It  was  only  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  that  the  custom  was  in- 
troduced, according  to  the  ordinances  of 
councils,  of  placing  between  the  chair  of  the 
confessor  and  the  penitent  a  grated  sepa- 
ration, which  became  the  origin  of  the 
actual  confessional.  Shortly  the  priest  was 
sitting  between  a  double  partition,  which 
generally  was  left  open ;  and  later  on  this 
was  covered  by  a  movable  veil.  The  most 
remarkable  sculptured  confessionals  are 
found  in  Belgium. 

Confession  of  Augsburg.  See  Augs- 
burg. 

Confessor.  —  i.  One  who  hears  con- 
fessions; specifically  an  approved  priest 
who  has  received  jurisdiction  from  the 
bishop  to  hear  confession  and  grant  abso- 
lution; distinctively,  as  a  title  of  office,  a 
priest  employed  as  a  private  spiritual  di- 
rector, as  of  a  king  or  other  great  person- 
age. Formerly,  at  European  courts,  the 
office  of  confessor  was  a  very  important 
one,  giving  its  incumbent  great  privileges 
and  influence,  and  often  great  power 
politically. —  2.  One  who  makes  a  pro- 
fession of  his  faith  in  the  Christian  re- 
ligion; specifically,  one  who  avows  his 
religion  in  the  face  of  danger,  and  adheres 
to  it  in  spite  of  persecution  and  torture. 
It  was  formerly  used  as  synonymous  with 
martyr.  Afterwards  it  was  applied  to 
those  who,  having  been  persecuted  and 
tormented,  were  permitted  to  die  in  peace; 
and  it  was  used  also  for  such  Christians  as 
lived  a  good  life  and  died  with  the  repu- 
tation of  sanctity,  as  Edward  the  Con- 
fessor. 

Confirmation. — A  sacrament,  instituted 
by  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  which  com- 
municates to  us  the  plenitude  of  the  gifts 
of    the   Holy  Ghost,   renders    us  perfect 


CONFITEOR 


199 


Confraternities 


Christians  and  soldiers  of  Jesus  Christ, 
and  gives  us  strength  to  confess  the  faith, 
even  at  the  peril  of  our  lives.  This  sacra- 
ment was  conferred  upon  the  first  converts 
to  Christianity  immediately  after  baptism, 
but  it  was  always  held  to  be  a  sacra- 
ment different  from  baptism.  It  is  of 
faith  that  confirmatjon  is  a  true  sacrament, 
instituted  by  Jesus  Christ.  The  Holy 
Scripture  furnishes  proofs  of  this  doctrine, 
as  can  be  seen  from  the  Acts(viii.  14;  xix. 
5,  etc.)  where  it  is  said  that  Peter  and 
John  were  sent  to  Samaria,  in  order  to 
communicate  the  Holy  Ghost  to  those 
whom  the  deacon  Philip  had  baptized, 
which  they  did  by  laying  their  hands  upon 
them.  St.  Paul  did  the  same  for  the  dis- 
ciples at  Ephesus.  Thus  was  this  sacra- 
ment administered  by  the  Apostles  by  a 
sensible  sign,  which  conferred  the  Holy 
Ghost,  showing  that  it  is  an  institution  of 
Jesus  Christ,  who  only  could  give  to  a 
sensible  sign  this  power.  It  is,  therefore, 
really  a  sacrament,  and,  as  such,  has  been 
in  constant  use  in  the  Church  since  the 
days  of  the  Apostles.  The  Council  of 
Trent  declares:  "If  any  one  saith  that 
the  confirmation  of  those  who  have  been 
baptized  is  an  idle  ceremony,  and  not  a 
true  and  proper  sacrament,  let  him  be 
anathema"  (Sess.  vii.,  can.  i.  on  Confirm.). 
According  to  the  present  discipline  of 
the  Western  Church,  the  ordinary  minister 
of  the  sacrament  of  confirmation  is  a 
bishop,  but  a  simple  priest  may  also  act 
by  special  delegation  from  the  Holy  See. 
The  matter  involves  the  use  of  chrism,  and 
also  certain  manual  acts  of  the  minister. 
This  sacrament  is  not  absolutely  indispen- 
able  for  salvation,  as  a  necessary  means, 
for  the  person  who  receives  confirmation 
is  supposed  to  be  already  in  the  state  of 
grace,  but  it  is  in  some  way  necessary, 
from  the  very  fact  of  its  having  been  in- 
stituted by  the  Saviour  as  a  means  of  sal- 
vation, and  in  adults  the  neglect  to  receive 
it,  when  opportunity  is  offered  them,  is 
sinful.  Only  persons  who  have  been  bap- 
tized can  receive  this  sacrament.  All 
baptized  persons,  even  infants,  may  validly 
receive  it,  but,  in  our  times,  it  is  con- 
sidered proper  to  wait  until  children  have 
attained  the  use  of  reason  before  admitting 
them  to  be  confirmed.  See  Gifts  of  the 
Holy  Ghost. 

Confiteor. — A  form  of  prayer  adopted  in 
the  ecclesiastical  rite  for  the  general  and 
public  confession  of  siMS,  which  we  call 


simply  Confiteor.  It  begins :  "  I  confess 
to  Almighty  God,  to  Blessed  Mary  ever 
Virgin,"  etc.  The  first  trace  of  our  Con- 
fiteor is  found  in  Egbert,  Archbishop  of 
York  (735),  who  prescribed  it  as  an  instruc- 
tion for  sacramental  confession,  and  in 
Chrodogang,  Bishop  of  Metz  (743).  The 
present  form  of  the  Confiteor  came  into 
general  use  during  the  thirteenth  century. 
A  Council  of  Ravenna  (1314)  mentions 
that  a  variety  of  forms  were  current,  and 
imposed  the  present  one. 

Confraternities  or  Associations  {Re- 
ligious).— Religious  associations  are  vol- 
untary societies  formed  among  the  Faithful, 
with  the  object  of  furthering  their  own 
salvation  or  the  salvation  of  their  fellow- 
men.  They  may  be  divided  into  confra- 
ternities or  sodalities,  and  charitable 
societies.  Confraternities  are,  as  a  rule, 
exclusively  for  purposes  of  devotion ; 
charitable  societies  are  for  the  relief  of  the 
spiritual  and  temporal  needs  of  others. 
Religious  associations  are  in  all  spiritual 
matters  subject  to  episcopal  authority;  in 
some  countries  the  legislature  exercises  a 
certain  control  over  them.  The  formation 
of  religious  associations  has  always  been 
highly  recommended  by  the  Holy  See,  and 
large  indulgences  have  been  granted  to 
them,  because  they  are  of  great  benefit 
both  to  the  individual  members  and  to  the 
community  in  general. 

Our  holy  father,  Leo  XIII.,  in  his  en- 
cyclicals of  1884  and  1891,  expressed  high 
approval  of  religious  associations,  espe- 
cially of  the  Society  of  St.  Vincent  of  Paul, 
and  the  guilds  of  artisans  and  workingmen. 
Pope  Pius  IX.  says  they  are  an  army  set 
in  battle  array,  to  combat  the  adversaries 
of  faith,  not  with  the  clash  of  arms,  but 
with  the  silent  weapons  of  prayer.  Con- 
fraternities maybe  compared  to  Noe'sark, 
because  persons  living  in  the  world  seek  in 
them  a  refuge  from  the  rising  tide  of  crime 
and  corruption.  The  members  of  these 
confraternities,  as  a  rule,  lead  a  more  de- 
vout and  well-ordered  life  than  the  rest  of 
the  world.  They  are  not  as  apt  to  neglect 
prayer,  because  their  rule  prescribes  cer- 
tain prayers  to  be  recited  daily;  they 
approach  the  sacraments  more  frequently, 
because  days  are  marked  for  them  on 
which  a  plenary  indulgence  can  be  gained ; 
they  learn  obedience  because  they  submit 
to  the  decisions  of  their  director.  In  a 
word,  they  tend  to  keep  a  high  standard  of 
faith  and  morals  in  the   parish  to  which 


Confraternities 


200 


Confraternities 


they  belong,  and  bj  their  good  example 
lead  others  to  the  fulfillment  of  their  duties 
as  Christians.  And  if  some  members  give 
scandal,  the  rules  of  the  confraternity  are 
not  to  blame,  but  the  neglect  of  them  ;  and 
it  must  be  remembered  that  cockle  always 
grows  among  the  wheat.  There  is  also 
this  advantage  in  such  societies,  that  the 
rules  enjoining  the  performance  of  certain 
good  works,  are  not  binding  under  pain  of 
sin. 

The  number  of  confraternities  is  very 
great.  We  can  quote :  Confraternity  of 
the  Child  yesus. —  Its  object  is  to  provide 
funds  to  enable  missioners  to  receive  and 
educate  in  a  Christian  manner  heathen 
children  who  are  abandoned  by  their  par- 
ents. Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
Faith.  (See  Propaganda  of  Lyons.) 
Confraternity  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament, 
also  called  Eucharistic  League. — The  ob- 
ject of  this  confraternity  is  to  adore  our  Di- 
vine Saviour  in  the  most  Holy  Sacrament 
of  the  altar.  Each  member  pledges  himself 
to  spend  an  hour  every  week  in  adoration 
of  the  Blessed  Sacrament.  Many  indul- 
gences have  been  granted  to  this  confrater- 
nity. Confraternity  of  the  Sacred  Heart 
of  yesus. —  Its  object  is  to  venerate  and 
adore  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Our  Lord,  and 
participate  in  the  abundant  graces  He 
promises  to  those  who  practice  this  devo- 
tion. The  members  of  this  confraternity 
are  required  to  recite  an  Our  Father,  Hail 
Mary,  and  the  Creed  daily,  with  the  prayer : 
"O  sweetest  Heart  of  Jesus,  I  implore  that 
I  may  ever  love  Thee  more  and  more." 
They  are,  moreover,  to  approach  the  sac- 
raments every  month,  if  possible  on  the 
first  Sunday  or  Friday  of  the  month;  to 
keep  the  feast  of  the  Sacred  Heart  (on  the 
Friday  or  Sunday  after  the  octave  of  Cor- 
pus Christi)  with  all  solemnity,  and  to  pray 
for  the  members  of  the  association  both 
living  and  dead.  Many  rich  indulgences 
are  attached  to  this  confraternity;  among 
others,  an  indulgence  of  sixty  days  is 
granted  for  every  good  work  performed 
during  the  day.  See  Heart  (Sacred). 
Confraternity  of  the  Holy  Rosary. —  Its 
object  is  to  promote  the  devotion  of  the 
Rosary.  To  form  the  "living  rosary" 
fifteen  individuals  unite  every  month  to  ap- 
portion among  themselves  (generally  by 
drawing  lots)  the  fifteen  decades  of  the 
Rosary ;  each  one  recites  the  decade  which 
falls  to  his  share  daily  throughout  the 
month.  This  confraternity  is  under  the 
direction  of  the  Dominicans.     A  plenary 


indulgence  may  be  gained  by  the  members 
on  the  third  Sunday  of  every  month,  on 
Trinity  Sunday,  on  the  principal  feasts  of 
Our  Lord  and  of  His  Blessed  Mother. 
The  recitation  of  the  Rosary  is  also  in- 
dulgenced  in  a  special  manner.  The  Con- 
fraternity of  the  Holy  Rosary  was  estab- 
lished in  the  lifetime  of  St.  Dominic ;  the 
members  are  required  to  recite  all  the  fif- 
teen decades  of  the  Rosary  every  week,  but 
not  all  on  one  and  the  self-same  day.  This 
confraternity  is  affiliated  to  the  Dominican 
Order;  its  members  share  in  the  good 
works  of  the  whole  order,  and  are  placed 
under  the  special  protection  of  Our  Ladv. 
A  plenary  indulgence  is  granted  on  the 
first  Sunday  of  the  month,  on  all  feasts  of 
Our  Lady,  on  the  three  great  festivals  of 
the  Church,  and  in  the  hour  of  death. 
(See  Rosary.)  Confraternity  of  the  Holy 
Scapular  of  Mount  Carmel. —  Its  object  is 
to  implore  the  protection  and  intercession 
of  the  Blessed  Mother  of  God  in  all  the  per- 
ils of  this  life,  in  the  hour  of  death,  and  in 
the  flames  of  purgatory.  ( See  Scapular.) 
There  are  other  Scapular  Confraternities  : 
that  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  of  the  Seven 
Dolors,  of  the  Immaculate  Conception, 
and  of  the  Passion.  The  five  are  often 
worn  altogether.  For  each  of  these  cer- 
tain prayers  are  prescribed  to  be  repeated 
daily.  Confraternity  of  the  Bona  Mors. — 
The  object  of  this  confraternity  is  to  ob- 
tain for  its  members  who  are  yet  on  earth 
the  privilege  of  a  happy  death,  and  for  the 
departed  a  sjjeedy  release  from  the  cleans- 
ing fires.  The  members  of  this  confrater- 
nity are  bound  to  have  a  Mass  said  once 
every  month  for  the  intention  of  their  fel- 
low-members, that  the  one  who  is  the  next 
to  die  may  have  a  happy  death,  and  those 
who  are  already  gone  before  may  experi- 
ence a  mitigation  of  the  pains  of  purgatory. 
They  are  also  exhorted  to  approach  the 
sacraments  frequently,  to  entertain  a 
special  devotion  to  the  Immaculate  Con- 
ception, to  St.  Joseph,  the  patron  of  a  good 
death,  and  often  to  make  acts  of  the  theo- 
logical virtues  and  of  contrition.  This 
confraternity  is  very  richly  indulgenced. 
For  every  visit  to  a  sick  person,  twenty 
years;  for  every  visit  to  a  Church,  seven 
years,  etc.  All  these  indulgences  are  ap- 
plicable to  the  souls  in  purgatory,  llie 
Apostleship  of  Prayer. —  A  league  in  union 
with  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus.  The 
Apostleship  of  Prayer  is  not  a  confrater- 
nity or  sodality,  but  a  pious  organization, 
whose  object  is  to  give  an  apostolic  char- 


Congregationalism 


201 


Congregations 


acter  and  power  to  all  our  prayers,  works, 
and  sufferings.  This  object  it  attains  by 
the  union  of  its  members  with  the  unceas- 
ing pleading  of  the  Sacred  Heart  in  the 
sacrifice  of  the  Mass ;  and  this  union  is 
effected  by  the  morning  offering,  which 
constitutes  the  First  Degree  of  the  Apos- 
tleship  of  Prayer  and  the  only  essential 
duty  of  its  members.  The  morning  offer- 
ing is  thus  worded  :  "  O  Jesus,  through  the 
immaculate  heart  of  Mary,  I  offer  Thee 
the  prayers,  work,  and  suffering,  of  this 
day  in  union  with  the  intentions  of  Thy 
Divine  Heart  in  the  holy  Mass."  Two 
things  are  necessary  for  membership:  i. 
Registration  of  the  candidate's  name  by  a 
local  director  in  an  affiliated  center.  2. 
A  certificate  of  admission.  Centers  are 
affiliated  by  diplomas  from  the  director 
general  (a  father  of  the  Society  of  Jesus, 
residing  at  Toulouse,  France)  and  trans- 
mitted to  them  by  the  diocesan  directors, 
whom,  with  the  license  and  in  accordance 
with  the  nomination  of  the  ordinary,  he 
has  appointed  for  that  purpose.  The 
Second  Degree  consists  in  the  daily  re- 
cital of  one  Our  Father  and  ten  Hail  Marys 
for  the  monthly  intention  approved  by  the 
Holy  Father ;  and  the  Third  Degree,  in 
offering  a  communion  of  atonement  to  the 
Sacred  Heart,  once  a  week,  or  at  least  once 
a  month  on  a  day  or  days  fixed  by  arrange- 
ment with  a  promotor  of  the  Apostleship 
of  Prayer.  The  organ  of  the  association 
is  called  "  The  Messenger  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,"  published  by  the  authorized  edi- 
tors in  various  countries  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  director  general.  There  are 
thirty-seven  distinct  editions  of  the  "Mes- 
senger." The  members  of  the  Apostleship 
of  Prayer  in  the  whole  world  number  some 
twenty  to  thirty  millions. 

For  other  confraternities  and  congrega- 
tions, see  articles,  Third  Orders,  Joseph 
(St.),  Brothers,  Sisters. 

Congregationalism.  —  Form  of  polity 
among  certain  Protestant  denominations. 
They  maintain  the  independence  of  each 
congregation  and  the  competency  to  fulfill 
all  the  ecclesiastical  acts.  The  creator  of 
this  system,  was,  it  is  claimed,  John  Rob- 
inson, who,  in  1608,  left  England  to  be- 
come a  Brownist  pastor  in  Holland.  He 
modified  Brownism.  His  followers,  at  first 
called  Independents,  emigrated  to  America 
in  1620.  The  Congregationalists  are  very 
numerous  in  Great  Britain,  but  more  so  in 
the  United  States. 


Congregations  {Sacred). — The  sacred 
congregations  are  committees  to  whom 
the  sovereign  Pontiff  refers  certain  mat- 
ters that  relate  in  a  special  manner  to  the 
Church.  These  congregations  are  six- 
teen in  number,  as  follows:  i.  Congre- 
gation of  the  Holy  Office. — This  congrega- 
tion erected  and  constituted  by  Pope  Paul 
in.,  in  1542,  was  approved  and  enriched 
with  many  privileges  by  his  successors, 
Pius  IV.,  Pius  v.,  and  Sixtus  V.  Its  object 
was  to  combat  heresy  and  false  doctrines, 
and  to  restrain  heretics  from  injuring 
religion  and  the  Church.  (Office  :  Palazzo 
della  S.  Uffizio.)  2.  Congregation  of  the 
Consistorial.  —  This  congregation  was 
founded  by  Sixtus  V.,  in  1588.  Its  office 
is  to  examine  and  discuss  the  questions 
which  call  for  a  formal  pronouncement  of 
the  Pope  at  a  private  or  public  Consistory. 
It  inquires,  particularly,  into  the  applica- 
tions for  the  erection  of  new  churches, 
patriarchal,  metropolitan,  and  cathedral ; 
regulates  all  about  chapters,  the  number 
of  canonicates,  etc.,  and  decides  contro- 
versies arising  therefrom.  (Office:  Pal- 
azzo della  Cancelleria  Afostolica.)  3. 
Congregation  of  the  Apostolic  Visitation. 
—  This  congregation  was  established  to 
regulate  the  visits  to  the  Churches  and 
holy  places  in  the  city  of  Rome.  (Office  : 
Palazzo  della  Cancelleria  Afostolica.) 
4.  Coftgregation  of  Bishops  and  Regu- 
lars.— This  congregation  was  founded  by 
Gregory  XIII.,  and  appointed  by  Sixtus 
V.  for  the  arrangement  of  the  rights  and 
privileges  of  bishops  and  of  the  regular 
orders  established  in  the  Church.  Hence 
all  classes  of  appeal  against  the  bishop's 
decisions,  whether  by  seculars  or  regulars, 
is  referred  to  it.  It  is  also  entrusted  with 
the  revision  and  approbation  of  the  rules 
of  religious  bodies.  (Office:  Palazzo  della 
Cancelleria  A postolica.)  5.  Congregation 
of  the  Council. — This  congregation  was 
founded  by  Pius  IV.,  for  the  purpose  of 
promoting  the  observance  of  the  Council 
of  Trent.  To  this  Pius  V.  added  the  in- 
terpretation of  these  decrees  and  the 
decision  of  all  controversies  arising  from 
them.  In  1587,  the  congregation  was  also 
commissioned  by  Pope  Sixtus  V.  to  revise 
the  decrees  of  all  provincial  councils,  and 
to  see  that  all  bishops  paid  their  visits  at 
the  time  required  by  the  canons,  and  sub- 
mitted to  the  Holy  See  a  report  of  their 
dioceses,  ad  limina  apostolorum.  Bene- 
dict XIV.,  however,  appointed  a  special 
congregation  in  connection  with  the  coun- 


Congregations 


202 


Congregations 


cil  for  the  purpose  of  examining  the 
decrees  of  national  and  provincial  coun- 
cils, and  a  similar  one  was  constituted  by 
Pius  IX.,  for  the  special  purpose  of  attend- 
ing to  the  visits  and  reports  of  patriarchs, 
archbishops,  and  bishops.  (Office:  Palazzo 
della  Cancelleria  Aposiolica.)  6.  Congre- 
gation of  Residence  of  Bishops. — Many 
laws  exist,  differing  according  to  circum- 
stances, obliging  bishops  to  reside  in  their 
diocese.  Urban  VIII.  established  this 
congregation  for  the  purpose  of  seeing 
that  these  laws  were  obser^^ed.  The  rules 
to  be  followed  by  the  congregation  were 
laid  down  by  Benedict  XIV.,  and  are  now 
part  of  the  Canon  Law.  (Office  :  Palazzo 
della  Cancelleria  Apostolica.)  7.  Con- 
gregation of  the  State  of  Regulars. — Pope 
Pius  IX.  restricted  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Congregation  of  Regular  Discipline  to 
Italy  and  the  adjacent  islands,  and  estab- 
lished the  new  Congregation  of  the  State 
of  Regulars  to  perform  similar  duties  for 
countries  outside  of  Italy.  (Office :  Pal- 
azzo della  Cancelleria  Apostolica.)  8. 
Congregation  of  Ecclesiastical  Immunity. 
—  Instituted  by  Urban  VIII.  to  protect  and 
defend  lawful  ecclesiastical  immunities 
against  the  encroachments  and  attacks  of 
civil  magistrates  and  secular  communities. 
Most  of  the  cases  submitted  to  this  con- 
gregation for  examination  and  judgment 
arose  in  the  Papal  States.  Conflicts  and 
controversies  regarding  concordats  with 
other  countries  are  now  generally  decided 
by  the  Cardinal  Secretary  of  State,  assisted 
by  the  members  of  the  Congregation  of 
Extraordinary  Ecclesiastical  Affairs.  This 
congregation  is,  by  special  disposition  of 
his  holiness  the  Pope,  temporarily  con- 
nected with  the  Congregation  of  the 
Council.  ( Office  :  Palazzo  della  Cancelleria 
Apostolica.)  9.  Congregation  of  the 
Propaganda. — This  congregation  was 
founded  by  Pope  Gregory  XV.,  in  1622. 
The  Pope  in  his  Constitution  Inscrutabili 
conferred  upon  it  the  most  ample  powers 
for  the  propagation  of  the  faith,  and  espe- 
cially for  the  superintendence  of  missions  in 
countries  where  heretics  or  infidels  had  to 
be  evangelized.  For  this  purpose  it  could 
not  only  appoint  and  change  the  necessary 
ministers  in  the  countries  specially  sub- 
mitted to  its  care,  but  also  perform  every- 
thing else  it  considered  necessary  or 
opportune  for  the  advancement  of  religion 
in  such  districts  and  provinces.  The  juris- 
diction proper  of  the  congregation  ex- 
tends to  all  territories  which  are  governed 


wore  w?.s.?zo«««;,  or  as  missionary  countries, 
i.  e.,  not  by  bishops  constituted  in  the  reg- 
ular hierarchy,  but  by  prefects  and  vicars 
apostolic.  Certain  countries,  even  where 
the  regular  hierarchy  is  established,  such 
as  Ireland,  England,  Scotland,  and  the 
.  United  States,  are  likewise  subject  to  the 
congregation,  and  transact  almost  all 
their  business  with  the  Roman  Curia 
through  it.  Hence,  applications  for  dis- 
pensations, etc.,  are  addressed  to  this  con- 
gregation through  its  secretary.  The 
congregation  has,  moreover,  a  legislative 
and  judicial  power;  and  by  authority  con- 
ferred upon  it  by  Gregory  XV.,  and  con- 
firmed by  Urban  VIII.  and  Innocent  X., 
its  decrees,  signed  by  the  secretary  and 
confirmed  by  the  prefect,  have  the  force 
and  authority  of  an  Apostolic  Constitution. 
All  communications  should  be  written  in 
Latin,  or,  at  least,  in  French  or  Italian, 
and  addressed  to  the  secretary  as  follows  : 
"-<4  Sua  Excellenza  Revma.  II  Signor 
Segretario  della  Congregazione  di  Prop- 
aganda Fide:  Rome."  10.  Congregation 
of  the  Index. —  This  congregation  was 
founded  by  Pope  Pius  V.,  and  confirmed 
by  Gregory  XIII.,  Sixtus  V.,  and  Clement 
VIII.  Its  office  is  to  examine  books  sub- 
mitted to  its  judgment  by  bishops  or 
others,  and  to  proscribe  those  it  finds  op- 
posed to  faith  and  morals.  An  index  or 
catalogue  of  wicked  and  dangerous  books 
had  been  drawn  up  at  the  Council  of  Trent, 
and  approved  by  Pope  Pius  IV.  (Office : 
Palazzo  della  Cancelleria  Apostolica.)  1 1 . 
Congregation  of  Rites. — This  congregation 
was  instituted  by  Sixtus  V.  for  the  pur- 
pose of  promoting  the  observance  of  the 
sacred  rites  and  ceremonies  of  the  Church, 
and  of  restoring  and  reforming  them  when 
necessary.  It  was  also  charged  with  the 
process  of  the  canonization  of  saints,  and 
with  the  regulation  of  the  days  to  be  ob- 
served as  feasts  in  the  Church,  and  was 
also  bound  to  see  that  all  kings,  princes, 
ambassadors,  and  other  exalted  personages, 
whether  lay  or  clerical,  were  received  with 
becoming  dignity  and  honor  at  the  papal 
Court.  These  are  the  duties  which  it  still 
performs.  (Office  :  Palazzo  della  Cancel- 
leria Apostolica.)  12.  Congregation  of 
the  Ceremonial. — This  congregation  ar- 
ranges all  the  Pontifical  ceremonies  and 
decides  questions  of  participation  and 
precedence  in  them.  (Office:  Via  Principe 
Umberto  0.)  13.  Congregation  of  Regular 
Discipline. — This  congregation  was  estab- 
lished  by   Innocent  XII.   to  promote  the 


CONGRUITY 


203 


Conscience 


observance  of  discipline  in  monasteries  and 
convents ;  to  regulate  the  time  to  be  spent 
in  novitiates,  to  grant  licenses  for  the  re- 
ception of  postulants,  and  for  their  training 
and  profession,  etc.  (Office:  Palazzo 
della  Cancelleria  Apostolica.)  14.  Con- 
gregation  of  Indulgences  and  Sacred 
Relics. — Founded  by  Pope  Clement  IX.  in 
1669,  for  the  purpose  of  solving  all  doubts 
and  difficulties  concerning  indulgences 
and  relics,  correcting  abuses  relating 
thereto,  forbidding  apocryphal,  false,  or 
indiscreet  indulgences,  examining  relics 
newly  discovered,  etc.  General  indul- 
gences obtained  directly  from  the  sov- 
ereign Pontiff  are  null  and  void,  unless 
a  copy  of  such  concession  be  deposited 
with  the  secretary  of  this  congregation.-^— 
Decretum  Benedicti  XIV.,  Jan.  28th,  1756. 
(Office :  Palazzo  della  Cancelleria  Apos- 
tolica.) 15.  Congregation  of  Examination 
of  Bishops. — This  congregation  was  estab- 
lished for  the  examination  in  Theology 
and  Canon  Law  of  Roman  priests  named 
for  the  Episcopate.  (Office :  Palazzo  della 
Cancelleria  Apostolica.)  16.  Congrega- 
tion of  Extraordinary  Ecclesiastical 
Affairs. — Founded  by  Pius  VII.  in  1814,  to 
assist  the  Cardinal  Secretary  of  State 
in  maintaining  proper  relations  with 
foreign  countries,  especially  in  times  of 
revolution  and  disturbance.  All  concor- 
dats and  relations  with  foreign  governments 
come  under  its  supervision.  (Office :  Pal- 
azzo della  Cancelleria  Apostolica.) 

Congruity.     See  Condignity. 

Conon. —  Pope  from  686  to  687.  Gave 
to  St.  Kilian,  Bishop  of  Ireland,  the  mis- 
sion to  preach  the  faith  to  the  people  of 
Germany. 

Consanguinity.     See  Marriage. 

Conscience. —  Inner  light,  inner  senti- 
ment by  which  man  renders  testimony  to 
himself  of  the  good  and  evil  he  does. 
Psychological  conscience,  or  interior  sense, 
is  the  power  which  the  soul  has  to  per- 
ceive its  different  states  without  inter- 
mediary. The  testimony  of  conscience  is 
the  last  recourse,  the  supreme  criterion  of 
truth,  and  to  its  intervention  is  due  that 
the  mind,  placed  in  face  of  truth,  affirms 
its  evidence.  The  notion  of  conscience  is 
identical  with  the  notion  of  being,  instan- 
taneous like  the  latter,  and  repugnant  as 
much  to  the  idea  of  posterity  as  to  that  of 
anteriority.  Through  conscience  we  dis- 
cover in   us   the   existence   of    a   distinct 


principle,  if  not  independent  from  our 
body,  a  principle  whose  substantial  entity 
resides  for  the  present  in  its  indissoluble 
union  with  the  body  to  which  it  is  united 
as  its  form,  but  which,  at  the  destruction 
of  the  body,  will  survive  and  will  exist, 
although  in  an  incomplete  mode,  until  the 
integral  and  definite  reconstitution  of  the 
human  compound.  It  is  through  con- 
science, enlightened  by  the  rays  of  truth, 
that  we  appreciate  precisely  the  facts  that 
appertain  to  the  soul  in  opposition  to  the 
facts  that  belong  to  the  body.  It  is 
through  conscience  that  we  distribute 
these  facts  into  groups  and  series,  and  that 
we  attach  these  series  and  groups  to 
three  primordial  powers  or  faculties  :  sen- 
sibility, intelligence,  and  will.  Finally,  it 
is  through  conscience  that,  desiring  to 
characterize  each  of  these  faculties,  we 
attribute  to  them  sometimes  a  simple 
power  of  perception  or  reflection  (pas- 
sivity), sometimes  a  power  of  spontaneous- 
ness  and  action  (activity).  Moral  con- 
science is  the  conscience  more  especially 
defined  by  its  role  as  supreme  judge  of  the 
moral  value  of  its  acts.  But  this  judge  is 
not  reduced  to  the  sole  mission  of  ap- 
preciating the  nature  of  such  or  such  an 
act  and  its  degree  of  goodness  or  malice. 
It  penetrates  the  most  inner  thought,  and 
finding  therein  the  unavoidable  and  abso- 
lute idea  of  law  and  duty,  it  seeks  to  ex- 
plain their  nature  and  origin  by  a  rigorous 
analysis  of  the  more  simple  idea  of  good 
and  evil.  Hence,  since  the  notion  of  good 
corresponds  to  a  transcendent  and  absolute 
precept,  and  since  the  notion  of  evil  is 
only  that  of  the  derogation  of  this  precept, 
conscience  renders  to  itself  an  account  of 
the  blame  or  praise  in  regard  to  the  acts 
of  the  will  which  it  finds  reprehensible  or 
praiseworthy.  Language  translates  instan- 
taneously the  testimony  which  conscience 
renders  to  itself,  and  humanity  declares 
this  testimony  to  be  the  expression  of 
truth. 

Conscience  {Liberty  of). —  Liberty  of 
conscience  constitutes  a  religio-confes- 
sional  fact,  which  is  founded  partly  on  the 
psychological  study  of  our  faculties.  It  is 
attested  to  each  one  of  us,  within  ourselves, 
as  an  absolutely  unobjectionable  fact.  It 
is  the  cause  of  confessional  merit  or  de- 
merit, as  well  as  of  the  religio-confessional 
remorse,  which  is  also  a  fact  of  conscience 
perceived  by  us,  without  a  shadow  of 
doubt,  if  we  forsake  the  confession  of  faith 


Consecration 


204 


CONSOLAMENTUM 


which  our  intelligence  judged  conform- 
able to  truth.  From  the  incontestable 
liberty  of  conscience  must  we  logically 
conclude  on  the  liberty  of  conscience? 
Liberty  of  conscience  is  an  internal  fact, 
and  liberty  of  conscience  is  an  external  fact 
which  refers  to  our  belief  exteriorally  in 
the  midst  of  society.  Liberty  of  con- 
science can  be  looked  upon  as  a  political 
right,  protected  by  constitutional  guaran- 
tees. In  its  relations  to  the  State,  as  well 
as  to  the  Church,  we  have  to  consider  it 
from  an  historical,  theoretical,  and  legal 
point  of  view.  St.  Augustine  claims  for 
the  Church  the  power  of  constraint,  only 
in  the  ages  when  it  had  become  the  social 
power,  absorbing  in  its  unity  humanity. 
He  dates  this  power  of  constraint  only 
from  the  day  of  the  incontestable  social 
arrival  of  the  Church  (Ep.  204,  to  Don- 
atus).  He  modifies  his  thesis,  restrains 
or  limits  it  every  time  the  number  of  the 
"  wicked  "  happens  to  increase,  or  when 
the  contagion  of  evil  invades  the  multi- 
tudes (Confr.  Parmenion  Ubr.  IH.  c.  ii.). 
He  acknowledges  that  the  exterior  con- 
straint, civilly  efficacious,  was  granted  by 
the  religion  of  the  emperors  in  a  time 
when  society  became  and  remained  Chris- 
tian. This  neat  and  clear  doctrine  of  St. 
Augustine  has  been  entered  into  the  public 
rights  of  the  Christian  societies.  The 
United  States  of  North  America  is  the 
country  where  liberty  of  conscience  has 
become  most  fully  established  as  a  political 
right.  The  Puritans,  who  first  peopled 
New  England,  pushed  the  intolerance  to 
the  most  extreme  limits.  After  them, 
also,  the  Quakers  became  intolerant.  But 
when  the  followers  of  the  different  and  num- 
erous sects  agreed  to  acknowledge  the  most 
extensive  political  liberty,  the  liberty  of 
conscience  was  the  result  of  political  lib- 
erty. There  was  not,  in  the  new  terri- 
tories of  Northern  America,  a  Church 
that  had  become  such  a  social  power  that 
it  could  absorb  the  State  in  its  unity,  as 
St.  Augustine  claims.  Be  this  as  it  may, 
until  quite  recently,  several  countries  were 
made  to  depend  upon  the  acquisition  and 
preservation  of  certain  rights,  either  po- 
litical or  social,  and  upon  the  acceptation 
of  such  or  such  a  confession  of  faith. 
Even  in  the  United  States,  Maryland 
maintained  for  a  long  time  the  exclusion 
of  Jews,  and  in  Europe,  England  granted 
the  emancipation  of  the  Catholics  only 
after  long  struggles.  In  fact,  whatever 
may  be   the  affirmations  of   the   right  of 


conscience,  we  must  always  acknowledge 

in  a  society  a  certain  number  of  truths, 
without  which  no  society  could  exist.  The 
negation  of  these  truths,  when  it  is  public, 
becomes  an  attack  against  the  existence  of 
society,  or  at  least  an  evident  disturbance 
of  the  peace.  Hence  we  can  understand, 
in  principle,  that  a  confession  of  faith  may 
be  required  as  a  condition  for  the  full  ex- 
ercise of  the  rights  of  citizens.  A  nihil- 
istic sect,  for  instance,  may  be  excluded 
from  it.  And  to  speak  in  more  general 
terms,  we  can  understand  that  liberty  of 
conscience,  like  political  liberty,  may,  or 
even  must,  in  modern  society,  suffer  some 
restrictions. 

iConsecration. — i.  The  formula  of 
words  by  which  the  bread  and  wine  in  the 
Mass  are  changed  into  Christ's  body  and 
blood.  2.  The  act  of  solemnly  dedicating 
a  person  or  thing  to  the  ser^'ice  of  God. 
See  Transubstaxtiatiox. 

Consecration  of  Churches.  See  Dedi- 
cation. 

Consistentes. — In  the  penitential  system 
of  the  early  Church,  especially  in  the 
Eastern  Church  during  the  second  half  of 
the  third  and  the  whole  of  the  fourth  cen- 
turies, penitents  occupying  the  fourth  or 
highest  penitential  station.  They  were 
allowed  to  remain  throughout  the  Euchar- 
istic  service  and  take  their  station  with  the 
Faithful  above  the  ambo,  but  not  offer  ob- 
lations or  be  admitted  to  communion.  See 
Catechumen  ATE. 

Consistory.  —  An  ecclesiastical  senate, 
consisting  of  the  whole  body  of  cardinals, 
which  deliberates  upon  the  affairs  of  the 
Church.  It  is  presided  over  by  the  Pope, 
or  by  the  dean  of  the  College  of  Cardinals. 
The  ordinary  meetings  of  the  Consistory 
are  secret ;  but  public  consistories  are  held 
from  time  to  time,  as  occasion  may  re- 
quire, and  are  attended  by  other  prelates 
than  the  cardinals ;  in  these  public  consis- 
tories the  resolutions  arrived  at  in  secret 
session  are  announced  to  them. 

Consolamentum  (  consolation  ) .  —  Cere- 
mony of  the  Cathari,  who  rejected  the  holy 
sacraments,  and  the  dogmas  of  the  Church. 
Instead  of  baptism  by  water,  they  had 
what  they  called  baptism  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  or  the  Consolamentum,  which,  ac- 
cording to  their  doctrine,  freed  the  receiver 
from  all  sin  without  any  kind  of  contrition. 
Most  of  the  Cathari  put   off  the  Consola- 


Constance 


205 


Constitutions 


mentum  till  their  life  drew  to  its  close. 
In  case  the  receiver  fell  back  into  sin,  as, 
for  example,  ate  meat,  he  must  again  have 
recourse  to  this  consolation.  To  avert 
this  danger,  the  "  consoled "  frequently 
had  recourse  to  the  *'  Endura,"  a  process 
by  which,  through  starvation,  bleeding, 
poison,  or  other  means,  they  put  an  end  to 
their  lives. 

Constance  {Council  of). — The  Council 
of  Pisa  had  been  unable  to  put  an  end  to 
the  great  schism  of  the  West  in  declaring 
Gregory  XII.  and  Benedict  XIII.  deprived 
of  the  Pontificate,  and  naming  Alexander 
v.,  who  was  succeeded  by  John  XXIII. 
The  latter,  in  accord  with  the  Emperor- 
elect  Sigismond,  convoked  the  Council  of 
Constance,  which  was  opened  Novem- 
her  5th,  1414.  John  XXIII.  presided  over 
the  first  two  sessions,  but  the  Council  hav- 
ing requested  his  promise  to  abdicate  the 
Pontificate,  if  the  good  of  the  Church  re- 
quired this,  he  gave  this  promise,  but  then 
fled  secretly.  One  of  the  cardinals  assumed 
the  presidency,  and,  in  the  fifth  session, 
they  proclaimed  the  famous  decree :  "  That 
the  General  Council,  once  assembled,  holds 
its  authority  immediately  from  Jesus 
Christ,  and  that,  consequently,  every  per- 
son, even  the  Pope,  is  obliged  to  obey  it, 
in  that  which  concerns  the  extinction  of 
the  schism  and  the  general  reformation  of 
the  Church  in  its  head  and  members." 
This  decree  was  never  approved  by  Pope 
Martin  V.,  and  is  contrary  to  sound  doc- 
trine. In  the  subsequent  sessions,  John 
XXIII.  was  deposed  and  submitted; 
Gregory  XII.  abdicated  through  his  am- 
bassador; Benedict  XIII.  was  not  only 
deposed,  but  excommunicated,  and  in  1417 
(41st  session),  Martin  V.  was  elected.  He 
confirmed  the  forty-fifth  and  last  session, 
and  all  that  the  Council  had  decreed  in 
matters  of  faith.  This  Council  also  con- 
demned as  heretics  Wycliflfe,  John  Huss, 
and  Jerome  of  Prague. 

Constantine. —  Pope  from  708  to  715.  A 
Syrian  by  birth. 

Constantine  the  Great. —  Roman  Em- 
peror (272-337).  Son  of  Constantius  Chlo- 
rus  and  of  St.  Helena.  Was  appointed  Caesar 
at  the  death  of  his  father  in  306;  and  in 
307  assumed  the  title  of  Augustus.  In  the 
spring  of  the  year  312,  Constantine,  to- 
gether with  Licinius,  published  a  general 
edict  of  toleration,  granting  to  every  one 
the   right  to   follow   the   religion   of    his 


choice,  after  which  he  marched  into  Italy 
against  Maxentius,  whom  he  defeated  near 
Rome,  the  same  year.  Before  this  battle, 
according  to  tradition,  the  sign  of  the 
cross  appeared  in  the  heavens,  with  the 
inscription  " /»  hoc  signo  vtnces,''  which 
induced  him  to  adopt  the  labarum  as  his 
standard.  In  323  he  became  sole  Augus- 
tus. After  this  he  caused  Christianity  to 
be  recognized  by  the  State,  convened  the 
Council  of  Nice  in  325,  and  in  330  inaugu- 
rated Constantinople  as  the  capital  of  the 
Roman  Empire.  Constantine  had  many 
faults.  He  postponed  his  baptism  till  his 
last  illness;  was  at  times  very  passionate 
and  meddled  with  the  freedom  of  the 
Church.  But  he  also  possessed  good  qual- 
ities, —  great  energy,  prudence,  and  noble 
aspirations.  All  in  all,  he  was  an  illus- 
trious ruler  and  is  justly  styled  "  The 
Great. y   See  Donation  of  Constantine. 

Constantinople    {Councils  of).      See 
Councils. 

Constitution  {Civil)  of  the  Clergy. —  In 

order  to  un-Catholicize  France,  the  so- 
called  "  Civil  Constitution  of  the  Clergy" 
was  adopted  by  the  National  Assembly, 
July  i2th,  1790.  After  the  insurgents  had, 
on  August  24th,  extorted  the  royal  signa- 
ture to  this  measure,  they  demanded,  on  the 
motion  of  the  Protestant,  Barnave,  on  Jan. 
4th,  1791,  that  the  clergy  should  take  the 
oath  of  the  Civil  Constitution.  Very  few  of 
the  clergy  complied  with  this  demand.  On 
April  13th,  Pope  Pius  VI.  condemned  the 
Civil  Constitution.  The  Civil  Constitution 
of  the  Clergy  reduced  the  number  of  bish- 
oprics from  136  to  83,  a  bishopric  for  each 
department  into  which  France  was  di- 
vided; it  decreed  that  bishops  should  be 
elected  by  the  clergy,  and  interdicted  their 
appointment  by  the  Pope;  abolished  re- 
ligious orders,  and  made  the  reception  of 
a  papal  Bull  or  Brief,  unauthorized  by  the 
government,  a  State  offense.  Only  four 
bishops,  and  a  very  small  minority  of  the 
priests,  adhered  to  the  new  constitution. 
These  were  the  "  Jurors,"  or  "  Asser- 
mentes,"  while  those  refusing  the  oath 
were  styled  "  Nonjurors,"  or  •'  Insermen- 
tes." 

Constitutions  {Apostolic). —  The  laws 
carried  under  this  name  by  the  sovereign 
Pontiffs  for  the  entire  Church,  or  for  a 
portion  thereof,  oblige  before  all  accepta- 
tion, even  the  bishops,  in  matters  of  dis- 
cipline  as   well   as    in   matters    of    faith. 


CONSUBSTANTIAL 


206 


Contemplation 


However,  upon  points  of  discipline  which 
interest  neither  the  rites  nor  the  ceremo- 
nies, nor  the  life  of  clerics,  the  bishop  can 
suspend  their  execution,  by  referring  to 
the  Holy  See  and  asking  for  dispensation, 
at  least  for  a  temporary  one. 

The  Constitutions  are  not  the  direct 
work  of  the  Apostles,  and  have  never 
figured  in  Holy  Scripture.  They  are,  how- 
ever, very  ancient.  The  first  six  books 
treat  of  Holy  Scripture,  the  conduct  of 
bishops  and  priests,  of  widows,  of  orphans, 
the  poor,  and  the  solemnities  of  the 
Church.  The  seventh  appears  to  be  of 
posterior  date,  and  the  eighth  seems  to 
constitute  another  addition.  After  the 
middle  of  the  fifth  century,  these  different 
parts  formed  only  one  whole,  and  St.  Epi- 
phanus  speaks  of  the  Apostolic  Constitu- 
tions as  forming  only  one  work,  such  as  we 
have  received  it. 

Consubstantial. —  From  the  Latin  cum 
and  substantia  {substance).  A  term  used 
in  speaking  of  the  Persons  of  the  Most 
Holy  Trinity,  to  express  that  they  are 
only  one  and  the  same  substance.  This 
term  was  adopted  by  the  Council  of  Nice, 
in  325,  in  order  to  leave  to  the  Arians  no 
pretext  for  concealing  their  errors  under 
equivocal  terms ;  hence  they  obliged  them 
to  make  use  of  the  word  "consubstantial" 
in  their  profession  of  faith,  and  to  sign  the 
consubstantiality  of  the  Word. 

Constitutum. —  See  Chapters  ( The 
Three). 

Consubstantiation. —  A  term  used  by 
the  Lutherans  to  express  the  manner  of 
the  Real  Presence  of  Jesus  Christ  in  the 
Blessed  Eucharist.  Since  Luther  taught 
that  the  substance  of  the  Body  of  Christ 
was  present  in  the  consecrated  Host,  to- 
gether with  the  substance  of  bread,  the 
change  was  called  consubstantiation,  in- 
stead of  transubstantiation,  as  taught  by 
the  Catholic  Church. 

Consultors  or  Bishop's  Council. —  The 

"Third  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore" 
ordains  that  each  diocese  shall  have  six,  or 
at  least  four,  consultors;  that  where  this 
number  can  in  no  wise  be  had,  there  shall 
be  at  least  two.  As  to  the  mode  of  their 
appointment,  this  Council  enacts  that  one- 
half  of  the  above  number  shall  be  ap- 
pointed solely  by  the  bishop;  the  other 
half  also  by  the  bishop,  though  only  on 
the  nomination  made  by  the  entire  clergy, 
in  the  manner  laid  down  by  the  Council. 


The  diocesan  consultors  thus  properly  ap- 
pointed hold  their  position  for  three  years, 
after  which  they  must  either  be  reappointed 
or  others  chosen  in  their  stead  in  the  same 
manner  as  above  prescribed.  If,  however, 
this  term  of  three  years  expires  during  the 
time  when  the  episcopal  see  is  vacant,  the 
consultors  will  remain  in  office  until  the 
accession  of  the  new  bishop,  who  will  be 
bound  to  proceed  within  six  months  from 
the  day  of  his  consecration  to  the  new  ap- 
pointment of  the  consultors  in  the  manner 
above  stated.  Finally,  where,  during  the 
above  term  of  three  years,  a  consultor 
either  dies,  or  resigns,  or  is  removed,  the 
bishop  has  the  right  and  duty  to  appoint 
another  one,  though  only  with  the  advice 
of  the  other  consultors.  As  will  be  seen, 
the  mode  of  appointment  of  our  diocesan 
consultors  resembles  somewhat  that  of 
canons  of  cathedral  chapters.  Diocesan 
consultors,  during  their  term  of  office,  can- 
not be  removed,  against  their  will,  except 
for  legitimate  and  just  cause,  and  by  the 
advice  of  the  other  consultors.  Diocesan 
consultors  are,  like  the  cathedral  chapters, 
the  official  and  legal  senate  of  the  bishop 
in  relation  to  the  government  of  the 
diocese.  They  are  to  take  the  place  of 
cathedral  chapters  until  the  latter  can  be 
properly  established.  Wherefore,  the 
"  Third  Plenary  Council  "  enacts  that  the 
bishop  shall  be  bound  to  take  the  advice  of 
his  consultors  in  a  number  of  cases  ex- 
pressly stated  by  it.  We  say  advice;  for 
the  council  does  not  oblige  the  bishop  to 
act  with  the  consent  of  his  consultors  in 
any  case  whatsoever.  The  case  where 
bishops  are  bound  to  proceed  with  the  ad- 
^^ce  of  their  diocesan  council  are :  cases 
that  relate  to  the  diocesan  statutes,  the 
division  of  parishes,  the  placing  of  missions 
in  charge  of  religious,  the  appointment  of 
the  deputies  for  the  seminary,  of  new  con- 
sultors, and  of  synodal  examiners,  the 
alienation  of  ecclesiastical  property,  and 
the  imposing  of  a  new  tax  or  assessment  by 
the  bishop. 

Contemplation  (profound  application  of 
the  mind  to  some  object,  especially  purely 
intellectual  objects). —  The  common  char- 
acteristic of  religious  contemplation,  like 
that  of  philosophical  contemplation,  con- 
sists in  withdrawing  the  soul  from  external 
objects,  to  absorb  it  into  the  things  of  God. 
But  for  some,  it  is  the  final  end,  and  for 
others,  the  highest  degree,  which  the  activ- 
ity of  the  mind  can  attain  for  the  knowledge 


Contrition 


207 


Cope 


things  in  their  very  essence.  A  life  of 
contemplation  is  not  a  useless  life,  as  some 
claim.  The  Fathers  of  the  desert  and  all 
the  Saints  devoted  themselves  to  a  con- 
templative life,  and  were  venerated  through- 
out the  Christian  world  for  doing  so.  How- 
ever, Christian  mystics  do  not  behold  in 
contemplation  a  fact  which  solely  interests 
the  soul.  Fenelon  sums  up  their  doctrine 
as  follows:  "Contemplation  is  neither  a 
rapturous  transport,  nor  a  lively  impres- 
sion, nor  an  ecstatic  suspension  of  all  the 
faculties  of  the  soul ;  the  state  of  passive 
contemplation  is  nothing  else  but  an  inner 
peace  and  an  infinite  suppleness,  which 
permit  us  to  be  moved  by  the  impressions 
of  grace  and  to  better  feel  the  divine  im- 
pulse." 

Contrition.     See  Penance. 

Convents  (religious  houses,  monaster- 
ies).—  Convents  were  established  where- 
ever  Christianity  penetrated.  The  ascetic 
life  sprung  up  in  the  Orient  in  the  first 
centuries  of  the  Church.  The  ascetics 
fled  from  the  Roman  corruption  and  the 
persecutions  which  afflicted  the  Church 
during  the  first  three  centuries.  It  was 
thus  that  the  solitudes  of  Egypt  and  of  the 
Thebaid  became  peopled  by  those  hermits 
who  were  the  first  models  of  the  cenobitic 
life.  Among  them  figure  St.  Anthony, 
St.  Paul,  St.  Pachomius,  the  two  Am- 
monii,  the  two  Macarii.  The  life  in  common 
soon  prevailed  over  the  solitary  life.  Ac- 
cording to  St.  Jerome,  there  were  not  less 
than  50,000  monks  in  the  annual  reunion 
of  the  congregation,  which  one  single  abbot 
grouped,  until  A.  D.  500,  under  his  direction. 
Prayer,  reading  of  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
meditation,  and  manual  labor  occupied  all 
their  time ;  each  convent  was  a  school  of 
charity  and  of  fruitful  activity,  which 
served  as  model  in  Asia  for  the  foundations 
of  St.  Basil  and  of  St.  John  Chrysostom. 
When  the  Arian  persecution  forced  St. 
Athanasius  toward  the  Thebaid,  in  the 
fourth  century,  he  was  the  guest  of  the 
cenobites  during  six  years.  On  his  return 
to  Rome  in  340,  he  sowed  there  the  seed  of 
the  religious  life,  which  did  not  delay  to 
bring  forth  fruit.  The  Life  of  St.  An- 
thony., written  by  him,  represented  a  model 
which  they  strove  to  imitate.  The  souls 
consecrated  to  God  were  confirmed  in 
their  heavenly  detachment  by  the  Treat- 
ise on  Virginity,  which  St.  Ambrose 
consecrated  to  them.  He,  at  the  same 
time,  drew  to  God  the  troubled  soul  of  St. 


Augustine.  The  latter,  having  become 
Bishop  of  Hippo,  established  a  religious 
order  on  the  African  soil.  The  impulse, 
once  given,  never  paused.  The  monasteries 
of  Liguge  and  of  Noirmoutiers,  founded 
by  St.  Martin,  arose  in  Gaul ;  that  of 
Lerins,  by  St.  Honoratus ;  that  of  St. 
Victor  at  Marseilles,  by  Cassian.  These 
foundations,  and  many  more  which  we 
cannot  enumerate,  had  thus  far  neither 
unity  nor  common  rule  which  could  assure 
their  future.  St.  Benedict  appeared  to 
accomplish  this  task.  From  Mount  Cassino, 
where  he  founded  the  capital  of  the 
monastic  world,  went  forth  that  famous 
Rule  which  embraced,  under  its  yoke,  all 
the  religious  orders  of  the  West.  Auxil- 
iaries of  the  secular  clergy,  the  convents 
lent  to  the  latter  their  eminent  men  and 
supported  them  in  all  their  works ;  they  also 
furnished  to  the  Papacy  a  militia  always 
ready  and  devoted.  Many  convents  of 
women  were  also  houses  of  education  for 
the  youth,  and  the  confidence  of  the  fam- 
ilies was  justified  by  the  tender  cares 
with  which  they  surrounded  their  young 
daughters.  This  custom  has  maintained 
itself  with  success  in  the  nunneries  of  the 
Sacred  Heart,  the  Ursulines,  the  Sisters  of 
Notre  Dame,  etc.     See  Monasticism. 

Conversion  of  St.  Paul. — A  festival  of 
the  Church,  observed  on  the  25th  of  Janu- 
ary, in  commemoration  of  the  conversion 
of  St.  Paul  the  Apostle,  as  related  in  the 
ninth  chapter  of  the  Acts. 

Convulsionaries. — A  class  of  Jansenists 
in  France,  who  gained  notoriety  by  falling 
into  convulsions  and  by  other  extravagant 
actions,  supposed  to  be  accompanied  by 
miraculous  cures,  in  response  to  a  supposed 
miraculous  influence,  emanating  from  the 
tomb  of  a  pious  Jansenist,  Francois  de 
Paris,  in  the  cemetery  of  St.  Medard  near 
Paris,  who  died  in  1727.  They  continued 
to  exist  for  more  than  fifty  years. 

Cope. — A  Church  vestment  which  re- 
sembles in  its  shape  an  ample  cloak.  It  is 
open  in  the  front,  and  is  fastened  over  the 
breast  by  a  morse,  or  stiflF  band  furnished 
with  clasps.  To  the  part  which  corresponds 
to  the  shoulders  of  the  wearer  is  attached  a 
piece  of  the  same  material,  in  form  like  the 
segment  of  a  circle,  and  resembles  a  hood, 
which  is  usually  adorned  with  lace.  The 
prototype  of  our  cope  is  easily  discoverable 
among  the  garments  of  the  ancient  Ro- 
mans.    Like  the  chasuble,  it  was  a  mantle 


Copernicus 


208 


Corinthians 


deriving  its  origin  from  the  paenula,  which 
it  perfectly  resembled,  with  this  variation, 
that,  while  it  encircled  the  entire  person, 
the  cope  was  open  in  front,  and  adapted  to 
defend  its  wearer  from  the  severities  of 
the  season,  the  variations  of  the  weather, 
and  from  rain,  by  the  addition  of  a  cowl  or 
hood.  Necessity  introduced  this  robe 
among  the  sacred  vestments;  and  the 
Latin  pluviale,  or  rain-cloak,  the  term  by 
which  it  still  continues  to  be  designated, 
will  immediately  suggest  its  primitive  use 
to  every  learned  reader.  Its  appropriation 
as  a  sacerdotal  garment  may  be  referred  to 
that  epoch  when  the  Popes  were  accus- 
tomed to  assemble  the  people,  during  the 
penitential  seasons  of  the  year,  at  some 
particular  Church,  which  had  been  pre- 
viously indicated  for  that  purpose,  and 
thence  proceed  with  them,  in  solemn 
procession  and  on  foot,  to  some  one  or 
other  of  the  more  celebrated  basilicas  of 
Rome,  to  hold  what  was  called  a  station. 
To  protect  the  person  of  the  Pontiff  from 
the  rain  that  might  overtake  the  procession 
on  its  way,  the  fluviale,  or  cope,  was  on 
such  occasions  assumed  by  him  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  ceremony.  It  has  been 
employed  at  the  altar  ever  since,  and  is 
worn  by  bishops  and  by  priests  on  different 
occasions,  but  particularly  at  vespers. 

Copernicus  ( 1473-1543) . — Born  at  Thorn, 
Prussia;  died  at  Frauenburg,  Prussia. 
The  founder  of  modern  astronomy.  He 
entered  the  University  of  Cracow  in  1491, 
studied  law  at  Bologna  (i49c;-i50o),  was 
appointed  canon  of  the  chapter  of  Frauen- 
burg in  1497,  lectured  on  astronomy  at 
Rome  in  1500.  He  published,  in  1543,  an 
exposition  of  his  system  of  astronomy, — 
which  has  since  received  the  name  of  the 
Copernican, —  in  a  treatise  entitled  De 
Orbiutn  coelestium  Revolutionihus. 

Copiates  or  Gravediggers. —  A  class 
of  persons  who,  in  the  early  Church,  were 
counted  among  the  number  of  the  clergy. 
They  were  charged  with  the  burial  of  the 
dead,  especially  of  the  poor. 

Copts. —  Egyptian  Christians;  the  most 
of  them  follow  the  heretical  doctrine  of 
Eutyches  and  are  also  called  Monophy- 
sites.  The  Schismatical  Copts  number 
about  one  hundred  thousand,  and  the 
United  Copts  about  five  thousand  ;  accord- 
ing to  another  estimate  they  are  put  down 
to  twelve  thousand.  Great  efforts  have 
been  made  in  the  last  forty  years  to  con- 


vert the  Copto-Ethiopians,  or  Abyssinians, 
who  are  closely  connected  with  the  Egyp- 
tian Copts.  The  labors  of  the  Catholic 
missionaries  were  attended  with  the  best 
results  in  spite  of  almost  incessant  perse- 
cutions. Including  the  converted  Gallas, 
there  are  in  Abyssinia  to-day  over  30,000 
Christians,  living  in  communion  with 
Rome.  The  Copts  in  communion  with  the 
Holy  See  formerly  were  governed  by  a 
vicar  apostolic  residing  at  Cairo,  but  in 
November,  1895,  Pope  Leo  XIII.  consti- 
tuted for  them  a  regular  hierarchy,  with  a 
patriarch  styled  '*  Patriarch  of  Alexandria 
of  the  Copts."  Besides  the  patriarch  they 
have  two  bishops  and  some  forty  priests, 
foreign  and  native.  Educational  institu- 
tions have  been  opened  by  the  Capuchins. 

Coran.     See  Koran. 

Corban. —  In  Judaism,  an  offering  of  any 
sort  to  God,  particularly  in  fulfillment  of  a 
vow.  To  the  rules  laid  down  in  Leviticus 
(xxvii.)  and  in  Numbers  (xxx.)  concerning 
vows,  the  rabbins  added  the  rule,  that  a 
man  might  interdict  himself  by  vow,  not 
only  from  using  for  himself  any  particular 
object,  for  example  food,  but  also  from 
giving  or  receiving  it.  The  thing  thus 
interdicted  was  considered  as  corban.  A 
person  might  thus  release  himself  from 
any  inconvenient  obligation  under  plea  of 
corban  —  a  practice  which  Christ  repre- 
hended, as  annulling  the  spirit  of  the  law. 

Cordeliers. —  Name  given  in  France  to 
the  regular  Franciscan  monks;  so  called 
from  the  girdle  of  knotted  cord  worn  by 
the  members  of  that  order. 

Core. —  A  Levite  who  rebelled  against 
Moses,  with  Dathan  and  Abiron,  and  who 
together  with  them  was  swallowed  alive  by 
a  miraculous  opening  of  the  earth. 

Corinth. —  In  ancient  geography  the 
capital  of  Achaia,  and  situated  on  the  isth- 
mus which  separates  the  Peloponnesus 
from  Attica.  It  was  originally  called 
Ephyre,  and  was  noted  in  ancient  times 
as  a  center  of  commerce,  literature,  and 
art. 

Corinthians  {Efistles  to  the). —  First 
Epistle:  When  St.  Paul  was  at  Ephesus, 
about  A.  D.  57,  prosecuting  his  third  Apos- 
tolic journey,  he  heard  that  an  effort  was 
being  made  by  some  among  the  Corinthian 
converts  to  divide  the  seamless  robe  of 
Christ  by  creating  a  dissentient  element 
within  the  Catholic  body  on  the  pretense 


Cornelius 


209 


Corpus  Christi 


of  following  favorite  preachers.  In  order 
to  show  the  magnitude  of  this  evil  he  ex- 
plains the  doctrine  of  the  unity  of  the 
Church  by  the  familiar  illustration  of  the 
consummate  harmony  existing  between 
the  members  of  the  human  body.  The 
antidote  he  offers  against  this  tendency 
toward  division  is  charity,  which  he  eulo- 
gizes in  brilliant  language.  Turning, 
then,  to  the  luxurious  habits  of  these  Cor- 
inthians, the  Apostle  pronounces  the  sen- 
tence of  excommunication  on  one  who  was 
living  publicly  in  incest.  This  brought 
him  to  discuss  the  relative  merits  of  vir- 
ginity and  matrimony  in  answer  to  a  re- 
quest forwarded  to  him  by  this  people. 
He  extols  the  excellence  of  marriage,  but 
declares  it  to  be  inferior  to  the  state  of 
virginity.  Lastly,  to  spur  the  Corinthians 
to  their  duty  in  these  particulars,  the 
Apostle  sets  forth  the  cheering  doctrine  of 
the  resurrection  of  the  body.  Second 
Epistle:  Toward  the  end  of  this  same 
year,  A.  d.  57,  St.  Paul  sent  Titus  to  Cor- 
inth, in  order  to  ascertain  on  the  spot  the 
effect  produced  by  the  First  Epistle  to  the 
Corinthians,  and  thence  to  come  on  direct 
to  Troas.  Titus  announced  that  the  First 
Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  wrought  a  most 
marked  change  for  the  better  on  that 
people.  This,  he  said,  was  the  more  con- 
soling, because  certain  jealous  intruders 
did  all  they  could  to  poison  the  mind  of 
the  Corinthian  converts  generally  against 
the  Epistle.  To  expose  their  fraud  and 
malice  the  Second  Epistle  to  the  Corinth- 
ians was  written,  which  opens  with  sen- 
timents of  the  tenderest  charity  toward 
the  erring  people.  Then  he  turns  to  his 
labors  in  no  spirit  of  vain  boasting,  but  to 
defend  the  honor  of  Jesus  Christ  whose 
Apostle  he  thus  fearlessly  asserted  himself 
to  be.  The  false  teachers  who  had  been 
calumniating  him,  he  denounced  with  ter- 
rible severity.  And  he  concludes  by  ex- 
pressing a  strong  hope  of  seeing  them  very 
soon. 

Cornelius. — A  Roman  centurion,  sta- 
tioned at  Caesarea,  whom  St.  Peter,  in  con- 
sequence of  a  special  revelation,  received 
into  the  communion  of  the  Christian 
Church,  directly  by  baptism  without  cir- 
cumcision (Acts  X.). 

Cornelius  (Pope,  251-252). — A  learned 
Roman  priest;  his  election  was  opposed 
by  the  ambitious  presbyter,  Novatian,  who, 
yielding  to  the  wicked  counsels  of  Novatus, 
a  turbulent  priest  from  Carthage,  became 
H 


the  rival  of  Cornelius  and  the  founder  of  a 
schismatical  sect,  called  after  him  the 
"Novatians."  Novatian  was  excommuni- 
cated by  a  council  of  sixty  bishops  held  at 
Rome,  and  the  three  bishops  who  had  or- 
dained him  were  deposed.  In  252,  Corne- 
lius was  exiled  by  Emperor  Gallus  to  Cen- 
tumcellae  (Civitta-Veechia),  where  he  died 
a  martyr. 

Cornelius  k  Lapide  (properly  van  der 
5^ee»)  (1568-1637). — Great  Biblical  scholar ; 
was  born  at.Boehaff,  near  Liege,  Bel- 
gium ;  became  a  Jesuit.  Professor  of  Holy 
Scripture  at  Louvain  and  afterwards  at 
Rome,  where  he  died.  His  learned  and 
valuable  commentaries  cover  the  entire 
Bible,  except  Job  and  the  Psalms.  (Best  ed- 
ition, Lyons,  1833,  11  vols.  Partly  trans- 
lated into  English.) 

Corozain. — A  city  of  Galilee,  on  the 
western  shore  of  Lake  Tiberiades,  near 
Bethsaida.  Christ  preached  often  in  this 
city  and  wrought  many  miracles  therein. 

Corporal. — The  corporal  is  a  square  piece 
of  fine  linen  on  which  the  Host  is  conse- 
crated. It  is  so  called  because  it  touches 
the  Body  of  our  Lord.  It  has  been  known 
by  this  appellation  for  more  than  ten  cen- 
turies. In  the  Ambrosian  rite,  the  corpo- 
ral is  likened  to  the  linen  cloths  in  which 
the  Body  of  our  Saviour  was  shrouded  in 
the  sepulchre,  and  on  unfolding  it  at  the 
Offertory,  the  priest  recites  what  is  termed 
the  "Oratio  super  sindonem."  Anciently 
the  chalice  was  also  covered  by  the  corpo- 
ral, a  practice  still  retained  by  the  Carthu- 
sians. The  Greeks  make  use  of  a  similar 
square  piece  of  linen  cloth,  which  they 
s|^read  out  as  we  do.  The  corporal  must 
be  blessed  by  a  bishop,  or  by  a  priest  hav- 
ing special  faculties. 

Corpus  Christi  (Latin  words  which  sig- 
nify Body  of  Christ). — The  most  impos- 
ing festival  of  the  Catholic  Church.  Pope 
Urban  IV.,  in  his  decree  concerning  it, 
gives  the  following  explanation  of  the 
institution  and  grandeur  of  this  festival : 
"Although  we  daily,  in  the  holy  Sacrifice 
of  the  Mass,  renew  the  memory  of  this 
holy  sacrament,  we  believe  that  we  must, 
besides,  solemnly  commemorate  it  every 
year,  to  put  the  unbelievers  to  shame ;  and 
because  we  have  been  informed  that  God 
has  revealed  to  some  pious  persons  that 
this  festival  should  be  celebrated  in  the 
whole  Church,  we  direct  that  on  the  first 
Thursday  after   the  octave  of    Pentecost, 


CORRIGAN 


2IO 


Cosmogony 


the  Faithful  should  assemble  in  the  Church, 
and  join  with  the  priests  in  singing  the  word 
of  God,"  etc.  Hence  this  festival  was  in- 
stituted on  account  of  the  greatness  of 
the  divine  mystery;  the  unbelief  of  those 
who  denied  the  truth  of  this  mystery, 
and  the  revelation  made  to  some  pious 
persons.  This  revelation  was  made  to  a 
nun  at  Liege,  named  Juliana,  and  to  her 
devout  friends,  Eve  and  Isabella.  Juliana, 
when  praying,  had  frequently  a  vision  in 
which  she  saw  the  bright  moon,  with  one 
part  of  it  somewhat  dark ;  at  her  request 
she  received  instructions  from  God  that 
one  of  the  grandest  festivals  was  yet  to  be 
instituted  :  the  festival  of  the  most  Blessed 
Sacrament  of  the  Altar.  In  1246,  she  re- 
lated this  vision  to  Robert,  Bishop  of 
Liege,  who,  after  having  investigated  the 
matter  with  the  aid  of  several  men  of 
learning  and  devotion  (among  whom  was 
Jacob  Pantaleon,  Archdeacon  of  Liege, 
afterwards  Pope  Urban  IV.),  made  arrange- 
ments to  introduce  this  festival  in  his 
diocese,  but  death  prevented  his  intention 
being  carried  into  efTect.  After  the  bish- 
op's death  the  Cardinal  Legate  Hugh  un- 
dertook to  carry  out  his  directions,  and 
celebrated  the  festival  for  the  first  time  in 
the  year  1247,  in  the  Church  of  St.  Martin 
at  Liege.  Several  bishops  followed  this 
example,  and  the  festival  was  observed  in 
many  dioceses,  before  Urban  IV.,  in  1264, 
finally  ordered  the  celebration  by  the 
whole  Church.  This  order  was  confirmed 
by  Clement  V.  at  the  Council  of  Vienna 
in  131 1,  and  the  Thursday  after  the  octave 
of  Pentecost  appointed  for  its  celebration. 
In  1317,  Pope  John  XXII.  instituted  the 
solemn  procession. 

Corrigan  (Michael  Augustine). — 
Catholic  prelate;  born  at  Newark,  New 
Jersey,  Aug.  13th,  1839.  He  was  ordained 
to  the  priesthood  at  Rome  in  1863.  After 
filling  for  a  few  years  the  chair  of  dog- 
matic theology  and  Sacred  Scripture  at 
Seton  Hall  College,  Orange,  New  Jersey, 
he  became  its  president  in  1868.  In  1873 
he  was  appointed  by  Pius  IX.  to  the  see  of 
Newark,  and  in  1880  was  made  coadjutor 
to  Cardinal  McCloskey,  Archbishop  of 
New  York,  under  the  title  of  Archbishop 
of  Petra,  and  on  the  death  of  the  cardinal 
in  1885  he  became  metropolitan  of  the  dio- 
cese of  New  York,  recei\'ing  the  pallium 
shortly  afterwards. 

Corrupticola. —  Name  of  a  sect  of  Eu- 
tjchian  heretics  whose  chief   was  a  cer- 


tain Severus,  false  patriarch  of  Antioch 
(55^)-  Severus,  having  withdrawn  to  Al- 
exandria, maintained  there  that  the  Body 
of  Christ  was  corruptible ;  that  the  Fathers 
had  acknowledged  this ;  and  to  deny  this 
was  denying  the  truth  of  the  Passion  of 
the  Saviour.  On  the  other  hand,  Julian 
of  Halicarnassus,  also  a  Eutychian  refugee 
in  Egypt,  maintained  that  the  Body  of 
Christ  had  always  been  incorruptible ;  to 
maintain  that  it  was  corruptible,  he  said, 
was  to  admit  a  distinction  between  Jesus 
Christ  and  the  Word,  and  consequently 
two  natures  in  Jesus  Christ.  The  followers 
of  Julian  were  also  called  PhtJiartolatrce, 
or  Phantasiastes. 

Cosmas  and  Damianus  (Sts.). — Broth- 
ers, born  in  Arabia,  labored  as  Christian 
physicians,  and  exercised  their  art  gratu- 
itously. Denounced  as  Christians,  they 
suffered  martyrdom  at  Eges,  in  Cilicia, 
under  Diocletian,  about  the  year  286. 
Their  remains  were  brought  to  Rome, 
where  a  splendid  church  was  dedicated  to 
their  memory,  and  where  they  are  still 
venerated,  September  27th.  Patron  saints 
of  physicians  and  druggists. 

Cosmogony  (  The  Alosaic). —  All  the  re- 
ligions and  all  the  nations  of  antiquity 
have  attempted  to  explain  the  origin  of 
things.  The  various  cosmogonic  systems 
have  common  traits  which  seem  to  indi- 
cate a  community  of  origin,  perhaps  even 
a  primitive  revelation;  but  the  most  of 
them  have  been  disfigured  in  the  course  of 
the  centuries  through  the  addition  of  child- 
ish details,  often  in  flagrant  contradiction 
with  the  most  incontestable  accounts  of 
modern  science.  A  single  one  of  these  cos- 
mogonies,—  that  which  figures  at  the  head 
of  our  Sacred  Books, —  has  escaped  this 
general  corruption  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  defy  still  to-day  the  attacks  of  infidel 
scientists.  It  does  notenter  into  our  plan  to 
give  here  a  detailed  commentary  thereon. 
To  state  this  cosmogony,  to  point  out 
briefly  its  superiority  over  all  others,  to 
say  a  word  on  the  scientific  cosmogony, 
and  finally  the  accord  of  both  —  such  is  the 
end  which  we  have  proposed  to  ourselves 
in  this  article. 

I.  The  Mosaic  Account  of  the 
Creation. —  Since  we  could  not  discuss 
the  Biblical  cosmogony  without  knowing 
its  text,  we  will  give  here  the  literal  trans- 
lation according  to  the  Hebrew,  content- 
ing ourselves  with  grouping  the  works 
peculiar  to  each  of  the  six  days  into  so 


Cosmogony 


21  I 


Cosmogony 


many  special  paragraphs  :  "In  the  begin- 
ning God  created  heaven  and  earth.  And 
the  earth  was  unformed  and  empty;  dark- 
ness was  upon  the  face  of  the  deep ;  and 
the  spirit  of  God  moved  over  the  waters." 

First  Day. —  "And  God  said:  Be  light 
made !  And  light  was  made.  And  God 
saw  the  light  that  it  was  good,  and  God 
divided  the  light  from  the  darkness.  And 
God  called  the  light  Day  and  the  darkness 
Night;  and  there  was  evening  and  morn- 
ing: one  day." 

Second  Day. —  "And  God  said:  Let 
there  be  a  firmament  made  amidst  the 
waters  and  let  it  divide  the  waters  from 
the  waters.  And  God  made  a  firmament, 
and  divided  the  waters  that  were  under  the 
firmament  from  those  that  were  above  the 
firmament,  and  it  was  so.  And  God  called 
the  firmament  Heaven.  And  the  evening 
and  morning  were  the  second  day." 

Third  Day. — "  And  God  said :  Let  the 
waters  that  are  under  the  heaven  be 
gathered  together  into  one  place,  and  let 
the  dry  land  appear.  And  it  was  so  done. 
And  God  called  the  dry  land  Earth;  and 
the  gathering  together  of  the  waters  he 
called  Seas.  And  God  saw  that  it  was 
good.  And  God  said  :  Let  the  earth  bring 
forth  the  green  herbj  bearing  seed  after  its 
kind,  and  the  tree  yielding  of  the  fruit 
which  had  in  itself  its  seed  after  its  kind. 
And  God  saw  that  it  was  good.  And  the 
earth  brought  forth  the  green  herb,  and 
such  as  yieldeth  seed  according  to  its  kind 
and  the  tree  that  beareth  fruit,  having 
seed  each  according  to  its  kind.  And 
God  saw  that  it  was  good.  And  the  even- 
ing and  morning  were  the  third  day." 

Fourth  Day. — "  And  God  said :  Let 
there  be  lights  made  in  the  firmament  of 
heaven,  to  distinguish  the  day  and  the 
night,  and  let  them  be  for  signs  and  for 
seasons,  and  for  days  and  years.  And  let 
them  be  lights  in  the  firmament  of  heaven 
to  give  light  upon  earth.  And  it  was  so 
done.  And  God  made  two  great  lights: 
the  greater  light  to  rule  the  day,  and  the 
lesser  light  to  rule  the  night,  and  he  made 
also  the  stars.  And  God  placed  them  in 
the  firmament  of  heaven  to  shine  upon  the 
earth.  And  to  rule  the  day  and  the  night 
and  to  distinguish  the  light  from  darkness. 
And  God  saw  that  it  was  good.  And  the 
evening  and  morning  were  the  fourth 
day." 

Fifth  Day.— ''And  God  said :  Let  the 
waters  bring  forth  a  multitude  of  living 
animals  and  let  the  fowl  fly  over  the  earth  | 


under  the  firmament  of  heaven.  And  God 
created  the  great  marine  monsters  and 
every  moving  animal  of  which  the  waters 
are  swarming,  according  to  their  kinds, 
and  every  winged  fowl  according  to  its 
kind.  And  God  saw  that  it  was  good. 
And  God  blessed  them,  saying:  Increase 
and  multiply,  and  fill  the  waters  of  the  sea, 
and  let  the  birds  be  multiplied  upon  the 
earth.  And  the  evening  and  morning  were 
the  fifth  day." 

Sixth  Day. — "And  God  said :  Let  the 
earth  bring  forth  the  living  animal  in  its 
kind,  cattle,  the  creeping  being,  and  the 
beasts  of  the  earth,  according  to  their 
kinds.  And  it  was  so  done.  And  God 
made  the  wild  beast  after  its  kind,  and  the 
cattle  according  to  its  kind,  and  everything 
that  creepeth  on  the  earth  after  its  kind. 
And  God  saw  that  it  was  good.  And  God 
said :  Let  us  make  man  to  our  image,  ac- 
cording to  our  likeness ;  and  let  him  have 
dominion  over  the  fishes  of  the  sea,  and 
over  the  fowls  of  the  air,  and  over  the 
beasts,  and  over  the  whole  earth,  and  over 
every  creeping  creature  upon  earth.  And 
God  created  man  to  His  own  image;  to 
the  image  of  God  He  created  him.  He 
created  them  male  and  female.  And  God 
blessed  them,  saying :  Increase  and  multi- 
ply, and  fill  the  earth,  and  subdue  it,  and 
rule  over  the  fishes  of  the  sea,  and  the 
fowls  of  the  air,  and  all  living  creatures 
that  move  upon  the  earth.  And  God  said  : 
Behold,  I  have  given  you  every  herb  bear- 
ing seed  upon  the  earth,  and  all  trees  that 
have  in  themselves  seed  of  their  own  kind  ; 
this  will  serve  you  for  nourishment.  And 
to  all  beasts  of  the  earth,  and  to  every  fowl 
of  the  air,  and  to  all  that  move  upon  the 
earth  and  wherein  there  is  life,  all  green 
herb  will  serve  for  nourishment.  And  it 
was  so  done.  And  God  saw  all  the  things 
that  He  had  made,  and  they  were  very 
good.  And  the  evening  and  morning  were 
the  sixth  day."  "These  are,"  says  the 
sacred  writer  in  the  second  chapter  of 
Genesis,  "the  generations  of  the  heaven 
and  the  earth  on  the  day  when  they  were 
created." 

When  there  is  pointed  out  in  this  won- 
derful drama  the  successive  acts  by  which 
the  intervention  of  the  Creator  reveals 
itself,  nine  of  them  present  themselves  in 
the  following  order:  (i)  Creation  of  mat- 
ter ;  (3)  Apparition  of  the  light ;  (3)  For- 
mation of  the  firmament  or  of  the  atmos- 
phere by  the  separation  of  the  condensed 
lower  waters  and  of  the  waters  remaining 


Cosmogony 


212 


Cosmogony 


in  the  state  of  vapors ;  (4)  Emersion  of  the 
continents ;  (5)  Appearance  of  the  plants ; 
(6)  Appearance  of  the  sun,  moon,  and 
stars;  (7)  Creation  of  the  aquatic  animals 
and  of  the  birds;  (8)  Appearance  of  the 
earthly  animals ;  (9)  Creation  of  man.  As 
can  be  seen,  two  distinct  works  are  attrib- 
uted to  the  third  and  to  the  sixth  days. 
The  division  of  the  works  of  creation  into 
six  days  cannot  be  looked  upon  as  arbitrary, 
and  must  have  had  some  motive  which  it 
is  undoubtedly  not  impossible  to  discover, 
that  is,  the  religious  institution  of  the 
week.  As  to  the  order  of  succession,  it  is 
not  doubtful,  and  we  shall  see  further  on 
that,  on  the  whole,  it  is  in  accord  with  the 
accounts  of  modem  science. 

II.  Superiority  of  the  Mosaic  Cos- 
mogony.— Although  the  cosmogony  we 
have  just  presented  has  not  escaped  the 
attacks  of  infidelity,  which  has  pretended 
to  see  in  it  nothing  but  nonsense  and  con- 
tradictions, the  most  of  the  Rationalists 
have  acknowledged  that  it  is  immensely 
superior  to  all  the  other  cosmogonies 
which  antiquity  has  bequeathed  to  us. 
*'  It  contains  not  one  word,"  says  one  of 
them  (Dillman,  Genesis  (1875),  p.  9), 
"which  would  appear  unworthy  of  God's 
thought.  From  the  time  that  the  mystery 
of  creation,  which  will  always  remain  a 
mystery  for  man,  was  attempted  to  be 
sketched,  in  order  to  render  it  conceivable 
to  human  intelligence,  it  was  impossible  to 
trace  a  more  magnificent  and  more  worthy 
tableau.  It  is  with  perfect  right  that  they 
draw  from  the  creative  account  a  proof  in 
favor  of  its  revealed  character."  ^A  fa- 
mous naturalist,  who  has  become,  since 
the  death  of  Darwin,  the  principal  repre- 
sentative of  the  advanced  evolutionary 
school,  Haeckel,  Professor  in  the  University 
of  Jena,  grants  the  same  praises  to  the  Mo- 
saic history  of  the  creation.  He  extols  in 
particular  "  the  simple  and  natural  dispo- 
sition of  the  ideas  exposed  therein,  which 
advantageously  contrast  with  the  confu- 
sion of  the  mythological  cosmogonies  of 
most  of  the  ancient  peoples.  According 
to  Genesis,  the  Lord  God  first  formed  the 
earth  as  an  inorganic  body.  Then  He 
separates  the  light  from  the  darkness, 
then  the  waters  from  the  firm  earth.  And 
lo,  we  have  the  earth  habitable  for  organ- 
ized beings.  Then  God  forms,  in  the 
first  place,  the  plants ;  later  on,  the  ani- 
mals, and  even  among  the  latter  He  fash- 
ions first  the  inhabitants  of  the  sea  and  of 
the  air,  and  finally  those  of  the  firm  earth. 


Finally,  God  creates  the  last  of  the  organ- 
ized beings,  man ;  He  creates  him  accord- 
ing to  his  image,  in  order  to  be  the  master 
of  the  earth."  The  illustrious  naturalist 
goes  so  far  as  to  discover  the  application 
of  his  evolutionary  ideas  to  these  suc- 
cessive and  progressive  creations.  "  Al- 
though," he  says,  "  these  great  laws  of 
organic  evolution  .  .  .  may  be  regarded 
by  Moses  as  the  expression  of  the  activitj' 
of  a  creator  forming  the  world,  we  dis- 
cover therein,  however,  the  beautiful  idea 
of  a  progressive  evolution,  of  a  gradual 
differentiation  of  primitively  simple  matter. 
Therefore,  we  can  pay  to  the  grand  idea 
contained  in  the  cosmogony  ...  of 
the  Jewish  legislator  a  just  and  sincere 
tribute  of  admiration."  f^Schopfungsge- 
schichte). 

In  order  to  fully  appreciate  the  superior- 
ity of  the  Mosaic  cosmogony,  it  will  not  be 
useless  to  cast  a  rapid  glance  on  the 
others.  Aside  from  some  features  which 
seem  to  have  been  borrowed  from  it,  or  at 
least  drawn  from  the  same  source,  what 
exaggerations,  what  childishness  and  ex- 
travagances !  The  Chaldean  cosmogony, 
which  in  many  respects  approaches  ours, 
shows  us,  according  to  Berosus,  the  su- 
preme god  Bel,  cutting  into  two  parts  his 
spouse,  of  which  parts  he  makes  both 
heaven  and  earth.  Then  we  have  him 
cutting  off  his  own  head,  and  the  other 
gods  modeling  men  out  of  the  slime  im- 
pregnated with  the  blood  of  the  divine 
victim.  The  Phoenician  traditions  trans- 
mitted by  Sanchoniaton,  represent  the 
primitive  world  in  a  state  of  chaos  and 
wrapped  in  darkness ;  but  at  the  end  of 
a  certain  number  of  centuries,  they  add, 
the  Spirit  and  the  chaos  united  to  produce 
the  world.  In  India,  we  have  two  cos- 
mogonies: that  of  Riga-Veda,  and  the 
more  recent  one  of  the  code  of  Manu. 
The  first,  which  is  rather  obscure,  shows 
us  still  the  Deity  immolating  itself  to  give 
birth  to  the  world. 

The  code  of  Manu  shows  us  that  the 
Lord,  the  supreme  and  eternal  Being, 
"  was  self-existent,  producing  first  the 
waters  {nam),  into  which  he  deposited  a 
seed."  This  seed  became  an  egg,  brilliant 
like  gold,  also  sparkling  like  a  star  of  a 
thousand  rays,  and  in  which  the  supreme 
Being  himself  was  born  under  the  form  of 
Brahma,  the  ancestor  of  all  the  beings. 
*'  Hence  the  name  Narayana,  the  one  who 
moves  upon  the  waters,"  given  to  the  new 
being.  After  having  dwelled  in  this  egg  one 


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213 


Cosmogony 


Brahmanic  year  .(that  is,  3, 110,400,000,000 
years  like  ours),  the  Lord  divided  this  egg 
into  two  parts,  of  wliich  he  made  heaven  and 
earth,  separated  by  the  atmosphere,  "  the 
eight  heavenly  regions  and  the  permanent 
reservoir  for  the  waters."  Then  from  his 
mouth,  his  arm,  his  thigh,  and  his  foot,  he 
drew  forth  the  divierse  castes,  commencing 
with  the  Brahmans.  His  body,  divided 
into  two  parts,  tJecame  half  male  and  half 
female,  and  gave  birth  to  a  whole  hierarchy 
of  beings,  in  which  the  spirit  loses  itself. 
There  are,  according  to  Manu,  ten  eminent 
saints  called  maharchis;  then  the  gnomes, 
the  giants,  the  vampires,  the  nymphs,  the 
Titans,  etc.  In  the  Egyptian  cosmogony, 
still  little  known,  we  see  the  creator  Phtah 
modeling  man  on  a  potter's  wheel.  Among 
the  Persians  we  find  the  division  into  six 
epochs ;  but  these  epochs  have  a  duration 
which  varies  from  forty-five  to  eighty  days. 
They  beheld  successively  appearing  the 
heavens,  the  water,  the  earth,  the  trees,  the 
animals,  and  man.  There  are  seven  heav- 
ens, each  of  which  bears  a  special  name. 
The  bull  was  created  before  every  other 
animal  and  lived  alone ;  but  at  its  death  its 
seed,  transported  into  the  lunar  heaven, 
gave  rise  to  the  other  animals.  Man  him- 
self drew  his  body  from  the  right  arm  of 
the  first  bull.  In  his  turn  he  lived  alone, 
and  at  his  death  he  was  transformed  into  a 
tree,  which,  cut  into  two  parts,  gave  birth 
to  a  man  and  a  woman,  the  ancestors  of  all 
mankind.  We  omit  numerous  details  void 
of  all  sense  or  too  childish.  In  Japan,  we 
find  again  the  chaos  of  Genesis,  chaos  which 
gave  rise  to  heaven  and  earth  ;  but  the  earth 
is  represented  as  swimming  upon  the  sea 
like  a  fish,  and  above  it  is  shown  a  flower 
which  becomes  a  divine  spirit.  The  Occi- 
dental cosmogonies  contain  the  same  mix- 
ture of  truth  and  error,  of  probability  and 
of  absurdities.  Greece  furnishes  very  little 
on  the  origin  of  the  world  and  of  man.  On 
tlie  contrary,  we  find  in  her  cosmogony 
long  and  tedious  details  about  the  origin 
of  the  gods,  who  for  the  most  owe  their 
birth  to  a  series  of  evolutions,  the  one  more 
improbable  than  the  other.  However,  at 
the  beginning  of  mankind,  Hesiod  shows 
us  the  golden  age,  which  might  be  an 
altered  remembrance  of  the  earthly  para- 
dise. Among  the  Latins  we  find,  as  in  the 
Bible,  chaos — rudis  indigestaque  moles 
(Ovidius) — ,  at  the  beginning  of  the  things. 
Then,  all  the  elements  are  confounded — 
air,  earth,  and  water.  After  this  they 
separate   themselves,   and   tlie    continents 


appear.  In  the  Germanic  cosmogony  we 
see  an  enormous  mass  of  ice  springing  forth 
from  the  North  Pole,  which  by  melting 
gives  rise  to  the  chaos.  From  this  chaos 
God  caused  to  arise  the  cow  Audumbla, 
which,  in  licking  the  ice  to  find  some  nour- 
ishment therein,  forms  from  it  the  osseous 
frame  of  the  giant  Bur,  father  of  Bor  and 
grandfather  of  Odin.  Then,  from  the 
primitive  chaos  there  are  formed  nine 
spheres,  which  represent  the  entire  universe 
and  its  inhabitants,  —  gods,  men,  giants, 
gnomes,  etc. 

Incomplete  as  it  may  be,  this  short  re- 
view is  sufficient  to  give  an  idea  of  the 
extravagance  of  the  pagan  cosmogonies, 
and  to  show  that  they  cannot  enter  into 
comparison  with  the  simple,  sublime,  and 
rational  cosmogony  which  figures  at  the 
head  of  our  Sacred  Books.  "Compare 
the  Biblical  account  with  these  fables," 
said  Mgr.  Meignan,  "  and  you  will  admire 
how  the  former  bears  in  all  its  parts  the 
imprint  of  historic  truth.  The  entire  ac- 
count is  sober,  plain,  clear,  and  comform- 
able  to  reason.  Undoubtedly  the  history 
of  Genesis  breathes  the  highest  poetry;  it 
has  magnificent  traits,  sublime  words;  but 
we  discover  therein  neither  any  philo- 
sophical system,  nor  any  poetic  fancy,  no 
obscure  myth  or  childish  fables.  To  this 
recital,  so  grand  and  so  simple,  we  have  to 
reduce  all  the  exaggerations  of  the  other 
cosmogonies." 

III.  The  Scientific  Cosmogony. — 
Before  passing  to  the  critical  study  of 
the  Biblical  cosmogony,  it  is  necessary  to 
briefly  notice  what  science  teaches  us  on 
the  same  subject.  The  history  of  our 
globe  may  be  divided  into  two  plainly  dis- 
tinct parts,  the  one  anterior,  the  other 
posterior,  to  the  appearance  of  life.  The 
first,  eminently  conjectural,  because  it 
escapes  the  direct  observation,  is  connected 
with  the  astronomical  and  physical  sci- 
ences ;  the  second,  more  precise  and  better 
known,  belongs  to  the  domain  of  geology. 
Let  us  throw  a  rapid  glance  on  both. 

I.  Cosmic  Era.  —  According  to  a  theory 
generally  admitted  and  which  everything 
confirms,  the  earth  and  the  other  planets 
and  satellites  which  form  a  part  of  the  solar 
system,  were  primitively  in  the  gaseous 
state,  and  in  this  state  constituted  an  im- 
mense sphere,  of  a  radius  at  least  equal  to 
the  distance  of  the  sun  from  Neptune,  the 
most  remote  planet.  This  gaseous  sphere, 
which  they  have  called  the  primitive  neb- 
ula, was    endowed  with   a    rotary   move- 


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214 


Cosmogony 


ment  which  by  and  by  became  accelerated 
as  a  result  of  the  condensation.  The  cen- 
trifugal force  developing  itself  in  propor- 
tion, gaseous  particles,  perhaps  even  com- 
plete rings,  detached  themselves  from  the 
surface  of  the  immense  sphere,  at  its  equa- 
torial part,  and  by  concentrating  them- 
selves gave  rise  to  the  planets,  which 
themselves  still  gaseous,  produced  the  satel- 
lites in  the  same  manner.  The  nucleus  of 
the  nebula,  not  yet  entirely  condensed,  is 
nothing  else  than  the  sun,  whose  mass  is 
seven  hundred  times  above  that  of  all  the 
planets  united  with  their  satellites.  This 
hypothesis,  to  which  Herschel  and  Laplace 
have,  attached  their  names,  rests  upon 
numerous  facts.  It  is  observed,  for  in- 
stance, that  the  density  of  matter  increases 
upon  our  planet  from  the  surface  to  the 
center,  and  undoubtedly  also  from  the 
most  remote  planets  to  the  sun  itself,  which 
is  probably  still  in  a  gaseous  state.  In  the 
second  place,  the  different  phases  through 
which  our  nebula  must  have  passed  are 
again  found  in  our  days  in  our  solar  system, 
or  in  the  extraneous  systems.  The  teles- 
cope here  shows  us  nebulae  which  seem  in 
the  process  of  becoming  condensed  ;  there, 
suns  on  the  point  of  being  extinguished 
in  order  to  become  planets;  elsewhere, 
planets  or  satellites,  like  the  moon,  that 
have  attained,  it  would  seem,  the  extreme 
point  of  their  transformations  and  be- 
come uninhabitable  in  default  of  atmos- 
phere- A  last  argument  appealed  to  in 
confirmation  of  this  system  consists  in  the 
uniformity  of  the  rotary  and  revolutionary 
movements  of  the  planets  and  of  their 
satellites,  all  of  which,  or  nearly  all,  are 
direct,  that  is,  executed  from  west  to  east. 
We  say  almost  all,  for  it  is  believed  to 
have  been  established  within  the  last  few 
years  that  the  movements  of  the  satellites 
of  the  two  most  remote  planets,  Uranus, 
and  Neptune,  are  effected  from  east  to 
w^est;  but  this  exception,  if  it  be  real,  does 
not,  whatever  may  be  said,  run  counter  to 
the  system  attributed  to  Laplace.  It  is 
rather  a  quite  natural  consequence  of  the 
law  of  Kepler,  who  claims  that  the  celestial 
bodies  most  remote  from  the  star  around 
which  they  gravitate  have  a  swiftness  the 
inverse  of  their  distance.  But  here  is  not 
the  place  to  insist  on  a  question  of  such  a 
technical  nature.  In  spite  of  the  criticisms 
to  which  it  might  have  been  exposed,  the 
theory  which  beholds  in  the  heavenly 
bodies  so  many  fragments  more  or  less  con- 
densed of  an  ancient  nebula  is  universally 


accepted  by  the  learned  world,  and  although 
it  may  not  be  susceptible  of  a  direct  demon- 
stration, and  may  be  variously  understood 
in  the  details,  it  is  a  very  difficult  thing  to 
prove  it  lacking  in  a  foundation  of  truth. 

But  the  matter  of  which  the  universe  is 
composed  could  not  pass  abruptly  from 
the  gaseous  into  the  solid  state.  In  the 
interval  there  was  a  liquid  or  doughy 
state,  which  must  have  sers^ed  as  tran- 
sitional. The  molecules  drawn  together 
through  the  effect  of  condensation,  which 
itself  resulted  from  the  law  of  attraction, 
combined  themselves  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  form  solid  bodies,  and  in  combining 
themselves  they  must  have  produced  heat 
and  light.  Nevertheless,  the  principal 
source  of  heat  has  been  the  condensation 
itself  of  the  nebula,  condensation  which, 
by  continuing  before  our  eyes  in  the  sun, 
makes  of  this  central  astral  sphere  the 
radiant  heat-giver  which  sustains  life  upon 
our  planet. 

Much  smaller  than  the  sun,  the  earth 
necessarily  passed  more  quickly  through 
the  diverse  phases  through  which  it  seems 
every  heavenly  body  is  called  upon  to 
pass.  Like  its  satellite,  the  moon,  which 
had  become  detached  from  its  still  gaseous 
mass,  our  globe  needed  only  a  relatively 
short  time  to  transform  itself  from  a 
simple  nebula  into  a  luminous  sun,  and 
from  a  sun  into  a  cooled  planet,  capable  of 
being  inhabited.  To  the  gaseous  state,  as 
we  have  said,  succeeded  the  liquid  state, 
and  to  the  latter  the  solid  state.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  perpetual  radiation  that  was 
produced  on  its  surface,  the  superficial 
layer  became  solidified  first,  so  as  to  form 
a  thin  crust  similar  to  that  which  covers 
the  currents  of  lava  after  a  volcanic 
eruption.  Often  broken  at  the  beginning, 
on  account  of  its  thinness  and  of  the 
violence  of  the  internal  fire,  this  crust 
ended  by  reconstituting,  consolidating, 
and  cooling  itself,  so  as  to  permit  vege- 
table and  animal  life  to  develop  on  its 
surface.  Then  commences  the  geological 
era,  which  we  have  to  describe  briefly. 

2.  Geological  Era. — This  era  has  been 
divided  into  three  long  epochs,  called 
Primary  (or  epoch  of  Transition),  Sec- 
ondary, and  Tertiary.  Very  often  geolo- 
gists add  a  fourth  epoch,  of  which  the 
actual  age  is  only  the  extension  of  the 
Tertiary,  called  the  Quaternary  epoch; 
but  on  account  of  its  short  duration,  con- 
fusion, and  absence  of  precise  character- 
istics, the  latter  epoch  cannot,  by  common 


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215 


Cosmogony 


consent,  enter  into  comparison  with  the 
foregoing  ones.  The  characteristics  of  the 
geological  epochs  are  as  follows :  The 
first  has  been  the  era  of  the  vegetables; 
the  second  the  era  of  the  aquatic  animals, 
especially  of  the  reptiles ;  the  third  the 
era  of  the  terrestrial  animals,  and  the  fourth 
the  human  era.  But  without  making  here 
a  course  of  geology,  we  shall  enter  some- 
what more  into  details. 

a.  The  Primary  epoch  is  also  called,  as 
we  have  said,  the  Period  of  Transition,  be- 
cause the  grounds  which  represent  it  mark 
it  as  a  passage  between  the  rocks  of  fiery 
origin,  which  constitute  the  mass  of  the 
earthly  crust,  and  the  sedimentary  rocks, 
deposited  at  the  bottom  of  the  waters  and 
often  enriched  with  fossil  remains  of  plants 
and  animals.  It  is  divided  into  five  periods, 
which  correspond  to  the  successive  forma- 
tion of  the  Cambrtati,  Siluriqn,  Devonian, 
Carboniferous,  and  Permian  strata.  Life 
seems  to  have  appeared  upon  earth  at  the 
beginning  of  the  Cambrian  period,  under 
the  form  of  the  lowest  beings, —  annelides, 
polyps,  graptolithes,  etc., —  belonging  to 
the  lowest  steps  of  the  animal  ladder.  It 
developed  itself  in  the  period  following; 
but  it  is  still  represented  only  by  beings  of 
minute  structure,  mostly  aquatic,  the  conti- 
nents having  yet  hardly  made  their  appear- 
ance. The  species  which  dominates  in  this 
humble  fauna  is  a  family  of  Crustacea  called 
tribolites,  on  account  of  the  three  lobes 
that  characterize  them  and*  distinguish 
them  from  the  other  existing  beings. 
However,  in  the  upper  part  of  the  Silurian 
stratum  fishes  appear;  but  they  are  scarce 
and  of  slight  dimensions.  The  Carbonif- 
erous period,  which  follows,  is  the  most 
important  of  the  primary  school.  On  the 
recently  emerged  continents,  thanks  to  the 
humidity,  the  still  intense  and  uniform 
heat,  and  the  carbonic  acid  abundantly 
spread  over  the  impure  atmosphere  of  the 
primitive  era,  there  develops  a  luxuriant 
vegetation,  whose  debris,  carried  along  by 
the  waters  into  the  estuaries  and  lakes, 
gave  rise  to  immense  deposits  of  coal,  which 
foster  modern  industry.  When,  later  on, 
it  was  represented  by  plants  of  a  more  ele- 
vated order,  at  no  time  in  the  history  of  the 
globe  has  it  been  so  abundant.  This  won- 
derful vegetation  continues,  while  becom- 
ing weaker,  during  that  Permian  period, 
which  is,  so  to  say,  only  a  prolongation 
of  the  preceding,  although  it  had  its  char- 
acteristics in  certain  moUusks  which  then 
made  their  appearance. 


b.  Four  times  less  extended  than  the 
Primary  period,  when  we  judge  it  by  the 
thickness  of  the  strata  which  are  connected 
with  it,  the  Secondary  epoch,  divided  in 
its  turn  into  three  periods,  Triassic,  furas- 
sic,  and  Cretaceous,  has  been  essentially 
that  of  reptiles,  and  especially  of  aquatic 
reptiles.  Undoubtedly,  the  mollusks  are 
always  the  most  numerous  in  it,  as,  witness 
the  ammonites  and  belemnites,  which  oc- 
cupy such  a  large  place  in  the  glass  cases 
of  our  paleontological  collections;  but  the 
cold-blooded  vertebrae,  the  fishes  and  the 
reptiles,  attract  the  attention  still  more  on 
account  of  their  strange  forms  or  their  im- 
posing proportions.  The  reptiles, especially, 
in  this  period,  have  dimensions  which  we 
no  longer  find  in  the  existing  fauna.  Such 
are  the  ichthyosaurus,  the  megalosaurus, 
animals,  more  or  less  amphibious,  of  the 
Saurian  family,  which  measured  more  than 
thirty  feet  in  length.  Others,  like  the 
pterodactylns  and  the  ramphorhynchus, 
had  the  strange  privilege  of  being  provided 
with  wings  and  with  the  power  of  flying, 
or  at  least  of  maintaining  themselves  in  the 
air  for  some  time.  In  that  time  also  the 
birds  make  their  appearance.  We  can  rec- 
ognize them  by  the  imprints  which  their 
feet  have  left  on  the  strands  of  the  period, 
and  also  by  their  bones,  which,  however, 
are  very  rare.  As  to  the  class  of  fishes, 
which  we  have  seen  making  their  appear- 
ance in  the  Primary  epoch,  it  maintains  and 
develops  itself  during  the  Secondary  epoch, 
especially  towards  the  end,  during  the  de- 
posit of  the  cretaceous  layers,  without,  how- 
ever, assuming  extraordinary  proportions. 

c.  The  Tertiary  epoch,  the  third  of  the 
geological  times,  much  resembles  our  own 
from  the  point  of  view  of  the  fauna.  It  is 
par  excellence  the  era  of  the  earthly  ani- 
mals. All  the  families  of  mammifera  are 
represented  therein,  but  none  by  more 
gigantic  animals  than  that  of  the  pachy- 
derms. Aside  from  the  paleotherium  and 
the  acerotherium,  which  seemed  to  fore- 
cast our  rhinoceros,  and  aside  from  the 
hipparion,  whose  transformation  has  made 
it  the  ancestor  of  the  horse,  we  see  the 
dinotherium  and  the  mastodon,  "the  most 
imposing  of  the  earthly  mammifera  which 
have  lived  upon  our  globe."  (Albert 
Gaudry.)  The  dinotherium  attained  to 
fifteen  feet  in  height.  The  mastodon, 
which  hardly  differed  from  the  elephant 
except  by  its  knobbed  dentition,  prevailed, 
however,  over  the  latter  through  its  still 
more  colossal  proportions. 


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216 


Cosmogony 


d.  Finally,  in  the  superficial  strata  which 
represent  the  Quaternary  epoch,  or,  if  you 
wish,  the  beginnings  of  the  actual  era,  we 
find  the  real  elephant,  the  mammoth,  and, 
aside  from  this,  the  predecessors  of  our 
actual  species,  the  rhinoceros,  the  bear, 
the  stag,  the  horse,  etc.,  and  finally  man 
himself,  our  ancestor,  whom  we  recognize 
bj-.the  rude  implements  of  stone  which  he 
fashioned,  more  than  bj'  his  bones,  which 
are  almost  always  of  a  doubtful  authen- 
ticity. 

Such  are,  in  summary,  the  diverse  mani- 
festations of  life  on  the  surface  of  the 
globe.  In  the  primary  times,  there  were 
neither  mamraifera  nor  birds,  but  low 
mollusks,  crustaceae  (tribolites),  some 
fishes,  the  first  batrachians,  and  especially 
a  luxuriant  vegetation  which  gave  us  our 
immense  layers  of  coal.  Favored  by  a 
warm  and  cloudy  atmosphere,  which  is 
not  without  analogy  to  that  of  our  tropical 
regions,  this  vegetation  ended  in  puri- 
fying the  air,  from  which  it  removed  the 
excess  of  carbonic  acid,  and  perhaps  the 
other  impurities  which  until  then  un- 
doubtedly had  been  an  obstacle  to  the 
direct  action  of  the  solar  rays.  Hence- 
forth, terrestrial  air-breathing  and  pulmo- 
nary animals  will  be  enabled  to  live  upon 
the  earth.  They  also  make  their  appear- 
ance in  the  Secondary  epoch,  first  under 
the  form  of  more  or  less  amphibious  rep- 
tiles, for  undoubtedly  the  continents  are 
as  yet  little  extended  and  the  air  has  not 
acquired  its  definitive  purity.  Only  toward 
the  end  of  the  Secondary  period  do  the 
birds  appear,  whose  energetic  respiration 
requires  an  air  rich  in  oxygen;  and  some 
of  the  lower  mammifera.  Thanks  to  these 
same  conditions,  the  great  terrestrial  ani- 
mals arrive  in  their  turn  to  animate  nature, 
henceforth  ready  to  receive  man  himself, 
the  last  arrival  of  the  createa  beings. 
This  is  the  Tertiary  epoch,  of  which  the 
present  era  is,  so  to  say,  only  the  contin- 
uation. 

IV.  Accord  Between  Science  and 
THE  Bible. —  If  we  will  now  go  back  to 
the  first  chapter  of  Genesis,  which  we 
have^  given  at  the  head  of  this  article,  we 
will  find  there,  instead  of  an  alleged  dis- 
cord, a  striking  resemblance  to  the  pre- 
ceding cosmogony.  To  convince  ourselves 
of  this,  let  us  examine  successively  each 
of  the  Genetical  days. 

Creation  of  Matter. — The  creation  of 
matter  preceded  every  other  intervention 
of  the  Deity  in  the  production  of  the  vis- 


ible world ;  science  requires  this  not  less 
than  logic.  Science  proves,  indeed,  that 
matter  cannot  be  eternal.  By  teaching  us 
that  it  took  successive  forms  in  an  uninter- 
rupted progress  from  one  to  another,  pass- 
ing from  the  simple  and  gaseous  state  into 
the  composite  and  solid  state,  it  shows  it 
to  us  at  the  beginning  in  a  state  of  the 
greatest  simplicity.  It  is  impossible  to  go 
back  further  than  to  the  beginning  of  the 
evolutionary  period.  At  this  point  of  the 
past,  w-hich,  although  extremely  remote, 
cannot  have  been  infinite,  creation  asserts 
itself.  It  is  the  moment  when  God 
launched  the  material  atoms  into  space, 
subjecting  them  to  laws  which  have  formed 
of  them  our  actual  world.  The  ex- 
pressions of  which  the  sacred  writer  makes 
use,  seem  to  indicate  that  he  had  an  idea 
about  the  state  of  matter  as  it  went  forth 
from  the  hand^s  of  the  Creator  conformable 
to  that  of  contemporary  science.  The 
earth,  he  tells  us,  -was  unformed  and  emfty 
(Gen.  i.  2).  "Invisible  and  without  con- 
sistency," says  the  Septuagint.  These 
words  may  be  applied  to  the  primitive 
nebula,  whose  elements  were  so  rarefied 
that  it  was  inferior  in  density,  astronomers 
tell  us,  to  the  air  that  remains  in  the  pneu- 
matic machine  after  the  attempt  at  a  vacuum. 

First  Day. — It  was  marked  by  the  ap- 
pearance of  light.  Thus  it  preceded  the 
light  of  the  sun  by  three  days.  This  fact, 
far  from  being  in  contradiction  with 
science,  denotes,  on  the  contrary,  in  the 
sacred  writer  an  extraordinary  intuition, 
which  can  hardly  be  explained  without  a 
special  revelation.  To  speak  of  light  be- 
fore pointing  out  the  existence  of  the 
hearth  which  is  to-day  the  only  source 
thereof,  must  have  appeared  paradoxical  in 
times  of  yore,  and  an  ordinary  writer 
would  undoubtedly  never  have  even 
dreamed  of  this.  It  needed  the  progress 
of  modern  science  to  verify  the  author  of 
Genesis.  We  know  now  that  the  sun  did 
not  need  to  be  the  first  hearth  of  light  to 
enlighten  the  earth. 

Geology  teaches  us  that  long  after  life 
had  appeared  on  the  globe  under  the  forms 
of  vegetables  and  the  lower  animals,  at 
least  until  the  carboniferous  period,  our 
planet  was  surrounded  by  an  opaque  at- 
mosphere charged  with  carbonic  acid, 
gaseous  matters,  and  watery  vapors,  which 
an  elevated  temperature  hindered  from 
becoming  entirely  condensed.  In  conse- 
quence of  these  perpetual  clouds,  very 
favorable  to  vegetation  when  joined  with 


Cosmogony 


217 


Cosmogony 


heat  and  dampness,  the  luminous  rays 
emitted  by  the  stars  were  intercepted,  so 
to  say,  and  the  earth  received  only  a 
diffusive  light.  It  was  only  when  the  tem- 
perature had  become  somewhat  lower,  and 
when  the  wonderful  vegetation  of  the  car- 
boniferous times  had  absorbed  the  greater 
part  of  the  carbon  with  which  the  atmos- 
phere was  saturated,  that  the  humble 
inhabitants  of  the  earth  could  see  the  solar 
disk  and  the  other  stars.  Hence  it  is  not 
without  reason  that  the  sacred  account 
postpones,  until  this  date,  posterior  to  the 
great  vegetable  manifestation  of  the  third 
day,  or  of  the  carboniferous  period,  the 
appearance  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars. 
For,  we  must  not  forget,  the  sacred  writer 
does  not  tell  us  that  these  heavenly  bodies 
were  created  on  this  day.  The  word  bara, 
which  signifies  to  create  in  Hebrew,  is 
used  by  him  only  in  rare  circumstances 
and  always  with  a  deliberate  intention,  for 
instance,  for  the  first  appearance  of  mat- 
ter. The  word  here  used,  asak,  has  evi- 
dently not  the  same  force.  It  signifies  at 
most  to  make,  and  we  have  no  right  to  ex- 
aggerate or  alter  its  meaning.  Let  us 
conclude  from  what  precedes,  on  the  one 
hand,  that  the  sun  was  not  the  first  hearth 
of  light  that  illuminated  the  earth;  on  the 
other  hand,  that  its  disk  became  visible 
only  quite  late,  undoubtedly  long  after  it 
had  already  fulfilled  its  actual  role, —  a 
double  reason  why  the  sacred  writer  could, 
even  had  to,  in  spite  of  the  sneers  of  the 
last  century,  mention  its  appearance  long 
after  that  of  the  light. 

Second  Day. — The  first  day,  joining 
with  it  the  period  that  preceded  the  appear- 
ance of  light,  must  have  been  of  immense 
duration.  We  can  consider  this  epoch  as 
extending  from  the  very  creation  of  the 
elements  of  matter  until  the  time  when  the 
earthly  crust  commenced  to  form  itself. 
Therefore,  it  comprises  the  whole  time 
during  which  the  earth  remained  in  the 
gaseous  state.  As  to  the  second  dav,  it  ex- 
tended from  the  formation  of  the  solid 
crust  to  the  emersion  or  appearance  of  the 
continents,  and  will  comprise  not  only  the 
Azoic  age  of  the  geologists,  but  also  at  least 
the  whole  Cambrian  period,  the  first  of 
the  geological  eras ;  for  there  is  every  rea- 
son to  believe  that  the  continents  did  not 
yet  exist  in  this  period.  At  least  the  ani- 
mal and  vegetable  kingdoms  have  not  fur- 
nished us  until  now  with  any  distinctly  ter- 
restrial fossil  that  dates  from  these  remote 
times.     We   can   even,   it   seems,   say  the 


same  of  the  first  part  of  the  Silurian  period. 

Be  this  as  it  may,  on  the  second  day,  the 
Bible  tells  us,  the  waters  that  were  above 
separated  themselves  from  those  that  were 
below.  What  does  this  mean,  if  not  that 
the  water,  maintained  until  now  in  the 
vaporous  state  through  the  intense  heat 
which  radiated  from  the  globe,  and  not  yet 
solidified,  then  became  partly  condensed .'' 
All  this  is  conformable  to  the  accounts  of 
science.  At  the  same  time  that  the  earthly 
crust  became  thicker  and  cooler,  the  vapor- 
ous water  evidently  must  have  become 
condensed,  and  by  condensing  have  formed 
round  the  globe  a  continuous  liquid  mass; 
for  if  there  behereand  there  inequalities  of 
the  soil,  such  as  are  to  be  met  with  in  the 
cooled  volcanic  lavas,  there  are  asyet  noele- 
vations  or  depressions  which  might  merit 
the  name  of  mountains.  However,  the  tem- 
perature is  still  very  high,  because  a  part 
of  the  vapors  remains  yet  a  long  time  in  the 
state  of  clouds  high  in  the  heavens.  This  is 
really  the  separation  of  the  waters  from 
the  waters,  of  which  the  sacred  writer 
speaks;  it  is  the  formation  of  the  atmos- 
phere or  of  the  firmament,  to  use  the  ex- 
pression consecrated  by  the  Vulgate. 
However,  the  waters  become  cooler  by  and 
by  and  permit  the  development  of  life  at 
the  bottom  of  the  seas  under  the  most 
humble  forms.  This  is  the  beginning  of 
the  Primary  Epoch.  If  the  Bible  does  not 
tell  us  anything  of  these  first  beings,  it  is 
because,  buried  in  the  depth  of  the  waters, 
they  have  played  in  the  history  of  the  globe 
a  role  which  may  interest  science,  but  not 
man,  generally  speaking. 

Third  Day.  —  Until  now  the  waters 
covered  the  entire  face  of  the  earth,  still 
destitute  of  sensible  life.  But  behold  the 
mountains  and  plateaus  rising  and  permit- 
ting life,  until  now  relegated  to  the  bottom 
of  the  seas,  to  develop  itself  upon  the  firm 
earth.  The  earthly  crust  has  become 
thicker.  In  order  to  continue  to  rest  on 
the  liquid  nucleus,  which  has  diminished  in 
volume,  it  bends  itself,  and  these  bendings 
form  the  mountains.  This  appearance  of 
the  continents  inaugurates  the  third  part 
of  the  creative  work.  Upon  these  freshly 
emerged  lands  develops,  thanks  to  the 
dampness,  heat,  and  atmosphere  always 
saturated  with  carbon  and  watery  vapors, 
the  luxuriant  vegetation  which  character- 
izes the  carboniferous  period.  Here  again 
everything  is  rational  and  conformable  to 
the  teachings  of  science.  The  dominant 
trait   of  the  Primary  epocli,  like  that  of 


Cosmogony 


218 


Cosmogony 


the  third  genetical  day^  is,  after  the  for- 
mation of  the  continents,  the  development 
of  the  vegetation,  which  never  in  any  other 
epoch  attained  a  similar  exuberance.  If 
the  sacred  writer  really  intended  to  seize 
the  characteristics  of  each  of  the  days  of 
the  creation ;  to  note  down  in  a  few  words 
that  which  would  have  especially  struck 
every  spectator  who  had  assisted  at  the 
slow  formation  of  the  world,  it  would  have 
been  about  the  plants,  and  about  the  plants 
alone,  he  should  have  instructed  us,  after 
having  pointed  out  the  emersion  of  the  first 
continents.  Undoubtedly,  it  was  not  the 
vegetable  life  alone  that  existed  in  this 
period.  Animals  of  an  inferior  order, 
mollusks,  Crustacea,  even  some  vertebrates 
of  the  class  of  fishes,  lived  concurrently ; 
but,  buried  at  the  bottom  of  the  waters, 
these  beings  passed  in  some  way  unper- 
ceived  in  the  midst  of  the  abundant  car- 
boniferous vegetation.  Hence  it  is  that 
some  exegetists  have  wrongfully  appealed 
to  this  silence  of  the  inspired  author  in 
order  to  refuse  to  identify  the  carboniferous 
period  with  the  third  day  of  the  creation. 
Their  objection  would,  perhaps,  have  some 
value,  if  Moses  attributed  the  appearance 
of  the  fishes  to  another  period  ;  but  he  does 
not  do  this.  He  does  not  even  mention 
them  on  the  fifth  day.  The  aquatic  animals 
which  he  points  out  at  this  date  are  not 
fishes,  but  marine  monsters  and  reptiles  of 
whimsical  and  imposing  forms, —  a  new 
proof  that  the  inspired  writer  contents 
himself  with  pointing  out  at  each  epoch 
that  which  constitutes  for  the  mass  of  men 
the  striking  and  characteristic  feature. 
Now,  that  which  constitutes  for  everybody, 
even  for  the  learned,  the  characteristic 
feature  of  the  Primary  epoch,  is  evidently 
its  vegetation.  In  view  of  the  mighty 
spectacle  it  presents,  the  humble  fishes 
that  were  swimming  in  the  seas  of  that 
period  could  be  overlooked. 

Fourth  Day. — The  event  referred  to  at 
this  date  by  the  sacred  writer,  namely,  the 
appearance  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars, 
does  not  belong  to  the  domain  of  geology 
and  almost  escapes  scientific  treatment 
altogether.  However,  it  is  conformable 
to  the  accounts  of  science.  It  is  quite 
natural,  indeed,  that  the  air,  purified 
through  the  abundant  vegetation  of  the 
foregoing  period,  permitted  the  luminous 
rays  emanating  from  the  heavenly  bodies 
to  reach  our  planet  for  the  first  time. 
Hence  it  is  no  longer  only  a  diffusive  light 
which  the  earth  receives;   henceforth  the 


sun,  moon,  and  stars  will  be  visible,  at 
least  at  intervals.  It  is  undoubtedly  in 
this  sense  rather  than,  as  we  have  said,  in 
the  sense  of  a  real  creation,  that  we  must 
understand  the  sacred  text.  It  would  be 
contrary  to  the  scientific  probabilities  that 
all  the  heavenly  bodies  should  have  been 
created  at  the  same  time  and  in  this  late 
period.  Also,  as  we  have  seen  before, 
Genesis  does  not  speak  here  of  a  creation. 
The  word  bar  a  {to  create).,  which  has  thus 
far  been  employed  only  once,  in  regard  to 
the  first  appearance  of  matter,  will  not  be 
epiployed  any  more  except  in  regard  to 
animals  and  man ;  which  is  also  conform- 
able to  the  requirements  of  sound  phi- 
losophy. 

The  fourth  genetical  day  could  not  have 
had  such  a  considerable  duration  as  the 
preceding  ones.  We  can  place  it  geo- 
logically only  between  the  Carboniferous 
period  and  the  Secondary  epoch,  the 
former  of  which  clearly  corresponds  to 
the  third  Biblical  Day,  and  the  latter  to  the 
fifth.  In  fact,  the  single  event  to  which  it 
is  devoted,  the  appearance  of  the  astral 
bodies,  must  have  been  almost  instanta- 
neous ;  a  rent  produced  in  the  thick  clouds 
that  veiled  the  heavens  was  sufficient  to 
reveal  to  the  earthly  beings,  yet  of  so  in- 
ferior a  type,  the  celestial  wonders.  How- 
ever, a  considerable  length  of  time  must 
have  elapsed  before  this  spectacle,  at  first 
exceptional  and  very  rare,  was  offered  al- 
most constantly  to  the  earth,  and  this  time, 
which  constitutes  the  fourth  day,  may  be 
identified  with  the  Permian  period,  the  last 
of  the  Primary  epoch.  The  carbonifer- 
ous vegetation  which  then  continued,  it  is 
true,  but  with  less  exuberance,  must  have 
resulted  in  completing  the  purification  of 
the  atmosphere  and  preparing  the  way 
for  the  arrival  of  pulmonary-breathing  ani- 
mals. 

Fifth  Day. — The  work  of  this  day  is  a 
double  one;  it  consists  in  the  successive 
creation  of  the  aquatic  reptiles  and  of  the 
birds.  It  is  something  remarkable  that 
the  Secondary  period  of  geology  presents 
to  us  the  same  animals  in  the  same  order. 
Since  the  Triassic  period,  which  consti- 
tutes the  first  part  thereof,  we  see  appear- 
ing various  reptiles  of  the  class  of  the 
swimming  saurians.  However,  the  most 
monstrous  of  these  reptiles,  such  as  the 
ichthyosaurus,  for  instance,  appear  only 
later,  in  the  Jurassic  epoch.  As  to  the 
birds,  they  have  found  but  little  of  their  re- 
mains or  imprints,  except   in  the    Creta- 


Cosmogony 


219 


Cosmogony 


ceous  layers, —  that  is,  on  the  upper  part  of 
the  secondary  strata.  It  is  true  they  are 
not  very  numerous  therein,  but  they  are 
no  more  so  in  the  periods  following. 
This  comparative  rarity  is  due  undoubtedly 
to  the  tenderness  of  their  bones,  which 
could  hardly  resist  the  destructive  action  of 
time.  It  is  due  also,  according  to  Pictet, 
to  their  specific  weight,  which  being  in- 
ferior to  that  of  water,  prevented  them  from 
becoming  fossilized,  as  it  caused  them  to 
float  on  the  surface  in*  cases  of  inundation, 
and  thus  become  a  prey  to  the  voracity  of 
fishes  and  of  other  carnivorous  animals. 
Besides  it  is  well  to  remark  that  the  Hebrew 
word  of,  employed  here,  and  generally 
translated  bird,  is  not,  however,  con- 
fined to  this  sense  exclusively ;  it  also  signi- 
fies ^jy/'w^^  creature  and  consequently  may 
be  applied  to  winged  reptiles,  such  as  the 
fterodactylus  and  the  ramphorhynchus,  as 
well  as  to  birds,  properly  speaking. 

The  same  remark  applies  still  more  rig- 
orously to  the  fishes,  whose  creation  it  is 
customary  to  refer  to  the  fifth  day.  In 
reality,  there  is  no  question  of  fishes  at  this 
date,  but  only  of  marine  monsters  and  of 
animals  which  crawl  in  the  water.  More- 
over, the  geological  epoch  called  Second- 
ary is  remarkable,  not  only  for  its  fishes, 
but  for  its  marine  monsters  and  aquatic 
reptiles;  so  that  they  have  called  this 
period  "  the  age  of  reptiles."  But  one  fact 
to  which  sufficient  attention  has  not  until 
now  been  paid,  is  that  these  reptiles  are  all, 
or  nearly  all,  aquatic.  Of  the  various 
orders  which  compose  this  class,  a  single 
one  only,  that  of  the  ophidians  (serpents), 
has  almost  exclusively  earthly  habits ;  be- 
sides, it  is  not  represented  in  the  Sec- 
ondary epoch,  while  the  others  are  abound- 
ing in  the  strata  of  this  age. 

It  seems,  then,  that  all  the  Secondary 
reptiles  frequented  the  seas,  lakes,  or 
rivers :  which  is  in  conformity  with  the 
Biblical  account,  which  makes  the  fifth 
day  the  era  of  the  aquatic  animals.  Let 
us  remark,  however,  that  if  they  should 
succeed  in  establishing  among  these  rep- 
tiles some  land  species,  the  veracity  of  the 
sacred  writer  would  not  suffer  on  this  ac- 
count. It  would  always  remain  true  that 
the  marine  monsters  and  the  aquatic  rep- 
tiles have  constituted,  before  and  contem- 
poraneous with  the  birds,  the  striking 
feature  of  the  fifth  day,  and  it  would  be 
poor  grace  for  us  to  require  from  a  writer, 
who  devotes  his  pen  to  great  outlines,  to 
point  out  such  very  small  exceptions. 


Sixth  Day. — The  sixth  and  last  part  of 
the  creative  work  undoubtedly  corresponds 
to  the  Tertiary  epoch  of  the  geologists. 
According  to  both  the  Bible  and  science, 
this  epoch  is  preeminently  the  age  of  the 
earthly  animals.  Certainly  among  the 
mammifera,  then  so  numerous,  there  ex- 
isted some  species  which,  like  our  present 
cetacea,  lived  in  the  sea ;  but,  except  the 
group  of  aquatic  animals,  which  appeared 
in  the  preceding  period,  they  are  relatively 
scarce,  especially  when  we  consider  the 
facility  with  which  their  remains  ought  to 
have  been  preserved  at  the  bottom  of  the 
waters.  That  which  dominates  in  the 
Tertiary  fauna,  are  before  all  the  pachy- 
derms and  the  ruminants.  These  have 
given  to  this  period  its  peculiar  physiog- 
nomy, and  it  was  quite  natural  for  a 
writer,  who  neglects  the  details  and  has  no 
scientific  pretensions,  to  concentrate  his 
intention  upon  them.  We  will  not  take 
the  trouble  to  enumerate  them.  To  form 
an  idea  of  their  importance  and  of  their 
variety,  it  is  enough  to  glance  at  any  geo- 
logical treatise. 

But  a  still  more  important  work  is  at- 
tributed to  the  sixth  day:  Man  is  created. 
Here  there  is  question  of  a  real  creation. 
The  expression  used  is  the  word  bara, 
which  signifies  to  draw  out  from  noth- 
ing; and  which  we  have  met  only  twice : 
first  in  regard  to  the  appearance  of  mat- 
ter, and  the  second  time  at  the  creation  of 
the  first  animal ;  a  double  circumstance 
where  sound  reason,  resting  upon  science, 
claims,  indeed,  the  creative  intervention 
of  God. 

A  little  difficulty  presents  itself  as  to  the 
subject  of  the  identification  of  the  sixth 
Genetical  day  with  the  Tertiary  epoch. 
The  Bible  refers  the  creation  of  man  to 
the  sixth  day,  while  geology  shows  us 
man  only  in  the  Quaternary  epoch.  We 
might  answer  that  certain  scientists  have 
pretended  to  find  in  the  Tertiary  layers 
manifest  proofs  of  the  existence  of  our 
species  ;  but  their  opinion  is  to-day  almost 
unanimously  rejected,  as  we  shall  see  in 
another  place.  It  will  be  sufficient  for  us 
to  remark,  in  answer  to  this  objection, 
that  the  Quaternary  epoch  has  been  sepa- 
rated arbitrarily,  and  without  sufficient 
reason,  from  the  preceding  period.  It  is 
so  little  distinct  from  it,  and  has  such 
weak  titles  to  be  placed  upon  the  same 
footing  as  the  great  geological  epochs, 
that  the  English  scientists  have  made  of  it 
a  simple  appendant  of  the  Pliocene  period, 


Cosmogony 


220 


Cosmogony 


the  last  of  the  Tertiary  times,  and  for  this 
reason  have  called  it  Postpliocene. 

The  very  remarkable  accord  which  we 
find  established  between  the  Biblical  cos- 
mogony and  the  teaching  of  science  has 
struck,  as  we  have  said  already,  many 
learned  investigators.  The  chronological 
sequel  of  the  events  is  exactly  the  same  in 
both,  says  Pfaff,  in  his  Schopfungsge- 
schickte:  **  The  primitive  chaos ;  the  earth 
covered  first  by  the  waters,  afterwards 
emerging;  the  formation  of  the  inorganic 
kingdom  followed  by  the  vegetable  king- 
dom, then  by  the  animal  kingdom,  which 
has  for  first  representatives  the  animals  liv- 
ing in  the  water,  and  after  them  the  earthly 
animals ;  man  appearing  the  last  of  all : 
such  is,  indeed,  the  real  succession  of  the 
beings ;  such  are,  indeed,  the  diverse 
periods  of  the  history  of  the  creation, 
periods  designated  under  the  name  of 
days."  In  face  of  a  similar  accord  one  is 
tempted  to  cry  out  with  Ampere  :  ♦'  Either 
Moses  had  a  scientific  knowledge  as  pro- 
found as  that  of  our  century,  or  he  was 
inspired." 

The  table  below  sums  up  what  we  have 
just  said  on  the  manner  in  which  we  un- 
derstand the  identification  of  the  two  cos- 
mogonies, the  scientific  and  Biblical : — 


received  the  name  of  concordistic  system,  or 
system  of  day-periods.  The  latter  name  is 
given  to  it  because,  in  the  days  of  Genesis, 
it  beholds  not  ordinary  days,  but  periods 
or  epochs  of  indeterminate  duration. 

That  the  day  may  be  taken  in  this  sense 
can  hardly  be  questioned.'  In  English, 
this  word  is  sometimes  taken  in  the  meta- 
phorical sense  with  an  analogous  meaning; 
but  the  Hebrew  word  row,  which  they  have 
translated  day,  has  a  still  broader  mean- 
ing. We  have  a  proof  of  this  in  the  Bible 
itself,  which  often  uses  it  in  a  figurative 
sense.  (See  especially  Gen.  ii.  4;  Ex.  x.  6; 
Lev,  vii.  35;  Num.  vii.  10;  Deut.  ix.  24.) 
One  may  ask,  besides,  how  the  first  three 
days  could  have  been  days  of  twenty-four 
hours.  It,  is  in  fact,  the  sun  which  regu- 
lates the  duration  of  our  ordinary  days ; 
now,  according  to  the  common  interpreta- 
tion, it  did  not  yet  exist  at  this  time.  But 
if  the  first  days  were  not  of  twenty-four 
hours,  why  should    those  following  be  so } 

It  is  customary  to  appeal  to  tradition 
against  the  concordistic  system.  The 
Fathers  and  Doctors  of  the  Church  have 
always,  they  tell  us,  taken  the  word  day  of 
Genesis  in  its  literal  sense.  We  answer 
that  there  are  numerous  and  imposing  ex- 
ceptions to  this  rule.     St.  Augustine,  St. 


AGREEMENT   OF    THE    TWO    COSMOGONIES 


Epochs 


1ST  Scientific 


Periods 


2d  Biblical 


Common  Characters 


Cosmic  . 


Secoxdary . 


Tertiary 

Quaternary . 


Id. 

Id. 
Cambrian 

sii--  }^^ghJr:;:::: 

Devonian 

Carboniferous 

Permian 

Triassic ) 

Jurassic > 

Cretaceous J 

Eocene 

Miocene 

Pliocene 

Postpliocene 


First  day. 


Second  day  . 

Third  day | 

Fourth  day  

Fifth  day } 

Sixth  day I 


Creation  of  matter  in  the  gaseous 
state.     Appearance  of  light. 

Transformation  of  a  part  of  the 
waterj'  vapors  that  surround  the 
whole  earth  ;  formatiou  of  the  at- 
mosphere. 

Emersion  of  the  continents. 
Kingdom  of  plants. 

Appearance  of  the  celestial 
bodies. 

Kingdom  of  marine  monsters, 
aquatic  reptiles,  and  birds. 


Kingdom  of  the  earthly  animals. 
Creation  of  man. 


V.  Concordistic,  Restitutionist, 
AND  Idealistic  Systems. —  i.  Concord- 
istic System.  The  opinion  which  sees  in 
the  first  chapter  of  Genesis  a  page  of  his- 
tory and  seeks  to  put  it  in  accord  with  the 
scientific  accounts,  as  we  have  just  done,  has 


Thomas,  and  many  others  are  of  this  num- 
ber. We  may  add  that  if  Christian  tradi- 
tion is  divided  in  this  respect,  pagan 
tradition  is  hardly  so.  The  Phcenicians, 
the  Persians,  the  Hindoos,  the  Chaldeans, 
the  Etruscans,  etc.,  believed  in  the  division 


Cosmogony 


221 


Cosmogony 


of  the  creation  into  periods,  and  generally 
into  six  periods  of  long  duration.  Does 
this  not  tell  us  that  we  must  understand  in 
the  same  sense  the  equivocal  word  used  by 
the  author  of  Genesis?  We  may  believe 
that  Moses  purposely  employed  a  word 
which  signified  at  once  a  day  of  twenty- 
four  hours  and  a  long  period.  In  any  case, 
it  cannot  be  questioned  that  it  was  his  pur- 
pose to  make  of  this  divine  week  the  sym- 
bol and  type  of  the  ordinary  week,  which 
is  really  composed  of  days  of  twenty-four 
hours.  Therefore,  we  can  understand  why 
he  preferably  employed  a  word  which  had 
a  double  meaning,  even  if  he  had  at  his 
disposition  another  more  precise :  which 
is  more  than  doubtful.  In  view  of  all 
these  reasons  which  we  can  only  allude  to, 
the  exegetists  are  evidently  free  to  see  in 
the  days  of  Genesis  periods  of  long  dura- 
tion. 

2.  Restitutionist  System.  —  The  com- 
mentators who  at  the  beginning  of  this 
century  had  to  explain  Genesis  conform- 
ably to  the  teachings  of  the  rising  geology 
hesitated  at  first  to  attribute  to  the  day  a 
meaning  diflferent  from  the  literal  sense  to 
which  they  were  accustomed.  They  pre- 
ferred to  place  outside  the  Biblical  cosmog- 
ony, between  the  creation  and  the  first  day, 
the  long  series  of  the  geological  ages. 
According  to  them,  after  the  millions  of 
years  required  by  science  for  the  evolution 
of  our  planet  and  the  formation  of  the 
earthly  strata,  a  cataclysm  should  have 
taken  place.  All  life  should  have  been  an- 
nihilated upon  earth,  and  the  Creator 
should  have  taken  up  again  His  work,  this 
time  in  six  days,  each  of  twenty-four  hours, 
conformably  to  the  saying  of  the  sacred 
writer.  This  theory  which  bears  the  name 
of  Buckland,  an  Englishman,  and  is  still 
called  restitutionist  or  the  theory  of  res- 
toration, is  to-day  almost  totally  aban- 
doned, for  reasons  which  we  can  reduce  to 
three:  (i)  It  is  difficult  to  form  an  idea  of 
a  cataclysm  which  would  have  overthrown 
the  earth  so  as  to  annihilate  both  plants 
and  animals,  to  cause  the  disappearance 
even  of  light,  and  to  reduce  our  globe  to 
the  state  expressed  by  the  terra  inanis  et 
vacua  of  Moses.  (2)  It  is  repugnant  to 
admit  that  God,  who  had  employed  num- 
berless ages  in  organizing  the  world  a  first 
time,  had  gone  about  the  work  a  second 
time  employing  some  days  of  only  twenty- 
four  hours,  each.  (3)  Finally,  geology 
nowhere  and  in  no  epoch  presents  traces 
of  the  supposed  cataclysm.    It  even  con- 


tradicts this  hypothesis  in  the  most  formal 
manner ;  for  if  it  shows  us  modifications  in 
both  the  fauna  and  flora  of  the  geological 
times,  these  modifications  are  effected 
quite  slowly.  Nowhere  is  there  an  absolute 
interruption  in  the  vegetable  and  animal 
life.  Plants  and  animals  always  pass  in 
part  from  one  epoch  to  the  following,  thus 
showing  that  there  has  been  no  complete 
annihilation  in  the  interval.  Therefore, 
from  both  the  scientific  and  rational  point 
of  view,  the  restitutionist  system  is  inad- 
missible. 

3.  Idealistic  System. — There  is  another 
theory  which  counts  a  greater  number  of 
adherents;  this  is  the  idealistic  system.  It 
consists  in  denying  the  historical  character 
of  the  genetical  account  of  the  creation. 
Moses  had  not,  they  tell  us,  the  intention 
of  relating  scientifically  the  origin  of  the 
world.  His  object  was  to  give  to  the  He- 
brew people  a  religious  instruction  which 
taught  them  the  existence  of  a  God,  Creator, 
and  the  duties  which  they  had  to  fulfill 
toward  God.  Hence,  they  were  truths  of 
the  philosophical  and  moral  order  which  he 
wished  to  impress  upon  their  mind.  But 
he  did  not  present  them  under  the  didactic 
form,  which  the  people  could  hardly  under- 
stand, and  which  is  especially  in  opposition 
to  the  spirit  of  the  Orientals ;  he  had  re- 
course to  a  dramatic  setting.  Taking  in 
turn  what  the  Israelites  had  before  their 
eyes,  he  represented  God  creating  all  this  : 
heaven  and  earth,  the  green  fields,  the 
seeds  man  sows,  the  trees,  the  animals  liv- 
ing in  the  water,  upon  earth,  in  the  air,  the 
sun  which  enlightens  the  day,  the  moon 
which  shines  during  night, — finally,  man 
himself.  Then,  as  he  had  to  establish  a 
positive  law, — the  law  of  the  Sabbatic  rest, — 
he  distributed  into  the  six  days'  work  of 
one  week  the  works  of  the  creation.  It  is 
very  probable  that  it  never  entered  his 
mind  to  ask  how  much  time  it  needed  for 
God  to  create  the  world.  This  question  of 
mere  curiosity  did  not  interest  him.  What 
he  aimed  at,  was  to  give  to  his  people  the 
only  teaching  that  suited  them, — a  religious 
teaching. 

We  do  not  adopt  this  system.  Our  pref- 
erences are  for  the  concordistic  system, 
and  the  best  reason  we  can  give  for  this 
consists  in  the  wonderful  exactitude  which 
we  have  established  from  the  scientific 
point  of  view  in  the  Biblical  account  of  the 
creation.  By  refusing  to  admit  the  his- 
torical character  of  this  account,  the  ad- 
herents  of   idealism    deprive    themselves 


Councils 


222 


Councils 


willfully  of  a  great  argument  in  support  of 
the  inspiration  of  our  Sacred  Books ;  for 
the  accord  to  which  they  obstinately  close 
their  eyes  does  not  appear  to  us  to  be  an 
effect  of  chance.  Is  it  not  an  astonishing 
fact  that  the  only  three  genetical  days 
which  can  be  verified  by  geology,  the  third, 
fifth,  and  sixth,  correspond  exactly,  as  to 
the  characteristics  attributed  to  them,  to 
the  three  great  geological  epochs?  Also, 
who  could  have  taught  Moses  that  the 
world  commenced  with  chaos  ?  that  matter 
was  in  the  beginning  in  such  a  state  of  rarity 
that  it  escaped,  so  to  speak,  the  sight : 
inz'isibilis  et  incomfositaf  that,  later  on, 
the  water  covered  the  whole  surface  of  the 
globe?  that  the  aquatic  animals  appeared 
upon  earth  in  the  same  epoch  as  the  "  fowl  " 
and  preceded  the  terrestrial  animals? 
finally,  that  the  light  preceded  the  appear- 
ance of  the  sun?  Would  the  sacred  writer 
have  imagined  the  latter  fact,  if  he  had 
had  no  other  guide  but  his  reason  ?  The 
pretended  contradictions  alleged  between 
the  Biblical  cosmogony  and  the  scientific 
teaching  have  not  the  least  reality.  Who- 
ever adheres  to  the  certain  teachings  of 
geology,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  knows 
the  part  which  imagery  and  metaphor  play 
in  the  Oriental  languages,  is  forced  to 
acknowledge  the  striking  accord  of  the  two 
cosmogonal  systems.  We  repeat  it :  the 
Bible  does  not  treat  on  scientific  questions. 
This  is  true ;  but  does  it  follow  from  this 
that  it  can  be  deceived  in  regard  to  facts 
that  touch  upon  science?  Undoubtedly, 
no  one  would  dare  to  maintain  this.  There- 
fore, let  us  conclude  that  if  the  division  of 
the  works  of  creation  into  six  days  or  peri- 
ods may  be  considered  as  arbitrary,  it  pre- 
sents itself  at  least  in  the  chronological 
order. 

Councils  {Ecumenical). — The  word  ecu- 
menical means  ivorld-ividcy  and  hence  an 
Ecumenical  Council  is  one  gathered  from 
the  entire  Church,  and  having  authority 
over  the  whole.  The  word  general  is 
often  used  as  synonymous  with  ecumeni- 
cal, but  some  writers  make  a  distinction, 
employing  general  to  signify  a  council 
which  embraces  the  whole  of  the  Greek- 
speaking  or  the  Latin-speaking  Church. 
We  shall  use  the  two  words  indifferently. 
A  general  council  represents  the  whole 
body  of  the  episcopate,  and  thus  cannot 
fail  in  the  faith.  The  assembly  of  a  gen- 
eral council  is  never  absolutely  necessary, 
unless  we  except  the  possible  case  of  an 


ex  cathedra  utterance  being  absolutely 
necessary  in  order  to  check  some  grave 
existing  evil,  while  at  the  same  time  con- 
sultation with  the  assembled  bishops  of 
the  whole  Church  is  needed  in  order 
that  the  Pontiff  may  assure  himself  of 
the  truth,  and  for  securing  the  existence 
of  the  Church.  For  the  papal  authority 
is,  absolutely  speaking,  sufficient  to  cope 
with  all  difficulties,  whether  they  touch 
faith  or  morals,  heresy  or  schism;  the 
Pontiff  can  teach  with  infallible  authority 
what  men  are  bound  to  believe,  and  he 
can  make  such  laws  as  the  occasion  may 
demand.  No  council  can  do  more,  for 
the  free  wills  of  men  are  not  constrained. 
Occasions  may,  however,  arise  when  the 
advance  of  some  great  evil  cannot  be 
effectually  stayed  by  the  authority  of  the 
Pope  alone,  and  in  these  circumstances  it 
is  in  a  sense  necessary  for  him  to  seek  the 
moral  support  of  the  episcopate  assem- 
bled in  council ;  but  these  occasions  are 
not  of  frequent  occurrence,  and  will  prob- 
ably be  less  frequent  as  time  goes  on,  and 
the  exchange  of  sentiments  more  easily 
facilitated  without  actual  meeting.  The 
Church  had  existed  for  nearly  three 
hundred  years  before  the  first  General 
Council  met  at  Nice,  in  325 ;  and  more 
than  that  period  elapsed  between  the  close 
of  the  Council  of  Trent,  in  1563,  and  the 
opening  of  the  Council  of  the  Vatican,  in 
1869.  The  right  to  con%'oke  a  General 
Council  belongs  to  the  Roman  Pontiff 
alone,  for  he  alone  has  jurisdiction  over 
the  whole  Church,  entitling  him  to  call  all 
the  bishops  to  meet  together.  If  a  num- 
ber of  bishops  come  together  without  the 
papal  summons  or  consent,  they  do  not 
constitute  a  General  Council ;  but  their 
proceedings  may  subsequently  attain  to 
that  authority,  if  they  receive  the  ratifica- 
tion of  the  Holy  See. 

The  general  councils,  among  which  is 
not  enumerated  the  one  held  by  the  Apos- 
tles at  Jerusalem,  are  twenty   in  number. 

1.  The  First  Council  of  Nice  convened  in 
325.  Three  hundred  and  eighteen  bishops 
were  assembled  at  this  Council  and  re- 
jected the  heresy  of  Arius  and  fixed  the 
date  of  the  festival  of  Easter,  correcting  the 
error  of  the  Quartodecimans.  In  several 
respects,  the  Council  of  Sardica  (343)  is 
considered  a  continuation  of  that  of  Nice. 

2.  The  Jirst  Council  of  Constantinople, 
in  381,  proclaimed  the  divinity  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  against  the  Macedonians.  There 
were  150  bishops  present.     3.  The  Council 


Cowl 


223 


Cranmer 


of  Ephesus,  in  431,  in  which  200  bishops 
condemned  the  heresy  of  Nestorius.  4. 
The  Council  of  Chalcedon,  in  451,  in  which 
630  bishops  anathematized  the  error  of 
Eutyches.  5.  The  Second  Council  of  Con- 
stantinople,  in  553,  in  which  165  bishops 
pronounced  themselves  against  the  Three 
Chapters.  6.  The  Third  Council  of  Con- 
stantinople, in  681,  which  condemned, 
through  the  mouth  of  189  bishops,  the  er- 
rors of  the  Monothelites.  7.  The  Second 
Council  of  Nice,  in  787,  convened  to  defend 
the  veneration  of  images  against  the  Icono- 
clasts. It  comprised  more  than  350  bish- 
ops. 8.  The  Fourth  Council  of  Cottstanti- 
nople,  in  889,  where  more  than  200  bishops 
put  an  end  to  the  schism  of  Photius.  How- 
ever, the  schism  was  revived,  and  finally 
led  to  the  separation  of  the  Eastern  and 
Western  Churches.  Consequently,  it  was 
the  last  General  Council  held  in  the  East. 
9.  First  Lateran  Council,  in  1123,  in 
which  900  bishops  decided  on  the  abo- 
liton  of  the  investitures  of  the  crosier  and 
ring.  10.  Second  Laterafi Council,  in  iiy), 
in  which  they  condemned  the  schism  of 
Peter  de  Bruys  and  the  heresy  of  Arnold 
of  Brescia.  11.  Third  Lateran  Council,  in 
1 179,  in  which  they  condemned  the  Albi- 
genses  and  Waldenses.  12.  Fourth  Lateran 
Council,  in  1215,  in  which  they  condemned 
the  errors  of  the  Abbe  Joachim  and  the 
heresy  of  Amaury.  13.  The  First  General 
Council  of  Lyons,  in  1245,  endeavored  to 
eflPect  a  reunion  between  the  Greek  and  Ro- 
man Churches, called  the  Christians  to  arms 
against  the  Saracens  and  the  Mongolians 
and  excommunicated  Frederick  II.,emperor 
of  Germany.  14.  The  Second  General 
Council  of  Lyons,  in  1274,  attempted  a  re- 
union with  the  Greek  Church,  proclaimed 
anew  the  dogma  of  the  procession  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  from  the  Father  and  the  Son. 
15.  The  Council  of  Vienne,  in  131 1,  which 
abolished  the  Order  of  the  Templars  and 
condemned  the  Fratricelli,  the  Beghards 
and  the  Beguines.  16.  T\\e  Council  of  Con- 
stance, in  1414,  was  not  legitimate  at  its 
commencement  and  only  became  so  by 
the  posterior  convocation  of  Gregory  XII. 
It  restored  the  unity  of  the  Church ;  after 
which  Pope  Martin  V.,  legitimately 
elected,  confirmed  the  anterior  decrees 
of  the  assembly  against  the  doctrines 
of  Wycliflfe  and  of  John  Huss.  17.  The 
Council  of  Basle  (1431-1442),  which 
ceased  to  be  legitimate  when  Pope  Eu- 
genius  IV.  had  transferred  the  assembly  to 
Ferrara  (1438),  thence  to  Florence  in  1439, 


where  they  concluded  the  reunion  with 
the    Greek    Church.      18.    Fifth    Lateran 

Council,  in  1512,  is  not  generally  acknowl- 
edged as  ecumenical,  but  this  is  erroneous ; 
none  of  the  conditions  of  legitimacy  were 
wanting  to  it.  The  Galileans  did  not  wish 
to  acknowledge  it,  because  it  had  pro- 
claimed the  abolition  of  the  Pragmatic 
Sanction.  19.  The  Council  of  Trent,  con- 
vened m  1545,  and  after  several  interrup- 
tions, closed  in  1563.  It  restored  the  ec- 
clesiastical discipline  and  condemned  the 
doctrines  of  Luther,  Zwingle,  and  Calvin. 
See  Trent  (C<?««c»7  <?/").     20.  Finally,  the 

Vatican  Council,  which  was  opened  under 
Pope  Pius  IX.,  Dec.  8th,  1869.  There 
were  present  at  this  Council  769  bishops. 
The  work  actually  completed  during  the 
first  meeting  of  the  Vatican  Council  con- 
sisted of  two  Dogmatic  Constitutions.  The 
first,  '♦  On  Catholic  Faith,"  purposes  to 
affirm  and  define  the  existence  of  a  super- 
natural order  as  opposed  to  rationalism 
and  naturalism.  Its  four  chapters,  affirm- 
ing the  existence  of  two  orders  of  truth, 
are  on  God,  the  Creator  of  all  things;  on 
Revelation;  on  Faith;  and  on  Faith  and 
Reason.  To  these  were  added  eighteen 
canons  proscribing  the  errors  at  variance 
with  divine  revelation  and  faith.  The 
second  Constitution — the  "First  on  the 
Church  of  Christ,"  in  three  chapters, — 
treats  of  the  institution,  the  perpetuity, 
and  nature  of  the  primacy  of  the  Roman 
PontiflF;  the  fourth  and  last  chapter  de- 
fines the  infallible  teaching  of  the  Pope  in 
matters  of  faith  and  morals.  On  July  18th, 
the  Fourth  Public  Session  was  held  and 
the  Constitution,  Pastor  y^ternus,  consti- 
tuting the  definition  of  Papal  Infallibility 
was  promulgated.  On  the  same  day  that 
the  Vatican  Council  defined  the  dogma  of 
the  Infallibility,  Napoleon  III.  declared 
war  against  Prussia.  The  withdrawal  of 
the  French  troops  from  Rome  and  the  oc- 
cupation of  that  city  by  the  Piedmontese 
king,  Victor  Emmanuel,  caused  the  Pope 
(Oct.  2oth)  to  indefinitely  suspend  the 
sessions  of  the  Council  of  the  Vatican. 

CoTvl. — A  hood  attached  to  a  gown  or 
robe,  so  adjusted  that  it  may  be  drawn 
over  the  head  or  worn  upon  the  shoulders. 
A  part  of  the  dress  adopted  by  monks, 
usually  of  black,  gray,  or  brown  color 
varying  in  length  in  different  ages  and  ac- 
cording to  the  usages  of  different  orders. 

Cranmer  (Thomas)  (1489-1556). —  First 
Protestant    Archbishop     of     Canterbury. 


Creation 


224 


Creationism 


Professor  of  theology  at  the  University  of 
Cambridge,  he  married  there,  against  the 
rules,  a  first  wife,  became  priest,  chaplain 
of  the  family  of  Anne  Boleyn,  whom 
Henry  VIII.  had  already  resolved  to 
marry,  and  composed  a  treatise  to  justify 
the  divorce  of  the  king.  Rewarded  by  the 
gift  of  an  abbey,  he  was  afterwards  sent  to 
Rome  to  resume  the  negotiations  with  the 
Pope.  Through  double  dealing  he  ob- 
tained the  title  of  great  Penitentiary.  He 
then  went  to  Germany,  to  recruit  there 
among  the  principal  heads  of  the  Refor- 
mation, followers  in  favor  of  the  project  of 
the  king's  divorce.  At  Nuremberg  he 
contracted  a  secret  marriage  with  the  niece 
of  Osiander.  On  his  return  he  received 
from  Henry  the  see  of  Canterbury,  and 
propagated  in  England  the  Lutheran  doc- 
trine. Queen  Mary  imprisoned  him  in 
the  tower.  He  was  condemned  for  the 
crime  of  heresy,  high  treason,  violation  of 
his  ecclesiastical  oaths,  and  perished  on 
the  funeral  pyre. 

Creation  {making-  sometking'  out  of  notk-' 
ing) . — According  to  Scripture  God  brought 
forth  the  world  out  of  nothing.  '*  In  the 
beginning  God  created  heaven  and  earth" 
(Gen.  i.  1).  The  words  immediately  fol- 
lowing :  "And  the  earth  was  void  and 
empty,"  plainly  exclude  the  use  of  all  pre- 
existing matter,  and  show  that  creation, 
not  formation,  is  to  be  understood.  For 
if  the  earth  had  been  merely  formless,  the 
foregoing  words  could  not  signify  creation. 
Again,  *'  In  the  beginning  was  the  Word. 
.  .  .  All  things  were  made  by  Him, 
and  without  Him  was  made  nothing  that 
was  made"  (John  i.  1—2).  If  the  Word 
made  all  things,  there  was  no  self-existent, 
uncreated  matter.  Therefore,  the  world 
was  called  into  existence  by  Him,  without 
the  co-operation  of  any  outside  cause,  not 
from  pre-existing  matter,  but  merely  by 
the  act  of  His  will.  The  error  of  those 
who,  adopting  the  opinions  of  pagan 
philosophers,  believed  in  the  pre-existence 
of  uncreated  primitive  matter,  and,  there- 
fore, acknowledged  in  God  only  the  Archi- 
tect, not  the  Creator  of  the  world,  was 
refuted  even  by  the  earliest  Fathers  of  the 
Church  (S.  Iren.  adv.  hceres.  II,  c.  14, 
n,  4).  They  showed  that  the  greatness  of 
God  is  revealed  by  the  very  fact  that, 
whereas  man  can  only  mold  existing  mat- 
ter, God  produces  matter  itself.  And,  in 
fact,  God's  power  would  be  limited  if  it 
required  pre-existing  matter  for  the  pro- 


duction of  things.  Hence  the  Vatican 
Council  {de  fide,  i.  can.  5)  declares:  "If 
any  one  confess  not  that  the  world  and  all 
things  which  it  contains,  both  spiritual 
and  material,  are,  according  to  their  whole 
substance,  brought  forth  by  God  from 
nothing:  let  him  be  anathema."  Although 
reason  of  itself  could  only  with  difficulty 
attain  to  a  definite  and  clear  idea  of  cre- 
ation properly  so  called,  yet  after  revela- 
tion has  once  supplied  this  idea  it  easily 
recognizes  that  the  world  could  not  have 
originated  otherwise  than  by  creation, 
since  any  other  kind  of  origin  is  im- 
possible.    See  Pantheism. 

The  words,  "  In  the  beginning  God  cre- 
ated heaven  and  earth,"  refer  to  the  be. 
ginning  of  time.  The  words  of  Christ  are 
still  more  evident :  "And  now  glorify 
Thou  Me,  O  Father,  with  Thyself,  with 
the  glory  which  I  had  before  the  world 
was  with  Thee"  (John  xvii.  5).  The 
world  is  not,  like  the  Son  of  God,  from  all 
eternity.  It  was  created  in  time,  or  rather 
at  the  beginning  of  actual  time;  for  as 
there  was  no  real  succession  of  changes 
before  the  creation  of  the  world,  neither 
was  there  any  actual  time,  since  time  is  in- 
conceivable without  real  succession  of 
changes  (S.  Aug.  de  civ.  Dei,  xi.  6).  Also 
the  Lateran  Creed  says  that  God  "at  the 
beginning  of  time  created  the  spiritual 
and  the  material  world."  Biblical  chro- 
nology, however,  which  begins  with  the 
creation  of  man,  affords  no  sufficient  data 
for  determining  the  age  of  the  world.  For 
it  is  not  certain  whether  the  creation  of  the 
earth,  as  described  in  Genesis  (i.  i),  was 
immediately  followed  by  the  first  day's 
work,  described  in  the  following  verses 
(3—5),  or  whether  an  inter^-al  elapsed  dur- 
ing which  those  changes  may  have  taken 
place  which  are  observable  in  the  crust  of 
our  globe.  Nor  is  it  by  any  means  cer- 
tain in  what  sense  the  six  days  are  to  be 
understood ;  whether  they  are  days  of 
twenty-four  hours  or  longer  periods  of 
time;  or  whether,  perhaps,  without  any 
reference  to  time,  they  signify  the  work 
itself.  In  this  latter  case,  Moses  has  only 
related  how  God  gave  the  earth,  which 
He  had  created,  its  present  form,  and  the 
different  orders  of  creatures  their  existence. 
See  Cosmogony. 

Creationism.  —  Opinior  of  those  who 
believe  that  God  creates  each  soul  at  the 
moment  of  conception.  Concreationism 
might  be  a  better  name,  since  Pre-exist- 


Creationism 


225 


Creationism 


entianism  likewise  implies  a  kind  of  cre- 
ation. Creationism  has  as  its  basis  tlie 
independent,  spiritual  substantiality  of  the 
soul,  from  which  it  argues  that  the  soul 
can  be  produced  only  by  creation.  Human 
generation,  in  so  far  as  it  must  be  dis- 
tinguished from  creation,  cannot  produce 
anything  simple.  The  system  further  af- 
firms that  God  gives  existence  to  the  soul 
at  the  very  moment  when  it  is  to  be  united 
to  the  body  produced  by  generation,  be- 
cause it  is  primarily  designed  to  form  with 
that  body  one  human  nature.  Creation- 
ism is  neither  more  nor  less  than  an  ex- 
planation of  the  contents  of  two  Catholic 
dogmas ;  the  spirituality  of  the  soul  and 
the  unity  of  nature  in  man.  The  fact  that 
Creationism  has  not  always  been  uni- 
versally held  in  the  Church,  must  be  as- 
cribed to  the  difficulty  of  harmonizing  it 
^vith  other  dogmas,  e.  g-.,  the  transmission 
of  sin,  and  also  with  certain  expressions 
of  Holy  Scripture,  e.  g.,  that  God  rested  on 
the  seventh  day.  We  find  it  questioned 
only  in  those  times  and  places  in  which 
the  controversies  on  original  sin  against 
the  Pelagians  were  carried  on.  Doubts 
began  to  arise  in  the  West,  in  the  time  of 
St.  Augustine;  two  centuries  later,  when 
the  struggle  with  Pelagianism  was  at  an 
end,  we  hear  of  them  no  more. 

Creationism  solves  the  question  of  the 
origin  of  the  human  soul,  but  not  that  of 
the  origin  of  human  nature  by  generation, 
at  least  not  completely.  On  the  contrary, 
it  introduces  a  new  difficulty,  inasmuch  as 
the  creation  of  the  soul  by  God  divides  the 
production  of  man  into  two  acts,  and 
makes  it  more  difficult  to  see  how  human 
generation  is  a  reproduction  and  commu- 
nication of  the  whole  nature,  and  especially 
of  life,  and  how  there  is  a  relation  of  de- 
pendence between  the  souls  of  children 
and  those  of  their  parents.  This  difficulty, 
much  insisted  upon  by  the  Generationists, 
can  only  be  removed  by  maintaining,  not 
indeed  the  production  of  one  soul  by  an- 
other through  emanation  or  creation,  but 
a  certain  relation  of  causality  whereby  the 
souls  of  the  parents  are,  in  a  certain  sense, 
the  principle  of  the  souls  of  the  children. 
Here,  as  in  the  coexistence  of  grace  and 
free  will,  we  have  two  principles  combined 
for  the  production  of  one  effect.  In  order 
to  understand  the  combined  action  of  God 
and  of  man  in  the  production  of  the  human 
soul,  we  must  bear  in  mind  that  the  crea- 
tion of  the  soul,  although  a  true  creation, 
is  not  the  creation  of  a  being  complete  in 

'5 


itself :  on  the  contrary,  its  tendency  is  to 
produce  that  part  of  human  nature  which 
is  destined  to  give  form  and  life  to  the 
body  and  to  constitute  with  it  one 
human  nature.  But  as  this  also  applies  to 
the  creation  of  the  first  soul,  which  was 
not  the  product  of  generation,  we  must 
infer  this  other  circumstance  that  the  soul 
is  created  in  an  organic  body  because  of  the 
action  of  the  human  generative  principle. 
So  far  we  have  two  principles  and  two 
activities  standing  side  by  side  and  meet- 
ing in  one  common  product,  but  we  have 
not  yet  that  unity  of  the  principles,  whereby 
not  only  a  part,  but  even  the  whole  of 
the  product  may  be  ascribed  to  each  of 
them.  Such  a  unity  is  established  by  the 
fact  that  each  of  the  principles,  although 
producing  by  its  own  power  only  part  of 
the  product,  tends,  nevertheless,  to  pro- 
duce the  whole  product  as  a  -whole:  the 
generative  principle  producing  the  organ- 
ism solely  for  the  purpose  of  being  ani- 
mated by  the  soul;  the  creative  principle 
creating  the  soul  merely  for  the  purpose  of 
animating  the  organism. 

The  following  considerations  will  help 
to  illustrate  the  unity  of  the  combined  Di- 
vine and  human  actions.  Each  of  the  two 
actions  requires  the  co-operation  of  the 
other  in  order  to  attain  its  end;  they  thus 
complete  one  another  and  are  intrinsically 
co-ordained  for  common  action.  As  man 
has  received  his  procreative  power  and  its 
direction  from  God,  and  exercises  it  with 
the  Divine  concurrence,  in  the  act  of 
generation  he  stands  to  God  as  a  subordi- 
nate and  dependent  instrument ;  not,  how- 
ever, as  a  mere  tool,  because  man's  genera- 
tive power  and  tendency  are  natural  to 
him,  and  are  exercised  spontaneously. 
Whence  it  appears  that  the  common  action 
begins  with  man,  but  is  supported  through- 
out and  completed  by  God.  The  Divine 
co-operation  might  be  called  supernatural 
in  so  far  as  it  is  distinct  from  and  superior 
to  the  Divine  concurrence  granted  to  all 
created  causes ;  but,  strictly  speaking,  it  is 
only  natural,  because  it  is  exercised  in  ac- 
cordance with  a  law  of  nature.  The  pro- 
duction of  the  soul  is  due  not  to  a  miracu- 
lous interference  with  the  course  of  nature, 
but  to  the  natural  Providence  of  God, 
carrying  out  the  laws  which  He  himself 
has  framed  for  the  regular  course  of  nature. 

We  can  now  easily  understand:  i.  How 
the  human  generation  is  a  true  generation 
not  only  of  the  flesh  but  of  man  as  a  whole. 
2.  How  a  relation  of  causality  exists  be- 


Credence 


226 


Creed 


tween  the  progenitor  and  the  soul  of  his 
offspring.  3.  How  the  creation  of  the 
soul  by  God  is  not  a  creation  in  the  same 
absolute  sense  as  the  original  creation  of 
things.  4.  How  the  natural  consequences 
of  generation  are  safeguarded. 

Credence. — A  small  table  placed  against 
the  wall  of  the  sanctuary,  near  the  Epistle 
side  of  the  altar,  on  which  are  placed  the 
cruets  holding  the  wine  and  water  to  be 
used  at  Mass. 

Creed. — The  Creed  is  an  abridgment  of 
the  Christian  doctrine,  and  is  usually  de- 
nominated the  "  Symbol  of  Faith."  The 
word  symbol  means  a  sign  to  distinguish 
things.  To  the  primitive  Christians,  the 
Symbol  or  Creed  was  what  the  watchword 
is  to  an  army  in  the  field,  a  sign  by  which 
a  friend  may  be  immediately  discriminated 
from  an  enemy.  As  the  Creed  was  the 
medium  through  which  the  true  believers 
were  recognized  amidst  heretics  and  Gen- 
tiles, it  became  customary  to  say :  '*Z>rt 
siffnum"  "  Z>rt  Sytnbolutn,^^  (.give  the 
sign),  (repeat  the  Symbol  or  Creed). 

There  are  six  creeds :  the  Apostles' 
Creed,  the  Nicene  Creed,  the  Constanti- 
nopolitan  Creed,  the  Athanasian  Creed,  the 
Creed  of  Pius  VI.,  and  the  Vatican  Creed. 

I.  Apostles'  Creed. — That  the  Creed 
which  is  attributed  to  the  Apostles  and 
bears  their  name  was  in  reality  drawn  up 
by  them  has  been  ably  demonstrated.  (See 
Noel  Alexandre,  Hist.  Eccl.)  This  was 
the  only  Creed  in  use  among  the  primi- 
tive Christians,  and  for  the  first  three  cen- 
turies was  not  committed  to  writing  lest  it 
should  fall  into  the  hands  of  unbelievers, 
but  was  handed  down  orally.  With  the 
exception  of  Tertullian,  no  author,  before 
the  reign  of  Constantine  the  Great,  pre- 
sumed to  note  down  this  Creed.  After 
that  period,  when  the  danger  of  being 
ridiculed  by  Jew  or  Gentile  had  passed 
away,  it  began  to  be  penned,  and  first  of 
all  appeared  in  the  works  of  St.  Athanasius 
and  of  St.  Basil. 

II.  Nicene  Creed.  —  In  the  fourth 
century,  Arius,  a  priest  of  the  Church  of 
Alexandria,  denied  the  divinity  of  the 
Word  made  flesh.  To  condemn  the  error 
of  this  heresiarch,  the  Church,  in  the  year 
325,  convoked  a  General  Council  at  Nicaea, 
a  city  of  Bythinia.  The  assembled  Fathers 
found  it  expedient  to  develop  the  meaning 
of  the  second  article  of  the  Apostles'  Creed 
by  a  more  copious  explanation  of  its  sense 
and  doctrine.     The  exposition  of  the  coun- 


cil was  ingrafted  on  the  Apostolic  Symbol, 
which,  along  with  the  verbal  addition,  ac- 
quired a  new  denomination,  and  came  to 
be  entitled  the  Symbol  of  Nicaea,  or 
Nicene  Creed. 

III.  CONSTANTINOPOLITAN  CrEED. — A 

short  time  afterwards,  Macedonius,  Bishop 
of  Constantinople,  impugned  the  divinity 
of  the  Holy  Ghost.  The  Church  was  again 
obliged  to  call  a  General  Council,  which 
met  at  Constantinople  in  the  year  381,  and 
delivered  to  the  Faithful  the  general  belief 
upon  this  litigated  article  of  faith.  The 
explanation  furnished  by  the  council  was 
appended  to  the  Nicene  Creed,  and  this 
second  enlargement  of  the  Symbol  of  the 
Apostles  was  called  the  Creed  of  Con- 
stantinople. 

IV.  Athanasian  Creed. — About  this 
time  a  multitude  of  innovators  attempted 
to  pollute  the  pure  stream  of  Apostolic  doc- 
trine by  commingling  with  it  their  errors 
concerning  the  essence  and  properties  of 
Christ's  humanity.  There  were  in  the 
Church  many  zealous  pastors,  who  arose 
to  guard  the  fountain  stream  of  faith  from 
such  contaminations,  and  among  them, 
the  unknown  author  of  that  Creed  which 
was  immediately  recognized  as  so  ortho- 
dox and  so  beautiful,  that  it  was  commonly 
attributed  to  the  most  celebrated  champion 
of  the  faith,  St.  Athanasius,  and  still  passes 
under  his  name,  though  ascertained  not  to 
be  his  production. 

The  Creed  which  is  now  repeated  in 
Liturgy,  is  in  reality  the  Creed,  not  of 
Nicaea,  but  of  Constantinople.  It  was 
not  until  the  decline  of  the  eighth  century, 
or  the  commencement  of  the  ninth  century, 
when  the  discipline  of  the  Secret  was 
abandoned,  that  the  Creed  began  to  be  re- 
cited at  Mass. 

The  Creed  is  said  every  Sunday  during 
the  year,  and  on  all  those  feasts  which  are 
in  a  manner  indicated  in  it,  such  as  the 
different  festivals  instituted  in  honor  of 
Christ,  of  His  Mother  the  Blessed  Virgin, 
and  of  the  Apostles  and  Doctors  of  the 
Church,  by  whose  arduous  labors  and 
writings  the  doctrine  contained  in  this 
Symbol  of  Christianity  has  been  dissemi- 
nated through  the  world. 

V.  Creed  of  Pius  IV. —  Like  the  last 
three  Creeds,  that  of  Pius  IV.  so  denomi- 
nated from  the  Pope  under  whose  Pontifi- 
cate it  was  framed,  suggested  by  the  exi- 
gencies of  the  period,  and  was  drawn  up 
to  exhibit  a  summary  of  the  genuine 
doctrines  of  Christ  in  an  epoch  when  the 


Cremation 


227 


Cremation 


innovators  of  the  sixteenth  century  were 
employing  every  expedient  to  decoy  the 
Faithful  into  error.  This  Creed  is  also 
called  the  Tridentine  Creed. 

VI.  The  Vatican  Creed. — The  Coun- 
cil of  the  Vatican,  which  met  in  1869,  de- 
fined certain  points  of  doctrine  especially 
the  Infallibility  of  the  Pope  speaking 
ex  cathedra,  and  in  1877  Pope  Pius 
IX.,  following  the  example  set  by  Pius 
IV.,  added  to  the  Tridentine  formula  a 
clause  expressing  acceptance  of  the  Vati- 
can definitions.  This  put  the  Creed  into 
the  shape  in  which  it  is  in  use  at  present, 
supporting  the  faith  of  Catholics  who  re- 
joice to  be  provided  with  a  form  of  words 
which  they  can  safely  trust  as  expressing 
the  truth  which  they  hold. 

It  should  be  carefully  remembered  that 
in  these  several  successive  creeds  no  new 
doctrines  are  promulgated,  nor  is  any  ad- 
dition made  to  the  code  of  faith  delivered 
to  the  Church  by  the  Apostles'  Creed,  but 
these  creeds  merely  unfold  its  doctrines 
and  present  an  explanation  of  its  several 
parts  in  a  more  precise  and  intelligible 
manner. 

Cremation  (action  of  burning  the  re- 
mains of  the  dead). — Originally  the 
custom  of  interring  the  dead  in  the  ground 
was  common  to  all  nations,  for  the  most 
ancient  human  remains  that  have  been 
discovered  bear  no  signs  of  having  been 
subjected  to  fire.  Vaults  containing  skele- 
tons have  also  been  met  with,  closed  by  a 
slab  of  stone.  We  know  that  the  Jews 
buried  their  dead ;  Holy  Scripture  con- 
stantly speaks  of  the  burial  of  kings  and 
prophets.  That  his  corpse  should  be  left 
unburied  was  a  chastisement  threatened 
to  the  transgressor  (Deut.  xxviii.  26). 
Only  during  the  time  of  pestilence  were 
the  Jews  allowed  to  burn  individual  corpses 
(Amos  vi.  id).  The  Romans  in  earlier 
•times  buried  their  dead.  Cicero  tells  us 
that  their  graves  were  considered  sacred, 
and  the  profanation  pf  a  tomb  was  severely 
punished,  even  by  the  loss  of  a  hand. 
Bodies  were  often  deposited  in  sarcophagi, 
where  they  were  reduced  to  dust.  Pliny 
records  that  the  Romans  burned  their  dead 
only  when  they  feared  they  might  be  out- 
raged by  the  enemy.  In  later  times,  when 
manners  became  corrupt,  cremation  was 
practiced  among  them.  The  custom  of 
embalmmg  the  dead  prevailed  among  the 
Egyptians.  It  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that 
all  barbarous  nations,  who,  in  an  uncivilized 


state,  burned  their  dead,  substituted  the 
grave  for  the  funeral  pyre  as  soon  as  civi- 
lization shed  its  light  in  their  land. 
Christianity  did,  in  fact,  abolish  cremation. 
But  in  these  days,  when  Christian  faith  is 
on  the  decrease,  cremation  is  once  more 
becoming  the  fashion.  St.  Augustine  de- 
nounces the  practice  as  horrible  and  bar- 
barous. It  offends  our  Christian  instincts. 
For  we  are  taught  to  regard  death  as  a 
sleep;  the  dead  sleep  in  Christ  (I.  Cor. 
XV.  18),  for  they  will  rise  again;  they  are 
laid  to  rest  in  peace,  and  the  idea  of  the  re- 
pose which  they  enjoy  is  connected  with  the 
churchyard,  not  with  the  crematorium. 
When  we  commit  our  dead  to  the  kindly 
earth,  we  tacitly  express  our  beliel  that 
our  body  is  like  a  seed,  which  is  cast  into 
the  ground  to  germinate  and  spring  up. 
"  It  is  sown  in  corruption,  it  is  raised  in 
incorruption"  (I.  Cor.  xv.  42).  As  Chris- 
tians, we  have  a  higher  esteem  for  the  soul, 
which  partakes  of  the  divine  nature,  and 
consequently  for  the  body,  which  is  the 
servant  and  tool  of  the  soul.  No  true 
Christian  can  fail  to  shrink  from  the  hor- 
rors of  cremation;  only  those  who  are  lost 
to  all  sense  of  the  dignity  of  human 
nature,  to  all  belief  in  the  truths  of  re- 
ligion, can  desire  it  for  themselves.  Let 
us  remember  that  Christ,  our  great  Ex- 
emplar, was  laid  in  the  tomb  and  rose 
again.  For  pagans  such  considerations 
naturally  had  no  weight ;  they  disliked  the 
sight  of  the  sepulchre,  the  mound  raised 
over  the  dead,  because  it  reminded  them 
of  death,  which  would  put  an  end  to  their 
earthly  enjoyments.  For  the  same  reason 
in  our  own  day  infidels  advocate  cremation. 
Burial  suggests  to  them  too  strongly  the 
immortality  of  the  soul,  whereas  cremation 
appears  to  promise  the  annihilation  that 
they  desire  as  their  portion  after  death. 
Yet  let  no  one  imagine  that  the  Christian 
dreads  the  destruction  of  the  body  by  fire 
as  an  impediment  to  its  future  resurrection, 
for  God  can  effect  the  reintegration  of  the 
body  after  it  has  been  dissolved  into 
gaseous  elements.  In  the  interest  of  jus- 
tice destruction  of  the  body  by  fire  is 
highly  reprehensible,  since,  if  a  body  is 
buried  it  can  afterwards  be  inspected  if  this 
is  necessary  for  the  detection  of  crime,  such 
as  murder.  By  this  means  many  a  mur- 
derer has  been  brought  to  justice;  after 
cremation  this  is  impossible.  Those,  there- 
fore, who  speak  in  favor  of  cremation 
befriend  criminals,  inasmuch  as  they  aid 
in  the  removal  of  all  traces  of  their  crime. 


Crib 


228 


Cross 


Crib. — A  representation  of  the  manger 
at  Bethlehem,  ai.d  exhibited  in  many 
churches  throughout  the  world  from 
Christmas  to  Epiphany.  The  effect  is 
generally  heightened  by  a  figure  in  the 
crib  of  the  Child  Jesus,  by  figures  of  an- 
gels, of  the  shepherds,  of  the  Magi,  etc.  As 
a  subject  of  popular  devotion  it  owes  its 
origin  to  St.  Francis  of  Assisi,  in  the  early 
part  of  the  thirteenth  centurj'.  In  the  Li- 
berian  basilica,  at  Rome,  is  preserved  the 
crib  in  which  Christ  was  born.  It  was 
brought  from  Bethlehem  in  the  seventh 
century. 

Crosier.    See  Staff. 

Cross. — A  structure  consisting  essen- 
tially of  an  upright  and  a  crosspiece,  an- 
ciently used  as  a  gibbet  for  execution  by 
crucifixion,  now,  in  various  reduced  repre- 
sentative forms,  as  symbolic  of  the  Christian 
faith.  There  are  four  principal  forms  of 
the  cross:  i.  The  Latin  cross,  crux  imissa 
or  capitata  (the  form  supposed  to  have 
been  used  in  the  crucifixion  of  Christ), 
in  which  the  upright  is  longer  than  the 
transverse  beam,  and  is  crossed  by  it  near 
the  top.  2.  The  crux  decussata  (decussate 
cross),  or  St.  Andrew's  cross,  made  in  the 
form  of  an  X.  3.  The  crux  comissa,  or  St. 
Anthony's  cross,  made  in  the  form  of  a  T. 
4.  The  Greek  cross,  an  upright  crossed  in 
the  middle  at  right  angles  by  a  beam  of  the 
same  length.  The  other  forms  are,  for 
the  most  part,  inventions  for  ecclesiastical, 
hierarchic,  or  similar  objects. 

That  the  primitive  Christians  were  ex- 
emplary in  the  reverence  which  they  mani- 
fested towards  the  cross  may  be  gathered 
from  a  variety  of  sources.  According  to 
Tertullian  they  were  denominated  by  the 
pagans,  *^ Cruets  relt's^iosi,"  or,  "devout  to- 
wards the  cross."  Among  the  fragments 
of  early  Christian  antiquities  which  are 
still  preserved,  we  recognize  splendid  testi- 
monials of  this  respect.  In  the  Christian 
cemeteries,  scarcely  one  sepulchral  monu- 
ment has  been  discovered,  which  does  not 
bear  the  monogram  of  Christ,  arranged  in 
the  form  of  a  cross.  The  rings  that  have 
been  found  in  these  tombs  display  the  same 
emblem,  and  the  fresco  paintings  peroetu- 
ally  exhibit  the  same  holy  sign.  That  it 
was  customary  with  the  primitive  Chris- 
tians to  wear  about  their  persons  crosses 
made  of  gold  and  silver,  or  of  wood,  is  evi- 
dent from  the  incident  which  led  to  the 
martyrdom  of  St.  Orestes,  a  soldier  in  the 
Roman  legions  during  the  reign  of  Diocle- 


tian. Orestes  was  distinguished  in  his 
cohort  for  his  agility  in  every  martial  ex- 
ercise, and  in  particular  for  the  precision 
with  which  he  cast  the  disc.  Once,  as  he 
was  displaying  his  activity  in  presence  of 
his  commander  Lysias,  a  cross  which  the 
Christian  soldier  wore  around  his  neck  by 
accident  escaped  from  between  the  folds  of 
his  garment,  where  it  lay  concealed,  and 
proclaimed  the  religion  of  Orestes,  whose 
resolute  refusal  to  sacrifice  in  honor  of  the 
gods,  was  crowned  with  martyrdom. 

Cross  (Congregation  of  the  Holy). — A 
religious  order,  founded  in  France  imme- 
diately after  the  Revolution,  and  approved 
by  the  Holy  See  as  an  educational  body. 
Was  introduced  into  the  United  States  in 
i8i4by  Father  Sorin  (died  in  1892).  Besides 
the  Mother  House  at  Notre  Dame,  near 
South  Bend,  Indiana,  it  has  more  than 
twenty  houses  scattered  throughout  the 
United  States.  The  most  important  edu- 
cational establishments  of  the  order  are  the 
University  of  Notre  Dame,  near  South 
Bend,  Indiana,  St.  Mary's  College,  at 
Galveston,  Texas,  and  the  lately  erected 
College  in  Washington,  D.  C,  connected 
with  the  Catholic  University. 

Cross  {Daughters  of  the)  (also  called 
"Sisters  of  St.  Andrew"). —  A  teaching 
and  hospitaler  congregation,  founded  in 
1806  by  Madame  Elisabeth  Richier  des 
Ages,  with  the  assistance  of  Abb6  Andrew 
Hubert  Foiirnet,  Vicar-general  of  Poitiers. 
Destined  particularly  for  the  gratuitous 
instruction  of  children,  this  congregation, 
whose  Mother  House  is  at  Puye,  near 
Poitiers,  comprises  to-day  several  thou- 
sands of  religious,  and  has  many  provincial 
houses  throughout  France.  2.  Daughters 
of  the  Cross.  Young  women  living  in 
community,  whose  occupation  is  to  con- 
duct Christian  schools  and  to  instruct 
young  girls.  Their  Institute  was  founded 
at  Roye,  in  Picardy,  in  the  year  1625. 

Cross  (Finding  of  the). — St.  Helena, 
having  gone  to  Jerusalem,  ordered  the  de- 
struction of  a  temple  of  Venus,  built  over 
the  tomb  of  Christ.  Then,  upon  excavat- 
ing to  a  great  depth,  the  holy  Sepulchre, 
and  near  it  three  crosses,  also  the  nails 
which  had  pierced  our  Saviour's  body, 
and  the  title  which  had  been  affixed  to 
His  cross,  were  found  (326).  The  true 
Cross  was  recognized  by  the  miracles 
which  it  wrought.     St.  Helena  sent  a  part 


Cross 


229 


Crusades 


of  the  Cross  to  Constantinople  and  left 
the  other  part  at  Jerusalem,  where  it  was 
encased  in  a  silver  box  and  preserved 
in  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  which 
had  been  erected  on  the  spot  of  the  dis- 
covery (33s).  The  Church  has  consecrated 
this  event  by  the  institution  of  the  feast  of 
the  "  Finding  of  the  Holy  Cross,"  which 
is  celebrated  on  May  3d.  Chosroes  H., 
king  of  Persia,  having  taken  Jerusalem, 
carried  off  the  relic  (614),  which  was  recap- 
tured fourteen  years  later,  under  Siroes, 
his  son  and  successor,  by  the  Emperor 
Heraclius  (629).  Both  the  Greek  and  the 
Latin  Church  still  celebrate  this  victory, 
on  September  14th,  by  the  feast  of  the 
"  Exaltation  of  the  Cross." 

Cross  {Sign  of  ihe). — By  making  the 
sign  of  the  Cross,  we  express  the  con- 
viction that  our  hopes  of  a  joyful  resurrec- 
tion, and  of  the  happiness  of  eternal  life, 
are  founded  solely  on  the  merits  of  Jesus 
Christ  crucified.  The  custom  of  making 
the  sign  of  the  Cross  dates  from  the  earli- 
est times  of  Christianity.  TertuUian,  writ- 
ing about  the  year  202,  observes:  "At 
every  step  and  movement,  whenever  we 
come  in  or  go  out,  when  we  dress  our- 
selves, or  prepare  to  go  abroad,  at  the  bath, 
at  table,  when  lights  are  brought  in, 
on  lying,  or  sitting  down;  whatever  we 
be  doing,  we  make  the  sign  of  the  Cross 
upon  our  foreheads "  {Liber  de  Corona 
Militis,  c.  iii.).  St.  John  Chrysostom, 
Archbishop  of  Constantinople  (398-407), 
thus  addressed  his  auditors  :  "  Everywhere 
is  the  symbol  of  the  Cross  present  to  us. 
On  this  account  we  paint  and  sculpture  it  on 
our  houses,  our  walls,  and  our  windows,  we 
trace  it  on  our  brows,  and  we  studiously 
imprint  it  on  our  souls  and  minds" 
{Rcloga  de  veneranda  Cruce).  Similar 
testimonials  are  furnished  by  other  Fathers. 
We  make  the  sign  of  the  Cross,  because  it 
was  by  the  Cross  that  Christ  became  "  our 
peace  .  .  .  and  hath  reconciled  us  to  God 
in  one  body  by  the  Cross,  killing  the  en- 
mities in  Himself,  and  coming  He  preached 
peace"  (Ephes.  ii.  14-17).  We  form  the 
sign  of  the  Cross  by  lifting  our  right  hand 
to  the  forehead,  and  afterwards  drawing, 
as  it  were,  a  line  to  the  heart,  and  then  an- 
other line  crossing  the  former  from  the 
left  to  the  right  shoulder,  at  the  same  time 
pronouncing,  in  order  to  attach  a  meaning 
to  the  action,  these  words:  "  In  the  name 
of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the 
Holy  Ghost" 


Cross  (  Way  of  the).  See  Stations  of 
THE  Cross. 

Crucifix. — A  cross,  or  a  representation 
of  a  cross,  with  the  crucified  figure  of 
Christ  upon  it.  Crosses,  with  a  repre- 
sentation of  the  crucified  Christ,  seem  not 
to  have  been  made  previous  to  the  ninth 
century.  Upon  those  made  for  similar  pur- 
poses before  this  date  was  painted  or 
carved  at  the  intersection  of  the  arms  of 
the  cross,  the  Lamb,  with  or  without  a 
cross-flag,  the  sacred  monogram,  or  some 
other  emblem.  The  Crucifix,  being  the 
symbol  of  the  Passion  of  the  Saviour,  was 
represented  also  by  the  figure  of  a  lamb  at 
the  foot  of  the  cross.  On  the  top  of  the 
cross  was  sometimes  attached  a  crown,  to 
express  the  reward  promised  to  the  Faith- 
ful who  suffer  as  Christ  did.  Also  a  stag 
could  be  seen  at  the  foot  of  the  cross,  the 
stag  being  an  enemy  of  the  serpent,  as 
Christ  is  an  enemy  of  the  devil.  To  these 
various  symbols  succeeded  the  picture  of 
Jesus  Christ  on  the  Cross. 

Crusades. —  Guided  by  the  spirit  of  St. 
Helena,  mother  of  Constantine  the  Great, 
many  Christians  visited  the  sacred  places 
of  Palestine.  These  pilgrims  were  sub- 
jected to  severe  hardships  and  trials,  and 
especially  was  this  the  case  under  the  rule 
of  Seljuk,  who,  in  the  year  1072,  abused 
and  murdered  the  pilgrims,  and  ended  by 
plundering  the  Holy  City.  The  object  of 
the  Crusades  was,  therefore:  i.  To  secure 
protection  for  the  Christians.  2.  To  res- 
cue the  sacred  places  and  guard  them 
against  profanation  and  destruction.  3.  To 
repel  the  Saracens,  who  threatened  Chris- 
tian Europe.  The  idea  of  the  Crusades 
originated  with  the  Popes,  who  directed 
them,  and  furnished,  from  the  revenues  of 
the  Church,  the  means  necessary  for  their 
subsistence.  They  also  granted  remission 
of  ecclesiastical  penalties  to  all  who  en- 
gaged in  the  religious  expeditions.  The 
first  Crusade  (i 096-1099),  was  set  on  foot 
by  Pope  Urban  H.,  at  the  Synod  of  Cler- 
mont, where  the  multitudes,  whose  en- 
thusiasm had  already  been  aroused  by 
Peter  the  Hermit,  in  one  voice  cried  out : 
"God  wills  it."  The  army,  headed  by 
Godfrey  de  Bouillion,  and  other  gallant 
princes,  numbered  from  300,000  to  600,000 
men.  On  July  15th,  1099,  they  took 
Jerusalem  and  proclaimed  Godfrey  king. 
Six  other  Crusades  were  undertaken  for 
the  deliverance  of  the  Holy  Land.  After 
the   fall  of  Edessa,  Louis  VII.  of  France 


Crypt 


230 


Crypto-Calvinist 


and  Conrad  III.  of  Germany,  moved  by 
the  soul-stirring  words  of  St.  Bernard  of 
Clairs-aux,  undertook  the  second  Crusade 
(1147-1149).  They  made  a  vain  attempt 
to  take  Damascus.  The  third  Crusade 
(1189-1192),  was  brought  about  by  the  un- 
fortunate battle  near  Tiberias  in  1187,  in 
■which  50,000  crusaders  were  either  killed 
or  imprisoned.  Saladin  conquered  Jerusa- 
lem and  seized  the  Holy  Cross.  The  army, 
headed  by  Frederick  I.  {Babarossa),  of 
Germany,  Philip  Augustus  of  France, 
Richard  the  Lion  Hearted  of  England,  and 
William  of  Sicily,  took  Acre  and  obtained 
freedom  for  the  pilgrims.  The  fourth  Cru- 
sade (1202-1204)  was  chiefly  composed  of 
the  French  nobility,  and  resulted  in  the 
founding  of  the  Latin  empire  (1204-1261). 
In  the  year  1212,  40,000  children  sallied 
forth  to  conquer  the  Holy  Land.  Many 
thousands  perished  by  shipwreck,  others 
were  enslaved.  The  fifth  Crusade  (1228- 
1229),  under  the  leadership  of  Frederick 
II.,  emperor  of  Germany,  etc.,  ended  in 
disaster.  The  sixth  Crusade  (i 248-1 254) 
was  undertaken  by  Louis  IX.  of  France, 
who  took  Damietta,  in  Egypt.  Soon  af- 
terwards, Louis  IX.  was  taken  prisoner 
and  compelled  to  leave  the  territory.  Eigh- 
teen years  later  he  engaged  in  another 
Crusade  which  ended  in  disaster.  All  the 
territory,  including  Acre,  was  lost  to  the 
Mohammedans. 

Although  the  Crusades  did  not  fully  at- 
tain their  immediate  object, — the  entire  re- 
covery and  preservation  of  the  Holy  Land, 
— yet  great  and  invaluable  were  the  advan- 
tages to  religion  and  society  which  they 
produced,  i.  The  crusaders  reawakened 
the  faith,  slumbering  in  many,  and 
secured  its  triumph  over  the  rising  ration- 
alism of  the  age.  These  popular  expedi- 
tions, undertaken  in  the  name  of  religion 
and  humanity,  aroused,  by  the  memories 
the}'  recalled,  the  religious  feeling  of  the 
Middle  Ages.  2.  They  were  not  less  prof- 
itable to  society,  not  only  by  the  encour- 
agement they  afforded  to  science  and  art, 
and  the  impetus  they  imparted  to  com- 
merce, but  also  in  re-establishing  and  pre- 
serving peace  and  concord  among  Christian 
nations.  Contemporary  writers  tell  us 
that  the  preaching  of  a  crusade  produced 
everywhere  a  marvelous  change;  dissen- 
sions were  healed ;  wars,  with  their  horrors 
and  crimes,  were  suddenly  brought  to  an 
end ;  strifes  among  petty  princes  and 
chieftains,  who  were  ever  quarreling 
among  themselves,   or  with   their  sover- 


eigns, and  whose  restlessness  had,  until 
then,  brought  so  many  evils  on  the  fairest 
portions  of  Europe,  gradually  disappeared, 
and  other  public  disorders  ceased.  The 
crusades  were  of  the  greatest  importance 
in  preserving  the  safety  of  Europe.  They 
were  from  their  commencement  virtually 
defensive  wars,  waged  to  repel  Turkish 
aggression,  and  preserse  the  Catholic  na- 
tions from  the  Mohammedan  yoke.  They 
preserved  Europe  for  cfenturies  from  her 
hereditary  foe.  4.  Through  the  crusades 
the  institution  of  chivalry  attained  its  full 
development,  as  they  gave  occasion  for  the 
establishment  of  new  orders  which  pre- 
sented a  model  of  chivalry,  and  combined 
all  the  knightly  virtues.  5.  That  the 
clergy  derived  an  increase  of  power  and 
wealth  from  the  crusades,  is  historically 
untrue.  On  the  contrary,  the  clergy,  from 
the  Pope  down  to  the  lowest  ecclesiastic, 
contributed  the  greater  part  of  the  subsi- 
dies levied  for  the  recovery  and  defense  of 
the  Holy  Land.  From  those  wars,  the 
Popes  sought  no  accession  of  power  or  aug- 
mentation of  territory ;  they  cheerfully  left 
to  the  crusaders  the  conquered  country, 
with  the  spoils  and  honors  of  war.  The 
crusades  did  not  and  could  not  add  to  the 
papal  power;  but  the  pre-eminence  and  in- 
fluence of  the  Pope,  which  result  from  his 
office  arid  dignity  as  head  of  Christendom, 
were  mainly  and  essentially  instrumental 
in  setting  on  foot  these  vast  movements  of 
the  European  powers,  for  the  reconquest 
of  the  Holy  Land. 

Crypt. — A  vault  under  an  ecclesiastical 
building,  as  a  cathedral,  church,  etc. ,  below 
the  chief  floor,  commonly  set  apart  for 
monumental  purposes,  and  sometimes  used 
as  a  chapel  or  a  shrine.  The  first  crypts 
were  the  subterranean  places  where  the 
Christians  concealed  themselves  to  cele- 
brate their  worship;  in  the  Catacombs 
chapels  divided  into  two  parts  for  the  sep- 
aration of  the  sexes  and  provided  with 
arcosolia,  tombs  of  martyrs  serving  as 
altars.  The  Roman  churches  were  often 
raised  over  crypts,  where  they  buried  the 
clergy.  The  examples  of  crypts  later  than 
the  twelfth  century  are  rare. 

Crypto-Calvinist. —  One  who  is  secretly 
a  Calvinist ;  a  term  applied  in  the  six- 
teenth century  by  orthodox  Lutherans  to 
the  Philippists  or  Melanchthonians,  fol- 
lowers of  Philip  Melanchthon.  They  were 
accused  of  secretly  being  Calvinists,  be- 
cause they  maintained  the  Calvinistic  view 


Cubit 


231 


CUSH 


of  the  Eucharist,  rejecting  Luther's  doc- 
trine of  consubstantiation,  as  it  was  called 
by  them. 

Cubit  (a  measure  used  among  the  an- 
cients).— A  cubit  was  originally  the  dis- 
tance from  the  elbow  to  the  extremity  of 
the  middle  finger,  which  is  the  fourth  part 
of  a  well-proportioned  man's  stature.  The 
Hebrew  cubit,  according  to  some,  is 
twenty-one  inches ;  but  others  fix  it  at 
eighteen  inches.  The  Talmudists  obser\'e 
that  the  Hebrew  cubit  was  larger,  by  one 
quarter,  than  the  Roman. 

Culdees  {Keledei)  (Cel.  Ceile  De\  Lat. 
Cultores  Dei,  that  is,  servants  of  God, 
or,  according  to  another  interpretation, 
men  living  in  a  community'). —  Culdees  are 
first  mentioned  in  the  history  of  Scotland 
after  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century. 
They  were  evidently  secular  canons,  who 
served  as  chapters  to  cathedrals.  The 
Culdees  had  the  privilege  of  electing  the 
bishop ;  those  of  the  metropolitan  see  of 
St.  Andrew  asserted  the  right  that,  with- 
out their  consent,  no  bishop  could  be  ap- 
pointed to  any  see  in  the  country.  By 
degrees  the  Culdees  gave  up  community 
life  and  lived  in  separate  dwellings;  some 
even  took  wives.  Hence,  from  the  twelfth 
century,  the  Scottish  bishops  and  mon- 
archs  endeavored  to  reform  them;  in  sev- 
eral instances  the  Culdees  were  replaced 
by  regular  canons  coming  from  England. 
In  Ireland,  Culdees  are  for  the  first  time 
mentioned  at  the  beginning  of  the  ninth 
century.  They  continued  in  the  Church 
of  Armagh  down  to  the  seventeenth 
century. 

Cullen  (Paul).  —  Irish  prelate,  Arch- 
bishop of  Dublin,  born  in  that  city  in 
1803.  Studied  theology  in  Italy,  and  became 
rector  of  the  Irish  College  at  Rome.  In 
1849  he  received  from  Pius  IX.  the  dignity 
of  Archbishop  of  Armagh  and  the  rank  of 
IJrimate  of  Ireland  and  apostolic  delegate. 
He  suggested  the  idea  of  a  Catholic  Uni- 
versity at  Dublin,  and  caused  its  realiz- 
ation. In  1862,  his  title,  Apostolic  Dele- 
gate, was  prolonged  for  life.  Cardinal  in 
1866,  and  commander  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor  in  1876.     Died  in  1878. 

Cultus.     See  Worship. 

Cummian  (St.). — An  Irish  monk;  flour- 
ished in  the  first  half  of  the  seventh  cen- 
tury ;  was  instrumental  in  procuring  the 
adoption  by  the  Irish  of  the  Roman  rule 


regarding  the  celebration  of  Easter.  His 
well  known  paschal  treatise  (634),  ad- 
dressed in  the  form  of  an  epistle  to  Segienus, 
Abbot  of  Hy,  gives  us  a  lofty  idea  of  the 
erudition  of  the  author,  as  well  as  of  the 
solid  learning  which  Ireland  could  then 
give  her  priests.  He  also  left  a  collection  of 
penitential  canons,  entitled  Liber  de 
Poenitentiariitn  Mensura.  Cummian  died, 
according  to  the  Four  Masters,  in  the 
year  661. 

Curate  {gtiardian  of  souls) . — An  assistant 
priest  to  a  pastor  or  rector.  Whenever, 
owing  to  the  number  of  parishioners,  one 
rector  is  not  sufficient,  the  bishop  not  only 
can,  but  should,  oblige  the  parish  priest 
to  associate  with  himself  as  many  assist- 
ants as  are  required .  Moreover,  the  bishop, 
and  not  the  parish  priest,  is  the  judge 
whether  or  not,  and  how  manj;,  assistants 
are  neces.sary.  The  bishop  can  assign  as- 
sistant priests  a  proper  salary,  to  be  taken 
out  of  the  revenues  of  the  Church. 

Curia  Romana. — By  Curia  Romana  is 
meant,  in  a  strict  sense,  only  those  officials 
whom  the  sovereign  Pontiff  regularly 
makes  use  of  to  assist  him  in  the  govern- 
ment of  the  universal  Church ;  in  a  broad 
sense,  also  those  who  aid  the  Pope  in  his 
capacity  of  Bishop  of  Rome,  metropolitan, 
or  primate.  All  these  assistants  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  Pope.  The  persons  com- 
posing the  Court  of  Rome  ( Curia  Romano) 
are  divided  into  three  classes,  designated 
respectively  Cardinals  of  the  Holy  Roman 
Church,  Prelates  of  the  Holy  Roman 
Church,  and  curiales  in  the  strict  sense  of 
the  term.  The  latter  are  composed  of  the 
various  magistrates  not  in  prelatical  dig- 
nity, of  advocates  and  procurators,  solicit- 
ors and  agents,  of  notaries  and  all  ecclesi- 
astical officers  who  form  the  cortege  of  the 
Pope.  These  various  ministers  are  either 
intra  curiam,  v.  g.,  cardinals;  or  extra 
curiam,  v.  g.,  legates,  nuncios,  and  similar 
officers.     See  Congregations. 

Cusa   (Nicholas  of).     See  Nicholas. 

Cush. — A  name  applied  in  Scripture  to 
three  countries:  i.  The  Oriental  Cush, 
nearGehon  (Gen.  ii.  13).  2.  The  southern 
parts  of  Arabia  and  the  coasts  of  the  Red 
Sea,  where  Nemrod  originated  and  whence 
the  wife  of  Moses  came  (Gen.  x.  8 ;  Num. 
xii.  12;  II.  Par.  xxi.  16).  3.  More  com- 
monly Ethiopia  proper  and  now  called 
Abyssinia  (Ps.  Ixviii.  31;  Is.  xviii.  i;  Jer, 
xiii.  23). 


CUTHBERT 


232 


Cyril 


Cuthbert  (St.). —  Bishop  of  Lindisfame, 
England,  died  in  687.  Shepherd,  then 
monk  and  prior  of  the  Monastery  of  Mel- 
rose. Was  a  model  of  the  evangelical 
virtues,  and  proved  his  zeal  and  charity 
during  a  plague  which  desolated  all  Eng- 
land.    F.  March  20th. 

Cutheans. — Inhabitants  of  Assyria ;  were 
transported  into  Samaria  by  Salmanasar 
(IV.  Ki.  xvii.  24,  etc.). 

Cycle  {Easter).     See  Easter. 

CycTe  {Dtonysian). —  Method  of  reckon- 
ing time  and  dates,  not  as  the  Jews,  from 
the  creation,  nor  as  the  ancient  Romans, 
from  the  foundation  of  their  city,  but  from 
the  birth  of  Jesus  Christ,  the  Saviour  of 
the  world.  The  Roman  abbot,  Dionysius 
Exiguus,  was  the  first  who,  in  the  sixth 
century,  introduced  this  method  of  dating 
from  the  birth  of  Christ.  According  to 
this  computation,  which  is  now  generally 
followed,  the  birth  of  our  Lord  occurred 
in  the  year  of  Rome  754.  But  it  is  gen- 
erally conceded  that  he  places  this  bliss- 
ful event  from  four  to  seven  years  too  late. 
Christ  was  born  several  months,  at  least, 
before  the  death  of  Herod  the  Great, 
which,  according  to  Josephus  Fiavius,  oc- 
curred in  April,  750  B.  c.  From  other 
considerations  it  is  more  than  probable 
that  the  Nativity  took  place  in  the  year 
747  or  748.     See  Chronology. 

Cyprian  (St.). —  Bishop  of  Carthage. 
Born  in  the  beginning  of  the  third  cen- 
tury of  a  wealthy  senatorial  family;  had 
been  an  esteemed  and  successful  rhet- 
orician at  Carthage,  his  native  city.  His 
high  station,  as  well  as  his  abilities,  made 
him  the  pride  of  his  pagan  fellow  citizens. 
He  was  converted  to  Christianity  about 
the  year  246,  by  Caecilius,  a  presbyter  of 
Carthage,  whose  name  he  added  hence- 
forth to  his  own ;  soon  after  he  was  raised 
to  the  priesthood,  and,  on  the  death  of 
Bishop  Donatus  in  24S,  he  was  chosen  to 
succeed  that  prelate.  During  the  perse- 
cution under  Decius  in  250,  Cyprian  con- 
cealed himself;  maintaining,  however, 
from  his  place  of  concealment,  a  constant 
correspondence  with  his  flock.  After  the 
fanatical  frenzy  had  abated,  he  rettu-ned  to 
Carthage,  where,  between  the  years  251 
and  256,  he  held  several  councils  to  de- 
termine the  validity  of  baptism  adminis- 
tered by  heretics  and  the  manner  to  be 
observed  in  readmitting  the  schismatics 
and  those  who  had  apostatized  in  tiie  time 


of  persecution.  Cyprian  ended  his  noble 
episcopate  by  martyrdom  under  Valerian  in 
258.  We  have  his  Life  written  by  Pontius, 
his  deacon.  St.  Cyprian  has  left  eighty -one 
letters  and  thirteen  other  works  on  various 
subjects.  His  letters  exhibit  an  interesting 
picture  of  his  time,  and  contain  much 
valuable  information  regarding  the  usages, 
institutions,  and  doctrines  of  the  early 
Church.  Very  important  is  his  admirable 
treatise  On  the  Unity  of  the  Church,  in 
which  he  gives  a  clear  statement  of  the 
Church's  organic  unity,  which  he  proves 
is  founded  on  the  Primacy  of  Peter.  F. 
Sept.  i6th. 

Cyprus. — The  largest  island  in  the  Med- 
iterranean sea,  situated  between  Cilicia 
and  Syria,  the  inhabitants  of  which  were 
plunged  in  all  manner  of  luxury  and  de- 
bauchery. Their  principal  deity  was  the 
goddess  Venus,  who  had  a  celebrated  tem- 
ple at  Paphos.  Of  the  cities  in  the  island, 
Paphos  and  Salamis  are  mentioned  in  the 
New  Testament.  The  Apostles  St.  Paul 
and  Barnabas  landed  here  in  44  (Acts 
xiii.  4). 

Cyrene. — The  chief  city  of  Cyrenaica 
(now  called  Tripoli),  or  the  Lybian  Penta- 
polis.  It  was  a  Grecian  city,  but  under 
Roman  rule.  Many  Jews  were  settled 
there,  and  they  had  a  synagogue  at  Jeru- 
salem, some  of  whose  members  (Acts  vi.  9) 
took  part  against  St.  Stephen,  but  others 
became  heralds  of  the  Gospel  (ix.  20). 
Simon,  who  helped  to  carry  our  Lord's 
Cross,  was  of  this  city. 

Cyriacus  (St.)  (596-606). — Patriarch  of 
Constantinople.  According  to  the  example 
of  his  predecessor,  John  the  Faster,  he 
took  the  title  of  "  Ecumenical  Patriarch," 
and  caused  it  to  be  confirmed  in  a  Coucil- 
iabulum.  in  599.  Pope  St.  Gregory  and 
Emperor  Phocas  were  opposed  to  his 
pretensions;  and  even  the  emperor  pro- 
hibited by  a  decree  the  bestowal  of  this 
title  on  other  bishops  than  those  of  Rome. 
F.  June  7th. 

Cyril  (St.)  of  Alexandria  (376-444). — 
Father  of  the  Greek  Church  and  Patriarch 
of  Alexandria,  in  412.  He  took  an  active 
part  in  his  uncle's  (Tlieophilus)  opposition 
to  St.  John  Chrysostom.  He  closed  the 
Churches  of  the  Novatians.  The  Jews 
having  murdered  a  certain  number  of 
Christians,  he  expelled  them  from  the  city, 
and  embroiled  himself  with  the  Governor 
Orestes.     He  contributed,  also,  to  the  con- 


Cyril 


233 


Dalmatia 


demnation  of  Nestorius.  St.  Cyril  has  left 
a  large  number  of  writings,  mostly  of  an 
apologetical,  controversial,  and  doctrinal 
character,  and  which  can  be  found  in 
Migne's  Pat.  Lat.  IV.  and  V.  F.  Jan. 
28th. 

Cyril  (St.)  . — N  ative  ofjerusalem; 
Father  of  the  Church ;  was  born  at,  or 
near,  Jerusalem  about  the  year  315.  He 
was  ordained  priest  in  345  by  Bishop  Max- 
imus  who  also  intrusted  him  with  the 
charge  of  the  Catechumens,  and  in  his 
stead  appointed  him  preacher  to  the  people. 
In  350,  Cyril  succeeded  Maximus  in  the 
see  of  Jerusalem,  and  was  consecrated  by 
Acacius  of  Caesarea.  This  Acacius,  a 
bitter  Arian,  soon  became  a  severe  enemy 
and  persecutor  of  Cyril,  and  in  358,  pro- 
cured his  deposition  and  exile  from  Jeru- 
salem. Cyril  was  restored  by  the  Council 
of  Seleucia,  in  359,  but,  at  the  instigation 
of  Acacius,  he  was  banished  again,  the 
next  year,  by  Constantius.  On  the  acces- 
sion of  Julian,  Cyril  returned  to  Jerusalem. 
The  Emperor  Valens,  in  367,  again 
banished  Cyril  from  his  see,  and  only  after 
eleven  years  was  he  allowed  to  return.  In 
381,  he  assisted  at  the  Second  General 
Council  of  Constantinople.  He  died  in 
386,  after  a  troubled  episcopate  of  thirty- 
five  years,  sixteen  of  which  were  spent  in 
exile.     F,  March  i8th. 

Cyril  and  Methodins  (Sts.). — The  con- 
version of  the  Moravians  and  other  Slavic 
tribes  was  the  work,  especially,  of  Sts. 
Cyril  and  Methodius,  deservedly  called 
the  "  Apostles  of  the  Slavonians."  They 
were  brothers,  born  at  Thessalonica,  of  an 
illustrious  senatorial  family.  The  mission 
of  Cyril   and  Methodius  in  Moravia  was 


crowned  with  wonderful  results.  They 
baptized  Radislav,  the  king,  and  securely 
established  Christianity  in  his  country. 
Cyril  invented  a  Slavic  alphabet,  called 
after  him  the  "  Cyrillic,"  and,  with  the  aid 
of  his  brother,  translated  the  Holy  Scrip- 
ture into  Slavonian.  Cyril  died  at  Rome, 
in  869,  and  Methodius,  in  885.    F.  Feb.  14th. 

Cyrillus  Lucaris. — A  native  of  Candia 
(ancient  Crete).  Died  in  1638.  Patriarch 
of  Alexandria,  then  of  Constantinople.  He 
taught  Protestant  doctrines  in  the  Greek 
Church,  was  deposed  from  the  patriarchate 
and  banished  to  the  island  of  Rhodes. 
Recalled  a  few  years  afterwards,  he  pub- 
lished Catechisms  and  Confessions  of 
Faith  filled  with  errors.  Finally,  driven 
away  and  restored  seven  or  eight  times,  he 
was  strangled  by  order  of  the  Great  Lord. 

Cyrinus,  or  Cyrenius,  Quirinius. — Suc- 
cessor to  Qiiintilius  Varus  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Syria,  about  the  year  A.  D.  10. 
See  Chronology  (Biblical). 

Cyrus. — Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  died 
in  640.  Bishop  of  Phasis  (620),  Patriarch 
of  Alexandria  (630),  fell  into  the  errors  of 
the  Monothelites.  His  writings  were  con- 
demned by  the  Council  of  Lateran  (649), 
and  in  the  Sixth  General  Council  (680). 

Cyrus. — Son  of  Cambyses,  king  of  Per- 
sia. He  aided  his  uncle  Cyaxares  (in  the 
Bible,  called  Darius  the  Mede)  in  the  con- 
quest of  Asia  Minor;  and  afterwards  their 
joint  forces  captured  Babylon  and  overran 
the  Assyrian  empire.  Cyrus  was  foretold 
by  the  Prophet  Isaias  (xliv.  28;  xlv.  i, 
etc.)  The  Prophet  Daniel  was  his  favorite 
minister  (Dan.  vi.  28). 


D 


Dabir. —  Royal  city  of  the  Chanaanites, 
which  was  apportioned  as  the  share  of  the 
tribe  of  Juda,  and  afterwards  yielded  to 
the  Levites. 

Dagon  ifisk). —  Idol  of  the  Philistines, 
the  form  of  which  was  half  man  and  half 
fish.  Scripture  tells  us  that  the  Ark  of  the 
Covenant,  having  been  captured  by  the 
Philistines  and  placed  in  the  temple  of  Da- 
gon, the  next  day  the  priests  found  the 
head  and  hands  of  the  idol  cut  oflf  upon 
the  threshold  (Judg.  xvi.  23;  I.  Ki.  v.). 


Dalmanutha. —  Place  whither  our  Sav- 
iour went  after  ha\nng  embarked  with  His 
disciples  on  the  Sea  of  Tiberiades.  In- 
stead of  Dalmanutha,  which  is  found  in 
St.  Mark  (viii.  10),  we  read  in  the  Vulgate 
(Matt.  XV.  39),  Magedan,  and,  in  the 
Greek  text,  Magdala. 

Dalmatia. —  Province  of  Austria,  on  the 
Adriatic  sea,  capital  Zara.  It  is  believed 
that  the  Gospel  was  preached  in  Dalmatia 
in  the  time  of  the  Apostles,  because  it  is 
said  in  the  Second  Epistle  to  Timothy  (iv. 


Dalmatic 


234 


Dan 


20),  that  Titus,  disciple  of  St.  Paul,  went 
to  Dalmatia. 

Dalmatic. —  A  Church  vestment  worn 
by  the  deacon  while  ministering  at  high 
Mass.  It  is  a  long  robe,  open  on  each 
side,  and  differs  from  the  chasuble  by  hav- 
ing wide  sleeves,  and  instead  of  being 
marked  on  the  back  with  the  cross,  which 
superseded  the  senatorial  latus-clavus,  it 
is  ornamented  with  two  stripes,  that  were 
originally  the  Augusti-clavi,  worn  upon 
their  garments  by  the  less  dignified 
among  the  ancient  Romans.  It  derives  its 
name  from  Dalmatia,  the  people  of  which 
place  invented  it,  and  was  originally  a 
vestment  peculiar  to  the  regal  power,  and, 
as  such,  was  adopted  and  used  in  pub- 
lic by  several  of  the  Roman  emperors. 
In  the  earliest  ages  of  the  Church  the 
deacons  wore  a  garment  called  colobium,  a 
kind  of  tight,  narrow  tunic  with  very 
short  sleeves,  and  which,  in  the  times  of 
the  Roman  Republic,  was  worn  by  the 
more  substantial  citizens,  but  afterwards 
became  a  senatorial  robe.  In  the  reign  of 
Constantine,  Pope  St.  Sylvester  conceded 
to  the  deacons  of  the  Roman  Church  the 
use  of  the  dalmatic  on  particular  solemni- 
ties, a  privilege  which  was  gradually  ex- 
tended to  other  Churches  by  succeeding 
Popes,  as  we  learn  from  St.  Gregory  the 
Great  {Epistola,  CVII).  The  custom 
of  wearing  the  dalmatic  under  the  chasuble 
was  anciently  peculiar  to  the  Roman 
Pontiff,  but  was  afterwards  allowed  as  an 
episcopal  favor  to  certain  prelates  of  the 
Church.  For  many  centuries,  however, 
every  bishop  has  been  entitled  to  assume 
this,  together  with  his  other  vestments, 
whenever  he  celebrates  high  Mass.  An- 
ciently the  dalmatic  was  white,  and  its 
stripes  were  narrow  and  scarlet,  according 
to  St.  Isidore,  and,  as  may  be  observed  in 
the  fresco-paintings  of  the  Roman  Cata- 
combs, and  in  the  mosaics  which  decorate 
so  many  of  the  ancient  churches  of  Rome. 
The  Greek  dalmatic  closely  resembles 
that  of  the  Latin  Church.  It  extends 
farther  down  the  person,  and  its  sleeves 
are  closer  and  longer  than  ours.  With 
the  Greeks,  as  in  the  Western  Church,  it 
is  customary  to  employ  purple-colored 
vestments  during  the  season  of  fasting. 

Damasus  (name  of  two  Popes). -^Z><x/w- 
asus  I.  Pope  from  366  to  384.  Damasus 
appears  as  the  principal  defender  of  Catho- 
lic orthodoxy  against  Arius  and  other 
heretics.     He  condemned  the  Macedonian 


and  Apollinarian  heresies,  and  confirmed 
the  decrees  of  the  General  Council  of  Con- 
stantinople. He  was  very  solicitous  for 
the  preservation  of  the  Catacombs  and 
adorned  the  sepulchres  of  many  martyrs 
with  epitaphs  in  verse,  which  he  himself 
composed.  For  his  secretary  he  chose  St. 
Jerome,  his  faithful  friend,  and  induced 
him  to  publish  a  corrected  version  of  the 
Bible,  known  as  the  Latin  Vulgate.  Dam- 
asus II. — Pope  in  1047.  Raised  to  the 
Pontificate  by  Henry  the  Black,  emperor 
of  Germany,  without  having  been  elected ; 
he  died  twenty-three  days  after  his  coro- 
nation. 

Damianists.  —  Members  of  a  Christian 
sect  founded  by  Damian,  Patriarch  of 
Alexandria  (569).  They  formed  a  branch 
of  the  Accephali  Severians;  admitted  in 
God  only  one  nature,  but  without  distinc- 
tion of  persons.  In  fact,  they  called  God 
Father,  Son  and  Holy  Ghost,  but  believed 
these  three  names  to  be  mere  denomina- 
tions. 

Damianus.     See  Cosmas. 

Damianus  (St.  Peter)  (988-1072). — 
Cardinal ;  born  at  Ravenna.  He  combated 
the  corruptions  of  his  time.  The  Popes 
Stephen  IX.,  Nicholas  II.,  and  Alexander 
II.  sent  him,  in  turn,  into  France  and  Savoy 
in  order  to  reform  there  the  different  re- 
ligious orders.  In  Germany,  he  prevented 
the  divorce  of  the  Emperor  Henry  IV. 
from  Bertha  of  Suza. 

Damiende  Veuster  (Joseph)  (1840-1889). 
— Roman  Catholic  priest  and  missionary; 
was  born  in  Belgium.  He  devoted  his  life 
to  the  welfare  of  the  lepers  in  the  govern- 
ment hospital,  on  the  island  of  Molokai, 
Hawaii,  until  he,  himself,  fell  a  victim  to 
the  disease. 

Dan  (Hebr.  he  has  fudged). — Son  of  Ja- 
cob and  of  Bala,  ser\-ant-maid  of  Rachel, 
born  in  the  year  1788  b.  c.  Father  of  the 
tribe  of  Dan.  The  tribe  of  Dan  counted, 
when  they  left  Egypt,  62,700  warriors.  It 
had  for  share  the  lands  to  the  east  of  Juda 
and  of  Benjamin ;  the  Philistines  separated 
it  from  the  sea.  The  Danites  established 
a  colony  in  the  city  of  Laish,  comprised  in 
the  share  of  Nephtali,  but  occupied  by  the 
Sidonians,  and  called  it  Dan.  The  city  at 
the  northern  extremity  of  Israel  gave  rise 
to  the  saying,  "From  Dan  to  Bersabee," 
which  meant  from  one  end  of  the  country 
to  the  other. 


Dance  of  Death 


235 


Dante-Alighieri 


Dance  of  Death. — A  certain  class  of  al- 
legorical representations  illustrative  of  the 
universal  power  of  death,  and  dating  from 
the  fourteenth  century.  The  drama  was 
constructed  simply,  consisting  of  short 
dialogues  between  Death  portrayed  by  a 
skeleton  figure,  and  a  number  of  followers. 
They  were  enacted  originally  in  churches, 
and  by  religious  orders.  After  a  time  an 
illustration  was  attached  to  each  strophe, 
and  these  eventually  became  the  chief 
point  of  interest.  Being  transferred  from 
the  quiet  convent  to  more  public  places, 
they  gave  a  new  impulse  to  popular  art, 
and  series  of  scenes  founded  upon  the 
Dance  of  Death  are  to  be  found  treated  in 
painting,  sculpture,  and  tapestry  through- 
out Europe.  The  more  ancient  name  was 
Dance  Macabre,  a  word  whose  origin  has 
given  rise  to  a  great  amount  of  dispute 
among  etymologists. 

Dancers. —  Religious  enthusiasts  of  the 
fourteenth  century.  They  were  known  as 
the  "  Dancers,"  from  a  wild  and  indecent 
dance  (St.  Guy's  or  St.  John's  Dance), 
which  formed  the  main  feature  of  their  exer- 
cises. They  continued  to  dance  until  ex- 
hausted, and  then  fell  into  convulsions. 
Some  derived  their  origin  from  King  David 
(II.  Ki.  vi.  14;  I.  Par.  xv.  29),  and  others 
believed  them  possessed  by  the  devil.  The 
latter  opinion  seems  to  have  been  the 
more  generally  accepted,  for  the  ecclesi- 
astical forms  of  exorcism  were  em- 
ployed to  free  them  from  the  possession  of 
the  evil  spirit.  They  were  eventually 
pursued  by  the  Inquisition. 

Dancing. — A  measured  rythmical  move- 
ment of  the  feet,  usually  accompanied  by 
some  musical  instrument.  Dancing  seems 
to  have  been  originally  a  religious  exer- 
cise. The  Hebrews  celebrated  by  dancing 
their  passage  of  the  Red  Sea;  David 
danced  before  the  Ark.  The  priests  of 
Egypt,  like  those  of  China  and  India, 
represent  by  dancing  the  movements  of 
the  stars.  Among  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
dancing  {saltatio)  comprised:  the  re- 
ligious dances,  consisting  in  slow  and  grave 
movements  round  altars;  the  gymnastic 
and  martial  dances,  serving  as  prepara- 
tion for  combat  and  exciting  to  chivalry 
{cybistic,  sfheristic,  pyrrhic,  bellicrepa, 
etc.)  ;  the  combined  military  and  religious 
dances,  as  those  of  the  priests  of  Cybele 
in  Phrygia  and  Crete,  and  that  of  the 
Salians  at  Rome ;  the  mimic  dances,  which 
took   place   in   theatres  ;    the  dances  exe- 


cuted during  festivals  by  male  dancers, 
and  especially  by  professional  female  dan- 
cers, the  latter  being  dressed  only  in  a  long 
transparent  veil.  Dancing  in  churches  took 
place  until  the  twelfth  century,  and  reli- 
gious dancing  continued  to  exist  in  Spain 
until  the  seventeenth  century.  Dancing  is 
not  illicit  in  its  nature ;  therefore,  we  can- 
not condemn  it  absolutely,  as  though  it 
were  essentially  evil.  The  holy  Fathers 
blame  only  indecent  dances  and  the  abuse 
of  dancing.  However,  even  the  most  de- 
cent dances  are  seldom  without  danger; 
very  often  they  are  more  or  less  dangerous, 
according  to  the  circumstances  and  dispo- 
sitions of  those  who  attend  them ;  there- 
fore, it  would  be  imprudent  to  counsel  and 
approve  of  them. 

Daniel. — Prophet  of  Israel  during  the 
Babylonian  Captivity.  He  had  the  gift  of 
explaining  visions  and  dreams;  his  science 
procured  for  him  the  favor  of  Nabucho- 
donosor,  who  raised  him  above  the  magi 
and  the  first  dignitaries  of  the  kingdom. 
Daniel  either  retired  later  on  or  lost  his 
high  position,  for  he  had  to  be  recalled  to 
the  mind  of  Balthasar  when  there  was 
question  of  explaining  the  mysterious  in- 
scription of  the  festival.  Under  Darius 
the  Mede,  he  was  again  raised  to  the  rank 
of  one  of  the  first  three  dignitaries  of  the 
State,  which  caused  him  to  be  hated  by  the 
courtiers,  and,  consequently,  bad  treat- 
ment, as  being  thrown  into  the  lions' 
den,  from  which  he  was  miraculously  de- 
livered. He  preserved  an  elevated  posi- 
tion at  least  until  the  third  year  of  the 
reign  of  Cyrus.  Daniel  was  a  man  of  ex- 
traordinary virtue  and  wisdom. 

The  Book  of  Daniel  is  composed  of  two 
parts :  the  first,  written  in  Chaldaic, 
(twelve  chapters),  contains  historical  facts 
and  prophecies ;  the  second,  in  Hebrew 
(two  chapters),  contains  the  history  of 
Susanna  and  that  of  Bel  and  the  Dragon. 
The  Jews  refuse  to  rank  Daniel  among  the 
Prophets  properly  speaking,  because  he 
never  lived  in  the  Holy  Land.  The  Greeks 
celebrate  his  feast  on  December  r7th,  and 
the  Latins  on  July  21st. 

Dante-Alighieri. — This  famous  epic  poet 
of  Italy  and  of  all  Europe  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  was  born  at  Florence,  in  1265,  and 
died  in  poverty  at  Ravenna,  in  1321,  after  an 
agitated  existence.  His  Divine  Comedy, — 
"Hell,"  "Purgatory,"  and  "Heaven","— 
is  the  great  Christian  poem  of  the  scholastic 
times.     It  is  divided  into  three  parts,  of  33 


Darboy 


236 


Deacon 


cantos  each,  with  a  prolog^ue  to  the  whole. 
"  Hell"  is  the  vice  punished  ;  "  Purgatory" 
is  the  expiation  that  purifies  ;  "  Paradise  "  is 
the  triumphant  and  rewarded  virtue.  The 
Divine  Comedy  has  been  translated  into 
English  by  Gary,  Longfellow,  Norton,  and 
others.  "Hell "  has  remained  the  most  fa- 
mous part,  but  the  two  other  f>arts  are  not 
inferior  to  it,  except,  perhaps,  in  the  mat- 
ter, which  lent  less  to  the  imagination. 
Dante  is  one  of  the  greatest  poets  man- 
kind has  produced.  He  can  be  placed  be- 
side Homer  and  Virgil,  and  above  Tasso 
and  Milton. 

Darboy  (Ghorgk)  (1814-1871). — A 
French  prelate.  Born  at  Fayl-Billot,  Haute- 
Marne;  shot  at  Paris,  May  24th,  1871. 
Archbishop  of  Paris  (1863-1871).  He  was 
arrested  and  assassinated  by  the  Commu- 
nists. 

Darby  ("John).  —  English  sectarian, 
founder  of  the  Plymouth  Brethren.  Died 
in  1882.    See  Plymouth  Brethren. 

Darius  (name  of  three  kings). —  i.  Da- 
rius, the  Mede,  son  of  an  unknown  Xerxes 
(Assuerus)  and  otherwise  of  whom  not 
much  is  known.  After  the  taking  of  Babylon 
by  Cyrus  he  reigned  over  Babylonia  during 
two  years  (Dan.  v.  31 ;  vi.  iff. ;  ix.  i ;  xi.  i), 
and  can  be  identified  neither  with  Cyrus 
himself  nor  with  Darius  Hystaspes,  but  was 
a  governor  upon  whom  Cyrus  had  bestowed 
the  rights  of  a  sovereign.  Perhaps  he  was 
the  Gobryas  discovered  in  the  cuneiform 
inscriptions.  2.  Darius,  son  of  Hystas- 
pes, the  known  Persian  king  (I.  Esd.  iv. 
5,  24;  vi.  iflF. ;  Aggeus  i.  i;  ii.  i,  11). 
3.  Darius  Codomanus,  the  last  of  the 
Persian  kings.  (H.  Esd.  xii.  22;  I.  Mach. 
i.  I.) 

Darwinism.    See  Man  and  Evolution. 

Dataria  (a  papal  oflSce). — The  Dataria, 
so  called  from  the  fact  that  papal  conces- 
sions or  favors  are  properly  dated,  and 
the  date  registered  by  an  official  of  the 
Pontifical  court,  is  a  tribunal  from  which 
are  issued  dispensations  pro  foro  externo, 
in  matters  ^eser^'ed  to  the  Pope.  .Hence, 
it  is  necessary  to  recur  to  this  tribunal  for 
dispensations  from  public  impediments  of 
marriage  and  public  irregularities.  A  car- 
dinal is  generally  at  the  head  of  this  tribu- 
nal ;  he  is  named  Pro  daiarius,  because 
the  datary  is  not  properly  a  cardinal's 
office. 


David. —  King  of  Israel  and  Prophet, 
born  at  Bethlehem,  in  the  eleventh  century 
B.C.;  died  at  Jerusalem  at  the  age  of  71 
years.  Eighth  and  youngest  son  of  Isai,  of 
the  tribe  of  Juda.  David  was  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  men  in  either  sacred  or 
profane  history.  His  first  appearance  is  as 
a  shepherd  youth,  who  alone  of  all  Israel 
ventures  to  accept  the  challenge  of  the 
proud  Goliath,  and  vanquishes  him  in  mor- 
tal combat.  God  led  him  on  to  become  a 
mighty  warrior,  the  ruler  and  king  of  all 
Israel,  and  the  founder  of  the  royal  family, 
which  continued  till  the  downfall  of  the 
Jewish  State.  But,  notwithstanding  his 
external  pomp  and  power.  David  is  best 
known  and  honored  for  his  piety,  and  as 
being  "the  man  after  God's  own  heart." 
He  indeed  became  guilty'  of  great  sins ;  but 
he  humbled  himself  in  the  dust  on  account 
of  them,  and  God  forgave  him.  His  royal 
race  was  spiritually  revived  in  the  person 
of  our  Saviour,  who  was  descended  from 
him  according  to  the  flesh,  and  who  is, 
therefore,  called  "the  son  of  David,"  and 
is  said  to  sit  upon  his  throne.  His  history 
is  chiefly  found  in  the  Books  of  Samuel 
and  the  First  Book  of  Chronicles.  He 
was  distinguished  as  the  "  sweet  singer  of 
Israel,"  and  his  Psalms  are  full  of  ex- 
pressions of  deep  devotional  feeling.  The 
Church  honors  David  as  a  penitent  saint, 
a  patriarch  and  a  Prophet. 

Deacon  {a  servant,  attendant,  minister). 
— The  first  seven  deacons  were  not  ordained 
merely  to  assist  the  poor,  because  St. 
Stephen  gave  himself  up  to  preaching  and 
St.  Philip  administered  baptism.  The 
Apostles  who  had  received  the  plenitude 
of  the  sacerdotal  power,  communicated  it, 
in  proportionate  extent,  to  the  bishops, 
priests,  and  deacons.  The  latter  were  as- 
signed to  the  bishops  as  associates  for  the 
celebration  of  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass, 
for  the  distribution  of  the  Holy  Eucharist 
which  they  carried  to  those  absent,  and 
even  for  a  part  of  the  power  of  adminis- 
tration of  the  dioceses.  The  ceremonies 
for  the  ordination  of  the  deacon  are  very 
ancient ;  thev  consist  especially  in  the  im- 
position of  hands,  and  the  presentation  of 
j  the  stole  and  dalmatic.  The  ordination  of 
the  deacon  is  begun  with  the  following 
address  of  the  bishop :  "  Dearest  child, 
who  art  about  to  be  promoted  to  the  Levit- 
ical  order,  consider  earnestly  to  what 
grade  in  the  Church  you  ascend.  For  it 
is  the  duty  of  the  deacon  to  minister  to  the 


Deaconess 


237 


Debora 


altar,  to  baptize,  and  preach . ' '  After  many 
prayers,  when  the  moment  of  ordination 
has  come,  the  candidate  goes  up  to  the 
altar  and  kneels  before  the  bishop,  who 
places  his  right  hand  on  his  head,  saying : 
"  Receive  the  Holy  Ghost,  in  order  that 
you  may  have  strength,  and  to  enable  you 
to  resist  the  devil  and  his  temptations.  In 
the  name  of  the  Lord."  Through  the  im- 
position of  the  hands  of  the  bishop,  the 
candidate  has  now  received  the  sacred  in- 
delible character  of  the  deacon.  He  is 
now  permitted  to  stand  near  the  priest  at 
the  altar,  to  baptize  and  preach,  and  sing 
the  Gospel  in  the  Church  of  God  both 
for  the  living  and  the  dead,  and  there- 
fore the  bishop  gives  him  the  insignia  of 
his  office. 

Deaconess  (widow  and  daughter  who, 
in  the  primitive  Church,  were  employed 
in  certain  ecclesiastical  ministries). — 
Although  women  have  always  been  con- 
sidered in  the  Catholic  Church  as  incapable 
of  receiving  sacred  orders,  they  have,  how- 
ever, exercised,  since  the  apostolic  times, 
certain  functions  that  approached  the  min- 
istry entrusted  to  the  deacons.  They  as- 
sisted the  female  catechumens  at  baptism, 
and  also  devoted  themselves  to  the  care  of 
the  sick.  They  were  supported  at  the 
expense  of  the  Church  if  their  personal 
means  were  insufficient  for  their  mainte- 
nance. They  were  called  deaconesses  or 
subdeaconesses,  episcopals  or  episcopesses, 
and  presbyteresses. 

Dean  (an  ecclesiastical  title).  —  Civil 
officials  so  called,  were  known  to  the  Ro- 
man law,  and  are  mentioned  in  the  codes 
of  Theodosius  and  Justinian.  The  title 
was  thence  adopted  for  Christian  use.  In 
the  monasteries,  for  every  ten  monks  a 
decanus  or  dean  was  nominated,  who  had 
charge  of  their  discipline.  The  senior 
dean,  in  the  absence  of  the  abbot  or  pro- 
vost, governed  the  monastery;  and  since 
monks  had  the  charge  of  many  cathedral 
churches,  the  office  of  dean  was  thus  intro- 
duced into  them.  Custom  gradually  de- 
termined that  there  should  be  only  one 
dean  in  a  cathedral,  and  he  eventually  as- 
sumed the  chief  charge  of  its  ecclesiastical 
and  ritual  concerns,  especially  in  regard 
to  the  choir.  He  became  also  general  as- 
sistant to  the  bishop.  These  deans  often 
served  as  deputies  of  the  bishop  to  expe- 
dite matters  of  minor  importance  in  cer- 
tain districts  of  the  diocese.  In  the  course 
of  time,  the  name  dean  was  given  to  eccle- 


siastics placed  at  the  head  of  a  parish. 
These  are  called  rural  deans ;  and  it  is 
their  office  to  inspect  the  country  curates 
or  to  transmit  to  them  the  orders  of  the 
bishop.  Generally,  in  European  countries 
a  rural  dean  is  named  for  each  county. 
According  to  the  Third  Plenary  Council 
of  Baltimore,  the  bishops  of  the  United 
States  are  also  advised  to  appoint  similar 
deans  in  different  parts  of  their  diocese. 

At  Rome,  the  Dean  of  the  Sacred 
College,  who  is  generally  the  oldest  car- 
dinal bishop  according  to  the  date  of  his 
ordination,  and  the  cardinal  bishop  of 
Ostia,  presides  at  all  the  reunions  of  car- 
dinals, at  which  the  Pope  does  not  preside 
himself. 

Death  (the  extinction  of  life).  —  The 
time  of  man's  probation  and  merit  ends 
with  this  mortal  life.  "The  dust  (shall) 
return  into  its  earth  from  whence  it  was, 
and  the  spirit  return  to  God  who  gave  it " 
(Eccles.  xii.  7).  Since  man's  earthly 
career  ends  with  death,  his  soul,  which  is 
not  of  the  dust,  but  created  immortal  by 
God,  returns  to  God,  its  Creator  and  last 
end,  to  receive  its  recompense.  Hence 
Christ  exhorts  us  to  work  while  it  is  day, 
before  "  the  night  (of  death)  cometh,  when 
no  man  can  work  "  (John  ix.  4).  Besides, 
there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  a  new 
probation  will  follow  after  death.  For  in 
that  case  man,  who  is  now  urged  on  to 
virtue  by  the  uncertainty  of  death  and  the 
certainty  of  eternal  retribution,  would  be 
tempted,  by  the  prospect  of  a  new  proba- 
tion, to  indulge  his  passions  in  the  present 
life  and  put  off  his  conversion  and  the 
service  of  God  till  after  death. 

Debora. —  Jewish  prophetess,  judge  in 
Israel.  Governed  the  Hebrew  people  dur- 
ing forty  years  (1396-1356  b.  c).  In  1392, 
she  assembled  the  tribes,  placed  at  their 
head  Barac,  of  the  tribe  of  Ephraim,  in 
order  to  throw  off  the  yoke  of  Jabin,  king 
of  Asor.  The  troops  of  the  latter  were 
defeated  near  Thabor,  and  Sisara,  their 
general,  was  killed  while  asleep,  by  Jahel. 
Debora  celebrated  the  victory  by  a  fa- 
mous canticle,  which  is  found  in  the  fifth 
chapter  of  the  Book  of  Judges.  Debora. — 
Nurse  of  Rebecca,  accompanied  Jacob  on 
his  return  from  Mesopotamia  into  the 
Promised  Land,  died  there,  and  was 
buried  at  the  foot  of  Bethel,  under  an  oak 
tree,  which  from  that  time  was  called 
"Oak  of  Tears." 


Decalogue 


238 


Decalogue 


Decalogue  (the  Commandments  of  God 
and  the  Church). —  The  Commandments 
of  God  are  called  the  Decalogue,  which  is 
a  word  derived  from  the  Greek,  meaning 
ten  words;  they  are  also  called  the  Ta- 
bles of  the  Law,  because  God  gave  them 
to  Moses  on  Mount  Sinai,  engraved  on  two 
tablets  of  stone.  See  the  subject  Com- 
mandments. 

First  Commandment:  "I  am  the  Lord 
thy  God.  Thou  shalt  not  have  strange 
gods  before  me;  thou  shalt  not  make  to 
thyself  any  graven  thing  to  adore  it."  By 
the  first  Commandment  it  is  ordained  to 
us  to  acknowledge  God  with  sentiments 
of  faith,  hope,  charity,  and  religion,  ren- 
dering to  Him  that  devotion  and  wor- 
ship He  exacts  from  us.  Thus  faith,  hope, 
and  charity,  are  the  three  theological  vir- 
tues, and  religion  (which  occupies  the  first 
rank  among  the  moral  virtues),  belong 
especially  to  the  first  precept  of  the  Deca- 
logue. 2d  Commandment:  "Thou  shalt 
not  take  the  name  of  the  Lord  thy  God  in 
vain."  This  Commandment  forbids  blas- 
phemy, regulates  the  oath  and  the  vow. 
(See  these  subjects.)  3d  Commandment: 
"Remember  thou  keep  holy  the  Sabbath 
day."  The  Church  has  established  the 
worship  and  celebration  of  the  Sabbath  on 
the  day  of  Sunday  (day  of  the  Lord),  in 
commemoration  of  the  resurrection  of  our 
Divine  Saviour  Jesus  Christ.  Moreover, 
the  Church  can  establish  and,  in  fact,  has 
established,  feasts  for  the  celebration  of  the 
principal  mysteries  of  religion,  to  honor 
the  Blessed  Virgin,  the  martyrs  and  the 
saints.  To  hear  Mass  with  devotion,  assist 
at  Vespers  and  other  exercises  of  piety 
that  take  place  in  Church,  approach  the 
sacraments  of  penance  and  the  Eucharist, 
listen  with  respect  and  attention  to  the 
word  of  God,  make  some  spiritual  reading, 
visit  the  sick,  relieve  the  poor,  console  the 
afflicted,  are  the  principal  acts  which  the 
true  Faithful  are  accustomed  to  perform 
on  Sundays  and  holy  days  of  obligation. 
Rigorously  speaking,  the  one  who  con- 
tents himself  with  hearing  Mass  on  Sun- 
days and  holy  days,  if  otherwise  he  abstain 
from  all  servile  work,  satisfies  the  third 
Commandment,  at  least  in  the  sense  that 
he  does  not  commit  a  mortal  sin. — 4th 
Commandment:  "Honor  thy  father  and 
thy  mother."  According  to  the  meaning 
of  the  sacred  language,  the  father  com- 
prises not  only  the  one  who,  after  God, 
has  given  us  life,  but  also  those  who, 
according  to  the  order  of  Divine  Provi- 


dence, are  placed  over  us  in  both  the  spirit- 
ual and  temporal  order.  Their  power  is  an 
emanation  from  God's  power.  Thus,  the 
fourth  precept  contains  the  duties  of  chil- 
dren in  regard  to  their  parents,  and  of 
inferiors  in  regard  to  their  superiors ;  as, 
by  a  natural  reciprocity,  it  contains  the 
duties  of  parents  in  regard  to  their  chil- 
dren, and  of  superiors  in  regard  to  their 
inferiors.  5th  Commandment :  "  Thou 
shalt  not  kill."  (See  Homicide,  Abor- 
tion, War,  Suicide).  6th  and  9th  Com- 
mandments :  "  Thou  shalt  not  commit 
adultery."  "  Thou  shalt  not  covet  thy 
neighbor's  wife."  These  two  command- 
ments forbid  all  kinds  of  luxury,  that  is,  all 
sins  against  chastity.  This  offense  com- 
prises not  only  fornication,  adultery,  but 
also  the  thoughts,  the  desires,  the  looks, 
the  words,  etc.,  and  generally  all  the  acts 
that  may  lead  to  impurity. —  7th  and  loth 
Commandments:  " Thou  shalt  not  steal." 
"Thou  shalt  not  covet  thy  neighbor's 
goods."  The  seventh  Commandment  for- 
bids to  injure  our  neighbor  in  his  property 
by  robbery  or  theft,  by  cheating,  usury,  or 
in  any  other  unjust  way.  And  the  tenth 
forbids  all  voluntary  desire  for  our  neigh- 
bor's goods.  See  Justice,  Property, 
Usury,  etc. 

The  Commandments  of  the  Church 
have  always  existed  in  teaching,  in  tradi- 
tion, and  in  practice;  but  nothing  proves 
that  they  were  ever  formulated  into  a  uni- 
form text  until  the  Council  of  Trent,  and 
this  Council  itself  never  gave  to  them  a 
precise  form.  Father  Canisius,  a  Jesuit, 
was  the  first  who,  in  his  great  Catechism, 
Sunima  Doctrince  cliristiance,  in  1554,  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  drawing  up  an  abridg- 
ment of  the  religious  duties  imposed  by  the 
Church.  He  reduced  them  to  five.  The  third 
Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore  reduced  them 
to  the  following  six  :  i.  "  To  rest  from  ser- 
vile work  and  to  hear  Mass  on  all  Sundays 
and  holy  days  of  obligation."  2.  "  To  fast 
and  to  abstain  from  flesh-meat  on  the  days 
appointed  by  the  Church."  3.  "To  con- 
fess our  sins  at  least  once  a  year."  4.  "To 
receive  worthily  the  Blessed  Eucharist  at 
Easter  or  within  the  time  appointed."  5. 
"To  contribute  to  the  support  of  our  pas- 
tors." 6.  "Not  to  marry  persons  within 
the  forbidden  degrees  of  kindred  or  other- 
wise prohibited  by  the  Church,  nor  to 
solemnize  marriage  at  the  forbidden 
times."  In  regard  to  the  sixth  precept  of 
the  Church,  we  are  commanded  to  con- 
tribute willingly,  according  to  our  means. 


Decapolis 


239 


Deluge 


to  the  support  of  our  pastors  and  our 
Churches,  and  of  religious  institutions. 
St.  Paul  says  :  "So  the  Lord  ordained  that 
they  who  preach  the  Gospel  should  live 
by  the  Gospel"  (I.  Cor.  ix.  13,  14).  For  the 
explanation  of  the  other  five  Command- 
ments of  the  Church,  see  Confession, 
Communion,  Fast,  Abstinence,  Lent. 

Decapolis  (Gr.  ten  cities). — A  region  in 
Northern  Palestine,  mainly  on  the  east 
side  of  the  Jordan,  mentioned  in  Matt, 
(iv.  25);  Mark  (v.  20).  Writers  do  not 
agree  as  to  the  names  of  the  cities. 

Decius  (Roman  emperor)  (249-251). — 
Decius  ordered  a  most  violent  persecution 
against  the  Church,  which,  in  extent  and 
severity,  surpassed  all  preceding  perse- 
cutions. He  published  an  edict,  command- 
ing all  Christians  throughout  the  Empire 
to  abandon  their  religion  and  to  offer 
sacrifices  to  the  gods.  The  most  exquisite 
tortures  were  devised  against  the  Chris- 
tians in  order  to  induce  them  to  apostatize. 
The  property  of  those  who  fled  was  con- 
fiscated, and  they  themselves  were  obliged 
to  remain  in  exile.  By  the  imperial  de- 
cree, bishops  were  to  suffer  death  at  once. 
Decius  was  slain  in  battle  by  the  Goths. 

Decretals.     See  Canon  Law. 

Dedication  (consecration  of  a  church  or 
chapel). — The  dedication  of  a  church  is 
a  liturgical  solemnity  performed  only  by 
the  bishop,  who  consecrates  the  building 
for  divine  service  to  the  exclusion  of  all 
profane  usage.  It  is  believed  that  the 
solemn  dedication  of  churches  began 
under  the  reign  of  Constantine  the  Great. 
St.  Ambrose,  in  the  fourth  century,  tells 
us  that  the  deposition  of  relics  in  the 
building  recently  erected,  was  one  of  the 
conditions  of  dedication.  The  ceremonies 
comprise  the  sprinkling  with  holy  water, 
special  prayers,  the  anointing  of  the  walls, 
and  the  double  inscription  of  the  alphabet 
(Greek and  Latin),  which  the  bishop  traces 
on  the  floor  of  the  church.  In  the  United 
States,  most  of  the  churches  are  simply 
blessed.  Feast  of  the  Dedication  we  call  the 
anniversary  of  the  day  on  which  a  church 
has  been  dedicated ;  also  the  feast  of  the 
saint  to  whom  the  church  is  dedicated. 

Defender  of  the  Faith. — A  title  of  honor 
sometimes  bestowed  upon  sovereigns  who 
protected  the  Church  in  both  her  temporal 
and  spiritual  interests.  This  title  was  con- 
ferred   by  Pope  Leo  X.   on  Henry  VIII. 


King  of  England,  in  1521,  as  a  reward  for 
writing  against  Luther. 

Defensor  Matrimonii. — A  clerical  officer, 
appointed  by  the  bishop,  charged  with  de- 
fending the  validity  of  marriage,  whenever 
such  cases  come  before  the  ecclesiastical 
court.  It  is  his  duty  to  collect  and  present 
evidence  against  the  plaintiff. 

Degradation,  Deposition  (terms  in  eccle- 
siastical law). — Degradation  is  an  act  de- 
priving an  ecclesiastic  of  his  orders  or 
privileges  or  of  both.  There  are  two  kinds  of 
degradation :  the  simple  or  verbal;  the 
actual  or  soletnn.  By  the  first,  the  accused  is 
deprived  of  all  his  orders  and  benefices. 
By  the  second,  he  is  with  great  ceremony 
stripped  of  his  ecclesiastical  vestments  and 
ornaments  and  publicly  reprimanded  by 
the  bishop,  deprived  of  his  orders  and 
benefices,  as  in  simple  degradation,  and  of 
his  various  privileges.  He  remains,  how- 
ever, a  priest,  and  can,  in  special  emergen- 
cies, administer  the  sacraments.  Also  the 
degraded  priest  is  not  exempt  from  the 
vow  of  chastity  or  from  saying  his  brevi- 
ary. Degradation  is  now  resorted  to  only 
in  extreme  cases.  Deposition  debars  a 
priest  from  the  privileges  and  duties  of 
his  order,  but  differs  from  degradation  in 
that  the  latter  is  always  perpetual,  while 
the  former  may  be  only  temporary,  and 
consistent  with  the  hope  of  restoration. 

Deism. — System  of  those  who,  rejecting 
all  revelation,  believe  only  in  the  existence 
of  God.  Certain  commentators  confound 
Deism  with  Theism,  seeking  to  designate 
thereby  only  the  common  foundation  of 
all  the  philosophical  doctrines  which  pro- 
fess the  belief  in  a  God.  But  in  the 
general  acceptation,  the  Deist  is  the  one 
who  affects  to  limit  his  belief  to  the  faith 
in  a  rational,  impersonal  God,  whose  attri- 
butes and  providence  he  does  not  seek  to 
determine.  For  him,  God  is  only  the 
first  cause,  the  great  indispensable  mechan- 
ism of  the  world's  movement.  Deism  does 
not  puSh  its  inquiries  any  farther,  and  for 
the  most  of  its  followers  the  immortality 
of  the  soul  as  well  as  the  divine  personality 
are  insoluble  problems,  about  which  the 
human  mind  should  not  concern  itself. 

Delegate.     See  Legate. 

Deluge  .{the  Noachian). —  By  the  Noa- 
chian  Deluge  is  understood  the  inundation 
which  took  place  at  an  unknown  date  in 
ancient   times,    and   which,    according   to 


Deluge 


240 


Deluge 


the  account  of  Genesis,  covered  the  whole 
earth  and  caused  the  destruction  of  all 
mankind,  with  the  exception  of  Noe  and 
his  family.  After  having  described  this 
extraordinary  phenomenon  we  shall  es- 
tablish its  historic  reality,  extent,  and 
nature. 

1.  Description. — i.  Moral  Cause  and 
Prophetic  Announcement. — The  malice  of 
men,  descended  from  the  union  of  the 
Sethites  and  Cainites,  and  their  violence 
increasing  continually,  and  having  at- 
tained its  extreme  limits,  God  repented  of 
having  created  man,  and  resolved  to  exter- 
minate guilty  mankind  and  all  the  beings 
that  had  been  the  instruments  or  witnesses 
of  their  crimes.  Noe  alone,  who  was 
just,  found  grace  in  His  eyes,  together 
with  his  sons,  Sem,  Cham,  and  Japheth. 
The  means  chosen  by  God  to  revenge  His 
outraged  justice  and  to  purify  the  earth 
was  a  general  inundation,  which  would 
destroy  the  life  of  all  living  beings.  The 
instrument  of  salvation,  which  should  pre- 
serve the  hope  of  mankind,  was  an  ark  or 
vessel.  God  Himself  indicated  its  di- 
mensions and  designated  the  men  and  ani- 
mals that  should  enter  therein  to  repeople 
the  earth.  He  also  ordered  Noe  to  place 
therein  the  food  necessary  for  its  future 
occupants  (Gen.  vi.  1-21).  The  Deluge 
was,  therefore,  in  the  designs  of  God,  a 
chastisement  for  the  crimes  and  perversity 
of  men,  and  at  the  same  time  a  means  of 
preservation  and  of  the  reconstitution  of 
a  new  mankind  in  the  true  faith  and  good 
morals.  It  was  a  providential  event,  willed 
by  God's  wisdom  as  well  as  by  His  justice. 

2.  Realization. — When  Noe  had  com- 
plied with  all  the  divine  orders,  while  his 
contemporaries  continued,  in  spite  of  the 
warnings  given  to  them,  their  indifferent 
and  dissolute  life,  God  ordered  him  to 
complete  his  preparations  and  to  enter 
into  the  ark  with  his  wife,  his  sons,  and 
their  wives,  eight  persons  in  all  (I.  Pet. 
iii.  20).  As  to  the  number  of  animals  of 
each  kind  that  were  to  be  taken  into  the 
ark,  the  commentators  have  never  been  in 
accord.  Some  believe  that  God  had  fixed 
seven  pairs  of  pure  animals  and  two  of 
impure  animals;  others  have  counted  only 
seven  pure  and  two  impure  individuals, 
the  expressions  "  seven,  seven;  two,  two," 
being  distributive  numbers.  Seven  days 
afterwards,  all  having  been  done  as  God 
had  commanded,  and  the  Lord  Himself 
having  closed  the  door  of  the  ark,  the 
waters   of    the    Deluge   spread    over    the 


earth.  It  was  the  seventeenth  day  of  the 
second  month  and  six  hundredth  year  of 
the  life  of  Noe.  "All  the  fountains  of 
the  great  deep  were  broken  up  and  the 
flood  gates  of  heaven  were  opened,  and 
the  rain  fell  upon  the  earth  during  forty 
days  and  forty  nights."  Thus  only  two 
physical  causes  of  the  inundation  are  meta- 
phorically indicated  :  the  invasion  of  sea 
water  upon  the  earth  and  a  torrential 
rain.  It  has  been  believed  that  "  the 
fountains  of  the  deep"  designated  the  sub- 
terranean sources  abundantly  gushing  forth 
their  waters,  but  they  are  rather  the  waves 
of  the  ocean  which,  leaving  their  natural 
reservoirs,  broke  over  the  firm  earth  and 
covered  it.  The  Hebrew  word  tehom,  em- 
ployed here,  more  often  means  the  sea  (Is. 
li.  10;  Ps.  xxxvi.  7;  Ixxviii.  15;  Amos  vii. 
4)  than  the  subterranean  fountains  (  Job 
xxxviii.  16;  Ps.  Ixxi.  20).  "The  flood 
gates  of  heaven,"  which,  being  opened, 
allowed  the  escape  of  cataracts,  signify  in 
the  popular  conception  of  the  earthly  at- 
mosphere the  clouds  which  burst  and 
spread  a  furious  rain,  gesem.  The  inun- 
dation was  progressive,  and  the  waters, 
increasing,  raised  the  ark  and  submerged 
the  whole  surface  of  the  earth.  All  the 
living  beings  and  all  men,  except  those 
shut  up  in  the  ark,  perished.  While  the 
saving  vessel  floated  and  the  hand  of  God 
held  its  rudder  (Wis.  xiv.  6),  the  waters 
rose,  and  their  height  became  such  that 
they  surpassed  by  fifteen  cubits  the  sum- 
mits of  all  the  mountains  that  are  under 
heaven.  They  covered  thus  the  earth 
during  one  hundred  days  (Gen  vii.  1-24). 
3.  Diminution  and  Cessation. — At  the 
end  of  this  time  God  remembered  Noe  and 
the  beings  that  were  in  the  ark  and  He 
caused  the  Deluge  to  cease.  The  causes  of 
the  inundation  acted  no  longer,  the  foun- 
tains of  the  deep  and  the  flood  gates  of 
heaven  were  closed,  and  the  rains  stopped. 
A  brisk  and  warm  wind,  which  God  sent 
upon  the  earth,  gradually  diminished  the 
waters  by  evaporation.  They  decreased 
by  and  by  and  withdrew  into  the  places  from 
whence  they  had  gone  forth.  The  sea  re- 
gained its  bed,  and  the  clouds  reformed 
themselves  into  atmosphere.  On  the 
twenty-seventh  day  (according  to  the  Vul- 
gate, or  the  seventeenth,  according  to  the 
Hebrew  and  Samaritan  texts,  the  Targum 
and  several  ancient  versions)  of  the  seventh 
month,  the  ark  rested  on  Mount  Ararat,  in 
Armenia.  The  decrease  of  the  waters 
continued  until  the  beginning  of  the  tenth 


Deluge 


241 


Deluge 


month.  On  the  first  day  of  this  month 
the  summits  of  the  mountains  appeared. 
Forty  days  later  Noe,  desirous  to  know 
whether  the  surface  of  the  earth  was  dry, 
opened  the  window  of  the  ark  and  sent 
forth  a  raven,  which  did  not  return.  He 
also  sent  forth  a  dove,  which,  not  findins; 
where  her  foot  might  rest,  returned.  Seven 
days  afterwards  he  again  sent  a  dove,  and 
in  the  evening  she  came  back,  carrying  a 
bough  of  an  olive  tree,  with  green  leaves, 
in  her  mouth.  At  this  sign  Noe  under- 
stood that  the  waters  had  entirely  disap- 
peared. After  seven  days  more  he  a  third 
time  sent  forth  a  dove,  which  did  not 
return.  Opening  the  covering  of  the 
ark  Noe  saw  that  the  face  of  the  earth  was 
dried.  Then  God  commanded  Noe,  to- 
gether with  his  family  and  the  animals,  to 
leave  the  ark.  The  duration  of  the  Deluge 
was  one  year  and  eleven  days.  Or,  as  the 
months  refer,  in  the  Biblical  account,  to 
the  lunar  year,  the  total  duration  of  the 
Deluge  corresponds  to  a  solar  year  of 
three  hundred  and  sixty  five  days.  The 
rescued  patriarch  offered  to  the  Lord  a 
sacrifice  of  thanksgiving.  Jehovah  was 
pleased  with  its  odor  and  promised  to 
punish  guilty  mankind  no  more  by  the 
waters  of  a  deluge  (Gen.  viii.  1-22).  God 
blessed  Noe  and  his  children,  established 
with  them  a  covenant,  and  chose  the  rain- 
bow as  a  visible  and  perpetual  sign  of  His 
promise  to  submerge  the  earth  no  more  by  a 
flood  similar  to  that  which  had  taken  place 
(Gen.  ix.  1-17). 

The  modern  critics  see  in  the  Biblical 
narrative,  which  we  have  rapidly  analyzed, 
an  awkward  combination  of  two  different 
and  contradictory  accovmts  of  the  Deluge, 
the  one  Elohistic  and  the  other  Jehovistic. 
To  believe  them,  the  difference  between  the 
documents  follows  evidently  from  the  con- 
tradictions, the  repetitions  that  it  is  easy 
to  remark  therein,  from  the  particular  style 
of  each  source,  and  especially  from  the  use 
of  the  divine  names  Elohim  and  Jehovah. 
The  Elohistic  account  is  complete,  while 
the  Jehovistic  has  reached  us  only  in  frag- 
ments. 

These  conclusions  do  not  carry  the  evi- 
dence that  is  attributed  to  them,  and  the 
critical  analysis  of  the  narrative  of  the 
Deluge  is  far  from  being  as  certain  as  is 
pretended.  The  Elohistic  parts  do  not 
constitute  a  complete  whole  ;  they  present 
breaks  and  are  not  free  from  repetitions. 
Notwithstanding  its  repetitions,  the  pres- 
ent    narrative    forms    an    harmonic    and 


progressive  whole,  and  the  repetitions,  by 
insisting  on  the  principal  circumstances, 
define  them  the  more  and  are  very  striking 
in  their  effect.  Besides,  they  are  conform- 
able to  the  customs  of  the  Hebrews  and 
to  the  ample  and  redundant  accounts  of 
the  Orientals.  The  cuneiform  legend  of  the 
Deluge,  of  which  we  shall  speak  very  soon, 
and  which  offers  no  trace  of  Elohism  and 
Jehovism,  has  the  same  repetitions  and  con- 
tains the  features  which  are  declared  to  be 
peculiar  to  the  two  original  documents. 
The  Biblical  narrative  is  the  work  of  a 
single  compiler,  who,  if  he  did  employ  an- 
terior sources,  has  molded  them  into  a  re- 
markable unity. 

II.  Historic  Reality  of  the  Del- 
uge.—  The  Biblical  Deluge  is  no  astro- 
nomical myth  ;  it  is  a  fact  whose  historical 
truth  is  evident  from  the  Mosaic  account 
alone.  This  account  reproduces  the  He- 
brew tradition  of  the  remembrance  of  the 
cataclysm.  But  for  this  fact  we  have 
other  proofs,  which  have  been  provi- 
dentially brought  to  light  in  a  time  when 
the  Biblical  narrative  is  most  vehemently 
attacked. 

Diluvtcin  Traditions,  i.  The  Chaldean 
Tradition.  —  There  exist,  outside  of  Gen- 
esis, many  diluvian  traditions.  The  most 
important,  and  the  one  that  approaches 
nearest  to  the  Mosaic  account,  is  the  Chal- 
dean tradition,  of  which  we  possess  two 
versions  unequally  developed :  that  of 
Berosus,  preserved  by  Eusebius  {Chron., 
I.  I.,  c.  iil.),  and  that  of  the  poem  of  Gil- 
games,  deciphered  in  1872.  According  to 
the  interpretation  of  Berosus,  under  the 
reign  of  Xisuthros  occurred  the  great  flood 
whose  history  is  related  in  the  sacred  mon- 
uments in  the  following  manner:  "The 
great  Deluge  took  place  under  Xisuthros. 
The  god  Ea  appeared  to  him  in  a  dream, 
and  announced  that  on  the  15th  of  the 
month  Daisios  (a  little  before  the  summer 
solstice),  all  men  should  perish  by  a  flood. 
He  was  therefore  to  collect  all  that  was 
consigned  to  writing,  and  bury  it  at  Sip- 
para,  the  city  of  the  Sun.  There  he  was  to 
build  a  vessel  and  to  enter  into  it  with  his 
family  and  dearest  friends  ;  and  he  was  to 
cause  animals,  birds,  and  quadrupeds  to 
enter  it  with  him,  taking  sufficient  pro- 
vision. He  was,  moreover,  to  prepare 
everything  for  navigation.  And  when 
Xisuthros  asked  in  what  direction  he 
should  steer,  he  was  told  :  '  Towards  the 
gods,'  and  he  was  enjoined  to  pray  that 
good  might  come  of  it  for  men. 


Deluge 


242 


Deluge 


"  Xisuthros,  on  this,  obeyed,  and  con- 
structed a  vessel  five  stadia  long  (3,033  feet, 
9  inches)  and  two  broad  (1,213  f^^t,  6 
inches) ;  and  having  brought  together  all 
that  had  been  ordered,  went  into  it  with 
his  wife,  his  children,  and  his  intimate 
friends. 

"The  Deluge  having  come,  and  soon 
going  down,  Xisuthros  loosed  some  of  the 
birds ;  but  these  finding  no  food,  nor  place 
to  alight,  returned  to  the  ship.  A  few 
days  later  he  again  set  them  free,  but  they 
returned,  their  feet  stained  with  mud. 
Sent  off  a  third  time,  they  never  came  back. 
Xisuthros  from  this  understood  that  the 
earth  was  bare,  and,  having  made  an  open- 
ing in  the  roof  of  the  ship,  saw  that  it  had 
grounded  on  the  top  of  a  mountain.  He 
then  descended  with  his  wife,  his  daughter, 
and  his  pilot,  and  having  worshiped  the 
earth,  raised  an  altar  and  sacrificed  to  the 
gods.  At  the  same  moment  he  vanished, 
with  those  who  accompanied  him. 

"  Meanwhile,  those  who  had  remained  in 
the  vessel,  finding  he  did  not  return,  de- 
scended and  began  to  seek  him,  calling 
him  by  name.  But  they  saw  Xisuthros  no 
more.  A  voice  from  heaven,  however, 
was  heard,  commanding  that  they  should 
be  pious  toward  the  gods,  and  telling 
them  that  he  had  received  the  reward  of 
his  piety,  by  being  carried  away  to  dwell 
henceforth  in  the  midst  of  the  gods,  and 
that  his  wife,  his  daughter,  and  the  pilot 
of  the  ship,  shared  the  same  honor.  The 
voice  further  said  that  they  were  to  return 
to  Babylon,  and  dig  up  the  writings  buried 
at  Sippara  in  order  to  transmit  them  to 
after  generations.  The  country  in  which 
they  found  themselves  was  Armenia.  They, 
then,  having  heard  the  voice,  sacrificed  to 
the  gods  and  returned  on  foot  to  Babylon. 
Of  the  vessel  of  Xisuthros,  a  portion  is 
still  to  be  found  in  the  Gordyan  Mountains 
in  Armenia,  and  pilgrims  bring  thence 
asphalt  which  they  have  scraped  from  its 
fragments.  It  is  used  to  keep  off  the  in- 
fluence of  witchcraft." 

The  other  version,  which  is  still  more 
interesting,  is  written  on  cuneiform  tables 
exhumed  from  the  library  of  Assurbani- 
pal,  at  Ninive,  and  preserved  in  the 
British  Museum,  at  London.  These  tab- 
lets were  copied  in  the  seventh  century 
B.  c.  from  a  very  ancient  copy,  which 
came  from  Erech,  in  Chaldea.  The  date 
of  the  original  is  unknown.  However, 
George  Smith  makes  it  go  back  to  at  least 
seventeen  centuries  b.  c.     The  account  of 


the  Deluge  is  only  an  episode  of  an  epopee 
in  twelve  cantos,  which  relate  the  exploits 
of  the  hero  Gilgames.  There  is  a  picture 
of  him  on  the  eleventh  tablet  and  it  con- 
stitutes the  eleventh  chant,  which  exists 
almost  entirely.  Gilgames  had  gone  to 
his  ancestor,  Samas-napistim,  in  a  far-away 
country  and  difficult  of  access,  whither 
the  gods  had  transported  him  to  make  him 
enjoy  an  eternal  happiness.  Samas-nap- 
istim relates  to  his  grandson  the  history  of 
the  Deluge  and  of  his  own  preservation. 
The  city  of  Surippak,  on  the  Euphrates, 
was  already  very  ancient,  when  the  gods 
resolved  upon  a  deluge.  Ea  revealed  his 
design  to  Samas-napistim  and  ordered 
him  to  build  a  vessel,  whose  dimensions 
he  indicated  to  him,  and  he  suggested  to 
him  the  answer  to  give  to  the  questions  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Surippak.  Samas-nap- 
istim was  to  tell  them  that  he  wished  to  fly 
before  the  wrath  of  Bel,  who  soon  would  in- 
undate the  country.  The  vessel  completed, 
Samas-napistim  offered  a  sacrifice,  gath- 
ered together  his  riches  and  caused  to 
enter  into  the  ship  his  servants,  male  and 
female,  the  cattle  of  the  fields  and  seeds  of 
life.  As  soon  as  the  rain  fell,  he  himself 
entered  into  the  vessel,  and  shut  its  door. 
The  storm  raised  by  the  gods  was  so  fright- 
ful that  they  themselves  were  alarmed. 
Mankind  became  again  the  slime  of  earth. 
The  wind,  the  deluge,  and  the  storm 
reigned  seven  days  and  seven  nights.  On 
the  seventh  day,  at  dawn,  it  stopped  raining, 
the  sea  became  quiet  and  the  wind  calm. 
The  light  having  reappeared,  Samas- 
napistim  beheld  no  land ;  the  whole  was 
a  watery  desert.  His  vessel  was  stopped 
by  the  mountain  of  Nizir  and  could  not 
pass  over  it.  After  being  seven  days  thus 
anchored,  Samas-napistim  sent  out  a  dove, 
which  went,  circled  about,  and,  finding  no 
place  to  alight,  came  back.  A  swallow  did 
the  same.  A  raven  did  not  return.  Then 
Samas-napistim  sent  out  the  animals 
from  the  vessel  and  offered  to  the  gods 
a  sacrifice  of  an  agreeable  odor.  Bel  was 
filled  with  anger  against  the  gods  because 
Samas-napistim  had  been  preserved.  Ea 
reproached  Bel  for  his  passion  and  advised 
him  to  punish  in  future  only  the  guilty, 
instead  of  sending  upon  earth  a  universal 
deluge.  Bel,  becoming  appeased,  caused 
to  enter  into  the  vessel  Samas-napistim 
and  his  wife,  blessed  them,  conferred  upon 
them  itnmortality,  and  made  them  to 
dwell  "at  the  mouth  of  rivers."  (See 
George  Smith's  Assyrian  Discoveries.) 


Deluge 


243 


Deluge 


This  legend  presents,  with  the  Biblical 
account  of  the  Deluge,  numerous  points  of 
contact.  The  resemblances  existing  in  the 
general  progress  of  the  narrative,  in  the 
order  of  composition,  and  sometimes  even 
in  the  details  of  the  style,  render  the  rela- 
tionship of  both  documents  unquestion- 
able. Notable  divergences,  however,  are 
apparent.  Without  speaking  of  the  poly- 
theistic and  mythological  character  of  the 
Chaldean  poem,  the  latter  has  been  com- 
posed among  a  maritime  people  and  car- 
ries the  imprint  of  the  morals  and  customs 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Persian  gulf, 
while  Genesis  describes  the  Deluge  for  a 
continental  people.  If  the  analogies  prove 
the  community  of  foundation,  the  diver- 
gences, which  are  characteristic,  establish 
the  peculiar  individuality  of  both  accounts. 
As  to  the  original  relations  of  both  tradi- 
tions, the  critics  are  not  in  agreement. 
Some  admit  the  dependence  of  both  docu- 
ments, Hebrew  and  Chaldean,  or  at  least 
of  the  two  traditions  which  they  represent. 
In  the  eyes  of  certain  rationalistic  critics, 
who  lower  the  date  of  the  Pentateuch,  the 
account  of  Genesis  would  be  a  direct  and 
quite  late  borrowing  from  the  cuneiform 
poem;  it  would  be  only  a  purified  edition 
thereof,  an  adaptation  to  the  religious 
ideas  of  the  Hebrews  and  a  monotheistic 
and  much  abbreviated  transformation. 
The  borrowing,  if  there  was  any,  did  not 
take  place  in  a  recent  epoch,  and  it  is  not 
the  work  of  one  man,  but  the  work  of  sev- 
eral generations.  The  transformation  of 
the  Chaldean  legends  was  done  by  the  He- 
brews in  their  popular  tradition  before  the 
account  was  reproduced  in  the  Biblical  doc- 
uments. "  Nothing  prevents  us  from  as- 
serting that  the  history  of  the  Deluge  had 
been  known  to  the  ancestors  of  Israel  dur- 
ing their  sojourn  in  Mesopotamia,  and  that 
it  had  been  preserved,  becoming  modified 
and  purified,  among  the  descendants  of 
Abraham  until  the  moment  when  we  find 
it  fixed  in  the  Biblical  texts."  (A.Loisy, 
Les  Mythes  Chaldeen  de  la  Creation  et 
du  DSluge,  p.  93.)  But  other  critics 
acknowledge  with  more  probability  in 
the  Chaldean  legend  and  in  the  Mosaic 
narrative  two  parallel  accounts,  sprung 
from  a  common  and  primitive  tradition 
more  or  less  faithfully  preserved.  They 
represent  two  independent  forms,  national 
and  localized  by  the  Semitic  tradition. 
They  are  sister  traditions,  which,  under 
the  empire  of  physical  and  moral,  ethnical 
and  geographical  causes,  have  become  di- 


versified. The  mother  tradition  has  been 
better  preserved  in  the  account  of  Moses 
than  in  the  Babylonian  document,  where  it 
became  disfigured  by  the  mythological  al- 
terations. 

2.  Other  Diluvian  Traditions. — Tradi- 
tions in  regard  to  the  Deluge  are  found 
among  most  of  the  nations.  All  of  them 
bear  a  likeness  to  the  account  of  Genesis, 
but  with  divergences  of  views  which  have 
given  rise  to  three  different  interpretations  : 
(i)  According  to  one,  the  diluvian  tradi- 
tion is  universal,  and  all  the  nations  have 
kept  the  remembrance  of  the  Noachian 
Deluge.  The  existence  of  this  remem- 
brance has  already  been  proven  among 
most  of  them,  and  if  a  nation  seems  to  have 
this  no  longer,  it  is  because  it  has  not  yet 
furnished  all  its  traditions,  or  because  it 
has  lost  that  of  the  Deluge  in  consequence 
of  migration,  mixture  with  other  popu- 
lations, or  on  account  of  some  other  his- 
torical circumstance.  Now,  all  these  dilu- 
vian traditions  are  more  or  less  mutilated 
fragments  of  the  sole  and  true  primitive 
tradition.  The  transformations  which  they 
have  undergone  are  explained  by  the  local 
adaptation  of  the  cataclysm,  and  were  pro- 
duced by  restriction.  The  event,  general 
and  universal  as  it  was,  became  local,  par- 
ticular, and  restricted.  (2)  A  critical  and 
scientific  study  of  these  remembrancesof  the 
Deluge  enables  us  to  distinguish  the  real 
diluvian  traditions,  which  have  reference 
to  the  Noachian  Deluge,  from  the  pseudo- 
diluvian  traditions,  which  have  reference 
to  local  inundations.  The  really  diluvian 
traditions  are  either  original  and  aboriginal, 
that  is,  having  their  origin  in  the  countries 
where  they  are  preserved  and  peculiar  to 
the  peoples  that  hold  them,  or  else  imported 
by  foreigners  into  the  region  where  we  find 
them,  and  consequently  borrowed.  Now, 
if  the  diluvian  tradition  is  not  absolutely 
universal,  it  exists  in  all  the  great  races 
of  mankind,  except  one,  the  negro  race, 
among  whom  researches  have  been  made 
in  vain  for  some  trace  thereof.  The  Aryan 
or  Indo-European  races,  Semitic  or  Syro- 
Arabic, Chamite  or  Cushite  races, have  their 
own  diluvian  tradition  and  have  not  bor- 
rowed from  one  another;  among  them  it  is 
primitive.  The  yellow  race  possesses  it, but 
by  importation.  The  American  populations 
know  it,  but  we  cannot  tell  with  certainty 
whether  their  traditions  are  original  or 
whether  they  are  of  Asiatic  or  European 
importation.  In  the  number  of  pseudo- 
diluvian  legends,  we  can  rank  the  deluges 


Deluge 


244 


Deluge 


of  Ogyges  and  of  Deucalion,  the  great  in- 
undation placed  by  the  historical  books  of 
China  under  the  reign  of  Yao,  and  the 
legend  of  Botchica,  among  the  Muyscas  of 
South  America.  (3)  Finally,  other  critics 
draw  still  more  rigorously  the  conclusions 
from  the  critical  study  of  the  diluvian  tra- 
ditions, and  end  by  acknowledging  as 
really  diluvian  and  aboriginal  only  the 
Chaldean  tradition.  It  was  imported  from 
Mesopotamia, — they  say, — its  native  coun- 
trv,  into  the  neighboring  countries ;  it  be- 
came the  stem  and  has  brought  forth  the 
Hebrew,  Phoenician,  Syrian,  Arabic,  Phryg- 
ian, and  Armenian  branches.  The  antero- 
Asiatic  traditions  are  the  only  really 
diluvian ;  all  the  others  are  pseudo-diluvian 
traditions.  Be  this  as  it  may,  even  if 
we  reduce  the  really  diluvian  traditions 
to  a  minimum,  the  fact  of  the  Deluge  re- 
mains historically  certain.  Its  historical 
certitude  rests  upon  a  group  of  real  tradi- 
tions, which  have  transmitted  to  us  the 
remembrance  of  the  great  cataclysm  that 
struck  mankind  at  the  beginning  of  history. 
3.  Geology. —  The  first  geologists  be- 
lieved that  in  the  strata  of  the  terrestrial 
surface  they  had  direct  proofs  of  the  sub- 
mersion of  the  globe  in  an  historical  epoch, 
and  they  attributed  to  the  Mosaic  Deluge 
the  formation  of  alluvial  soils,  which  in 
consequence  thereof  they  named  diluvium. 
Their  opinion  is  generally  abandoned  to- 
day. The  contemporary  geologists  ac- 
knowledge that  an  inundation  like  the 
Noachian  Deluge,  which  lasted  only  one 
year,  could  not  leave  on  the  soil  traces 
durable  enough  to  be  recognized  with  cer- 
tainty centuries  after,  nor  characteristic 
enough  to  be  distinguished  from  those  of 
other  foregoing  inundations.  The  phe- 
nomena which  their  predecessors  regarded 
as  geological  proofs  of  the  Deluge  they 
refer  to  anterior  epochs,  and  explain  them 
through  the  action  of  other  causes.  They 
have  established,  indeed,  that  there  are 
several  kinds  of  diluvium,  and  in  each  of 
them  several  layers  due  to  different  factors 
and  referring  to  distant  epochs.  They 
have  been  produced  by  a  long  series  of 
revolutions  in  which  water  plays  an  im- 
portant, but  not  an  exclusive  role.  The 
alluvial  gravels,  which  constitute  the  gray 
diluvium,  have  been  carried  away  from 
the  mountains  into  the  valleys  by  water 
currents  more  powerful  than  our  existing 
rivers  and  flowing  under  other  conditions 
of  slope  and  level.  The  loess  is  due  to 
torrents  formed  by  very  heavy  rains,  which 


graded  down  the  slopes  and  carried  away 
fine  clay  and  fragments  of  stone.  The  red 
diluvium  is  the  result  of  alternatives  of 
frost  and  thaw  on  the  surface  of  a  soil 
constantly  frozen  in  its  depths.  (A.  de 
Lapparent,  Traite  de  geologic.)  The  er- 
ratic blocks,  those  immense  rocks  trans- 
ported hundreds  of  miles  from  the 
mountains  from  which  they  had  been  torn, 
have  not  been  rolled  b^'  the  waters,  for 
their  angles  are  neither  broken  nor 
rounded,  but  have  been  carried  along  by 
the  immense  glaciers  which  in  the  Qua- 
ternary times  covered  a  part  of  the  globe. 
The  caves  and  fissures  of  rocks  filled 
with  human  and  animal  bones  strongly 
cemented  together  and  mingled  with  frag- 
ments of  the  surrounding  rocks  were 
formed  in  the  time  when  the  excessive 
cold  obliged  the  inhabitants  of  Europe  to 
seek  shelter  in  the  caves.  Their  bones 
became  heaped  up  with  those  of  animals 
for  whom  these  grottoes  served  as  haunts, 
and  the  whole  became  soldered  through 
the  action  of  the  water  which  infiltrated. 
The  bone  caves  and  the  osseous  breccia  are 
not,  therefore,  any  more  than  the  diluvial 
grounds  and  the  erratic  blocks,  certain 
proofs  of  the  Noachian  Deluge.  However, 
geology,  which  does  not  confirm  directly 
the  existence  of  the  Deluge,  does  not  con- 
tradict it.  It  even  shows  its  possibility, 
when  it  establishes  the  traces  of  consider- 
able inundations  in  the  Tertiary  and 
Quaternary  times.  Therefore,  the  Biblical 
Deluge  cannot  be  declared  unscientific  nor 
impossible. 

III.  Extent  of  the  Deluge. — The 
Biblical  text  presents  the  Deluge  as  uni- 
versal ;  but  this  universality  has  been 
understood  in  three  different  ways,  and  the 
inundation  has  been  held  as  universal:  (i) 
As  to  the  surface  of  the  globe.  (2)  As  to 
the  earth  inhabited  by  men.  (3)  As  to  the 
region  occupied  by  only  a  portion  of  man- 
kind. Hence  there  are  three  opinions  in 
regard  to  the  extent  of  the  cataclysm  :  The  . 
first  admits  the  absolute  and  geographical 
universality  of  the  Deluge ;  the  second  its 
anthropological  universality;  the  third  its 
universality  restricted  to  a  fraction  of 
mankind. 

I.  Absolute  and  Geographical  Uni- 
versality. —  Most  of  the  ancient  ecclesias- 
tical writers,  fathers,  doctors,  theologians, 
and  commentators,  believed  that  the  Del- 
uge had  been  complete  in  the  widest  sense 
of  the  word,  and  that  it  had  covered  the 
whole  earth.     They   gave   to   the   Mosaic 


Deluge 


245 


Deluge 


account  the  meaning  which  it  presents  at 
first  sight,  and  they  understood  it  to  be  an 
inundation  which  had  submerged  the 
globe  and  destroyed  every  animal  and 
every  man.  The  terms  employed  by  Moses 
appeared  to  them  as  allowing  of  no  other 
exception  than  that  which  they  indicate, 
and  which  relate  to  Noe  and  his  family. 
The  absolute  universality  of  the  Deluge  is 
described  in  Genesis  in  very  strong  and 
very  precise  terms,  and  the  text  is  so  clear 
that  for  centuries  it  has  been  understood 
in  this  sense.  Nothing  indicates  that  the 
universality  of  the  cataclysm  must  be  re- 
stricted, and  the  context,  from  the  fact 
that  it  excepts  Noe  and  that  it  excepts  no 
other  person,  excludes  all  restrictive  inter- 
pretation. God,  in  fact,  had  resolved  to 
produce  the  Deluge  in  order  to  destroy  all 
flesh  that  was  under  heaven.  Representa- 
tives of  every  species  of  the  terrestrial 
animals  were  gathered  into  the  ark  for  the 
preservation  of  the  species  upon  earth. 
The  waters  inundate  everything  and  cover 
the  highest  mountains.  All  flesh  perishes, 
and  the  only  living  beings  left  are  those 
which  are  shut  up  in  the  ark.  God  prom- 
ised to  Noe  that  there  shall  never  be 
another  deluge  to  destroy  all  flesh.  Now, 
there  have  been  since  partial  deluges,  that 
of  Deucalion  among  the  Greeks  and  the 
great  inundation  of  the  Chinese.  If  the 
Noachian  Deluge  had  not  been  universal, 
God,  therefore,  would  have  violated  His 
promise.  The  pledge  which  he  has  given, 
the  rainbow,  can  be  seen  in  all  countries. 
It  is  universal.  Therefore,  the  Deluge, 
whose  sign  it  is,  must  have  been  universal. 
In  presence  of  such  a  formal  text  the  ob- 
jections drawn  from  physical  sciences 
against  the  absolute  universality  of  the  Del- 
uge have  little  value;  and  even  if  reason 
could  not  sufliciently  solve  them,  the  faith 
of  the  Christian  would  not  be  shaken.  For 
God,  who  had  regulated  all  in  view  of  a 
universal  catastrophe,  had  power  enough 
to  realize  eflfects  which  science  is  incapable 
of  explaining.  Besides,  the  difficulties 
which  an  absolutely  universal  deluge  raises 
are  not  as  strong  as  they  are  sometimes 
imagined,  and  it  is  not  certain  that  the 
quantity  of  existing  water  was  not  sufficient 
for  the  general  submersion  of  the  globe, 
especially  if  we  admit  that  the  irruption  of 
the  seas  on  the  continents  did  not  take 
place  everywhere  at  the  same  time,  but 
successively  covered  all  the  countries  of 
the  world.  The  absolute  universality  of 
the  Deluge  is  confirmed  by  a  passage  of 


the  Second  Epistle  of  St.  Peter,  iii.  6  and 
7.  The  Apostle  compares  the  Deluge  with 
the  universal  conflagration  which  will  take 
place  at  the  end  of  time.  Then  the  world 
will  perish  by  fire  as  it  perished  at  a  former 
time  by  water.  The  comparison  between 
the  two  catastrophes  exists  only  under  the 
relation  of  extent ;  it  would  be  inexact  if 
both  had  not  the  same  universality.  These 
exegetical  arguments,  joined  to  the  unani- 
mous interpretation  of  the  ancients  and  the 
universality  of  the  diluvial  traditions,  have 
determined  some  modern  exegetists  to 
admit  that  the  deluge  covered  the  entire 
earth  and  destroyed  all  men  and  all 
animals. 

2.  Relative  and  Anthropological  Uni- 
versality.— Many  commentators  and  theo- 
logians of  our  day  believe  that  the 
Noachian  Deluge  must  be  restricted  to  the 
portion  of  the  earth  that  was  colonized 
when  it  took  place.  According  to  them, 
all  men,  except  the  family  of  Noe,  were 
engulfed  in  the  floods ;  but  the  inundation 
did  not  cover  the  whole  globe  nor  destroy 
all  the  animals.  The  universality  of  the 
Deluge  is  neither  geographical  nor  zoolog- 
ical; it  is  only  anthropologically  univer- 
sal. 

This  interpretation  appears  to  them 
necessary  in  order  to  cut  short  the  grave 
objections  which  zoology  and  physics  raise 
against  the  absolute  universality  of  the  Del- 
uge. The  placing  in  the  ark,  which  was  pro- 
portionately insufficient,  of  all  the  animal 
species  known  to-day  and  of  the  provisions 
necessary  for  their  varied  nourishment 
during  a  year;  the  care  required  for  their 
keeping  and  for  the  providing  of  which 
there  were  only  eight  persons ;  the  neces- 
sity for  the  animals  that  had  come  from 
different  zones  to  accommodate  themselves 
to  a  uniform  temperature ;  the  restocking 
of  the  entire  globe,  at  a  time  when  no 
traces  are  left  of  the  migrations  of  animals 
peculiar  to  America  and  Oceania, — for  in- 
stance, at  a  time  in  which  the  fauna  has 
always  been  localized,  and  when  certain 
animal  species  have  never  existed  outside 
their  respective  zones ;  the  preservation  of 
the  fresh  water  fishes  and  of  salt  water  fishes 
in  the  mixture  of  rain  and  river  water  with 
that  of  seas, — all  this  causes  insurmount- 
able difficulties.  On  the  other  hand,  in 
the  domain  of  physics,  we  can  hardly  ex- 
plain the  production  of  the  immense  mass 
of  water  necessary  to  inundate  the  entire 
globe.  The  quantity  of  the  water  known 
is    insufficient.     Even    without    keeping 


Deluge 


246 


Deluge 


account  of  the  cre^aces  and  sinkings  of  the 
earthly  surface,  it  needed,  above  the  level 
of  the  sea,  a  volume  of  water  of  a  depth 
equal  to  the  height  of  the  most  elevated 
peak  of  the  Himalayas,  /.  e.,  a  height  of 
more  than  29,000  feet.  Admitting  that 
there  was  sufficient  water,  the  simultane- 
ous submersion  of  both  hemispheres  would 
be  physically  impossible.  Such  a  submer- 
sion would  bring  on  a  change  in  the  atmos- 
phere that  would  modify  the  conditions  of 
life  upon  earth.  To  have  recourse  to  the 
divine  almighty  power  to  explain  these 
impossibilities  is  to  multiply  the  miracles 
which  the  sacred  account  does  not  mention 
and  which  the  principles  of  a  wise  exegesis 
do  not  permit  us  to  introduce  uselessly. 

Besides,  the  text  of  Genesis  can  be  in- 
terpreted legitimately  b}-  restraining  the 
limits  of  the  inundation.  The  general  and 
absolute  expressions,  "all  living  flesh 
under  heaven,  all  that  exists  upon  earth ; 
all  the  high  mountains  under  the  whole 
heaven"  (Gen.  vi.  17;  vii.  19),  must  be 
understood  according  to  the  genius  pe- 
culiar to  the  Oriental  languages.  Now 
the  Orientals  often  employ  the  hyperbole, 
not  only  in  their  poetical  writings,  but 
even  in  their  historical  books,  and  nothing 
is  more  frequent  in  the  Bible  than  to 
designate  determined  countries  by  the 
words  "the  whole  earth."  The  famine 
which  reigned  in  the  time  of  Jacob  in  the 
neighboring  countries  of  Palestine  and 
Egypt  prevailed  over  "the  whole  earth" 
(Gen.  xli.  54,  56,  57).  The  entering  of  the 
Israelites  into  Palestine  causes  fear  among 
all  the  nations  that  dwell  under  the  whole 
heaven  (Deut.  ii.  25),  that  is,  among  all 
the  neighboring  peoples.  So  also  in  Deut. 
xi.  25,  and  in  II.  Par.  xx.  29.  All  the 
earth  that  desired  to  see  Soloman(III.  Ki. 
X.  24)  was  only  the  part  that  had  heard 
mention  of  him.  At  the  first  Christian 
Pentecost,  there  were  at  Jerusalem  men  of 
every  nation  under  heaven,  that  is,  Jews  of 
all  the  countries  of  the  dispersion.  The 
ancient  exegetists  remarked  among  the 
Biblical  writers  the  use  of  absolute  and 
general  terms  to  express  particular  facts 
(St.  Jerome,  In  Isaiam,  xiii.  5).  It  is, 
therefore,  permitted  to  apply  to  the  ac- 
count of  the  Deluge  in  Genesis  this 
method  of  restriction,  which  is  necessary 
in  other  Biblical  passages.  Besides,  this 
account  presents  positive  indications  of 
restriction.  The  dove  did  not  find  where 
her  foot  might  rest,  for  the  waters  were 
upon  the  whole  earth  (Gen.  viii.  9).     The 


traveling  bird  had  evidently  not  flown  over 
the  entire  globe,  and  "all  the  earth" 
simply  designates  here  the  space  which 
the  dove  had  explored.  Finally,  in  the 
interpretation  of  the  Biblical  account,  we 
must  keep  account  of  the  subjective  point 
of  view  of  the  narrator  and  readers.  Now, 
Noe  and  his  descendants,  as  well  as  Moses 
and  his  contemporaries,  did  not  know  the 
entire  globe;  their  geographical  knowl- 
edge was  limited.  The  account  of  the 
Deluge,  for  a  long  time  transmitted  by 
oral  tradition  and  finally  consigned  to 
writing,  is  conformable  to  their  knowledge. 
It  referred  only  to  the  country  then  known 
by  them,  to  the  mountains  which  they  had 
seen,  to  the  animals  which  surrounded 
them  and  of  which  they  had  heard.  It  is, 
therefore,  legitimate  to  restrain  the  sacred 
text  to  the  lands  inhabited,  and,  in  spite 
of  contrary  appearances,  this  restriction  is 
not  in  contradiction  with  the  narrative  of 
Moses.  As  to  the  words  of  St.  Peter, 
they  would  signify,  if  taken  rigorously, 
that  the  earth  was  destroyed  by  water  in 
the  time  of  the  Deluge,  as  it  will  be 
destroyed  by  fire  at  the  end  of  time.  How- 
ever, the  aim  of  the  Apostle  is  not  to  com- 
pare the  two  catastrophes  from  the  point 
of  view  of  the  extent,  but  only  from  the 
point  of  view  of  the  certainty  of  the  fact, 
and  of  the  effects  produced. 

The  restriction  of  the  universality-  of  the 
Deluge  to  the  lands  inhabited  is  not  op- 
posed to  ecclesisastical  tradition,  which 
has  not  acknowledged  without  exception 
the  absolute  universality  of  the  inundation. 
The  anonymous  author  of  the  ^uestiones  ct 
Responsiones ad  Orthodoxos  (q.  xxxiv.),  re- 
futes some  ancient  writers  who  maintained 
that  the  Deluge  did  not  invade  all  the 
earth,  but  only  the  countries  which  men 
inhabited  at  that  time.  Theodore  of  Mop- 
suestia  held  this  opinion,  as  John  Philipon, 
in  the  seventh  century,  tells  us  (De  Mundi 
Creatione,  1.  i.,  c.  xiii.,  in  Gallandius, 
Bibliotheca  Veferum  Patrum,  Venice,  Vol. 
XII.)  (1778),  p.  486.  Cardinal  Cajetan  ( In 
Genrsim,  viii.  18)  excluded  the  summits  of 
the  highest  mountains.  In  the  second  half 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  three  Protes- 
tant writers  taught  the  restricted  univer- 
sality of  the  Deluge.  Isaac  Vossius  {De 
Vera  yEtate  Mun'ii)  became  the  champion 
of  this  theory  and  answered  the  objections 
of  George  Horn  (  Castigationes  ad 
Ohjecta  Georgii  Hornii,  et  Auctuarium 
CastigatiotiHtn  ad  Scriptum  de  yEtate 
Mundi.     The  Hague,  1569 ).     Abraham 


Deluge 


247 


Deluge 


van  der  Mill  put  forth  the  same  opinion  in 
a  writing  published  later  on  (Z>e  Origine 
Animalium  et  Mtgratione  Populorum, 
Geneva,  1667).  His  son-in-law,  Andrew 
Colvius,  communicated  the  manuscript  of 
his  father-in-law  to  Vossius,  who  addressed 
a  letter  to  him:  Ad  Andream  Colvium 
Epistola  qua  Refellunttir  Argumenta  qucB 
Diversi  Scripto  de  .^tate  Miindi  Oppo- 
suere  (The  Hague,  1659).  An  anonymous 
dissertation  {De  Diluvii  Universalitate 
Dissertatio  Prolusoria,  1667),  attributed 
to  George-Gaspard  Kirchmeier,  restricts 
the  Deluge  to  all  Asia,  the  only  part  of 
the  world  which  men  occupied  at  that 
time.  In  1685,  the  works  of  Vossius  and  of 
Horn  on  the  Biblical  chronology  and  the 
Deluge  were  examined  by  the  Congrega- 
tion of  the  Index.  Mabillon,  who  then 
happened  to  be  staying  in  Rome,  was  con- 
sulted on  the  subject,  and,  in  the  session 
of  January  29th,  1686,  he  read  his  Votum 
de  !^uibusdam  Isaaci  Vossii  Opusculis 
(published  in  \\.\?,  Posthumous  Works  (1724), 
Vol.  II,  p.  59-74).  Of  the  three  points 
incriminated,  he  studied  only  the  last,  the 
only  one  contestable,  namely,  that  which 
concerns  the  extent  of  the  Deluge.  He  de- 
tailed the  reasons  that  were  favorable  and 
unfavorable,  and  concluded  that  according 
to  his  opinion,  there  was  no  danger  in 
tolerating  the  view  of  Vossius,  and  that  it 
is  best  not  to  censure  it.  When,  however, 
the  Congregation  judged  it  wiser  to  con- 
demn it,  it  had  to  strike  at  the  same  time 
the  works  of  Horn.  The  Congregation  kept 
account  of  the  conclusions  of  Mabillon,  and 
by  a  decree  of  July  2d,  1686,  condemned 
at  once  ten  short  treatises  of  Vossius 
and  two  of  Horn.  The  motives  of  the 
censure  are  unknown  It  may  be  pre- 
sumed that  the  opinion  of  the  Deluge  re- 
stricted to  the  inhabited  earth  was  not 
directly  attacked,  and  that  the  decree  pro- 
hibits only  the  reading  of  works  of  Prot- 
estant writers.  Be  this  as  it  may.  This 
opinion  of  the  Deluge  being  restricted  to 
the  inhabited  earth  was  taken  up  again, 
and  is  held  by  many  Catholics  to-day. 
Certainly  it  is  maintainable  and  does  not 
appear  to  be  contrary  to  orthodoxy. 

3.  Universality  Restricted  to  a  Part  of 
Mankind. —  Other  savants,  among  whom 
are  some  Catholic  writers,  restrict  the 
Deluge  still  more,  and  say  that  not  all 
men  perished  by  the  Flood,  but  that  entire 
races,  long  ago  removed  from  the  theatre  of 
inundation,  were  preserved.  These  races 
would    be,    according    to    several,    those 


which  had  sprung  forth  from  Cain,  and 
only  the  descendants  of  Seth  would  have 
been  struck  by  the  Deluge.  Some  even 
believe  that  the  populations  outside  the 
valley  of  the  Euphrates  were  spared.  This 
opinion  rests  upon  the  same  reasons  as  the 
second,  of  which  it  is  only  a  more  rigorous 
application.  It  avoids  the  scientific  diffi- 
culties which  paleontology,  ethnology,  and 
linguistics,  oppose  to  the  existence  of  a 
deluge  which  would  have  engulfed  all 
men.  A  multitude  of  facts,  becoming 
more  numerous  every  day,  permits  us  to 
affirm  that  since  the  Quaternary  times  man 
has  occupied  the  four  parts  of  the  world, 
that  he  reached  the  extremities  of  the  an- 
cient world,  and  that  he  touched  those  of 
the  new.  Now  the  paleontologists  do  not 
discover,  by  the  fossil  bones  of  men,  in 
the  history  of  the  races,  the  breaks  or 
gaps  which  the  Deluge  would  necessarily 
have  left  therein.  As  far  back  as  the 
historic  monuments  go,  the  existence  of 
white,  yellow,  and  black  races  is  estab- 
lished. The  negro  appears  with  his  dis- 
tinctive characteristics  on  the  most  ancient 
monuments  of  Egypt.  Since  the  variations 
were  produced  slowly  under  the  influence 
of  the  surroundings,  "the  most  ancient 
races  formed  themselves,  according  to  all 
appearance,  in  consequence  of  the  changes 
our  globe  has  undergone  and  of  the  first 
migrations."  (A.  de  Quatrefages,  His- 
toire  Generale  des  Races,  p.  169.)  Lin- 
guistics confirm  the  conclusions  of 
ethnology.  The  languages,  if  we  admit 
their  natural  formation,  would  not  have 
had  time  to  become  diversified  from  the 
time  of  the  Deluge  until  the  epoch  when 
we  see  them  all  formed.  The  stretching 
out  of  the  Biblical  chronology  of  the 
Deluge  until  Abraham  is  insufficient  to 
explain  entirely  the  established  facts. 
Therefore,  these  facts  justify  the  restriction 
of  the  Deluge  to  a  portion  of  mankind. 

Besides,  this  restriction  can  be  perfectly 
reconciled  with  the  account  of  Genesis. 
If,  by  the  avowal  of  the  followers  of  the 
anthropological  universality,  the  expres- 
sions apparently  so  absolute,  "  all  the 
earth,  all  animals,"  can  be  legitimately  in- 
terpreted in  a  restrictive  sense,  the  similar 
expression,  "  all  men,"  in  the  same  con- 
text, may  also  be  understood  of  a  portion 
of  mankind,  of  individuals  who  inhabited 
the  theatre  of  the  catastrophe.  To  refuse 
to  admit  the  restriction  of  the  word  all 
when  there  is  question  of  men,  when  one 
admits  it  for  the  earth  and  animals,  would 


Deluge 


248 


Deluge 


be  an  inconsequence  which  nothing  could 
justify.  There  are  as  many  motives  to  re- 
strict the  universality  to  mankind  as  to  the 
earth  and  animals.  The  moral  corruption, 
which  was  the  cause  of  the  Deluge,  was 
not  absolutely  universal,  except  in  the 
country  where  Noe  lived.  The  narrative 
of  Genesis  relates  the  facts  according  to 
the  ordinary  manner  of  speaking,  accord- 
ing to  which  "  all  the  earth  "  designates 
the  country  submerged  by  the  waters ; 
"all  men"  the  inhabitants  of  this  country. 
On  the  other  hand.  Genesis  is  not  the 
history  of  mankind,  but  only  that  of  the 
ancestors  of  God's  people.  For,  in  its 
narrative  of  the  Deluge,  it  left  out  of  its 
purview  entire  races  descended  from  the 
sons  and  daughters  of  Adam  and  the 
other  patriarchs.  Its  account  of  the  Del- 
uge, which  besides  has  a  well-marked  local 
color,  speaks  no  longer  of  these  races  and 
has  in  view  only  the  inhabitants  of  the 
country  where  the  facts  occurred.  Finally, 
by  the  avowal  of  all,  the  ethnographic 
table  of  the  tenth  chapter  of  Genesis  is 
not  complete,  and  makes  no  mention  of  the 
yellow,  red,  and  black  races.  These  races 
undoubtedly  derive  their  origin  from  indi- 
viduals who  did  not  belong  to  Noe's  line. 
The  Abbe  Motais  (Le  Deluge  Bibliquc,  p. 
301-33)  believed  that  he  had  found  in  the 
Pentateuch  traces  of  the  survivors  of  the 
Deluge,  and  he  named  the  Cainites,  the 
Amalekites,  the  Sodomites,  and  the  giant 
populations  of  Palestine,  the  Emim,  the 
Zomzommim,  the  Avorim  and  the  Horim. 
But  these  traces  are  hardly  probable. 

To  this  interpretation  the  defenders  of 
the  universality  of  the  Deluge  as  to  man- 
kind object,  not  without  foundation,  that 
the  Biblical  account  contains  various 
features  which  are  directly  and  positively 
opposed  to  all  restriction  of  the  cataclysm 
to  a  portion  of  mankind.  The  man  that 
God  desires  to  destroy  by  the  Deluge  is 
the  man  that  He  has  created,  and  whom 
He  repents  of  having  made  (Gen.  vi.  5-8) ; 
hence  it  is  all  mankind  and  not  merely  a 
portion.  Besides,  Noe,  after  leaving  the 
ark,  is  represented  as  the  father  and 
chief  of  all  men  that  shall  live  after  the 
Deluge  (Gen.  ix.  i,  19).  Finally,  the  plan 
of  Genesis  does  not  necessarily  eliminate 
before  the  sixth  chapter  the  children  of 
Cain  and  the  other  descendants  of  the 
patriarchs  outside  the  principal  line,  which 
must  be  that  of  God's  people.  This  line- 
age is  completely  isolated  only  at  the  he- 
ginning  of  the  history  of  Abraham.     To 


the  third  opinion,  is  also  opposed  the  Bib- 
lical texts  which  are  quoted  outside  of 
Genesis,  and  which  affirm  that  all  men 
perished  in  the  cataclysm.  But  "  the  hope 
of  the  world  fleeing  to  a  vessel,  which  was 
governed  by  thy  hand,  left  to  the  world 
seed  of  generation  "  (Wis.  xiv.  6),  may  be 
understood  of  Noe,  father  of  the  postdilu- 
vian men,  even  in  the  hypothesis  of  other 
surviving  races.  "  Noe  was  found  perfect, 
just,  and  in  the  time  of  wrath  he  was  made 
a  reconciliation.  Therefore  was  there  a 
remnant  left  to  the  earth,  when  the  flood 
came"  (Ecclus.  xliv.  17,  18).  When  our 
Saviour  Jesus  Christ  compares  the  end  of 
the  world  with  the  Deluge,  which  carried 
ofT,  if  not  all  men,  at  least  all  the  voluptu- 
ous of  the  time  (Matt.  xxiv.  37-39),  His 
comparison  has  reference  not  to  the  uni- 
versality of  the  victims,  but  to  the  unex- 
pected character  of  the  Deluge  and  of  the 
last  judgment,  and  He  only  savs :  "In 
spite  of  the  admonitions  and  certain  signs, 
the  contemporaries  of  Noe  were  surprised 
by  the  Deluge,  which  exterminated  them 
all."  When  St.  Peter  speaks  of  the  eight 
souls  that  were  saved  in  the  ark  (I.  Pet. 
iii.  19,  20),  his  purpose  was  not  to  prove 
the  necessity  of  universality  of  baptism, 
but  its  efficaciousness.  He  compares  the 
water  of  baptism  with  that  of  the  Deluge 
in  so  far  as  it  saves,  not  in  so  far  as  it  de- 
stroys; and  he  affirms  that  all  the  baptized 
will  be  saved  as  certainly  as  were  saved 
the  small  number  of  souls  that  were  con- 
tained in  the  ark  at  the  time  of  the  Deluge. 
When  the  same  Apostle  says  that  God  did 
not  spare  the  primitive  world  and  saved 
only  Noe,  the  eighth  person,  that  is,  seven 
other  persons  with  him.  bringing  in  the 
flood  upon  the  world  of  the  ungodly  (II. 
Pet  ii.  5-7),  we  can  explain  his  words  as 
referring  to  the  world  in  the  midst  of 
which  was  living  Noe  the  preacher  of  jus- 
tice. Therefore,  these  texts  neither  prove 
for  nor  against  the  ethnographic  univer- 
salit)'  of  the  Deluge. 

If  to  the  third  opinion  is  objected  the 
unanimous  accord  with  which  the  Fathers 
acknowledge  the  anthropological  univer- 
sality of  the  Deluge,  its  followers  answer 
that  we  are  permitted  to  deviate  from  the 
common  sentiment  of  the  Fathers  in  re- 
gard to  this  point  as  legitimately  as  to  the 
subject  of  the  geographical  and  zoological 
universality.  They  say,  it  is  true,  that  the 
testimony  of  the  Fathers  in  regard  to  the 
inundation  of  the  globe  and  to  the  de- 
struction of  the  animals  does  not  consti- 


Deluge 


249 


Deluge 


tute  an  ecclesiastical  teaching,  while  it 
affirms  the  destruction  of  mankind  as  a 
point  of  faith,  as  a  truth  connected  with 
faith,  because  it  gives  it  as  a  basis  to  a  cer- 
tain type,  to  the  figurative  meaning  of  the 
ark,  representing  the  Church,  outside  of 
which  there  is  no  salvation.  The  exist- 
ence of  the  type  is  unquestionable.  But  it 
is  not  from  the  nature  of  the  type  that 
there  is  an  equation  between  it  and  the 
antitype  which  it  represents.  A  relatively 
universal  fact  may  serve  as  type  to  an  abso- 
lutely universal  fact.  The  house  of  Rahab 
is  considered  by  the  Fathers  as  a  figure  of 
the  Church,  outside  of  which  there  is  no 
salvation.  The  eight  persons  who  were 
in  the  ark  represented  all  the  saved.  The 
contemporaries  of  Noe,  the  only  inhabit- 
ants of  the  country  submerged,  may  rep- 
resent all  those  outside  the  Church  who 
will  be  damned,  without  the  typical 
meaning  of  the  Deluge  losing  any  of  its 
value.  The  relative  universality  as  to  men 
is  therefore  sufficient  to  maintain  the  truth 
of  the  type.  The  Fathers,  it  is  true,  sup- 
port themselves  upon  the  absolute  univer- 
sality of  the  destruction  of  men.  However, 
they  did  not  make  this  a  necessary  condi- 
tion of  the  prophetic  type ;  they  did  not 
expressly  exclude  the  relative  universality, 
and  their  manner  of  expressing  themselves 
does  not  exclude  it  in  an  equivalent  man- 
ner. Therefore,  they  have  not  authori- 
tatively decided  a  question  which  did  not 
propose  itself  to  them. 

If  the  third  opinion  cannot  quote  in  its 
favor  the  authority  of  the  ancients,  it 
counts,  however,  many  followers.  It  is 
not  altogether  new.  Jerome  Oleaster,  a 
Dominican,  admitted  that  the  Cinites 
(Num.  xxiv.  21)  descended  from  Cain. 
Isaac  de  la  Peyrere  restricted  the  Deluge 
to  Palestine.  August  Malbert,  Fredr. 
Klee,  Ch.  Schoebel,  Omalius  d'Halloy, 
Motais,  do  the  same.  A  great  number  of 
writers,  without  positively  adopting  it, 
hold  it  as  maintainable  and  probable.  If 
science  should  be  able  to  establish  by  a 
rigorous  demonstration,  or  by  an  ensemble 
of  precise  and  convergent  indications,  the 
anthropological  nonuniversality  of  the 
Deluge,  we  could  admit  that  the  Biblical 
account  is  not  opposed  to  this  view.  But, 
up  to  the  present,  science  has  not  estab- 
lished this  fact,  and  we  can  satisfy  its 
actual  legitimate  claims  by  removing  fur- 
ther back  the  date  of  the  Deluge.  There- 
fore, it  is  not  necessary  to  adopt  the 
opinion  which  restricts  the  Deluge  to  only 


a  portion  of  mankind.  We  would  be  con- 
strained to  do  this  only  were  the  non- 
universality  to  become  an  incontestable 
truth,  and  we  could  do  so,  because  faith 
does  not  teach  anything  to  the  contrary. 
Meanwhile,  it  is  wise  and  prudent  to  ad- 
here to  the  second  opinion. 

IV.  Nature  of  the  Deluge.  —  As 
long  as  people  admitted  the  absolute  uni- 
versality of  the  Deluge,  they  beheved  in 
its  miraculous  character.  A  direct  inter- 
vention of  God  was,  indeed,  necessary  to 
explain  the  submersion  of  the  entire  globe, 
and  the  absolute  universality  of  the  inun- 
dation carries  with  it  as  the  logical  con- 
sequence a  miraculous  origin.  The  ancient 
exegetists  might  hesitate  and  fail  to  agree 
as  to  the  precise  point  when  the  immediate 
action  of  God  made  itself  felt;  they  were 
unanimous  in  acknowledging  in  the  Bibli- 
cal Deluge  a  fact  produced  outside  the 
ordinary  laws  of  nature,  a  miraculous 
fact.  But  since  they  commenced  to  re- 
strict the  inundation  to  determined  limits, 
either  to  the  region  which  men  then  occu- 
pied, or  to  the  countries  known  by  the 
Hebrews,  or  to  some  particular  land,  it 
has  appeared  as  an  event  provoked  un- 
doubtedly by  a  special  intention  of  God, 
but  realized  by  natural  forces ;  as  a  fact 
providential  in  its  aim,  miraculous  in  its 
prophetic  announcement,  but  natural  in  its 
mode  of  production.  There  is  room, 
then,  to  ask  whether  the  Deluge  was  pro- 
duced by  a  direct  intervention  of  God,  or 
whether  it  has  been  the  effect  of  physical 
causes  merely  directed  by  Providence. 

The  prophetic'  announcement  of  the 
catastrophe  does  not  prove  that  the  cata- 
clysm itself  was  miraculous.  Other  events, 
announced  in  the  Bible  as  divine  ven- 
geance, as  exemplary  chastisements,  have 
been  phenomena  entirely  natural  in  them- 
selves. The  destruction  of  Jerusalem, 
foretold  by  Jesus  Christ  with  details  more 
circumstantial  than  those  of  the  Deluge, 
was  nevertheless  realized  by  natural  and 
human  agencies.  All  the  prophesied  facts 
are  not  miracles.  In  order  that  prophecy 
may  be  realized,  God  does  not  need  to  der- 
ogate from  the  natural  laws  ;  it  is  enough 
that,  without  affecting  their  regular  func- 
tions. He  directs  them  towards  the  end 
He  has  in  view,  and  that  the  physical 
causes  act  spontaneously  at  the  moment 
He  has  fixed.  God  certainly  intervened, 
when  He  directed  Noe  to  leave  the  ark 
(Gen.  viii.  15-17),  and  when  he  contracted 
with  him  a  new  covenant  (Gen.   viii,   21, 


Demas 


250 


Denmark 


22;  ix.  1-17).  But  we  can  maintain  that 
His  direct  action  did  not  malie  itself  felt 
in  the  production  of  the  inundation. 
While  the  Chaldean  legend  of  the  Del- 
uge makes  the  gods  intervene  in  the  very 
execution  of  the  inundation,  the  account 
of  Genesis,  which  shows  God  acting  be- 
fore and  after  the  event,  does  not  speak  of 
His  action  in  the  realization  of  the  cata- 
clysm. It  expressly  indicates  the  physical 
causes  which  entered  into  play,  a  torrential 
rain  and  the  invasion  of  the  sea  on  the 
continent  (Gen.  vii.  11-12),  without  put- 
ting them  into  the  hands  of  God.  The 
progress  and  the  decrease  of  the  inundation 
are  also  presented  as  effecting  themselves 
naturally  (Gen.  vii.  17-19,  24,  and  viii. 
2-14).  The  whole  course  of  the  inundation 
is  therefore  described  in  Genesis  as  natural. 
The  indications  of  the  direct  action  of 
God  in  the  realization  of  the  Deluge, 
which  some  have  believed  they  found  in 
the  account  of  Moses,  are  neither  certain 
nor  evident.  The  reading  of  the  Italic 
version:  '■'■  Intrahunt  ad  /<?,"  instead  of 
'■'■liigredientur  tecum  "  (Gen.  vi.  20),  ac- 
cording to  which  St.  Augustine  (De  Civi- 
tate  Dei,  xv.  27)  made  God  intervene  in 
the  gathering  of  the  animals,  does  not 
correspond  with  the  original  text,  which 
simply  announces  the  fact,  without  indi- 
cating the  mode  of  its  execution.  The 
Vulgate  shows  God  shutting  the  door  of 
the  ark  (Gen.  vii.  16) ;  the  Hebrew  text 
savs  only  that  "  God  shut  Noe  in."  This 
may  simply  mean  that  by  His  providential 
action  God  did  not  permit  anybody,  out- 
side the  family  of  Noe,  to  find  a  refuge 
in  the  ark.  Mute  as  to  all  miraculous 
action,  the  Biblical  text  is  absolutely 
formal  in  favor  of  natural  causes  of  the 
inundation.  From  this  we  may  conclude 
that,  although  providential  in  its  end,  the 
Deluge  was  an  event  natural  in  the  mode 
of  its  realization.  This  conclusion  would 
be  certain,  if  it  were  shown  that  the  inun- 
dation was  localized  within  quite  narrow 
limits,  or  that  mankind  was  yet  little 
spread.  It  loses  much  of  its  logical  force, 
if  men  were  already  scattered  in  divers 
parts  of  the  earth.  In  this  case,  the  in- 
undation seems  to  have  surpassed  the 
measure  of  ordinary  catastrophes,  and  to 
have  required  the  miraculous  intervention 
of  God,  conformably  to  the  general  in- 
terpretation. 

If  the  Deluge  may  be  considered  as  a 
natural  event,  it  is  logical  to  seek  to  dis- 
cover the  mode  of  its  realization.     Investi- 


gations have  not  been  wanting  in  this  task, 
and  the  attempts  at  scientific  explanations 
may  be  classified,  according  to  their  ten- 
dencies, into  four  groups,  (i)  The  cos- 
mic theories  appeal  to  a  change  in  the 
position  of  the  axis  of  the  poles.  The  more 
or  less  displacement  of  the  earthly  axis 
would  have  had  for  an  effect  the  diversion 
of  all  the  oceans  on  the  continents  and  the 
production  of  a  gigantic  bar  of  water 
which  would  have  'nade  the  tour  of  the 
world,  passing  over  the  highest  mountains. 
It  is  difficult  to  indicate  an  adequate  cause 
for  this  sudden  displacement  of  the  earthly 
axis.  Some  have  suggested  the  shock  of  a 
comet  and  the  upheaval  of  mountains, 
which  might  have  changed  the  value  of  the 
angle  of  inclination  of  the  earthly  axis  on 
the  plane  of  the  ecliptic.  (2)  The  ad- 
herents of  the  volcanic  theories  approach 
the  Deluge  with  the  recent  catastrophe  of 
the  Sunda  Isles,  and  explain  the  inundation 
by  an  upheaval  of  sea  water,  produced  by 
the  eruption  of  a  volcano.  (3)  The  hold- 
ers of  the  orogenic  theories  connect  the 
cataclysm  with  mountainous  upheavals  or 
to  lowerings  like  that  which  swallowed  up 
the  Atlantides.  (4)  The  sei.smic  theory, 
supporting  itself  principally  upon  the 
scientific  interpretation  of  the  cuneiform 
legend  of  the  Deluge,  explains  the  inunda- 
tion by  a  seismic  force  or  earthquake, 
which  took  place  at  the  bottom  of  the  Per- 
sian Gulf  and  threw  on  the  plains  of  Meso- 
potamia the  waves  of  the  sea.  A  terrible 
cyclone  became  united  with  the  eagre,  and 
the  seismic  wave,  and  carried  the  ark  from 
the  city  of  Surippak,  situated  on  the  shore 
of  the  Euphrates,  to  the  mountains  of 
Nizir.  It  is  impossible  to  tell  which  of 
these  theories  comes  nearest  to  the  truth. 
Each  one  of  them  has  something  in  its 
favor  and  all  have  the  merit  of  showing 
that  the  Deluge,  which  is  historically  cer- 
tain, is  physically  possible. 

Demas. —  Disciple  of  St.  Paul,  followed 
and  served  him  at  Rome  during  his  cap- 
tivity ;  but  left  him  afterwards  to  return  to 
his  own  country  of  Thessalonica. 

Demiurge.     See  Gnosticism. 

Demon.     See  Devil. 

Denarius.     See  Weights. 

Denmark  (Christianity   in).     See   An- 

SCHARIIS. 

Denmark,  Norway  and  Sweden  ( the 
Church  in). — Until  recently  the  Northern, 


Deo  Gratias 


251 


Deuterocanonicals 


or  Scandinavian,  kingdoms  appeared  to 
be  the  most  hopeless  of  all  European 
countries  for  the  propagation  of  the  Catho- 
lic faith.  The  moral  degradation  of  the 
people  and  the  cruel  laws  against  dis- 
senters, Catholics  especially,  were  insu- 
perable obstacles  to  the  progress  of  the 
Church  in  these  countries.  Conversion  to 
Catholicism  was  a  crime  involving  con- 
fiscation of  property  and  banishment  in 
Denmark  as  well  as  in  Sweden  and  Nor- 
way. But  now  the  Church  has  been  re- 
stored its  almost  complete  liberty,  a  few 
restrictive  laws,  only,  remaining  unre- 
pealed. In  Denmark,  for  which  mission, 
in  1892,  a  vicariate  apostolic  was  estab- 
lished, the  Catholics  number  over  4,000, 
with  about  thirty  priests,  and  eighteen 
churches  and  chapels.  Twenty-two  schools, 
two  orphan  asylums,  and  two  hospitals  are 
served  by  over  one  hundred  sisters,  while 
the  Jesuits  conduct  a  flourishing  college  at 
Copenhagen.  In  1868  the  mission  of 
Sweden  was  erected  into  a  vicariate  apos- 
tolic, and  that  of  Norway,  in  the  year 
1892.  In  the  former  country,  there  are 
over  1,300  Catholics,  mostly  converts,  with 
ten  priests  and  as  many  churches,  and 
some  sixty  sisters  laboring  in  three  hos- 
pitals and  ten  boarding  and  day  schools ; 
while  in  Norway,  where,  until  1815,  no 
Catholic  priest  could  reside  under  pain  of 
death,  there  are  now  over  twenty  Catholic 
missionaries,  having  the  care  of  about 
1,000  souls,  nearly  all  converts.  Some 
twenty-five  sisters  have  the  management 
of  two  hospitals  and  ten  schools.  It  seems, 
indeed,  that  both  in  Denmark  and  in 
Sweden  the  people  in  many  places  were 
well  disposed  towards  the  Catholic  Church, 
and  converts  are  rapidly  increasing  in 
numbers. 

Deo  Gratias. —  Latin  words  which  sig 
nify  Thanks  be  to  God,  and  which  serve  as 
the  response  to  several  liturgical  prayers, 
particularly  at  the  end  of  Mass,  after 
the  last  blessing  of  the  priest,  and  at  the 
end  of  meals  after  the  words:  "Tu  autem 
Dotnine  misere  nobis." 

Deposition.     See  Degradation. 

Derbe. — A  small  town  of  Lycaonia,  to 
■which  Sts.  Paul  and  Barnabas  fled  from 
Lystra  (Acts  xiv.  20).  It  was  not  far  from 
the  pass  called  the  "Cilician  Gates." 

Descartes.     See  Cartksiaxism. 

Desecration.     See  Profanation. 


Desert.  —  In  Scripture,  desert  usually 
means  an  uncultivated  tract  or  pasture 
ground,  though  sometimes,  as  "  the  wilder- 
ness of  Juda"  (I.  Ki.  xvii.  28),  it  denotes 
an  utter  waste.  The  "  great  and  terrible 
wilderness  "  of  the  Sinaitic  peninsula  has 
some  barren  wastes  of  sand,  but  in  many 
parts  there  are  plain  signs  of  previous  fer- 
tility. This  and  the  Arabah,  through  which 
the  Jordan  runs,  and  which  extends  to  the 
Red  Sea,  were  the  chief  of  the  Scripture 
deserts. 

Deusdedit  (name  of  two  Popes). — Deus- 
dedit  I. — Pope  from  615  to  618,  born  at 
Rome.  Deusdedit  II.  or  Adeodatus. — Pope 
from  672  to  676 ;  born  at  Rome. 

Deuterocanonicals  and  Protocanonicals. 

— For  the  first  five  centuries,  and  more, 
after  Christianity  began,  the  recognized 
Canon  of  inspired  Scriptures  did  not  find 
its  way  into  every  part  of  the  Church's 
wide  domain.  It  happened,  therefore, 
that  the  leaders  of  the  Christian  movement 
were  not  correctly  informed  as  to  the  col- 
lection which  the  whole  Church  acknowl- 
edged to  be  God's  written  word.  This, 
and  the  fear  of  confounding  any  of  the 
canonical  Scriptures  with  the  Apocrypha, 
then  in  circulation,  had  the  eflfect  of  caus- 
ing a  few  of  the  highest  in  authority  among 
the  ancient  Fathers,  to  support  the  divine 
character  of  several  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ment books.  Scriptures  thus  challenged 
are  Deuteroranonical,  because,  the  fact  of 
their  being  actually  on  the  Canon  was  not 
generally  known  until  the  seventh  century. 
These  books  and  parts  of  books  were 
ranked  as  secondary,  while  the  first  place 
was  assigned  to  those  Scriptures  {Proto- 
canonical)  whose  inspiration  was  never 
doubted  by  any  one  in  the  Church.  Both 
enjoy  the  same  authority,  for  both  are  de- 
clared to  be  canonical  by  the  infallible  de- 
crees of  the  Church.  In  the  New  Testa- 
ment, the  Deuterocanonical  Scriptures  are 
the  Epistle  of  St.  Paul  to  the  Hebrews; 
the  Epistle  of  St.  James;  the  Epistle  of 
St.  Jude;  the  two  Epistles  of  St.  Peter; 
the  three  Epistles  of  St.  John,  together 
with  his  Apocalypse ;  the  last  twelve  verses 
of  St.  Mark's  Gospel;  the  passage  regard- 
ing our  Lord's  bloody  sweat  (Luke  xxii.) 
and  the  history  of  the  woman  taken  in 
adultery  (John  viii.).  In  the  Old  Testa- 
ment the  Deuterocanonical  Scriptures 
are :  Tobias,  Judith,  Wisdom,  Ecclesiasti- 
cus,  Baruch,  the  two  books  of  Machabees, 
the  part  of  the  book  of  Daniel  containing 


Deuteronomy 


252 


Devil 


the  history  of  Susanna  (xii.),  of  Bel  and  the 
Dragon  (xiv.),  the  Canticle  of  the  three 
children  in  the  fiery  furnace  (iii.)i  and  the 
last  seven  chapters  of  Esther. 

Deuteronomy  (fifth  book  of  the  Penta- 
teuch).— This  Greek  term,  which  means 
literally  the  second  la-w,  was  given  to  the 
fifth  book  of  the  Pentateuch,  because  it  is 
to  some  extent  a  repetition  of  what  is  con- 
tained in  Leviticus,  Numbers,  and  Exodus. 
In  it,  Moses,  finding  his  end  near,  de- 
livered a  farewell  address,  in  which  he 
goes  over  again  all  the  most  prominent 
enactments  in  the  divine  legislation,  and 
concludes  with  a  strong  exhortation  to 
fulfill  these  laws  to  the  letter,  since  upon 
this  faithful  obser\'ance  would  depend 
God's  special  care  for  them. 

Devil  (evil  spirit,  enemy  of  men). — The 
devils  are  fallen  angels  condemned  by 
God  into  hell  in  order  to  punish  them  for 
their  revolt.  Sat'an  is  their  chief,  and  they 
make  constant  efforts  to  turn  away  from 
God  His  whole  creation,  to  pervert  the 
will  of  men  to  opposition  with  the  will  of 
God  and  to  destroy  the  sources  of  sal- 
vation and  beatitude.  The>-  tempt  man 
and  harass  his  conscience,  or  sometimes, 
in  the  full  possession  of  himself,  by  ob- 
session. They  seek  to  corrupt  or  destroy 
what  sers'es  to  benefit  man.  But  they 
have  only  an  effective  power  in  so  far  as 
God  grants  it  to  them  for  the  fulfillment 
of  the  trial  imposed  upon  man,  in  view  of 
merit  or  demerit.  The  devil  is  a  liar  and 
the  father  of  lying. 

The  objections  raised  against  the  ex- 
istence of  the  devil  and  against  this 
Catholic  doctrine  are  as  follows:  i.  Are 
there,  and  can  there  be,  angels,  pure  spirits, 
subsisting  outside  of  matter.?  2.  How  can 
we  admit  that  the  pure  spirits,  even  after 
having  become  bad,  can  act  on  the  material 
world  and  produce  the  physical  phe- 
nomena attributed  to  them  by  Christianity.? 
When  they  can  do  this,  why  are  they  not 
hindered  by  divine  goodness  and  omnipo- 
tence? This  belief  in  devils  is  certainly 
the  result  of  ignorance  and  superstition. 
3.  Indeed,  the  pretended  magic  explains 
itself  through  the  fraud  of  the  one  and  the 
credulity  of  others;  the  temptations  and 
passions  are  only  facts  of  the  physical  and 
emotional  order,  a  little  more  acute  and 
more  lively  than  ordinary.  The  diabolical 
possessions  of  former  times  are  identical 
with  the  insanity,  hysteria,  or  epilepsy  of 
the  present,    the  mediums,  the  spiritists, 


the  hj'pnotizers,  and  the  somnambulists  of 
our  time  were  called  magicians  and  sorcer- 
ers in  the  Middle  Ages.  Modern  science 
has  carried  the  light  into  these  infernal 
darknesses,  and  demonstrated  that  the 
credulity  of  the  common  people  has  been 
surpassed  only  through  the  absurdity  and 
cruelty  of  the  ecclesiastical  and  civil 
judges  in  their  procedure  against  magic 
and  witchcraft.  Where  the  hangman  in- 
terfered, the  physician  alone  should  have 
exercised  his  benevolent  art,  but  the  phy- 
sician himself  was  a  party  to  the  prevail- 
ing extravagance.  4.  Finally,  the  Biblical 
accounts  indicating  a  belief  in  the  Demon 
can  be  interpreted  in  a  purely  natural 
manner,  equally  satisfactory  to  both  reason 
and  science. 

Such  are,  in  summary,  the  principal  ob- 
jections circulated  among  us,  as  to  the 
subject  of  the  Christian  doctrine  regarding 
the  devil  and  his  works.  Let  us  briefly 
answer  them,  and  first  let  us  consider  the 
most  positive  objection  which  questions 
the  existence,  the  possibility  itself,  of 
the  angelic  spirits.  When  the  purely 
spiritual  substance  is  impossible,  God  can- 
not exist,  nor  the  human  soul,  spiritual  by 
its  essence,  although  several  of  its  func- 
tions are  of  the  sensible  and  organic  order ; 
and  thus  we  fall  entirely  into  the  material- 
istic mire.  The  demons  certainlv  were 
not  bad  by  nature ;  God  created  them 
good,  had  sanctified  them  by  His  grace, 
had  destined  them  to  the  eternal  and  per- 
fect holiness  of  heaven.  But  he  had  created 
them  free  and  had  imposed  upon  them, 
like  on  all  the  good  angels,  a  trial  prepara- 
tory to  perpetual  sanctification. 

The  failure  of  Satan  and  his  followers  in 
this  trial  is  differently  explained  by  the 
theologians,  but  certified  by  revelation. 
Very  probably  these  bad  angels  had  pre- 
sumed to  claim  their  existence  was  without 
the  supernatural  help  of  God,  and  that 
they  were  not  created  for  the  end  He  had 
proposed  to  them ;  and  this  criminal 
pride,  whose  perversity  and  absurdity 
is  astonishing,  was  justly  punished  by 
damnation.  That  time  and  grace  were  not 
granted  to  the  guilty,  was  because  of  the 
excellency  of  the  nature  and  grace  they 
had  received  from  God,  and  which  should 
have  restrained  them  from  all  evil  and 
from  all  voluntary  forfeiture.  Man,  the 
most  fragile  and  the  most  inclined  to  sin, 
will  be  treated  with  compassion  and 
mercy :  a  Redeemer  will  be  promised  and 
sent  to  him. 


Devil 


253 


Devil 


2.  The  action  of  the  evil  spirits  on  the 
material  world  is  certainly  possible,  be- 
cause all  the  angels  were  originally  created 
by  God  to  play  an  active  role  in  the  uni- 
verse, and  the  sin  of  rebellion  committed 
by  certain  ones  among  them  has  not  essen- 
tially changed  their  nature.  If  the  angel, 
because  he  is  spiritual,  cannot  act  on  the 
creatures  of  the  world,  how  could  God 
create  the  creatures  of  the  world?  How 
can  He  control  them,  direct  them,  govern 
them?  How  can  the  human  soul  inform, 
vivify,  and  direct  its  own  function?  And 
when  God  and  the  soul  can  act  in  the 
physical  order,  why  should  the  angel  be 
incapable  of  action?  But  when  God,  the 
soul,  and  the  angel,  who  occupies  an  inter- 
mediary rank  between  them,  cannot  do 
this,  nothing  exists  of  the  natural  religion 
and  revelation,  nothing  of  rational  moral 
psychology,  and  again  we  fall  into  the  mire 
of  the  most  gross  materialism :  for  then, 
God  did  not  make  the  world,  and  the  world 
does  not  manifest  Him;  God  could  not  re- 
veal anything  of  that  which  Christianity 
attributes  to  Him ;  the  soul  is  a  simple  func- 
tion of  the  brain,  and  the  angel  a  mere 
imagination  of  this  function.  Such  con- 
clusions prove  neatly  the  false  structure  on 
which  they  are  founded. 

However,  we  do  not  believe  that  the 
action  of  the  devils  or  demons  is  not  at  all 
dependent  on  and  under  the  government 
of  divine  Providence.  Certainly  it  would 
be  inconsistent  with  divine  justice  to  allow 
these  evil  spirits  unlimited  liberty  for  dis- 
order and  violence.  But  restricted  within 
certain  limits,  controlled  and  dammed  by 
the  infinite  wisdom  and  goodness,  their 
malice  must  and  can  only  result  in  final 
good  to  man,  except  when  the  latter  be- 
comes, by  his  own  fault,  a  deplorable  victim 
of  them.  It  is  of  faith  that  no  man  is 
tempted,  attacked,  above  his  strength,  and 
the  help  of  grace  is  never  refused  the  one 
t^ho  sincerely  desires  it  in  order  to  escape 
sin  and  remain  faithful  to  God.  St.  Au- 
gustine very  justly  compares  the  demon  to 
those  dogs  who  guarded  the  entrance  of 
the  Roman  houses,  and  of  which  an  an- 
cient mosaic  proclaimed  to  the  visitor: 
"  Cave  canem!"  [be  careful  of  the  dog). 
The  demon,  according  to  the  Bishop  of 
Hippo,  is  chained  and  he  bites  only  the  im- 
prudent who  go  too  near  him.  His  furies 
only  serve  to  the  sanctification  of  the  just. 

Undoubtedly,  the  ignorance  and  super- 
stition of  the  pagans  in  different  epochs, 
and  among  diverse  nations   of  antiquity, 


have  attributed  to  the  demons,  of  whom 
they  had  a  false  notion,  a  number  of  cruel- 
ties and  sorceries  in  which  they  had  no 
part.  Certainly,  in  the  Christian  world, 
this  ignorance  and  superstition  did  not  en- 
tirely disappear,  and  we  find  traces  thereof 
in  the  Middle  Ages  and  even  in  modern 
times.  But  such  fallacies  are  not  the 
source  of  the  simple  and  true  teaching  of 
the  Church  on  the  existence  of  the  devil. 
The  absurd  exaggerations  and  the  gro- 
tesque counterfeits  cannot  confound  the 
truth  nor  besmirch  it  with  mixture  of  their 
muddy  floods.  The  Church  deplores  the 
excesses  and  the  errors  of  those  who  mis- 
understand and  poorly  apply  its  teaching, 
but  she  cannot  be  held  responsible  for  their 
lack  of  knowledge. 

3.  We  know  very  well  that  the  history 
of  magic  is  replete  with  doubtful  statements 
and  exaggerated  and  misconstrued  facts, 
but  there  are  also  many  other  magic  feats 
indeed  possible,  which  a  sound  philos- 
ophy admits,  the  reality  of  which  a  pru- 
dent criticism  acknowledges,  and  the 
diabolical  character  of  which  a  wise  the- 
ology establishes.  Theology,  indeed, 
through  the  application  of  the  principle 
of  causality  to  the  facts  duly  certified  by 
the  historic  criticism,  can  establish  them  if 
they  do  not  manifestly  pass  beyond  the 
sphere  of  natural  agencies,  and  if  they  are 
not  evidently  repugnant  to  a  supernatu- 
rally  good  cause,  to  God,  to  His  angels,  or 
to  His  saints.  When  both  conditions  have 
been  fulfilled,  it  is  necessary  to  conclude  on 
a  diabdcal  action.  When  the  doubt  exists 
as  to  the  intrinsic  nature  of  the  effect,  it  will 
exist  equally  as  to  the  nature  of  the  cause. 
Such  is  the  doctrine  officially  adopted  by 
the  Church  in  the  remarkable  chapter,  de 
Exorcisandt's,  and  inserted  under  Title  X 
of  the  Roman  Ritual.  Such  is  also  the 
tenor  of  the  doctrine  contained  in  the 
Bible  and  tradition  in  regard  to  the  rela- 
tions of  man  with  the  demon,  and  as  to  a 
proper  judgment  in  their  connection. 

Pontifical  authority,  in  its  dogmatic 
teaching,  has  never  deviated  from  these 
principles  and  it  cannot  be  held  responsi- 
ble for  the  forgetfulness  or  the  abuses  to 
which  they  have  been  subjected.  It  never 
denied  that  our  temptations  are  often 
simply  subjective,  or  that  they  cannot  be 
explained  by  the  physical  and  moral  sur- 
rounding in  which  we  live ;  but  it  could  not 
be  more  liberal,  for  this  would  be  a  denial 
of  the  evidence  itself,  the  possibility  and 
the  reality  of  the  attacks  and  the  diaboli- 


Devolution 


254 


DiDON 


cal  violences,  theoretically  recognizable 
by  certain  marks,  determined  by  theology, 
although  practically  often  difficult  to  dis- 
cern. 

That  sometimes  pathological  cases, 
poorly  diagnosed,  are  confounded  wit,h  di- 
abolical possession,  we  are  quite  disposed 
to  admit ;  but  that  there  has  been  no  real 
possession  and  that  disease  alone  explains 
all  that  has  been  established  as  strange  in 
the  history  of  the  mental  aberrations  and  of 
the  extraordinary  phenomena  of  the  intel- 
lectual, moral,  physiological  and  physical 
order,  it  is  impossible  for  sound  reason  to 
admit.  This  is  especially  what  faith  in  the 
Biblical  revelation  will  refuse  to  grant  to 
the  rationalistic  interpretation  of  the  facts 
in  question.  Disease  alone  cannot  impart 
the  perfect  and  immediate  knowledge  of  a 
foreign  language,  of  a  science,  before  and 
afterwards  unknown  to  the  subject,  of  se- 
cret things  with  which  the  afflicted  has  no 
sensible  relations,  explainable  by  the  na- 
ture of  the  sensorial  acts.  Neither  the 
mental  diseases,  hysteria,  nor  the  hyp- 
notic state  exclude  the  patient  from  the 
laws  of  the  physical  world,  and  do  not  con- 
fer upon  him  powers  absolutely  dispro- 
portionate to  his  potentiality. 

Now  the  facts  are  there ;  related  by  the 
Gospels,  by  the  Apostles,  by  the  most  in- 
telligent, and  by  the  most  holy  among  the 
Fathers  of  the  Church,  and  these  facts  are 
authenticated  beyond  question  :  St.  Paul- 
inus  attests  to  having  witnessed  a  pos- 
sessed walking  on  the  vault  of  a  church,  his 
head  downwards  ;  Sulpicius  Severus  saw  a 
possessed  raised  in  the  air,  his  arms  ex- 
tended, at  the  approach  of  the  relics  of  St. 
Martin;  Kernel,  physician  of  Henry  II. 
of  France,  and  the  celebrated  Protestant 
Ambrose  Pare,  mention  a  possessed  who 
spoke  Greek  and  Latin  without  having  ever 
learned  these  two  languages  (see  Bergier's 
Dictionnaire  de  TJieoloffie,  Art.  Demoni- 
aques).  The  History  of  theConvuhionaries 
of  St.  Medard,  in  the  last  century,  reports 
no  less  extraordinary  and  notorious  facts, 
which  absolutely  defy  natural  explanation. 
Their  character  appears  to  be  clearly  su- 
pernatural, but  is  certainly  not  divine ;  it 
is,  therefore,  diabolical. 

We  desire  to  say  that  we  do  not  so  con- 
sider all  the  spiritists,  hypnotizers,  me- 
diums, somnambulists,  and  magnetizers. 
Their  doings  prove  considerable  ability, 
however  often  allied  to  fraud  and  purely 
natural  phenomena.  But  when,  in  their 
extraordinary  conditions,  we  meet   with 


other  phenomena  that  cannot  be  explained 
by  natural  causes,  we  are  obliged  to  con- 
sider them  effected  by  diabolical  obses- 
sion and  possession  as  witnessed  in  the 
earlier  ages.  Because  we  behold  such 
phenomena,  which  the  philosophic  and 
scientific  explanations  of  our  contempo- 
raries do  not  explain,  is  no  argument 
against  diabolical  possession,  but  on  the 
contrary,  affirms  it.  It  will  be  asserted, 
perhaps,  that  the  method  and  principle 
of  causality,  whose  usage  we  maintain, 
have  no  longer  any  scientific  value ;  we 
answer  that  they  have  more  than  ever  the 
guaranty  of  common  sense,  in  virtue  of 
which  they  have  perfectly  resisted  the 
tests  of  modern  criticism,  and  that  we  ad- 
mit no  kind  of  superstition  or  of  credulity, 
nor  the  claims  of  a  science  without  com- 
mon sense  and  without  philosophy,  no 
more  than  a  supernaturalism  without  con- 
trol, nor  a  mysticism  without  discrimina- 
tion.    See  Possessions  {Diabolical). 

Devolution. —  Right  of  which  the  colla- 
tion of  a  vacant  benefice  returns  to  the 
superior,  in  the  case  where  the  bishop  has 
neglected  to  provide  beforehand  in  a  de- 
lay of  six  months. 

Diaconiutn. —  i.  In  the  ancient  basilicas, 
a  room  near  the  altar,  where  the  deacons 
prepared  the  sacred  vessels  and  ornaments, 
and  where  the  priests  dressed  and  un- 
dressed.— 2.  A  room  in  the  Greek  churches 
corresponding  to  the  sacristy  of  the  West- 
ern church,  usually  on  the  south  side  of 
the  bema. 

Diana  of  the  Ephesians  or  Ephesian 
Artemis. — An  ancient  Asiatic  divinity 
whose  worship  was  adopted  by  the  Ionian 
Greeks.  She  was  a  personification  of  the 
fruitfulness  of  nature,  and  was  quite  dis- 
tinct from  the  Greek  goddess,  though 
assimilated  to  her  by  the  Ephesians  from 
some  resemblance  of  attributes.  She  was 
represented  wearing  a  mural  crown,  and 
with  many  breasts,  and  having  the  lower 
part  of  her  body  cased,  like  a  mummy, 
in  a  sheath  bearing  mystical  figures. 

Diatessaron. — A  harmony  of  the  four 
Gospels.  The  first  work  of  this  kind  was 
that  of  Tatian  (latter  half  of  the  second 
century),  a  Christian  Apologist,  but  after- 
wards a  Gnostic. 

Didache.  See  Apostles  {Doctrine  of 
the  Twelve). 

Didon  (Henry). —  A  French  priest  and 
author;  born  at  Thouvet,  Isere,  March  17, 


DiDYMUS  THE  BLIND 


255 


DiOGNETUS 


1840;  educated  at  Grenoble  Seminary,  and 
a  disciple  of  Lacordaire;  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Dominicans  in  1862.  Having 
visited  Rome,  he  returned  in  1868  and 
commenced  preaching  with  great  effect 
in  Paris  and  other  cities  of  France.  In 
1871  he  delivered  the  funeral  sermon  at 
Nancy  on  Monseigneur  Darboy.  His  first 
book  was  Ma7i  According  to  Science  and 
Faith,  and  his  first  printed  sermon,  "  What 
Is  a  Monk?"  In  consequence  of  some 
startling  sermons  in  1879,  dealing  with  the 
Church  and  Society,  he  was  sent  into  tem- 
porary seclusion  in  the  monastery  of  Car- 
bara,  in  Corsica.  A  subsequent  visit  to 
Germany  and  the  Holy  Land  furnished 
liim  with  themes  for  The  Germans,  in 
which  he  pointed  out  that  theory  and  prac- 
tice have  nothing  in  common  in  the  Father- 
land ;  and  for  Lcf^  Vie  de  Jesus  (1891),  op- 
posing the  views  of  Renan,  which  had  an 
immense  circulation  and  was  translated 
into  English. 

Didymus  the  Blind  (309-399). — Doctor 
of  the  Church  of  Alexandria,  Greek  Father, 
born  at  Alexandria.  Didymus  was  a 
writer  6f  eminence;  but  of  his  numerous 
writings  only  a  few  remain,  of  which  his 
Three  Books  on  the  Trinity,  a  work  on 
The  Holy  Spirit,  which  St.  Jerome  trans- 
lated into  Latin,  and  a  treatise  Against  the 
Manicheans  are  the  principal. 

Dies  Irae. — The  name  generally  given 
(from  the  opening  words)  to  the  famous 
mediaeval  hymn  on  the  "  Last  Jvidgment." 
Its  authorship  is  generally  ascribed  to  the 
Franciscan,  Thomas  of  Celano  (died,  1255). 
At  what  time  the  Church  adopted  it,  and 
made  it  a  portion  of  the  service  of  the 
Mass,  cannot  be  ascertained  with  any  ex- 
actness; but  it  must  have  been  in  any  case 
before  1385.  Several  alterations  were  then 
made  in  the  text ;  that,  however,  is  believed 
to  be  the  original  which  is  engraved  on  a 
marble  tablet  in  the  Church  of  St.  Francis 
at  Mantua.  It  has  been  frequently  trans- 
lated into  English. 

Dimissorial. — A  letter  authorizing  the 
bearer  for  ordination.  It  can  be  issued 
only  by  the  bishop,  or,  under  special  cir- 
cumstances, by  the  vicar-general.  How- 
ever, it  may  be  given  by  the  Pope  to 
ordinands  from  any  part  of  the  world. 

Diocese. — The  name  of  a  populated  ter- 
ritory under  the  ecclesiastical  government 
of   a   bishop,   who   is   assisted   by   priests 


within  his  jurisdiction.     It  is  divided  and 
subdivided  into  parishes,  stations,  etc. 

Diocletian. —  Roman  emperor  (284),  re- 
signed (305)  and  refused  to  resume  the 
scepter.  The  tenth  persecution  took  place 
under  his  reign. 

Diodorus  of  Tarsus.  —  Diodorus  was 
born  in  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury at  Antioch,  and  received  his  education 
at  Athens.  He  was  appointed  bishop  of 
Tarsus  in  Cilicia  and  took  part  in  the 
General  Council  of  Constantinople,  A.  d. 
381.  Died  in  the  year  390.  Of  his  many 
writings,  apologetical,  controversial,  doc- 
trinal, and  exegetical,  which  he  composed 
against  the  pagans,  Jews,  and  the  prevail- 
ing heresies  of  the  age,  only  fragments 
have  reached  us. 

Diognetus  {Letter  to). — The  author  of 
this  Letter  is  unknown.  Up  to  the  seven- 
teenth century  St.  Justin  was  thought  to 
be  the  author  of  this  remarkable,  though 
long  unnoticed  Letter.  However,  it  must 
be  considered  much  older  than  the  writings 
of  St.  Justin.  For  the  author  calls  him- 
self a  disciple  of  the  Apostles  (c.  11),  and 
represents  Christianity  as  of  quite  recent 
appearance.  Again,  none  of  the  older 
Fathers  mention  it  among  the  works  of 
St.  Justin.  The  view,  moreover,  taken  by 
the  author  of  the  epistle  as  to  Judaism 
and  Christianity,  is  wholly  different  from 
that  of  St.  Justin.  Finally,  there  is  a 
great  diflference  of  style  and  language 
between  the  two.  No  book  of  Justin  is 
written  so  logically,  clearly,  and  elegantly 
as  this  epistle.  With  regard  to  the  person 
of  Diognetus,  all  we  know  is  that  he  was 
a  heathen  of  distinction,  who  was  desirous 
of  a  closer  acquaintance  with  the  Chris- 
tian religion. 

In  this  important  Letter  the  writer 
answers  with  great  rhetorical  skill  and 
warmth  the  three  following  questions  of 
Diognetus:  i.  Why  do  Christians  reject 
heathenism  and  Judaism?  2.  What  God 
do  they  adore,  who  love  each  other  even 
unto  the  contempt  of  the  world  and  death? 
3.  If  the  Christian  religion  be  the  true 
one,  why  did  it  not  come  sooner  into  the 
world  ? 

Answer  to  the  first  question :  Because 
the  gods  of  the  heathen  are  senseless 
images  of  wood,  stone,  and  metal,  and  the 
entire  Jewish  religion  consists  of  empty 
ceremonies,  and  contains,  moreover,  much 
that  is  unreasonable.     To  the  second  ques- 


DiONYSIUS 


256 


DiPTYCHS 


tion  :  The  Christian  religion  is  something 
supernatural,  not  like  other  religions  in- 
vented by  men,  but  revealed  by  God  Him- 
self, and  for  this  reason  it  brings  forth 
virtues  unknown  before.  To  the  third 
question  :  It  was,  first  of  all,  necessary  that 
man  should  become  convinced  of  his  own 
spiritual  poverty  and  helplessness,  from 
which  God  alone  could  deliver  him.  This 
God  did  by  sending  His  only  begotten  Son 
into  the  world,  and  giving  Him  up  to 
death,  in  expiation,  and  to  have  a  share  in 
the  true  knowledge  of  God  and  in  eternal 
salvation.  Chapters  xi.  and  xii.  must  be 
considered  as  a  later  addition,  because  they 
differ  both  in  matter  and  form  from  the 
preceding  ones. 

This  Letter  is  also  highly  important  from 
a  dogmatical  point  of  view.  It  contains, 
among  others,  the  following  doctrinal 
truths:  i.  That  no  man  can,  through 
his  own  endeavors,  attain  to  the  perfect 
knowledge  of  God,  but  only  through  the 
Logos.  2.  That  Christ  is  God's  own  and 
only  begotten  Son  and  incomprehensible 
Logos,  and  far  above  the  angels.  3.  That 
the  Son  of  God  became  man  in  order  to  re- 
veal to  us  the  divine  mysteries  and  to 
make  satisfaction  for  our  sins  by  His  sacri- 
ficial death.  4.  That  justification,  besides 
cleansing  from  sin,  implies  also  interior 
sanctification.  5.  That  the  Church  alone 
possesses  the  doctrine  of  the  Apostles. 

Dionysius  (St.). — Pope  from  259  to  269, 
born  in  Calabria.  Successor  to  Sixtus  II. ; 
reorganized  the  ecclesiastical  circum- 
scription of  Rome.     F.  Dec.  26. 

Dionysius  sumamed  Exiguus. — A  Ro- 
man abbot,  was  a  Scythian  by  birth,  and 
flourished  under  the  Emperors  Justin  and 
Justinian  in  the  sixth  century.  He  is  the 
reputed  founder  of  the  Christian  era,  also 
called  Dionysian  era,  which  has  been  in 
general  use  among  Christian  nations  since 
the  tenth  century.  He  likewise  laid  the 
foundation  of  Canon  Law  by  his  collection 
of  ecclesiastical  canons.  His  collection  com- 
prises the  so-called  canons  of  the  Apostles 
and  of  several  Councils,  and  the  decretal 
epistles  of  the  Popes  from  Siricius,  who 
succeeded  Damasus  (354)  to  Anastasius 
II.,  who  succeeded  Gelasius  (496).  His 
death  occurred  about  536. 

Dionysius  of  Alexandria. — Born  of  a 
noble  and  wealthy  pagan  family  at  Alexan- 
dria. He  was  a  pupil  of  Origen,  who  con- 
verted him  to  Christianity.     He  succeeded 


Heracles  as  chief  of  the  Catechetical 
School  in  the  year  231,  and  upon  the  death 
of  the  latter,  in  248,  as  Bishop  of  Alex- 
andria, which  he  continued  to  be  until  his 
death  in  264.  Under  Decius  he  had  been 
condemned  to  death,  but  was  rescued  by 
Christian  peasants ;  in  the  reign  of  Valer- 
ian he  was  exiled  from  his  see.  With 
much  success  Dionysius  defended  the  or- 
thodox faith  against  the  heresies  of  Sabel- 
lius,  Paul  of  Samosata,  and  Nepos,  an 
Egyptian  bishop,  and  opposed  with  vigor 
the  schism  of  Novatian. 

Dionysius  of  Paris  (St.). — Martyr  and 
first  Bishop  of  Paris;  lived  in  the  second 
half  of  the  third  century.  He  is  often 
confounded  with  Dionysius  the  Areopa- 
gite.  By  the  persecution  of  the  Christians 
under  Septimus  Severus,  in  which  St. 
Irenaeus  suffered  martyrdom  in  202,  the 
Church  in  Gaul  had  become  terribly  dev- 
astated. Hereupon  Pope  Fabian  sent 
seven  new  missionaries  (ecclesiastical  his- 
torians generally  call  them  bishops)  to 
gather  the  scattered  Faithful  and  found 
new  Churches.  St.  Dionysius  was  one  of 
these  seven  apostolic  men  and  he  founded 
upon  an  island  in  the  Seine  a  bishopric. 
God  had  bestowed  upon  him  the  gift  of 
miracles,  and  he  converted  many  idola- 
ters and  finally  built  a  Church.  Our  saint 
suffered  martyrdom,  it  appears,  under  the 
Valerian  persecution  (some  claim  under 
that  of  Maximian  Hercules).  The  legend 
says  that  St.  Dionysius,  after  having  been 
beheaded,  carried  his  own  head  to  the  place 
where  they  then  buried  him.  Later  on  a 
chapel  was  built  over  his  tomb,  and  this 
was  enlarged  by  St.  Genovefa  (469)  into  a 
church.     F.  Oct.  9. 

Dionysius  the  Areopagite,  who  after- 
wards became  the  first  Bishop  of  Athens, 
and  who,  in  all  probability,  was  the  same 
that  Pope  Clement  I.  sent  to  Gaul,  and 
was  the  first  bishop  of  Lutetia  (Paris). 
(Acts  xvii.  15-34).  What  are  known  as 
the  writings  of  Dionysius  the  Areopagite 
are  not  genuine,  as  they  were  written  not 
earlier  than  the  fourth  or  fifth  century. 

Dioscorus  of  Alexandria. — Patriarch  of 
Alexandria,  died  in  454.  Successor  of  St. 
Cyrillus,  in  444,  he  adopted  the  heresies  of 
Eutyches  and  raised  a  schism  to  which  the 
Council  of  Chalcedon  (451)  put  an  end  by 
deposing  him. 

Diptychs. — In  the  early  Church,  a  reg- 
ister in  which  the  monasteries  and  churche? 


DiSCALCED 


257 


Dispensation 


inscribed  the  names  of  bishops,  benefac- 
tors, and  of  the  dead  and  living  Faithful, 
of  whom  they  made  commemoration  dur- 
ing divine  service.  There  remains  of  this 
ancient  custom  in  the  canon  of  the  Mass  a 
Memento  of  the  living  and  a  Memento  of 
the  dead  whom  the  priest  secretly  com- 
memorates and  for  whose  souls  he  more 
particularly  wishes  to  pray. 

Discalced {zvitJiout shoes;  barefooted). — 
A  term  applied  to  certain  religious  orders, 
whose  members  are  barefooted. 

Disciples  of  Christ  or  Campbellites. — 
An  organization  of  Christians  within  the 
United  States  which  in  1894  ^^^  nearly 
5,000  ministers,  9,000  churches,  and  800,000 
communicants;  founded  about  1812  by  se- 
ceders  from  the  Presbyterian  Church  of 
.western  Pennsylvania,  who  determined  to 
reject  creeds  and  dogmas  and  to  accept  the 
Bible  as  their  only  rule,  and  of  whom 
Thomas  and  Alexander  Campbell  were 
leaders.  They  have  a  congregational  form 
of  government,  believe  in  immersion  as 
the  only  true  baptism,  but  administer  the 
Lord's  Supper  every  Sunday  without  in- 
quiry as  to  whether  those  present  have 
been  immersed  or  not.  They  believe  in 
the  Holy  Trinity,  in  the  divine  inspiration 
of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  in  the  moral  de- 
pravity of  the  human  race  and  its  need  of 
a  new  birth,  in  the  Church  of  Christ  as  a 
divine  institution,  in  the  fulness  and  free- 
ness  of  the  Gospel  to  all  who  will  embrace 
it,  and  in  the  everlasting  punishment  of 
the  wicked. 

Discipline  {Ecclesiastical). — The  eccle- 
siastical discipline  has  a  rigorously  obli- 
gatory character  on  account  of  the  power 
given  to  the  Church  to  establish  laws. 
But  it  is  founded  not  only  upon  a  formal 
precept,  it  may  also  result  from  custom. 
There  is  a  distinction  between  a  particular 
discipline  of  a  certain  country  and  the  uni- 
versal discipline,  which  is  founded  upon 
Scripture,  the  apostolic  traditions,  the  de- 
cisions of  Councils  and  the  general  cus- 
toms. The  prescriptions  founded  on  the 
divine  ordinances  are  unchangeable,  the 
others  may  be  modified  by  legitimate 
authority. 

Discipline    {Penitential).     See    Cate- 

CHUMENATE. 

Discipline   of  the   Secret. — The  primi- 
tive Christians,  following  the  example  of 
Christ  and   His  Apostles  (I.  Cor.  iii.  2), 
17 


maintained  a  certain  reserve  in  regard  to 
the  doctrines  of  Christianity.  They  kept 
from  the  pagans  and  catechumens  the  full 
knowledge  of  the  sacred  mysteries  lest 
these  mysteries  might  be  exposed  to  ridi- 
cule and  profanation.  This  practice, 
called  the  "  Discipline  of  the  Secret,"  was 
observed  with  special  care  in  regard  to  the 
Holy  Eucharist,  which  was  represented  in 
allegories,  parables,  and  symbols.  The 
early  Fathers,  speaking  of  this  mystery,  do 
so  in  the  most  careful  manner,  using  such 
expressions  as:  "I  shall  be  understood  by 
the  Faithful."  "  My  meaning  is  clear  to 
the  initiated."  This  explains,  in  a  certain 
sense,  the  evil  reports  of  the  pagans  re- 
garding the  celebration  of  the  Holy 
Eucharist,  such  as  :  "  Drinking  of  blood," 
"Eating  of  the  flesh  of  a  child  concealed 
in  bread."  Wrong  as  these  reports  were, 
they  furnished  an  undeniable  proof  of  the 
antiquity  of  the  Holy  Mass  and  of  the 
faith  in  the  Real  Presence  of  our  Lord 
under  the  form  of  bread.     See  Catechu- 

MENATK. 

Dispensation.  —  Exemption,  an  act  by 
which  one  dispenses  a  person  from  some- 
thing. The  Pope  alone  has  the  right  to  dis- 
pense from  the  general  laws  of  the  Church, 
and  no  bishop  can  do  this,  except  by  ex- 
traordinary faculties, if  recourse  to  the  Holy 
See  will  be  impossible,  and  under  con- 
dition to  ask  later  on  for  the  confirmation 
of  the  dispensation.  The  bishop  can  dis- 
pense, by  ordinary  right,  in  the  cases  pro- 
vided by  law,  or  in  virtue  of  special 
powers  received  from  the  Pope  and  re- 
newed every  five  years,  or  also  in  virtue  of 
personal  indults.  Dispensation  is  granted 
either  for  the  temporal  jurisdiction  of  the 
Church,  or  for  spiritual  jurisdiction  or  for 
conscience.  The  papal  dispensation  for 
the  temporal  jurisdiction  proceeds  from  the 
Dataria,  and  for  spiritual  jurisdiction  from 
the  Penitentiary.  The  dispensation  of 
justice,  in  forma  fndiciali,  requires  an  in- 
quiry; the  dispensation  of  grace,  in  forma 
gratiosa,  requires  only  the  truth  of  the 
facts,  without  inquiry.  The  general  char- 
acter of  gratuity  of  dispensation  must  be 
understood  in  the  sense  that  the  one  who 
grants  it  draws  no  personal  benefit  from 
it.  But  the  expenses  of  the  chancery,  the 
componendes  claimed  in  certain  cases,  or 
sums  applied  to  the  needs  of  pious  insti- 
tutions, are  not  contrary  to  gratuity.  The 
componendes  are  proportionate  to  the  state 
of  the  fortune  of  the  applicant. 


Dissenters 


258 


PiVORCE 


Dissenters. — Those  who  refuse  to  ac- 
cept the  authority  or  doctrines,  or  conform 
to  the  ritual  or  usages  of  an  established 
Church  ;  a  nonconformist :  specifically  ap- 
plied in  England  to  those  who,  while  they 
agree  with  the  Church  of  England  (the 
Episcopal)  in  many  essential  doctrines, 
differ  from  it  on  questions  of  Church  gov- 
ernment, relation  to  the  State,  and  rites 
and  ceremonies. 

Ditheism. —  Religious  system  in  which 
is  acknowledged  two  first  principles :  the 
principle  of  the  good  and  that  of  evil. 
The  religion  of  Zoroaster  is  a  ditheism. 

Divination  (pretended  art  of  foretelling 
the  future).  —  The  Romans  believed  in 
their  augurs,  the  Greeks  had  faith  in  the 
Pythoness,  the  Chaldeans  in  their  astrolo- 
gers, the  Middle  Ages  and  half-civilized 
nations  had  recourse  to  sorcerers,  modern 
times  have  their  spiritualists,  somnambu- 
lists, and  soothsayers.  The  Church  has 
condemned  every  species  of  divination. 
But  she  believes  in  prophecy  as  divine 
revelation  proved  by  extraordinarj-  signs 
and  miracles,  having  for  its  object  the  sal- 
vation of  men,  serving  as  confirmation  to 
religion,  in  all  superior  to  the  power  of 
man  and  to  the  forces  peculiar  to  his 
genius. 

Divorce.  —  According  to  the  ordinary 
usage  of  language,  the  term  divorce  signi- 
fies a  dissolution  of  the  marriage  bond, 
which  was  raised  by  our  Saviour  to  the 
dignity  of  a  sacrament.  The  divorce  is, 
therefore,  very  different  from  the  sepa- 
ration of  bed  and  board.  In  regard  to  the 
complete  dissolution  of  the  marriage  bond, 
the  Catholic  doctrine  distinguishes  three 
periods,  ruled  by  different  laws  : — 

I.  Before  Moses,  in  virtue  of  the  pri- 
mordial right  supernaturally  established  by 
God  and  conformable  to  the  vow.  if  not  to 
the  formal  prescriptions  of  natural  law, 
marriage  is  absolutely  indissoluble;  di- 
vorce can  be  engaged  in  only  against  the 
Divine  will ;  after-marriages  are  purely 
and  simply  adulteries  and  concubinages 
for  the  divorced  party.  Jesus  Christ  has 
declared  :  "  From  the  beginning  there  was 
no  divorce  "  (Matt.  xi.  8);  and  God  said 
in  giving  Eve  as  a  spouse  to  Adam  :  "  Man 
shall  cleave  to  his  wife  and  they  shall  be 
two  in  one  flesh"  (Gen.  ii.  24).  There- 
fore, concludes  the  Saviour,  "  what  God 
hath  joined  together,  let  no  man  put 
asunder"  (Matt.  xix.  6). 


2.  The  hard-heartedness  of  the  Jews 
moved  God  to  mitigate  the  primitive  rigor 
of  matrimonial  legislation.  Moses  permits, 
in  certain  cases,  the  usage  of  the  bill  of 
repudiation  and  allows  second  nuptials. 
Evidently,  this  concession,  without  violat- 
ing the  strict  natural  law,  tolerates,  how- 
ever, a  lowering  of  the  dignity  of  marriage, 
and  a  diminution  of  its  prophetic  significa- 
tion in  regard  to  the  incarnation  and  the 
union  of  the  Redeemer  and  of  His  Church. 
Also,  Jesus  Christ,  without  condemning 
the  divorce  of  the  past,  constates  that  it 
does  not  correspond  to  the  ideal  which  God 
had  in  view  from  the  beginning;  and  He 
declares  that  He  does  not  wish  to  preserve 
such  an  imperfection  in  mankind ;  that  He 
has  come  to  renew  and  elevate  the  marital 
vows  to  a  higher  perfection  (Matt.  xix. 
4-8). 

3.  When  the  primitive  marriage,  al- 
though not  a  sacrament,  was  nevertheless 
indissoluble,  how  much  more  justly  the 
Christian  marriage,  ranked  among  the 
sacraments  and  producing  sanctifying 
grace,  should  be  this  in  future  !  The  teach- 
ing of  Christ  is  absolute  on  this  point: 
"  Man  shall  cleave  to  his  wife,  and  they 
shall  be  two  in  one  flesh ;  God  Himself  has 
joined  them,  and  let  no  man  separate  them; 
the  man  who  marries  another  while  his 
wife  is  living  is  an  adulterer  "  (Mark  x.  11, 
etc.;  Luke  xvi.  18;  Matt.  xix.  4,  etc.;  Cf. 
Rom.  vii.  2,  etc.  ;  I.  Cor.  vii.  10,  etc.). 

In  case  of  adultery,  there  may  be  a  separa- 
tion from  bed  and  board,  says  our  Saviour 
again  (Matt.  v.  31,  etc.),  but  permission  is 
not  given  to  contract  another  marriage 
which  would  be  only  adultery.  In  vain  do 
the  Greek  schismatic  Church  and  the 
Protestant  sects  pretend  that  adultery  is 
a  legitimate  cause  for  absolute  divorce. 
The  tradition  of  the  Fathers  and  the  prac- 
tice of  the  Roman  Church,  mother  and 
mistress  of  all  the  others,  maintains  indis- 
solubility even  in  this  case,  although  one 
of  the  texts  of  the  Gospel,  where  there  is 
question  thereof  (Matt.  xix.  9),  is  very 
obscure  on  account  of  its  extreme  con- 
ciseness. The  Council  of  Trent  (Sess. 
xxiv.  can.  7)  has  anathematized  the  con- 
tradictors of  the  Church  on  this  point;  and 
only  a  few  years  ago,  the  reigning  sover- 
eign Pontiff,  Leo  XIII.,  expounded,  with 
great  sublimity  and  energy,  the  unchange- 
able doctrine  of  the  Holy  See  on  this  sub- 
ject (Cf.  Encycl.  Arcanum). 

The  objections  to  this  doctrine  can  be 
ranked   under  three  principal  heads,  ac- 


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259 


Divorce 


cording  to  the  considerations  of  the  natu- 
ral, ecclesiastical,  and  divine  right  in  the 
question  of  divorce. 

I.  They  pretend  that  the  indissolubility 
of  marriage  is  in  no  way  founded  on  the 
natural  right;  that  the  contrary  is  the 
case,  when  we  consider  the  grievous  moral 
and  physical  injuries  which  sometimes 
result  from  the  perpetuation  of  the  conju- 
gal tie.  That  where  the  divorce  is  granted 
proves  that  the  idea  of  liberty  is  better 
understood  and  more  sincerely  put  into 
practice,  while  to  hold  marriage  indisso- 
luble, proves  the  predominance  of  tyran- 
nical and  barbarous  theories  in  the  people. 
Marriage  has  for  its  principal  basis  the  con- 
sent of  the  parties  to  the  contract ;  when 
this  consent  is  revoked  the  matrimonial 
contract  is  dissolved.  This  engagement 
can  be  perpetual  in  the  intention  of  the 
parties  contracting,  but  not  by  juridical 
reality,  because  the  individual  liberty  caIn 
never  be  alienated  in  an  irrevocable  manner 
by  any  agreement  whatsoever.  The  people 
that  admit  the  divorce  are  not  less  moral 
nor  less  prosperous  than  those  who  reject 
it.  One  can  even  affirm  that  the  possibil- 
ity to  break  the  marriage  becomes  its  safe- 
guard. Mere  separation  of  person  and 
property  is  not  sufficient  to  correct  the 
great  evils  of  an  unhappy  marriage,  but, 
on  the  contrary,  has  a  much  worse  influ- 
ence on  the  public  morals  than  the  di- 
vorce itself. 

2.  They  dispute  that  the  divine  teach- 
ing, soundly  interpreted,  is  hostile  to  the 
divorce.  Moses,  or  rather  God  Himself, 
had  permitted  it  under  the  Old  Law;  but 
under  the  New  Law  Jesus  Christ  has  ad- 
mitted it  expressly  in  the  case  of  adultery 
(Matt.  V.  32;  ix.  9).  St.  Paul  admits  it 
in  case  that  one  of  the  parties,  both  pre- 
viously unbelievers,  becomes  baptized  (L 
Cor.  vii.  15). 

3.  As  to  the  ecclesiastical  right,  that  of 
the  Orientals  is  clearly  in  favor  of  divorce 
for  adultery;  and  the  interpreters  of  the 
Scripture  do  not  hesitate  to  support  this 
legislation  on  the  authority  of  Jesus  Christ 
Himself.  As  to  the  Occidentals,  they  un- 
doubtedly adopted  another  course,  but  not 
all  of  them,  nor  at  all  times,  as  is  clearly 
proved :  (a)  From  the  contradictory  de- 
cisions and  practices  of  the  Fathers  and  of 
the  Councils,  (b)  The  sentences  of  di- 
vorce pronounced  by  the  Court  of  Rome 
itself,  (c)  The  identity  of  the  results  of 
the  ecclesiastical  law,  which  forbids  the 
divorce,  but  leaves  to  the  spiritual  author- 


ity the  right  to  pronounce  the  nullity  of 
marriage,  and  of  the  civil  law  which  ac- 
knowledges and  sanctifies  with  entire  sin- 
cerity the  power  to  divorce,  (d)  Conse- 
quently, and  in  fact,  the  contradiction 
which  exists  between  the  very  severe  doc- 
trine of  the  Roman  Court  and  its  very 
indulgent  practice  in  matters  of  dissolution 
of  marriage,  (e)  The  strange  anomaly  of 
a  Church  denunciating  the  concessions  of 
the  State  in  the  matter,  and  nevertheless 
showing  itself  more  lenient  than  the  latter, 
at  least  in  regard  to  the  rich  and  powerful 
of  this  world.  The  final  objection  is,  that 
if  the  conjugal  indissolubility  did  ever 
find  a  particular  strength  in  the  religious 
belief  of  the  sacrament  of  marriage  and  in 
the  blessing  of  the  priest,  the  seculariza- 
tion of  family  legislation  and  the  institu- 
tion of  the  civil  marriage  have  supplanted 
this  mystic  unity  and   supernatural  order. 

We  answer  these  diverse  objections  in 
order : — 

I.  We  grant  without  hesitation  that  the 
natural  right  is  not  essentially  and  abso- 
lutely opposed  to  every  divorce;  the  de- 
cisions of  Moses  and  of  St.  Paul,  above 
quoted,  prove  this.  It  is  possible,  indeed, 
that  the  consequences  of  the  divorce,  like 
the  divorce  itself,  do  not  necessarily  de- 
stroy completely  the  existence  of  the 
family  and  of  the  civil  society,  their  rights, 
their  interests,  their  most  sacred  weal.  But 
when  the  natural  right  does  not  absolutely 
proscribe  the  divorce,  it  tolerates  it  only 
with  great  reluctance  and  in  cases  where 
the  aggravation  is  extreme :  the  honor  of 
conjugal  society,  the  purity  of  the  individ- 
ual and  general  morals,  the  care  and  good 
example  due  to  the  children,  the  peace  of 
the  families  and  of  the  nations,  are  well 
maintained  by  the  indissoluble  marriage, 
and,  as  history  proves,  are  never  so  greatly 
threatened  as  in  countries  where  divorce 
has  been  freely  practiced. 

That  the  indissolubility  of  unhappy 
unions  has  disagreeable  features  and  en- 
tails unfortunate  conditions  arising  from 
the  incompatibility  of  temperaments  or 
interests,  nobody  denies ;  but  the  question 
is  to  know  whether  the  superior  interests 
of  the  religious  and  social  order  are  not 
more  grievously  injured  by  the  divorce 
than  by  the  indissoluble  marriage.?  Now, 
simple  common  sense  and  the  history  of 
all  times  answer  with  decided  affirmation 
in  favor  of  the  latter.  Morality  deterio- 
rates more  and  more  under  the  influence 
of   divorce;    the   delicacy  of   morals   dls- 


Divorce 


260 


Divorce 


appears  to  make  room  to  rudeness,  to 
insensibility,  to  brutality;  the  calculating 
and  negotiating  spirit  penetrates  freely 
into  the  domestic  hearth,  and  marriage 
becomes  a  simple  contract  of  society,  a 
mere  matter  of  speculation. 

The  Catholic  Church  could  never  up- 
hold it,  and  she  will  always  contest  this 
obnoxious  custom. 

As  to  the  physicians  and  to  the  physi- 
ologists who  uphold  the  divorce  in  the 
name  of  animalism,  we  oppose  to  them 
the  rights  and  dignity  of  the  soul,  which 
taust  not  be  sacrificed  to  the  flesh,  and  we 
challenge  them  to  show  that  their  princi- 
ples do  not  lead  directly  to  the  justification 
of  frequent  and  regular  adultery,  and  to 
the  replacing  of  all  matrimonial  legislation 
by  a  regime  of  prostitution  and  free  love. 

The  divorce,  indeed,  is  not,  as  pre- 
tended, a  distinguishing  sign  of  progress, 
of  liberty,  and  independence;  it  is  the  re- 
sult and  the  proof  of  the  overflowing  of 
evil  instincts,  of  license  granted  to  shame 
ful  passions.  One  can  see  this  among  the 
savage  races  and  attribute  to  its  baleful 
influence  their  state  of  moral  and  religious 
decline.  But  it  plaj^ed  no  part  in  the  cen- 
turies of  faith,  of  honor,  and  virtue;  chiv- 
alry and  divorce  are  contradictory  terms  ,- 
materialism  and  divorce  attract  and  sup- 
port each  other.  Now  materialism  is  the 
enemy  of  liberty  and  the  precursor  of 
tyranny. 

It  is  true  that  the  contract  of  marriage 
is  constituted  by  the  free  will  of  the  en- 
gaging parties ;  but  by  a  will  which  con- 
forms itself  to  that  of  God  and  which  for- 
ever pledges  its  liberty  as  to  this  point. 
When  It  refuses  to  do  this  and  pretends  to 
contract  only  for  a  time,  it  produces  a  com- 
pact which  is  no  longer  the  sacred  compact 
of  marriage,  but  the  shameless  compact  of 
concubinage.  But  can  one  thus  alienate  his 
liberty?  Certainly,  answers  sound  philoso- 
phy, in  accord  with  Catholic  theology  and 
with  revelation.  This  alienation  is  so  use- 
ful to  the  family,  to  the  spouses,  to  the  chil- 
dren, to  the  entire  society,  that  it  should 
find  grace  in  the  eyes  of  utilitarianism  it- 
self. 

When  the  nations,  who  practice  the  di- 
vorce, are  also  prosperous  and  sometimes 
even  more  flourishing  than  others,  it  is 
because  the  poison  has  not  had  time  to 
produce  its  effects  or  because  the  practice 
has  not  become  sufficiently  general  to  re- 
veal its  dreadful  effects  on  matrimonial 
welfare.     Let  it  spread  freely,  let  it  enter 


into  the  whole  social  body,  and  then  will 
become  manifest  the  hideous  corruptions 
of  the  Roman  and  Mohammedan  decline. 
Besides,  we  must  not  conclude  from  the 
material  prosperity  on  the  moral  pros- 
perity, a  thousand  times  more  valuable; 
nor  compare  a  people  which  admits  di- 
vorce with  a  people  monogamous,  but 
unfaithful  to  other  laws  equally  necessary. 
In  order  that  this  comparison  may  be  a 
legitimate  and  logical  one,  we  must  take 
two  peoples  at  times  when  both  are  ob- 
servant of  the  moral  law,  and  see  whether 
the  one  which  practices  divorce  will  re- 
main as  virtuous  as  the  one  which  does 
not.  This  test  has  not  yet  been  made  and 
appears  even  impossible,  but  a  clear,  im- 
partial reasoning  must  admit  that  the  free 
exchange  of  husbands  and  wives  is  not  con- 
ducive to  the  sanctification  of  the  family 
or  to  the  purification  of  society.  Is  it  not 
absurd  to  maintain  that  the  power  to  di- 
vorce will  contribute  protection  to  the 
conjugal  union  ?  Could  we  not  say  equally 
well  that  the  suppression  of  all  penal  sanc- 
tion would  subserve  to  the  execution  of  all 
contracts  ? 

We  willingly  grant  that  the  mere  sepa- 
ration of  person  and  property  is  no  remedy 
to  all  the  inconveniencies  of  badly  matched 
unions,  especially  since  it  imposes  upon 
them  the  impossibility  of  forming  new 
marriages,  and  that  thus  it  is  the  occasion 
of  disorders,  adulteries,  and  scandalous 
concubinages.  But  the  divorce  itself, 
whatever  may  be  done  or  said,  certainly 
is  the  cause  of  great  damage  to  the  social 
peace,  to  the  stability  of  the  family,  and 
to  the  education  of  the  children.  VVhen  it 
facilitates  new  unions,  it  does  so  only  at 
the  expense  of  the  preceding  unions,^-only 
by  means  of  the  corruption  and  dissolu- 
tion of  which  it  is  a  perpetual  provocation. 
It  is,  therefore,  false  to  say  that  the  conse- 
quences of  divorce  are  less  evil  than  those 
of  separation. 

2.  God,  it  is  true,  through  his  agent 
Moses,  permitted,  or  rather  tolerated,  di- 
vorce under  the  Old  Law;  but  He  suffi- 
ciently manifested  His  disapprobation  of 
this  infraction  of  the  regulations  of  the 
primitive  order.  The  condescension  of  the 
legislator  toward  morally  weak  genera- 
tions, incapable  of  bearing  entirely  the  bur- 
den of  the  law,  does  not  compel  Him  to 
abandon  forever  His  first  commandments. 
He  can,  and  even  must,  under  certain  cir- 
cumstances, try  to  restore  the  superior 
level   of   moral   perfection,  in   which   He 


Divorce 


261 


Divorce 


had  first  placed  his  subjects ;  He  can,  and 
even  must,  according  to  the  rules  of  wis- 
dom, labor  to  surpass  this  level,  in  elevat- 
ing more  and  more  the  conscience  and 
conduct  of  His  people.  Jesus  Christ,  there- 
fore, could  again  take  up  the  perfection  of 
the  primordial  idea  of  marriage,  and  no  man 
can  lawfully,  to-day,  argue  against  Him 
and  His  Church  for  the  tolerance  granted, 
during  forty  centuries,  to  mankind  in  its 
decline. 

Besides,  it  is  wrong  to  consider  as  un- 
certain and  obscure  the  teaching  of  Jesus 
Christ  on  this  important  subject.  In  the 
famous  passages  invoked  by  the  Protes- 
tants to  convince  us  that  He  admitted  the 
divorce  in  cases  of  adultery.  He  affirms : 
(i)  That  it  is  opposed  to  the  practice  tol- 
erated by  Moses  (Matt.  v.  31-32) ;  (2)  That 
whosoever  puts  away  his  wife,  exposes  her 
to  lewdness  (Ibid.  32);  (3)  That  every  man 
marrying  a  woman  put  away  is  an  adulterer 
(Ibid.).  He  admits  one  exception,  —  the 
case  of  adultery;  but  He  does  not  admit 
it,  (a)  neither  in  general  thesis,  for  He 
would  fall  back  into  the  practice  of  the 
ancients,  which  He  wishes  to  reform; 
(d)  nor  to  authorize  second  nuptials,  for 
He  states  in  an  absolute  manner  that  to 
unite  with  a  discarded  wife  is  adultery; 
(c)  but  solely  to  permit  a  simple  repudi- 
ation, a  separation  of  the  persons.  His 
teachi'ng,  indeed,  is  this :  The  definitive 
putting  away  or  repudiation  of  the  wife  is 
forbidden,  because  this  measure  exposes 
her  to  disorder ;  if,  however,  she  has  fallen 
into  disorder  by  her  adultery,  she  loses 
her  right  to  the  home  of  her  husband, 
who,  in  consequence,  can  discard  her. 
The  texts  of  St.  Mark  (x.  11-12)  and  of 
St.  Luke  (xvi.  18),  reporting  the  doctrine 
of  the  Master  without  reservation  in  re- 
gard to  adultery,  permit  no  doubt  of  the 
foregoing  interpretation.  St.  Paul,  in  his 
First  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  (vii.  lo-ii), 
is  still  more  decided  against  the  practice 
of  divorce  among  Christians ;  it  is,  indeed, 
because  their  marriage  has  become  a  sacra- 
ment and  has  found  in  this  supernatural 
consecration  a  restoration  and  unquestion- 
able confirmation  of  its  natural  and  prim- 
itive stability. 

As  to  the  pagan  marriages,  they  had 
certainly  the  force  and  stability  of  the 
primitive  marriage,  but  without  that 
superaddition  which  the  sacramental  dig- 
nity, among  Christians,  grants  to  it.  And 
when  it  happened  that  one  of  the  married 
became  converted  to  Christianity,  and  the 


other  refused,  not  only  to  do  likewise,  but 
even  to  live  in  peace  with  him  or  her, 
without  offending  his  or  her  God,  and  with- 
out grave  danger  to  his  or  her  soul,  the 
converted  party,  in  virtue  of  a  privilege 
established  or  at  least  promulgated  by  St. 
Paul  (I.  Cor.  vii.  15),  could  contract  a 
new  union  with  a  person  baptized,  a 
Christian,  and  thus  break  the  tie  of  the 
first  marriage.  But  this  privilege  can  in 
no  manner  be  put  into  practice  when  there 
is  question  of  invalidating  sacramental 
marriage. 

3.  Of  what  consequence  is  it  to  the  Ro- 
man doctrine  that  the  Oriental  heretics 
and  schismatics,  like  the  Protestants,  and 
other  adversaries  of  the  Catholic  Church, 
who  admit  adultery  as  cause  for  divorce, 
invoke  the  celebrated  text  of  St.  Matthew 
(xix.  9)  before  examined  ?  Is  it  sufficient 
to  weaken  the  Church's  doctrine,  shake  her 
government,  because  some  deny,  contra- 
dict, and  revolt  against  her?  Then  none 
of  her  dogmas,  none  of  her  precepts, would 
be  unassailable,  because  there  are  none  that 
have  not  been,  at  least,  attacked.  Besides 
the  authority  of  the  Catholic  Church  is  not 
derived  from  a  public  opinion  conform- 
able to  its  decisions;  but  it  comes  from 
God  Himself,  wherein  it  finds  its  first  and 
irrefragable  authority. 

Even  in  the  West,  we  must  admit,  there 
has  been  more  than  once,  in  several  coun- 
tries, especially  in  epochs  of  ignorance  or 
moral  weakness,  unfortunate  retrogressions 
in  handling  this  question  of  divorce. 
Through  ignorance  or  through  condescen- 
sion to  the  often  violent  demands  of  the 
powerful,  several  writers,  several  prelates, 
even  several  particular  councils,  have  sanc- 
tioned or  permitted  the  divorce  in  case  of 
adultery.  But  history  proves  that  it  was 
always  against  the  will  of  the  Apostolic 
See.  The  Pope  never  ceased  to  maintain 
the  sacred  indissolubility  of  the  family, 
not  as  subservient  to  his  own  fancies  or 
interests,  but  according  to  the  laws  and 
the  rights  which  he  received  from  God 
and  the  Apostles  through  tradition.  In- 
deed, tradition  grants  to  the  Roman  Pon- 
tiff the  right  to  dissolve,  under  certain 
circumstances,  the  marriage  contracted  in 
right  but  not  confirmed  by  fact :  tnatri- 
moniuin  non  consummatum,  and  tradition 
grants  the  same  Pontifical  power  to  ab- 
solve from  the  solemn  vows  of  profession 
made  in  a  religious  order.  Let  us  re- 
mark, however,  these  are  very  peculiar 
cases  and  very  rare,  five  or  six  perhaps, 


DOCETAE 


262       Doctors  of  the  Church 


per  year,  in  the  entire  world.  There  are, 
it  must  again  be  admitted,  cases  of  nul- 
lity which,  duly  established  by  ecclesias- 
tical authority  ^fter  very  rigorous  inquiry, 
lead  to  sentences  of  separation,  not  of  di- 
vorce., because  the  marriage  never  did 
exist.  These  cases  are  equally  rare.  Is 
anyone  authorized,  we  may  ask  all  men  of 
good  faith,  to  state  that  the  Church  is 
practically  more  favorable  to  the  divorce 
than  the  modern  nations,  which  sanction 
many  thousands  of  divorces  every  year, 
and  for  causes  which  are  often  frivolous 
and  contemptible.?  Where  is  the  con- 
tradiction between  the  teaching  and  the 
practice  of  the  Church.?  When  she  re- 
proaches the  modern  governments  for 
establishing  legislation  favorable  to  the 
divorce,  is  this  simply  on  account  of  jeal- 
ousy, on  account  of  arrogance,  to  exercise 
alone  a  power  which  she  exclusively  arro- 
gated in  times  of  barbarity.?  Is  it  not,  on 
the  contrary,  because  the  Christian  mar- 
riage, sacred  and  sacramental,  can  derive 
its  essence  only  from  the  divine  author- 
ity of  her  founder.?  Rich  and  poor  in  this 
respect  are  equal  in  her  eyes ;  and  it  is  an 
atrocious  calumny  to  say  that  she  permits 
the  divorce  to  the  one  and  refuses  it  to  the 
other.  To  become  convinced  of  these  facts 
it  is  only  necessary  to  consult  a  collection 
of  decisions  of  the  Sacred  Congregation 
of  the  Council  of  Trent,  or  some  review  of 
the  sentences  promulgated  by  the  Roman 
Court,  for  example,  the  Acta  Sanctce  Sedis, 
in  course  of  publication. 

Modern  infidelity  may  deny  the  reality 
of  the  religious  and  sacramental  character 
of  the  Christian  marriage ;  it  may  declare 
marriage  secularized  and  laicized;  it  may 
destroy  the  belief  of  the  people  in  its 
supernatural  dignity :  but  these  things 
will  remain  as  they  are ;  the  marriage  re- 
mains indissoluble,  the  divorce  culpable, 
the  spiritual  authority  alone  competent  to 
decide  in  questions  of  the  conjugal  tie.        , 

The  few  failings  which  were  noted,  from 
1803  to  1805,  in  some  French  officialties, 
especially  in  that  of  Paris,  on  the  subject 
of  the  divorce  of  Napoleon  I.,  have  abso- 
lutely nothing  to  do  with  the  matter. 
Rome  never  had  anything  to  do  with  the 
second  union  of  the  emperor,  and  Pope 
Leo  XIII.,  in  his  Encyclica  Arcanum  of 
Feb.  loth,  1880,  affirms  that  Pius  VII. 
most  courageously  resisted  Napoleon  who, 
exalted  by  his  successes  and  by  the  gran- 
deur of  his  empire,  was  deaf  to  the  com- 
mands of  the  Pontiff;  and  Pius  VII.  him- 


self, in  1813,  writing  to  Josephine, 
Napoleon's  first  wife,  says  to  her,  in  speak- 
ing of  the  emperor,  "  your  husband." 

Docets. —  Heretics  in  the  early  Church. 
They  denied  the  reality  of  the  human 
form  and  nature  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  con- 
sequently the  mystery  of  His  Incarnation. 
The  Docetae,  or  Phantasiasts,  as  they  were 
also  called,  granted  to  Christ  only  a  seem- 
ing body  and  maintained  that  His  suffer- 
ings and  death  were  only  apparent. 

Doctor.  —  The  word  doctor  signifies 
primarily  a  teacher,  especially  one  who  has 
received  public  license  to  teach  from  some 
university ;  thus  we  have  doctors  of  medi- 
cine, of  law,  and  of  theology.  Originally 
no  one  was  allowed  to  teach  publicly  until 
he  had  received  the  degree  of  doctor,  and 
even  now  it  is  obligatory  on  the  holders  of 
certain  positions  in  the  Church  to  qualify 
themselves  by  obtaining  the  degree  of 
Doctor  of  Theology  or  of  Canon  Law; 
but  for  the  most  part,  the  degree  no  longer 
has  any  special  privileges.  Some  eminent 
teachers  of  the  thirteenth  and  following 
centuries  received  complimentary  epithets 
which  have  remained  in  use,  and  become 
a  kind  of  proper  name,  although  the 
special  appropriateness  is  often  obscure. 
The  best  known  term  of  this  kind  is  the 
name  of  "Angelic  Doctor,"  applied  to  St. 
Thomas  Aquinas.  More  loosely,  the  name 
of  doctor  has  been  applied  to  all  teachers, 
without  reference  to  academical  qualifi- 
cation ;  but  in  a  special  sense  it  is  given  to 
certain  servants  of  God  who  have  joined 
eminent  learning  to  remarkable  sanctity, 
and  on  whose  feasts  the  Church  has 
sanctioned  the  use  of  a  special  Mass  and 
Office.  Four  such,  belonging  to  the  East- 
ern Church,  have  been  recognized, —  Sts. 
Athanasius,  Basil,  Gregory  of  Nazianzum, 
and  Chrysostom;  and  as  many  in  the 
West, —  Sts.  Ambrose,  Augustine,  Jerome, 
and  Gregory  the  Great.  It  is  possible 
that  the  selection  of  this  number  was 
primarily  the  work  of  Christian  artists, 
but  it  has  been  long  sanctioned  by  the 
Church.  The  first  increase  in  the  number 
occurred  in  the  sixteenth  century,  when 
the  title  was  formally  conferred  by  St. 
Pius  V.  upon  the  Dominican,  St.  Thomas 
Aquinas,  and  by  Sixtus  V.  upon  the  Fran- 
ciscan, St.  Bonaventure  —  each  Pope  pro- 
moting his  religious  order. 

Doctors  of  the  Church,  we  call  those 
men  who  have  rendered  eminent  service 


Dogmas 


26^ 


Dogmas 


to  ecclesiastical  science.  These  are  :  Sts. 
Athanasius,  Basil,  Gregory  of  Nazianzum, 
Chrysostom,  Ambrose,  Augustine,  Jerome, 
Gregory  the  Great,  Leo  the  Great,  Thomas 
Aquinas,  Bonaventure,  Bernard,  Francis 
of  Sales  and  Alphonse  de  Liguori. 

Dogmas  and  Matters  of  Opinion.  —  A 

dogma  is  a  point  of  doctrine,  a  proposition 
regarded  as  incontestable,  especially  in 
religion  and  philosophy.  Every  truth  re- 
vealed by  God,  or  Christ,  or  the  Holy 
Ghost  is,  by  that  very  fact,  a  divine  or 
Christian  dogma ;  when  authoritatively 
proposed  by  the  Apostles,  it  became  an 
Apostolic  Dogma;  when  fully  promulgated 
by  the  Church,  an  Ecclesiastical  Dogma. 
In  the  language  of  the  Church,  a  dogma 
pure  and  simple  is  at  the  same  time  eccle- 
siastical, apostolic,  and  divine.  But  a 
merely  Divine  Dogma  —  that  is,  one  re- 
vealed by  God  but  not  yet  explicitly  pro- 
posed by  the  Church  —  is  called  a  Material 
(as  opposed  to  a  Formal)  Dogma. 

Dogmas  may  be  classified  according  to 
their  various  subject-matters;  their  pro- 
mulgation, and  the  difTerent  kinds  of  moral 
obligation  to  know  them. 

Dogmas  may  be  divided  in  the  same  way 
as  the  contents  of  Revelation  (which  see) 
except  that  matters  revealed  per  accidens 
are  not  properly  dogmas.  It  is,  however, 
a  dogma  that  Holy  Scripture,  in  the  genu- 
ine text,  contains  undoubted  truth 
throughout.  And  consequently  the  denial 
of  matters  revealed  per  accidens  is  a  sin 
against  faith,  because  it  implies  the  asser- 
tion that  Holy  Scripture  contains  error. 
This  principle  accounts  for  the  opposition 
to  Galileo.  The  motions  of  the  sun  and 
the  earth  are  not  indeed  matters  of  dogma, 
but  the  great  astronomer's  teaching  was 
accompanied  by  —  or  at  any  rate  involved 
—  the  assertion  that  Scripture  was  false  in 
certain  texts. 

With  regard  to  their  promulgation  by 
the  Church,  dogmas  are  divided  into  ma- 
terial and  formal.  Formal  dogmas  are 
subdivided  into  defined  and  undefined. 

With  regard  to  the  obligation  of  know- 
ing them,  dogmas  are  to  be  believed  either 
implicitly  or  explicitly.  Again  the  neces- 
sity of  knowing  them  is  of  two  kinds-: 
Necessity  of  means  and  necessity  of  pre- 
cept; that  is,  the  belief  in  some  dogmas  is 
a  necessary  condition  of  salvation,  apart 
from  any  positive  command  of  the  Church, 
while  the  obligation  to  believe  in  others 
arises  from  her  positive  command.     The 


former  may  be  called  fundamental,  because 
they  are  most  essential.  We  do  not,  how- 
ever, admit  the  latitudinarian  distinction 
between  fundamental  articles,  that  is, 
which  must  be  believed,  and  nonfunda- 
mental  articles  which  need  not  be  believed. 
All  Catholics  are  bound  to  accept,  at  least 
implicitly,  every  dogma  proposed  by  the 
Church. 

The  criteria,  or  means  of  knowing 
Catholic  truth,  may  be  easily  gathered 
from  the  principles  already  stated.  They 
are  nearly  all  set  forth  in  the  Brief,  "  Tuas 
Libenter,^'  addressed  by  Pius  IX.  to  the 
Archbishop  of  Munich. 

The  following  are  the  criteria  of  a  dogma 
of  faith :  Creeds  or  symbols  of  faith  gen- 
erally received  ;  dogmatic  definitions  of  the 
Popes  or  of  ecumenical  councils,  and  of 
particular  councils  solemnly  ratified;  the 
undoubtedly  clear  and  indisputable  sense 
of  Holy  Scripture  in  matters  relating  to 
faith  and  morals;  the  universal  and  con- 
stant teaching  of  the  Apostolate,  especially 
the  public  and  permanent  tradition  of  the 
Roman  Church ;  universal  practice,  es- 
pecially in  liturgical  matters,  where  it 
clearly  supposes  and  professes  a  truth  as 
undoubtedly  revealed ;  the  teaching  of  the 
Fathers  when  manifest  and  universal ;  the 
teaching  of  theologians  when  manifest  and 
universal. 

Between  the  doctrines  expressly  defined 
by  the  Church  and  those  expressly  con- 
demned stand  what  may  be  called  matters 
of  opinion  or  free  opinions.  Freedom, 
however,  like  certainty,  is  of  various  de- 
grees, especially  in  religious  and  moral 
matters.  Where  there  is  no  distinct  defi- 
nition there  may  be  reasons  sufficient  to 
give  us  moral  certainty.  To  resist  these 
is  not,  indeed,  formal  disobedience,  but 
only  rashness.  Where  there  are  no  such 
reasons  this  censure  is  not  incurred.  It  is 
not  possible  to  determine  exactly  the 
boundaries  of  these  two  groups  of  free 
opinions ;  they  shade  off  into  each  other, 
and  range  from  absolute  freedom  to  a 
morally  certain  obligation  to  believe.  In 
this  sphere  of  the  approximative  theology, 
as  it  may  be  styled,  there  are:  (i)  Doc- 
trines which  it  is  morally  certain  that  the 
Church  acknowledges  as  revealed ;  (2) 
theological  doctrines  which  it  is  morally 
certain  that  the  Church  considers  as  be- 
longing to  the  integrity  of  the  faith,  or  as 
logically  connected  with  revealed  truth, 
and  consequently  the  denial  of  which  is 
approximate     to    theological     error;     (3) 


DOLCINO 


264 


Dominical  Letter 


doctrines  neither  revealed  nor  logically 
deducible  from  revealed  truths,  but  use- 
ful, or  even  necessary,  for  safeguarding  rev- 
elation. To  deny  these  would  be  rash. 
See  Theology. 

Dolcino  (Fra).     See  Apostolians. 

Dollinger  (JoHANN  Joseph  Ignaz  von). 
— A  German  theologian  ;  born  at  Bamberg, 
Bavaria,  Feb.  28,  1799;  died  at  Munich, 
Jan.  10,  1890.  He  was  the  son  of  Ignaz 
Dollinger,  the  celebrated  atonomist  and 
physiologist.  He  was  ordained  priest, 
and  for  a  time  was  engaged  in  parochial 
duties,  and  in  1826  became  professor  of 
Church  history  and  canon  law  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Munich.  In  1845  he  entered  the 
Bavarian  Parliament,  representing  the  Uni- 
versity of  Munich,  and  four  years  later 
voted  in  the  Frankfort  Diet  for  the  sepa- 
ration of  Church  and  State.  In  1S61  he 
advocated  the  abandonment  by  the  papacy 
of  its  temporal  power,  and  in  1870  opposed 
the  action  of  Vatican  Council  in  decreeing 
the  infallibility  of  the  Pope.  April  17, 
187 1,  he  was  excommunicated  by  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Munich.  After  this  he  became 
the  leader  of  the  "Old  Catholic"  move- 
ment and  presided  over  its  congress.  He 
published  Kirche  und  Kirchen,  Papst- 
thum  und  Kirchenstaat  (1861),  Papstfabeln 
des  Mittelalters  (1863),  etc. 

Dominic  (St.)  and  Dominicans.  —  St. 
Dominic  (1170-1221),  born  at  Calahorra, 
in  old  Castile,  was  distinguished  in  his 
early  youth  by  piety  and  love  of  study. 
Having  been  ordained  a  priest,  he  went, 
in  company  with  his  bishop,  to  the  south 
of  France,  where  he  witnessed  the  atroci- 
ties committed  by  the  Albigenses.  The 
sight  of  so  many  ruined  souls  moved  him 
to  devote  his  life  to  their  conversion.  It 
was  then  that  our  saint  propagated  the 
use  of  the  holy  Rosary,  which  was  re- 
vealed to  him  in  a  vision  by  the  Blessed 
Virgin.  After  spending  ten  years  in  this 
toilsome  mission,  St.  Dominic,  in  1215, 
founded  a  new  order,  the  chief  object  of 
which  was  to  furnish  to  the  Church  zealous 
preachers  and  missionaries  for  the  in- 
struction of  the  Faithful,  and  the  con- 
version of  the  heretics.  He  selected  the 
Rule  of  St.  Augustine  for  the  use  of  his 
order,  adding  certain  statutes,  which  were 
borrowed  chiefly  from  those  of  the  Pre- 
monstratensians.  The  habit  which  he  gave 
to  his  religious  consisted  of  a  white  tunic 
and   scapular,  with  a  long  black  mantle, 


from  which  latter  robe  was  derived  their 
name,  "Black  Friars."  Pope  Honorius 
III.,  in  1216,  approved  the  new  society 
under  the  title  of  "Preaching  Friars" 
{Fratres  PrcBdicatores).  The  same  Pon- 
tiff appointed  Dominic  "  Master  of  the 
sacred  Palace,"  which  office  is  to  this  day 
held  by  a  member  of  the  order.  Also  St. 
Dominic  founded  an  order  for  women  to 
whom  he  gave  the  rule  of  the  Friars,  and 
a  Tertiary  Order  for  people  living  in  the 
world.  The  order  of  St.  Dominic  has 
contributed  to  the  Church,  besides  count- 
less saints,  three  Popes,  sixty  cardinals, 
about  a  hundred  and  fifty  archbishops,  and 
upwards  of  eight  hundred  bishops.  F. 
Aug.  4th. 

The  first  foundation  of  the  Dominican 
Order  in  the  United  States  was  made  in 
1807  at  Springfield,  Ky.,  by  Father  Fen- 
wick,  afterwards  Bishop  of  Cincinnati. 
The  Dominican  Friars,  in  the  United 
States,  have  houses  in  the  States  of  Ohio, 
Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Illinois,  California, 
District  of  Columbia,  Maryland,  Maine, 
New  Jersey,  New  York,  etc. 

Dominica  in  Albis  {the  Sunday  of  -white 
garments). — The  first  Sunday  after  Easter, 
so  called  because  in  the  early  Church 
those  who  had  been  baptized  on  Holy 
Saturday  appeared  for  the  last  time  on 
that  day  in  their  white  baptismal  robes. 

Dominical  or  Linteum  Dominicale. — The 

dominical  was  a  linen  cloth  on  which 
women  formerly  received  the  Blessed 
Eucharist,  while  the  men  received  it  in  the 
bare  hand.  In  the  course  of  time  the 
"  Communion  Cloth  "  was  substituted  for 
the  dominical. 

Dominical  or  Sunday  Letter.  —  One  of 
the  seven  letters.  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  G, 
used  in  calendars  to  mark  the  Sundays 
throughout  the  year.  The  first  seven  days 
of  the  year  being  marked  by  the  above 
letters  in  their  order,  the  following  seven, 
and  all  consecutive  sets  of  seven  days,  to 
the  end  of  the  year,  are  similarly  marked, 
except  that  in  leap  years  the  24th  and  25th 
of  February  receive  the  same  letter;  so 
that  on  whatever  day  the  first  Sunday  of 
the  year  falls,  the  letter  which  marks  it 
will  mark  all  the  other  Sundays  of  the  year, 
except  in  case  of  leap  year,  when,  after 
February  24th,  the  dominical  letter  for  the 
remainder  of  the  year  changes  to  the  one 
preceding.  (Many  modern  writers  make 
the  change  of  letter  to  occur  after  the  end 


DOMINUS  VOBISCUM 


265 


DOXOLOGY 


of  February,  the  29th  taking  no  letter.) 
After  twenty-eight  years  the  same  letters 
return  in  their  order.  The  use  of  the 
dominical  letter  is  primarily  to  aid  in  de- 
termining the  date  of  Easter;  but  it  may 
be  used,  by  calculation,  for  finding  the 
day  of  the  week  on  which  a  given  date 
falls  in  any  year,  past  or  future. 

Dominus  Vobiscum.  —  These  Latin 
words,  signifying  the  Lord  be  -with  you,  are 
found  in  several  passages  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment and  are  the  common  salutation  in  the 
Mass  and  office.  Booz  said  to  the  reapers  : 
"The  Lord  be  with  you."  And  they  an- 
swered him:  "The  Lord  bless  thee" 
(Ruth  ii  4).  Such,  too, was  the  salutation 
of  the  angel  Gabriel  to  the  Blessed  Virgin 
Mary  (Luke  i.  28).  The  response:  "And 
with  thy  spirit,"  is  furnished  by  the  words 
of  St.  Paul  to  Timothy  (IL  Tim.  iv.  22). 
In  olden  times  when  travelers  met,  they 
greeted  thus  one  another  in  passing,  a  cus- 
tom still  kept  up  in  some  parts  of  Ger- 
many and  Spain 

Donation  {Pretended)  of  Constantine. — 

A  document,  under  the  Pontificate  of  Syl- 
vester (314-335),  which  purports  to  be  the 
instrument  of  the  donation,  granted  to  the 
Bishop  of  Rome,  besides  certain  marks  and 
insignia  of  honor,  such  as  the  tiara,  the 
lorum,  and  imperial  robes,  also  the  tem- 
poral sovereignty  over  Rome  and  the 
provinces,  towns,  and  castles  of  all  Italy. 
The  document  probably  originated  in 
France,  in  the  ninth  century,  and  was  pos- 
sibly intended  for  the  Greeks,  by  whom 
the  coronation  of  Charlemagne  as  emperor 
was  ill  received.  The  assertion  that  it  was 
fabricated  in  the  interest  of  the  Papacy  is 
without  foundation.  Up  to  the  twelfth 
century,  the  document  was  never  found  to 
have  been  made  use  of  in  Rome,  or  re- 
ferred to  by  the  Popes,  although  its  au- 
thenticity was  then  universally  admitted. 
While  the  document  is  proved  to  be  a 
forgery,  yet,  it  is  certain  that  Constantine 
bestowed  large  possessions  on  the  bishops 
of  Rome.  The  Roman  See  has  never 
looked  upon  the  apocryphal  document  as 
its  strongest  bulwark ;  the  Popes  place 
upon  entirely  diflferent  grounds  the  foun- 
dation of  the  papal  prerogatives  and  the 
powers  exercised  by  the  Apostolic  See. 

Donatists. —  Schismatics  who  spread  the 
error  of  the  Novatians  on  the  invalidity  of 
baptism  administered  by  heretics,  taught 
the  invalidity  of  the  sacraments  conferred 


by  unworthy  priests,  and  maintained  that 
the  Church  must  reject  the  sinners  from 
her  communion.  This  schism,  commenced 
in  311,  and,  combated  by  St.  Augustine, 
disappeared  in  the  first  half  of  the  fifth 
century. 

Donus  or  Domnus  L  (St.). —  Pope  from 
676  until  678.  Born  at  Rome ;  obtained  the 
revocation  of  the  edict  which  declared  the 
Archbishop  of  Ravenna  independent  of 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  Holy  See. —  Donus 
or  Domnus  II.  Pope,  some  claim,  from 
974  to  975.  But  it  is  proved  to-day  that 
there  never  was  a  Pope  Donus  II. 

Dor  {The  Actual  Tentura).  —  Ancient 
city  and  harbor  of  Phenicia  on  the  Medi- 
terranean, about  nine  miles  from  Caesarea 
(Jos.  xii.  23),  belonging  to  the  Persians, 
Egyptians,  Syrians,  and  Romans.  A  bishop 
of  Dor  assisted  at  the  Council  of  Constan- 
tinople in  553. 

Dositheus. —  Head  of  a  Samaritan  sect 
spoken  of  by  Origen,  St.  Epiphanius,  St. 
Jerome,  and  other  Fathers  of  the  Church. 
His  followers  pushed  the  precept  of  keep- 
ing holy  the  Sabbath  so  far,  as  to  remain 
in  the  place  and  posture  in  which  this  day 
surprised  them.  They  also  disapproved 
of  second  marriages. 

Douay  Bible.     See  Bible. 

Dove.  —  In  Christian  art,  the  dove  is  em- 
ployed as  an  emblem  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
no  doubt  from  the  fact  of  this  being  the 
form  in  which  the  Spirit  descended  on  our 
Lord  at  His  baptism.  The  dove  being  used 
to  symbolize  purity,  it  is  generally  repre- 
sented as  white,  with  its  beak  and  claws 
red,  as  they  occur  in  nature.  In  the  older 
pictures  a  golden  nimbus  surrounds  the 
head,  the  nimbus  being  frequently  divided 
by  a  cross,  either  red  or  black.  In  stained- 
glass  windows  we  see  the  dove  with  seven 
stars,  significative  of  the  seven  gifts  of  the 
Holy  Spirit.  Holding  an  olive  branch,  the 
dove  is  an  emblem  of  peace.  When  seen 
issuing  from  the  lips  of  dying  saints  and 
martyrs,  it  represents  the  human  soul. 

Doxology.  — A  Greek  word  which  signi- 
fies an  exclamation  or  prayer,  in  honor  of 
the  majesty  of  God,  such  as  St.  Paul  vises 
at  the  close  of  his  Epistles,  and  sometimes 
even  in  the  middle  of  an  argument  (Rom. 
ix.  5).  The  "  Gloria  in  exrelsis"  is  called 
the  great  Doxology,  and  the  "  Glory  be  to 
the  Father,  and  to  the  Son,  and  to  the  Holy 
Ghost,"  the  small  Doxology.    See  Gloria 

IN  EXCELSIS. 


Dream 


266 


DUNKERS 


Dream.  —  Revery,  idea,  imagination  of 
a  sleeping  person.  The  dream  distin- 
guishes itself  from  reveries,  which  leave 
nothing  behind  and  appear  to  be  a  sort  of 
whimsical  imagination  of  the  mind  during 
the  numbness  of  the  senses.  The  dream, 
because  it  presents  a  whole,  a  co-ordained 
ensemble,  approaches  more  the  real.  It  is 
also  often  believed  that  the  dream  contains 
a  truth  and  that  it  presents  a  prophetic 
meaning.  We  see  in  Holy  Scripture,  that 
on  account  of  these  circumstances  which 
strike  our  mind,  God  did  not  disdain,  in 
certain  cases,  to  make  use  of  the  dream  to 
make  His  will  known  to  us.  Jacob  beheld 
in  a  dream  the  mysterious  ladder  rising 
unto  heaven ;  in  a  dream  God  appeared  to 
Moses  and  the  prophets ;  the  dream  of  the 
Pharao  explained  by  Joseph,  and  that  of 
Nabuchodonosor  explained  by  Daniel  are 
well  known.  However,  if  the  dreams  do 
not  contain  a  divine  element  or  a  concealed 
truth,  we  are  not  permitted  to  attach  any 
supernatural  meaning  to  dreams. 

Druids. —  Ministers  of  religion  among 
the  Gauls.  They  were  divided  into  three 
classes :  the  Priests,  called  Ovates,  studied 
the  phenomena  of  nature,  healed  the  sick, 
foresaw  the  future,  and  inquired  about  the 
divine  will  by  the  flight  of  birds,  the  en- 
trails and  blood  of  victims;  the  Bardes, 
heroic  and  religious  poets,  depositaries  of 
the  national  traditions,  celebrated  the 
memory  of  the  brave  fallen  in  battle,  and 
distributed  praise  and  blame ;  above  these 
two  corporations  were  the  Druids  prop- 
erly speaking,  the  most  elevated  in  genius. 

Druses. — The  name  of  a  people  of  Syria, 
who  dwelt  on  Libanon.  It  is  claimed  that 
they  descended  from  the  French,  who  fol- 
lowed Godfrey  of  Bouillion  to  the  conquest 
of  the  Holy  Land  in  1099. 

Drusilla. — Third  daughter  of  Herod 
Agrippa  (Acts  xii.)  and  a  woman  of  great 
personal  beauty,  who  married  the  king  of 
Emesa,  but  forsook  him  and  married  Felix, 
procurator  of  Judea,  and  was  present  at 
the  hearing  he  gave  to  St.  Paul  at  Caesarea 
(Acts  xxiv.  24).  According  to  Josephus, 
she  perished  in  the  eruption  of  Vesuvius, 
in  79  A.  D. 

Du  Bois  (John)  (1764-1842). — Ameri- 
can prelate;  born  in  Paris,  died  in  New 
York.  Was  ordained  priest  in  1787,  and 
received  his  appointment  of  assistant  at  the 
great  Church  of  St.  Sulpice,  Paris.  The 
Revolution  brought  him  to  America,  and 


he  arrived  at  Norfolk,  Virginia,  in  1791. 
At  Mount  St.  Mary's,  Maryland,  he  opened 
a  school,  which  soon  developed  into  Mount 
St.  Mar3''s  College,  of  which  he  was  long 
president.  His  college  was  also  a  theo- 
logical seminary,  where  some  of  the  great- 
est bishops  and  priests  of  the  country  were 
educated.  He  was  appointed  Bishop  of 
New  York  in  1826,  where  he  found  but  few 
churches  and  priests. 

Duel  (single  combat).  —  Dueling  is 
strictly  forbidden  by  the  Church  ;  any  one 
concerned  in  dueling  becomes  guilty  of  a 
grievous  sin,  and  those  playing  the  princi- 
pal part  become  guilty  of  a  double  crime, 
by  willingly  exposing  themselves  to  death, 
and  by  attempting  to  take  the  Hfe  of  an- 
other. The  duel  is  only  considered  per- 
missible as  preventing  greater  disaster,  or 
as  conducive  to  public  welfare,  as  was  the 
case  when  David  fought  Goliath  (I.  Ki. 
xvii.  50).  The  Church  has  forbidden  duel- 
ing (also  when  the  contest  is  not  for  life 
or  death),  and  punishes  with  excommuni- 
cation, not  only  the  parties  themselves,  but 
also  all  accomplices,  counselors,  assistants, 
witnesses,  and  spectators,  who  by  their 
presence  approve  and  sanction  it  He  who 
perishes  in  a  duel  is  likewise  deprived  of 
Christian  burial. 

Dulia.     See  Worship. 

Dungal. —  Eminent  Irish  scholar,  lived 
in  the  beginning  of  the  ninth  centur}'.  He 
was  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his 
time,  was  an  excellent  theologian,  poet, 
and  scholar.  When  Claudius,  Bishop  of 
Turin,  openly  attacked  the  use  of  hoh-  im- 
ages, Dungal  came  forward  as  a  learned 
apologist  in  their  behalf,  in  a  work  entitled 
Responsa  contra  Perversas  Claudii  Sen- 
tentias,  A.  D.  827.  His  reply  to  Charle- 
magne on  the  two  solar  eclipses  which 
happened  in  the  year  810,  proves  the  writer 
to  have  been  well  acquainted  with  all  that 
the  ancients  had  taught  upon  the  subject. 
He  was  appointed  chief  teacher  in  the 
great  school  at  Pavia  by  Lothaire  II. 

Dunkers.  —  Members  of  a  sect  of  Ger- 
man-American Baptists,  so  named  from 
their  manner  of  baptism.  Their  proper 
name  is  "Brethren."  Driven  from  Ger- 
many by  persecution  early  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  they  took  refuge  in  Pennsylvania, 
and  thence  extended  their  societies  into 
neighboring  states,  and  are  especially  found 
in  Ohio.  They  condemn  all  war  and  liti- 
gation, acknowledge  the  authority  of  the 


Duns  Scotus 


267 


Easter 


Bible,  administer  baptism  by  triple  immer- 
sion, and  only  to  adults,  practice  washing 
of  feet  before  the  Lord's  Supper,  use  the 
kiss  of  peace,  laying  on  of  hands  and 
anointing  with  oil,  and  observe  a  severe 
simplicity  in  dress  and  speech.  They  have 
bishops,  elders,  and  teachers,  and  are  com- 
monly supposed  to  accept  the  doctrine  of 
universal  redemption. 

Duns  Scotus  (John)  (i  274-1308). — 
Scotch  philosopher,  the  great  light  of  the 
Franciscans.  He  was  the  glorious  de- 
fender of  the  Immaculate  Conception  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin,  a  doctrine  of  which 
his  Order  was  ever  the  champion.  Al- 
though dying  before  his  fortieth  year,  his 
works  comprise  twelve  folio  volumes.  For 
his  polemical  acuteness,  he  was  called  the 
"  Subtle  Doctor  "  {Doctor  subtilis).  The 
"  Scotists  "  regarded  him  as  their  leader 
in  the  disputations  with  the  '*  Thomists." 

Dunstan  (St.)  (Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury).—  Born  in  924,  in  the  county  of 
Somerset,  near  the  monastery  of  Glaston- 
bury, where  he  was  educated.  He  built 
a  monastery  of  which  he  became  the  first 
abbot  and  founded  five  others  in  various 
places.  Sent  into  exile  by  King  Edwy, 
he  was  recalled  by  his  successor  Edgar, 


who  named  him  Bishop  of  Worcester,  and 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  961.  F.  May 
19th. 

Dupanloup  (Felix  Antoine  Phili- 
bert). —  Born  at  St.  Felix,  near  Cham- 
b^ry,  France,  Jan.  3d,  1802;  died  Oct. 
nth,  1878.  A  French  prelate.  He  was 
made  Bishop  of  Orleans  in  1849;  was 
elected  deputy  to  the  National  Assembly 
in  1871 ;  and  became  a  life  senator  in  1875. 
He  was  opposed  to  the  dogma  of  the  papal 
Infallibility,  but  finally  accepted  it. 

Durandus  of  Saint-Pourgain. —  French 
philosopher,  born  at  Saint-Pour5ain  (Puy- 
de-D6me),  died  in  1326.  He  entered  at  the 
Dominicans,  and,  after  the  year  1313,  he 
lectured  in  Paris,  where  he  was  called  the 
"Resolute  Doctor"  {Doctor  resolutissi- 
mus),  and  subsequently  became  Bishop  of 
Meaux.  He  died  in  1333.  Durandus  ac- 
quired prominence  by  his  advocacy  of 
Nominalism.  According  to  him,  whatever 
has  not  determinate  notes  may  indeed  be 
an  object  of  thought,  but  cannot  be  said  to 
enjoy  true  being.  In  his  principal  work 
on  the  Sentences  of  the  Lombard,  he 
assails  the  extreme  advocacy  of  the  princi- 
ples of  Aristotle,  then  so  universally  ac- 
cepted. 


Eadmer  or  Edmur. —  Benedictine  monk 
and  English  writer  of  the  twelfth  century. 
Disciple,  friend,  then  director,  by  order 
of  Pope  Urban  II.,  of  St.  Anselm,  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury.  Having  been  named 
Bishop  of  St.  Andrew  in  Scotland,  he  soon 
renounced  this  dignity. 

Easter  (Hebr.  paschia,  passage). —  Sol- 
emn feast  celebrated  every  year  by  the  Jews 
in  memory  of  their  going  out  of  Egypt ; 
it  was  the  first  of  the  five  feasts  of  the 
Hebrews,  and  lasted  seven  days,  beginning 
with  the  14th  of  the  month  of  Nisan. 
This  feast  was  called  Pasck,  because,  on 
the  night  which  preceded  the  departure  of 
the  Hebrews  from  Egypt,  the  extermi- 
nating angel  put  to  death  the  first  born  of 
the  Egyptians,  but  passed  and  spared  the 
houses  of  the  Israelites,  which  were  marked 
with  the  blood  of  the  lamb  immolated  the 
evening  before,  and  for  this  reason  called 


Paschal  Lamb.  The  manner  in  which 
this  feast  should  be  celebrated  can  be  seen 
in  Exodus  (xii).  As  to  the  Christian 
Pasch,  it  was  instituted  by  our  Saviour 
Jesus  Christ,  when,  at  the  Last  Supper  He 
held  with  His  disciples.  He  gave  to  them, 
under  the  form  of  bread  and  wine.  His 
Body  to  eat  and  His  Blood  to  drink.  This 
feast  which  ought  to  be  celebrated  in  ail 
sincerity,  innocence,  and  truth  (prefigured 
by  the  Jewish  feast  of  the  unleavened 
bread)  has  been  kept  every  year  with  great 
solemnity.  In  the  first  centuries  of  the 
Church,  there  was  great  diversity  of  opin- 
ions and  practices  in  the  celebration  of 
Easter;  but  the  Council  of  Nice,  held  in 
325,  decided  that  Easter  should  be  cele- 
brated on  the  Sunday  following  the  four- 
teenth day  of  the  moon  of  March.  Those 
who  opposed  this  decree  were  looked  upon 
as  heretics  and  called  ^uartodechnans, 
that  is,  followers  of  the  fourteenth  day. 


Easter 


268 


Easter 


Easter  (Computation  of). —  The  Paschal 
feast  was  fixed,  among  the  Jews,  by  a 
lunar  calendar  of  which  the  twelve  months 
did  not  quite  reach  the  duration  of  a  solar 
year ;  the  intercalcation  of  a  complemental 
month  was  to  be  made  from  time  to  time, 
rather  according  to  the  state  of  the  season 
at  the  end  of  the  twelfth  month  than  ac- 
cording to  well  established  astronomical 
rules.  Easter  fell  in  the  full  moon,  called 
the  14th  of  Nisan.  But  when  did  the  first 
month  or  month  of  Nisan  commence?  At 
the  end  of  the  twelfth  month,  or  at  the  end 
of  the  thirteenth  supplementary  month? 
The  Jews  were  in  agreement  in  regulating 
this  question ;  and,  at  the  beginning,  the 
Christians  accepted  their  calculations. 
There  were,  however,  many  debates  in  re- 
gard to  this  subject,  in  the  Church;  first, 
because  the  Christians  were  divided  about 
the  question  to-wit,  until  what  point  the 
new  Easter  should  coincide,  as  rite  and 
date,  with  the  old  one ;  then  because  they 
were  not  agreed  about  the  manner  to  fix 
the  month  and  the  week  when  the  feast 
should  be  celebrated.  Of  these  conflicts, 
the  following  are  the  most  famous:  i. 
The  agitation  which  arose  in  the  province 
of  Asia,  shortly  after  the  middle  of  the 
second  century,  in  regard  to  the  subject 
of  maintaining  or  abandoning  the  rite  of 
the  Paschal  Lamb.  2.  The  conflict  be- 
tween the  entire  group  of  the  Churches  of 
Asia  and  those  of  the  other  parts  of  the 
Empire,  as  to  the  day  of  the  week  they 
should  end  the  Paschal  fast.  The  Asiatics 
ended  it  on  the  14th  of  Nisan,  the  others 
on  the  Sunday  after  the  14th  of  Nisan. 
This  divergence  maintained  itself  until 
about  the  end  of  the  second  century,  then 
it  degenerated  into  a  public  quarrel,  which 
ended  in  a  defeat  of  the  ancient  Asiatic 
custom.  The  Asiatic  Churches  adopted 
the  common  custom,  the  dominical  cus- 
tom ;  the  adherents  of  local  custom,  the 
^uartodeci'mans,  organized  themselves 
into  a  separate  sect,  which  continued  to 
exist  until  the  fifth  century.  3.  The  con- 
flict between  the  computations  of  Antioch 
and  of  Alexandria,  was  solved  by  the 
Council  of  Nice  in  325.  At  Antioch  they 
celebrated  the  resurrection  of  Christ  on 
the  Sunday  which  followed  the  Jewish 
Pasch,  without  troubling  themselves 
whether  the  Jews  had  correctly  fixed  the 
Pasch  and  the  first  month.  At  Alexandria, 
on  the  contrary,  they  reckoned  the  Paschal 
feast  in  a  more  direct  manner  and  managed 
that  it  always  fell  after  the  equinox  of 


spring  time.  The  Alexandrians  having 
gained  their  cause  in  the  Council  of  Nice, 
the  ancient  custom  of  Antioch  was  no 
longer  upheld  except  by  small  sects  {Au- 
dians,  Protopaschites) ,  and  all  the  Eastern 
Churches  conformed  themselves  to  the  Pas- 
chal computations  proposed  by  the  Bishop 
of  Alexandria.  4.  The  continually  rising 
difficulties,  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  cen- 
turies, between  the  Alexandrian  compu- 
tation and  that  of  Rome.  These  difficul- 
ties had  their  origin  in  certain  diversities 
of  calculation  and  custom.  The  calcula- 
tion of  the  age  of  the  moon,  such  as  they 
practiced  it  at  Rome,  was  founded  upon 
imperfect  cycles ;  it  was  often  at  variance 
with  that  of  Alexandria,  founded  upon  the 
cycle  of  nineteen  years.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  Romans  did  not  admit  that  the 
Sunday  of  Easter  could  fall,  in  the  lunar 
month,  before  the  i6th  of  this  month, 
whilst  at  Alexandria  they  could  celebrate 
Easter  since  the  15th.  Finally,  they  be- 
lieved, at  Rome,  to  possess  a  tradition 
according  to  which  Easter  could  not  be 
celebrated  after  the  21st  of  April.  This 
limit  was  unknown  at  Alexandria,  where 
they  could  celebrate  Easter  till  the  25th  of 
April.  The  conflicts  raised  as  to  these 
differences  were  mostly  regulated  in  a 
friendly  manner  between  the  Pope  and  the 
Greek  Church.  They  ended  by  disap- 
pearing when  Rome  adopted  the  Alex- 
andrine computation  under  the  form  given 
by  Dionysius  the  Small  (525).  5.  The  di- 
vergence between  the  Paschal  tables  of 
Victorius  of  Aquitaine  and  Dionysius  the 
Small.  The  first,  drawn  up  at  Rome  in 
457,  was  hardly  ever  used  in  this  city;  but 
it  was  adopted  by  the  churches  of  Frankish 
Gaul,  which  upheld  it  until  the  Carolin- 
gian  epoch.  In  difficult  cases  they  found 
therein  two  solutions,  two  Paschal  dates, 
that  of  the  Alexandrians  and  that  which 
resulted  from  the  application  of  the  an- 
cient Roman  rules.  This  duality  caused 
many  uncertainties.  6.  The  quarrel  in 
regard  to  the  British  computation  in  the 
British  Isles.  The  British  Churches  and, 
consequently,  the  Irish  Churches,  had  pre- 
served an  old  Paschal  rule,  in  use  at  Rome 
about  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century, 
according  to  which  the  Sunday  of  Easter 
could  fall  from  the  14th  to  the  20th  of 
Nisan.  Rome  having  repeatedly  modi- 
fied her  computation  since  the  time  when 
the  Britains  had  borrowed  it  from  them, 
the  Roman  missionaries  of  the  seventh 
century  found  themselves  at  variance  with 


Easter  Communion 


269 


ECCLESTON 


the  native  Churches  as  to  the  manner  of 
reckoning  the  time  of  Easter.  This  differ- 
ence gave  rise  to  great  quarrels.  On  both 
sides  they  claimed  to  follow  apostolic 
traditions  and  the  Celtic  clergy  did  not 
refuse  to  make  use  of  apocryphal  books 
expressly  composed  to  uphold  their  na- 
tional custom. 

Easter  Communion. —  The  decisions  of 
the  Holy  See,  the  provincial  councils,  the 
rituals,  establish  or  suppose  the  obligation 
to  communicate  during  Easter  time,  in 
the  communicant's  own  parish,  that  is, 
parishes  canonically  erected.  There  are 
only  a  few  such  parishes  in  the  United 
States.  If  a  person  belongs  to  such  a  par- 
ish, he  cannot  fully  satisfy  the  precept  of 
the  Church,  by  communicating  in  a  parish 
in  which  the  recipient  is  a  stranger,  ex- 
cept he  has  the  consent  of  the  proper  pas- 
tor, or  of  the  bishop  or  of  the  sovereign 
Pontiff.  However,  although  a  parish  may 
not  be  canonically  erected,  it  is  desirable 
that  the  Easter  Communion  should  be 
received  in  the  church  of  the  parish  to 
which  we  belong.  The  time  appointed 
for  the  receiving  of  Easter  communion, 
according  to  the  general  law  of  the  Church, 
is  from  Palm  Sunday  to  the  first  Sunday 
after  Easter,  inclusive.  In  the  United 
States,  however,  the  time  appointed  for 
Paschal  communion,  is  the  time  between 
the  first  Sunday  of  Lent  and  Trinity  Sun- 
day 

Easter  Confession. —  All  the  Faithful 
who  have  attained  a  sufficient  maturity  to 
be  capable  of  committing  grievous  sin  are 
obliged  to  confess  their  sins  at  least  once  a 
year.  According  to  custom,  this  precept 
is  generally  complied  with  during  Easter 
time,  as  a  preparation  for  holy  com- 
munion, which  is  to  be  received  within  this 
space  of  time.  The  Fourth  Council  of  the 
Lateran  (1215)  decreed  as  follows:  "All 
the  Faithful  of  both  sexes  shall,  as  soon  as 
they  have  attained  the  years  of  discretion, 
sincerely  confess  all  their  sins  in  secret,  at 
least  once  a  year,  to  a  duly  authorized 
priest,  and  devoutly  receive  the  sacrament 
of  the  Eucharist,  at  least  during  Easter 
time.  Otherwise  they  shall  be  debarred 
from  entering  the  Church  during  life,  and 
from  Christian  burial  after  death."  See 
Confession. 

Ebionites.  —  Heretics  in  the  early 
Church.  The  teaching  of  the  Ebionites 
was   an  odd  mixture  of  Christianity  and 


Judaism.  They  accepted  only  the  "Gos- 
pel of  the  Hebrews,"  adhered  to  the  Mosaic 
law,  and  condemned  the  Apostle  St.  Paul 
as  an  apostate  from  the  Law.  They,  in- 
deed, acknowledged  Jesus  Christ  as  the 
Messias,  but  denied  His  divinity.  Con- 
cerning the  birth  of  Christ  they  were  di- 
vided. Some  admitted  His  supernatural 
birth  of  a  virgin;  others  held  that  Christ 
was  only  man  and  the  son  of  Joseph  and 
Mary. 

Ecce  Homo  {Behold  the  man)  — The 
Latin  rendering  in  the  Vulgate  of  the 
Greek  words  by  which  (John  xix.  5)  Pilate 
presented  Jesus  to  the  people,  and  which 
afterwards  became  the  technical  term  ap- 
plied to  pictures  of  Christ  as  the  suffering 
Saviour. 

Ecclesiarch.  —  In  the  Greek  Church,  a 
Church  officer  who  has  charge  of  the 
church  and  its  contents  and  summons  the 
Faithful  to  divine  service.  This  function- 
ary lights  the  candles,  and  sees  that  all  is 
done  according  to  order.  He  corresponds 
somewhat  to  our  sacristan. 

Ecclesiastes  (moral  book  of  the  Old 
Testament). — An  exhortation  of  Solomon 
addressed  to  the  whole  Church  (Eklesia), 
and  designed  to  demonstrate  that  in  this 
world  there  is  nothing  abiding,  true,  or 
great,  except  to  fear  God  and  obey  His 
commandments,  so  as  to  appear  well  before 
His  judgment  seat.  Hence  the  oft-repeated 
exclamation  :  "  Vanity  of  vanities  and  all 
is  vanity.  .  .  .  Fear  God  and  keep  His 
commandments,  for  this  is  all  man." 

Ecclesiasticus  (moral  book  of  the  Old 
Testament).  —  It  was  written  by  "  Jesus, 
the  son  of  Sirach,"  who  was  a  citizen 
of  Jerusalem,  in  the  third  century  b.  c, 
and  in  the  time  of  Simon,  the  high-priest. 
The  sacred  author  was  remarkable  for  his 
piety.  Wisdom  is  declared  to  consist  in 
the  fear  of  God,  and  in  order  to  assist  in  the 
cultivation  of  this  heavenly  virtue,  rules 
adapted  to  all  conditions  of  life  are  set 
forth  in  the  fullest  and  most  impressive 
manner. 

Eccleston  (Samuel)  (1801-1851). — 
American  prelate;  was  born  in  Kent 
County,  Maryland,  of  parents  belonging  to 
the  Episcopal  Church.  Was  ordained  priest 
in  1825.  President  of  St.  Mary's  College 
of  Baltimore;  and  in  1834,  coadjutor  of 
Archbishop  Whitfield  of  Baltimore,  by 
whom  he  was  consecrated  on  the  14th  of 


ECK 


270 


Education 


September.  In  little  more  than  a  month 
after  the  archbishop's  death,  Eccleston  suc- 
ceeded him  as  archbishop.  When  the  revo- 
lutionary storms  drove  Pope  Pius  IX.  from 
his  sacred  city,  Archbishop  Eccleston,  in 
Januar}^  1849,  invited  him  to  Baltimore  to 
preside  in  the  Seventh  Provincial  Council. 
It  was  the  privilege  of  Archbishop  Eccle- 
ston to  preside  in  no  less  than  five  pro- 
vincial councils  as  metropolitan  of  the 
Church  in  the  United  States. 

Eck  (John)  (1486-1543). —  German  theo- 
logian and  controversialist,  born  at  Eck, 
Suabia,  professor  and  vice-chancellor  at 
the  University  of  Ingolstadt.  Indefati- 
gable adversary  of  Luther,  as  can  be  seen  by 
his  Sermons,  his  book  On  the  Primacy, 
Letters,  etc. 

Eclectics. — A  name  given  to  certain  an- 
cient philosophers  who  selected  from  dif- 
ferent systems  what  they  saw  fit  and 
combined  it  into  a  system  of  their  own. 
Their  example  was  followed  by  the  Neo- 
platonists  of  Alexandria,  whose  chief  ex- 
ponents were  Plotinus,  Porphyry,  and 
Proclus. 

Ecthesis. — The  name  given  to  a  letter 
issued  by  the  Emperor  Heraclius  in  638  to 
pacify  the  troubles  occasioned  by  the 
Eutychian  heresy;  but  as  it  did  not  meet 
with  general  favor  and  was  condemned  by 
Pope  John  IV.,  it  was  withdrawn  by  the 
Emperor  Constans  II. 

Ecumenical.     See  Councils. 

Eden  (Hebr.  a  garden).  —  The  primitive 
home  of  our  first  parents  (Gen.  ii.  8),  of 
uncertain  or  unknown  locality ;  probably  in 
the  highlands  of  Armenia,  or  in  the  val- 
ley of  the  Euphrates.     See  Paradise. 

Edessa. — A  very  ancient  city  of  Meso- 
potamia. Christianity  was  early  intro- 
duced into  it,  and  the  city  contained  a 
large  number  of  monasteries.  'It  was  the 
seat  of  Ephraem  Syrus  and  his  school. 
Here  the  famous  portrait  of  Christ  is  said 
to  have  been  painted  by  St.  Luke  and  sent 
by  the  Saviour  Himself,  with  a  letter,  to 
Abgar,  king  of  Edessa.  Was  preserved 
at  Edessa,  they  claim,  till  it  was  brought, 
in  944,  to  Constantinople,  and  thence  to 
Rome.  Neither  the  picture  nor  the  letter 
appears  to  have  any  historical  foundation. 

Edmund  (St.). — English  prelate;  born 
at  Abington,  England ;  died  in  1242.  Pro- 
fessor in  one  of  the  colleges  of  Paris,  and 


ordained  priest;  returned  into  England, 
preached  the  crusade  by  order  of  Pope 
Gregory  IX.,  and  was  raised  to  the  see  of 
Canterbury.  Edmund,  of  acknowledged 
piety  and  learning,  manifested  great  zeal 
in  remedying  the  many  evils  that  were 
brooding  over  the  Church  in  England. 
He  urged  King  Henry  III.  to  dismiss  his 
foreign  ministers,  especially  Peter  des 
Roches.  But  the  endeavors  of  the  saint 
for  reform  met  with  much  opposition. 
Finding  his  efforts  without  avail,  he  re- 
tired into  France,  where  he  died. 

Edom.     See  Esau. 

Edrai  (Hebr.  strong).  —  i.  One  of  the 
two  capitals  of  Basan,  and  afterwards  in 
the  limits  of  the  lot  of  Manasses  (Jos.  xiii. 
31).  Its  ruins  cover  a  large  space,  and 
are  now  called  Edhra.  2.  A  town  of 
Nephtali,  near  Cades  (Jos.  xix.  37). 

Education. —  Process  of  developing  the 
physical,  intellectual,  and  moral  faculties 
and  the  result  of  this  process.  Moral 
education,  the  most  important  of  all,  con- 
sists in  training  not  only  the  sensibility, 
the  heart  (as  we  commonly  express  it),  but 
also  the  will.  Its  object  is  to  elevate  the 
soul  by  imparting  to  it  the  consciousness 
of  its  dignity  and  beauty.  For  this  end, 
education  points  out  to  the  soul  its  re- 
semblance to  God,  which  has  become  the 
ideal  of  the  Christian  life.  Instruction 
comes  to  the  assistance  of  education.  By  in- 
struction, the  true,  the  good,  the  beautiful 
become  better  known  and  are  more  cher- 
ished ;  the  more  cherished,  the  more  sought, 
and  the  soul  elevates  itself  more  and 
more  toward  this  threefold  form  of  the 
ideal,  which  finds  its  ineffable  reali- 
zation in  God.  But  science  is  not  virtue. 
The  most  learned  man  is  not  always  the 
best  educated.  A  simple  knowledge  of 
correct  limit,  which  knows  how  to  discern 
between  good  and  evil,  may  be  joined  with 
an  energetic  will  never  to  violate  the  moral 
law.  The  mere  oral  teaching  of  the 
Catholic  catechism  has  endowed  daily 
laborers  with  a  strong  morality,  although 
very  illiterate  otherwise;  while,  on  the 
contrary,  the  encyclopedic  instruction, 
which  pervades  at  present  the  schools  of 
the  smallest  town,  void  of  all  moral  edu- 
cation, only  prepares  the  way  for  the 
return  to  barbarism.  The  Catholic  Church 
is,  according  to  a  famous  word,  the  "  School 
of  Respect,"  because  it  prolongs  the  edu- 
cation of  the  will  by  its  general  teaching, 


Edward  the  Confessor 


271 


Elevation 


which  emanates  each  week  from  the  pul- 
pit, and  by  the  intimate  and  constant  di- 
rection which  instructs  each  soul  in  the 
tribunal  of  Penance. 

Edward  the  Confessor  (1004-1066). — 
Anglo-Saxon  king.  To  promote  religion 
and  the  general  welfare  of  his  people  was 
the  principal  care  of  this  saintly  monarch. 
His  virtues  and  kingly  qualities  earned 
him  popular  respect,  and  long  did  the 
English  cherish  a  grateful  remembrance 
of  his  peaceful  and  happy  reign.  One  of 
the  last  acts  of  Edward  was  the  erection 
of  Westminster  Abbey.  The  surname  of 
"  Confessor"  he  obtained  from  Alexander 
III.,  by  whom  he  was  canonized  in  1161. 
F.  Oct.  13th. 

Edward  the  Martyr  (962-978). — King  of 
the  Anglo-Saxons.  Succeeded  in  975  to 
Edgar,  his  father,  and  was  assassinated  by 
order  of  Elfrida,  his  mother-in-law. 

Eglon  (Hebr.  calf). — A  king  of  Moab 
who  held  Israel  in  bondage  eighteen  years, 
having  Jericho  for  his  seat  of  government. 
He  was  slain  by  Aod,  and  his  people  west  of 
the  Jordan  were  destroyed  (Judg.  iii. 
12-30). 

Einsiedeln  or  Maria  Einsiedeln.  —  City 
of  Switzerland.  Ancient  Abbey  of  the 
Benedictines,  founded  in  946.  Here  is 
found  a  picture  of  the  Blessed  Virgin, 
which  attracts  every  year,  on  September 
14th,  an  immense  number  of  pilgrims. 

Ela  (Hebr.  terebinth).  —  i.  The  valley  in 
which  David  slew  Goliath,  now  Wady 
Sunt,  sixteen  miles  southwest  from  Jeru- 
salem. 2.  The  son  and  successor  of  Baasa, 
king  of  Israel,  926  b.  c,  who,  after  a  reign 
of  two  years,  was  assassinated  by  Zambri, 
one  of  his  officers  (III.  Ki.  xvi.  6-10). 

Elam  (Hebr.  highland). — A  region  which 
took  its  name  from  a  son  of  Sem,  and  corre- 
sponded to  the  Elymais  of  the  Greek  and 
Roman  writers.  It  was  a  powerful  mon- 
archy in  Abraham's  day,  and  long  re- 
tained its  own  princes,  but  finally  became 
a  province  of  Babylonia  and  afterwards  of 
Persia. 

Elath  or  Ailath.  — An  Edomite  seaport, 
the  modern  Akiba,  on  the  northern  end  of 
the  Gulf  of  Akiha;  an  important  place  un- 
der Solomon  (III.  Ki.  ix.  26-28) ;  taken  by 
the  Assyrians  (IV.  Ki.  xvi.  7-9). 

Eleazar.  —  Name  of  several  Old  Testa- 
ment personages  :     i.  Third  son  of  Aaron, 


and  his  successor  in  the  dignity  of  high- 
priest.  He  entered  the  Promised  Land 
with  Josue  and  was  buried  at  Gabaat. 
2.  Son  of  Aminadab.  Guard  of  the  sacred 
ark  when  the  latter  was  returned  by  the 
Philistines.  3.  Brother  of  Judas  the  Mach- 
abee  and  surnamed  Aharon,  Auran,  or 
Avran.  Was  crushed  in  a  battle  against 
Antiochus  Eupator  by  the  fall  of  an  ele- 
phant which  he  had  disemboweled  believ- 
ing it  to  be  mounted  by  the  king.  4.  Old 
man  of  Jerusalem.  Martyr  under  Anti- 
ochus Epiphanes.  5.  High-priest,  son  of 
Onias  I.  and  brother  of  Simon  the  Just. 
He  sent  to  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  the 
seventy-two  savants  who  made  the  version 
of  the  so-called  Septuagint.  6.  Son  of  the 
high-priest  Ananias.  Contributed  towards 
the  revolt  which  brought  on  the  ruin  of 
the  Temple  and  of  the  Jewish  nation. 

Eleutheropolis.  — An  ancient  city  of 
Palestine,  twenty  miles  east-northeast  of 
Gaza,  having  very  extensive  ruins  with 
massive  vaults.  It  is  identified  wrth  the 
village  of  Beit-Jibrin. 

Eleutherus  (St.).  — Pope  from  177  to  192. 
A  Greek  and  deacon  of  Pope  Anicetus. 
Under  his  Pontificate  the  sect  of  the  Mon- 
tanists  arose.     F.  Oct.  9th. 

Eleutherus  (St.).  —  One  of  the  compan- 
ions of  the  apostolate  of  St.  Dionysius  the 
Areopagite  and  of  his  martyrdom.  F.  Oct. 
9th. 

Eleutherus  (St.)  (454-531).  —  Bishop  of 
Tournai  and  martyr.  Born  at  Tournai ; 
disciple  of  St.  Medard  ;  was  elevated  to  the 
episcopal  see  of  his  native  city  (486), which 
he  regenerated  almost  entirely  by  the  bap- 
tism of  11,000  pagans  (Dec.  26th,  496). 
This  beautiful  day  was  consecrated  by  a 
solemn  feast, which  is  still  celebrated  every 
year.     F.  Feb.  20th. 

Elevation.  — That  part  of  the  Mass,  when 
the  priest  raises,  successively,  the  conse- 
crated host  and  chalice,  in  order  that  the 
Faithful  may  adore  the  body  and  blood  of 
our  Saviour.  The  elevation  and  adoration 
of  the  body  and  blood  of  Jesus  Christ  in 
the  holy  sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  are  to  be 
found  in  all  the  Oriental  liturgies,  whether 
Greek,  Syriac,  Egyptian,  or  Ethiopian,  and 
are  distinctly  pointed  out  in  the  liturgies 
of  St.  James,  St.  Chrysostom,  and  St. 
Basil.  Up  to  the  eleventh  century,  the 
elevation  did  not  take  place  until  toward 
the  end  of  the  Canon  of  the  Mass. 


Eliachim 


27^ 


Elizabeth 


Eliachim  or  Joachim.  —  King  of  Juda 
(608-598  B.  c).  Son  of  Jopias,  brother  and 
successor  of  Joachaz.  Placed  on  the 
throne  by  Nechao,  King  of  Egypt,  he 
gave  himself  up  to  impiety,  and  persecuted 
the  prophet  Jeremias.  Dethroned  by 
Nabuchodonosor,  he  was  led  away  a  pris- 
oner to  Babylon,  and  put  to  death  three 
months  aftertvards. 

Elias. — Prophet  of  great  celebrity  and 
holiness.  Born  at  Thesbe  about  900  b.  c. 
He  was  carried  to  heaven  in  a  fierj- chariot, 
without  having  tasted  death.  His  history, 
which  is  full  of  affecting  incidents  and 
verv  interesting,  is  contained  in  HI.  Ki. 
xvii.-xix.  and  IV.  Ki.  i.  2. 

Eligius  (St.). — Apostle  of  the  Frisians, 
inhabiting  the  northwestern  coast  of  Ger- 
many (parts  of  Holland  and  Hanover). 
To  their  conversion  and  to  the  permanent 
establishment  of  Christianity,  by  the 
foundation  of  churches  and  monasteries, 
he  devoted  himself  with  unremitting  en- 
ergy till  his  death,  in  568. 

Elim  (Hebr.  trees). — The  second  station 
of  Israel  after  crossing  the  Red  Sea.  It  had 
twelve  wells  and  seventy  palm  trees,  and 
has  been  identified  with  Wady  Charandel, 
forty  miles  southeast  of  Suez,  where  there 
are  fountains,  brooks,  and  palms. 

Elipandus. — Archbishop  of  Toledo, 
schismatic,  died  in  799,  He  declared 
Jesus  Christ  to  be  only  the  adoptive  son  of 
God,  whence  the  name  of  the  sect  Adop- 
tianismy  which  did  not  survive  its  founder. 

Eliseus.  —  A  celebrated  prophet,  the 
successor,  and  after  a  manner,  the  pupil  of 
Elias.  His  history,  which  is  full  of  in- 
terest, is  contained  in  I.  Ki.  ii.-ix.  and 
xiii.   14-21. 

Elishe  (Elis^us).  —  Elishe,  a  disciple 
of  St.  Mesrop,  was  at  one  time  secretary 
to  St.  Wardan,  the  commander  of  the 
Armenian  army.  Later  on  he  retired  into 
solitude,  first  to  South  Armenia,  then  to 
the  shores  of  Lake  Wan,  in  order  to  shun 
intercourse  with  men.  Here  he  ended  his 
days  in  480.  He  wrote  The  History  of 
Wardan  and  the  Armenian  War,  in  a 
patriotic  and  enthusiastic  strain;  also 
commentaries  on  Genesis,  on  the  books  of 
Josue  and  the  Judges ;  an  explanation  of 
the  Pater  Noster;  canons  on  the  treat- 
ment of  enerffumens,  also  Words  of  Ad- 
monition to  Hermits,  in  which  he  depicts 
the    sufferings    and    persecutions   of    the 


Church  and  ardently  exhorts  the  Armenian 
monks  to  a  virtuous  life.  The  authenticity 
of  the  homilies  ascribed  to  him  is  doubt- 
ful, in  view  of  the  great  difference  of 
style.  Elishe's  works  are  distinguished 
by  the  purity  and  elevation  of  his  language, 
and,  from  a  theological  point  of  view, 
afford  excellent  testimony  to  the  doctrines 
of  the  Trinity,  Incarnation,  duality  of 
natures  in  Christ,  the  divine  institution  of 
the  Church,  the  Primacy  of  Peter,  the 
Eucharist,  and  similar  dogmas. 

Elizabeth  (Qj:een)  (1533-1603). — 
Daughter  of  Henry  VIII.  and  Anne 
Boleyn,  was,  after  the  execution  of  her 
mother,  declared  illegitimate  and  inca- 
pable of  reigning,  but  Henry  in  his  will  re- 
stored to  her  her  rights.  During  the  reign 
of  Mary  Tudor,  her  sister,  she  was  impli- 
cated in  the  conspiracy  of  Thomas  Wyat 
and  condemned  to  close  confinement  in  the 
Tower.  She  was  twenty  years  old  when 
the  death  of  Mary  called  her  to  the  throne. 
Being  endowed  with  an  energetic  dispo- 
sition for  the  management  of  affairs  and 
great  skill,  she  really  possessed  the  quali- 
fications of  a  ruler ;  but  her  character  was 
otherwise  cruel  and  tyrannical,  her  temper 
irritable,  and  she  was  possessed  with  an 
ambitious  vanity  and  frivolous  pretensions 
to  beauty  and  talent.  She  surrounded 
herself  with  Protestant  counselors  and 
founded  the  Anglican  Church  by  the  Act 
of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  (1562).  She 
caused  parliament  to  declare  her  queen  by 
divine  right,  supreme  governess  of  Church 
and  State,  and  required,  from  the  members 
of  the  clergy,  an  oath  endorsing  the 
spiritual  supremacy  of  the  crown.  All  the 
bishops,  except  the  incumbent  of  Landaff, 
refused  this  oath ;  they  were  arrested  and 
fourteen  were  replaced  by  Protestants. 
The  inferior  clergy  was  less  courageous. 
When  Mary  Stuart  crossed  the  Solway, 
Elizabeth  led  her  to  the  Castle  of  Bolton, 
Yorkshire,  pretending  to  arbitrate  between 
the  Scottish  queen  and  her  subjects.  After 
a  most  unjust  trial  finally  condemned  her 
to  death  (1587).  She  completely  outlawed 
the  Catholics  and  exposed  them  to  a  con- 
tinual risk  of  martyrdom.  Communica- 
tion with  Rome,  and  obedience  to  the 
Papal  authority,  were  declared  high  trea- 
son. "  Recusancy,"  and  attendance  at 
Catholic  worship  were  visited  with  the 
severest  penalties.  In  1584,  laws  proscrib- 
ing the  whole  body  of  the  Catholic  clergy 
were    rushed     through    parliament.      All 


Elizabeth 


273 


Eloquence 


Jesuits  and  priests  were  commanded,  on 
pain  of  high  treason,  to  leave  the  country 
within  forty  days ;  anyone  harboring  or 
concealing  a  priest  was  adjudged  a  felon 
and  deserving  of  death.  In  1593,  laws 
were  enacted  which  forbade  Catholics  to 
travel  five  miles  from  their  homes;  they 
were  excluded  from  court  parliament,  and 
all  offices  of  trust,  and  deprived  of  the  right 
of  franchise.  Elizabeth,  who  had  been 
the  author  of  so  much  grief  to  others,  was 
destined  to  close  her  life  in  sorrow  and 
despair.     She  died  March  23d,  1603. 

Elizabeth  (St.). — A  Jewish  woman,  of 
the  family  of  Aaron,  wife  of  Zacharias, 
mother  of  St.  John  the  Baptist,  died  about 
the  year  3  a.  d.  She  saluted  the  mother 
of  the  Redeemer  by  the  words  which  form 
a  part  of  the  "  Hail  Mary:  "  "  Thou  art 
blessed  among  women  and  blessed  is  the 
fruit  of  thy  womb."     F.  Nov.  5th. 

Elizabeth  (St.)  (Queen  of  Hungary). — 
She  was  a  daughter  of  a  king  of  Hungary, 
and  niece  of  St.  Hedwige.  Betrothed  in 
infancy  to  Louis  Landgrave  of  Thuringia, 
she  was  reared  with  the  greatest  care  at 
her  father's  court.  Not  content  with  re- 
ceiving numbers  of  the  poor  in  her  palace, 
and  relieving  all  in  distress,  she  built  sev- 
eral hospitals,  where  she  ministered  to  the 
sick,  dressing  the  most  repulsive  sores  with 
her  own  hands.  Once,  as  she  was  carrying 
in  the  folds  of  her  mantle  some  provisions 
for  the  poor,  she  met  her  husband  return- 
ing from  the  chase.  Astonished  to  see 
her  bending  under  the  weight  of  her  bur- 
den, he  opened  the  mantle  which  she  kept 
folded  closely  together,  and  found  in  it 
nothing  but  beautiful  red  and  white  roses, 
although  it  was  not  the  season  for  flowers. 
Bidding  her  pursue  her  way,  he  took  one 
of  the  marvelous  roses  and  kept  it  all  his 
life.  On  her  husband's  death  she  was 
cruelly  driven  from  her  palace,  and  forced 
to  wander  through  the  streets  with  her 
little  children,  a  victim  of-  hunger  and 
cold ;  but  she  welcomed  all  her  sufferings, 
and  continued  to  be  the  mother  of  the  poor, 
converting  many  by  her  holy  life.  She 
died  in  1231,  at  the  age  of  twenty-four.  F. 
Nov.  19th. 

Elizabeth  (St.)  (1271-1326;  Q,ueen  of 
Portugal). — She  was  a  daughter  of  Pedro 
HL  of  Arragon,  being  named  after  her 
aunt,  St.  Elizabeth  of  Hungary.  At  twelve 
years  of  age  she  was  given  in  marriage  to 
Denis,  king  of  Portugal,  and  from  a  holy 

18 


child  became  a  saintly  wife.  Her  husband 
caused  her  much  sorrow,  both  by  his  un- 
founded jealousy  and  by  his  infidelity  to 
her.  Her  patience,  and  the  wonderful 
charity  with  which  she  even  cherished  the 
children  of  her  rivals,  completely  won  the 
king  from  his  evil  ways,  and  he  became  a 
devoted  husband  and  a  truly  Christian 
king.  She  built  many  charitable  institu- 
tions and  religious  houses,  among  others  a 
convent  of  Poor  Clares.  After  her  hus- 
band's death,  she  wished  to  enter  this 
order;  but  being  dissuaded  by  her  people, 
she  took  the  habit  of  the  Third  Order  of 
St.  Francis,  and  spent  the  rest  of  her  life 
in  redoubled  austerities  and  almsgiving. 
F.  July  8th. 

Elkesaites.  —  The  only  Judaist-Gnos- 
tics,  a  branch  of  the  Essenian  Ebionites. 
A  certain  Elkai  or  Elkesai,  who  lived  in 
the  first  century,  is  supposed  to  have  been 
their  founder.  Their  distinctive  tenet  was 
that  the  Spirit  of  God  had  become  incar- 
nate repeatedly  —  first  in  Adam,  then  suc- 
cessively in  Enoch,  Noe,  Abraham,  etc., 
and  lately  in  Christ.  They  maintained 
the  necessity  of  a  second  baptism  and  ob- 
served the  ceremonial  law  of  the  Jews,  but 
rejected  all  sacrifice,  as  also  portions  of 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  Their 
vagaries  are  embodied  in  the  Clementine 
Homilies,  so  called  from  having  been  at- 
tributed to  Pope  Clementine  I.,  from 
whom  the  Elkesaites  traced  their  pretended 
secret  revelation. 

Eloham. —  Hebrew  word  which  signifies 
any  God,  but  mostly  employed  for  the  true 
God.  The  contents  of  the  discourse  makes 
its  real  meaning  known  in  the-  different 
passages  where  it  is  used  in  the  Bible. 

Elohim  (plural  of  the  preceding  word). 
—  One  of  the  names  of  God  of  frequent 
occurrence  in  the  Hebrew  text  of  the  Old 
Testament.  Biblical  critics  are  not  agreed 
as  to  the  reason  for  the  use  of  the  plural 
form :  some  regard  it  as  a  covert  sugges- 
tion of  the  Trinity;  others  as  3  plural 
of  excellence;  others  as  an  indication  of 
an  earlier  polytheistic  belief;  still  others, 
as  an  embodiment  of  the  Hebrew  faith, 
that  the  powers  represented  by  the  gods 
of  the  heathen,  were  all  included  in  one 
Divine  Person. 

Eloquence  ( Sacred) .  —  Sapred  eloquence 
comprises  all  the  forms  of  preaching:  the 
sermon,  the  homily,  the  conference,  the 
funeral   oration,    the   panegyric  of  saints, 


Emancipation 


274 


Emancipation 


and  the  religious  conference.  Sacred  elo- 
quence, which  did  not  enter  the  functions 
of  the  pagan  priesthood,  arose  with  the 
Apostles.  Generally,  in  the  first  centuries, 
onl}-  the  bishops  preached.  Their  dis- 
courses, ordinarily  short,  familiar  allocu- 
tions like  those  of  a  father,  aiming  solely 
to  explain  the  Scriptures  to  his  children, 
are  noble  in  their  simplicitj-,  apparently 
without  art,  division,  or  subtile  reasoning, 
but  always  within  the  understanding  of 
their  audience.  They  have  no  verbosity, 
no  exaggerated  figures ;  but  are  always  clear 
and  full  of  affectionate  regard.  When  the 
sacred  orator  touches  the  heart,  or  per- 
suades the  reason,  it  is  especially  by  the 
grandeur  of  the  truths  he  preaches,  by  the 
authority  of  his  office  and  his  pastoral 
holiness.  The  sermons  of  St.  Augustine 
are  the  most  simple  of  all  his  works,  be- 
cause he  preached  in  a  small  city,  to 
mariners  and  tradesmen.  On  the  contrary, 
St.  Ambrose,  St.  Cyprian,  St.  Leo, — preach- 
ing in  larger  cities,  —  spoke  with  more 
pomp  and  ornament.  St.  Gregory  of  Naz- 
ianzum  and  St.  Chrysostom  are,  among  the 
Fathers  of  the  Church,  those  who  carried 
the  art  and  genius  of  eloquence  to  the 
highest  degree.  St.  Chrysostom  is  a 
model  for  preachers.  St.  Leo  preached 
with  such  an  unction  and  elegance  that 
sometimes  he  attained  the  eloquence  of  a 
Cicero.  During  the  disintegration  of  the 
Roman  empire,  the  Christian  pulpit  was 
without  an  imposing  voice  for  a  long  time. 
In  vain  did  Charlemagne  recommend  the 
translation  and  composition  of  homilies ; 
uselessly  did  the  Councils  attempt  to  warm 
up  the  zeal  of  an  ignorant  clergy.  In  spite 
of  all  the  efforts  of  Oddo  of  Cluny,  of 
Odilon  of  Abdon,  monk  of  St.  Germain- 
des-Prds,  the  art  of  oratory  regained  its 
supremacy  only  toward  the  end  of  the 
eleventh  century.  The  renaissance  was  a 
rapid  one ;  legions  of  preachers  arose. 
Members  of  the  secular  clergy,  religious, 
preachers  of  the  Crusades,  more  or  less 
inspired  reformers  and  heresiarchs,  im- 
passioned the  assemblies.  Preaching  had 
an  astonishing  influence  on  the  ignorant, 
replete  with  faith  and  enthusiasm.  Both 
the  vernacular  and  Latin  did  good  ser\-ice 
to  the  preacher,  accordingly  as  he  spoke  to 
the  people,  to  laymen,  clerics,  monks, 
religious,  or  scholars.  The  most  celebrated 
preachers  of  the  twelfth  century  were : 
Mauritius  of  Sully,  St.  Bernard,  Hugh  of 
St.  Victor,  Raoul,  Ardent,  Isaac  of  fitoile, 
Adam   of   Perseigne;    these   men  imbued 


preaching  with  as  much  elegance  as  au- 
thority. But  their  eloquence,  generally 
embellished  with  rhetorical  ornament,  was 
deep  and  scholarly,  and  did  not  represent 
the  popular  preaching.  In  the  thirteenth 
century,  eloquence  became  more  general. 
The  sermons  addressed  to  the  Faithful  were 
entirely  delivered  in  the  vernacular.  The 
Latin  was  used  only  when  clerics  were  ad- 
dressed. But  evidences  of  decay  appear  in 
the  middle  of  that  centurj-.  Popular  ora- 
tors became  dialecticians;  mechanical 
compositions  that  replaced  the  natural 
effusions  of  inspiration,  or,  through  an- 
other abuse,  the  familiarity  of  the  sermons 
became  trivial.  For  his  text,  the  preacher 
took  some  popular  song,  or  the  Metamor- 
phoses of  Ovid,  and  drew  from  them  fan- 
tastic commentaries,  or  gave  a  rhythmic 
form  to  his  discourse.  There  were,  how- 
ever, praiseworthy  exceptions.  The  degra- 
dation of  sacred  eloquence  became  complete 
in  the  fourteenth  century.  Among  the 
mass  of  manuscripts  left  to  us,  we  find 
nothing  that  approached  real  eloquence. 
We  have  to  wait  for  the  storms  of  the  fif- 
teenth century  to  hear  again  the  vibrant 
voice  of  the  men  of  action.  The  political 
disasters  of  the  reign  of  Charles  VI.  and 
the  religious  agitations  in  the  West  found 
an  echo  in  the  sermons  of  every  preacher. 
The  pulpit  became  a  school  of  politics 
and  controversy.  Unfortunately,  however, 
burlesque  and  triviality,  which  had  invaded 
the  province  of  oratory  in  the  foregoing 
century,  did  not  entirely  disappear.  The 
sermons  of  the  preachers  of  the  Middle 
Ages  were  also  wanting  in  form,  accuracy 
and  precision.  Most  of  the  sermons  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  like  those  of  the  fifteenth, 
were  replete  with  historical  characteriza- 
tion, philosophical  thoughts,  poetic  and 
fabulous  quotations.  The  "great"  Epami- 
nondas,  the  "divine"  Plato,  the  "ingen- 
ious" Homer,  appear  almost  on  every 
page.  Mythological  allusions  are  all- 
per\-ading.  It  was  in  the  seventeenth 
century  that  Christian  eloquence  shone  in 
its  full  glory.  In  that  period,  sacred  elo- 
quence attained  its  acme  of  perfection 
when  the  powerful  voices  of  a  Bossuet, 
Bourdaloue,  Massillon,  and  Flechier,  were 
heard.  The  eighteenth  century  possessed 
no  such  orators.  Our  century  has  pro- 
duced some  great  preachers ;  but  we  have 
no  equals  of  Bossuet,  Massillon,  or  Bour- 
daloue.    See  Sermon. 

Emancipation( CaMo/fV).  SeeCATHOLic. 


Ember  Days 


275 


Emperors  and  Kings 


Ember  Days.  —  The  ember  days  are  the 
first  Wednesday,  Friday,  and  Saturday  of 
each  of  the  four  seasons  of  the  year,  set 
apart  as  fast  days  by  the  Catholic  Church. 
According  to  the  testimony  of  Pope  Leo, 
they  originated  in  the  time  of  the  Apostles, 
who  were  inspired  by  the  Holy  Ghost  to 
dedicate  each  season  of  the  year  to  God  by 
a  few  days  of  penance ;  or,  as  it  were,  to  pay 
three  days'  interest,  every  three  months,  on 
the  graces  received  from  God.  The  Church 
always  commanded  the  Faithful  to  fast 
at  the  beginning  of  each  of  the  four  seasons 
of  the  year,  because  it  is  at  this  time  that 
she  ordains  the  priests  and  other  servants  of 
the  Church,  which  even  the  Apostles  did 
with  much  prayer  and  fasting.  Thus  she 
desires  that  during  the  ember  days  Chris- 
tians should  fervently  ask  of  God  by  prayer, 
fasting,  and  other  good  works,  for  worthy 
pastors  and  servants,  on  whom  depends 
the  welfare  of  the  whole  Christian  flock ;  «he 
also  desires  that  in  the  spring  ember  days 
we  should  ask  God's  blessing  for  the  fer- 
tility of  the  earth  ;  in  summer  for  the  pres- 
ervation of  the  fruits  of  the  field ;  in 
autumn  when  the  harvest  is  ripe,  and  in 
winter  when  it  is  sheltered,  that  we  should 
offer  to  God,  by  fasting  and  prayer,  a  sacri- 
fice of  thanks,  petitioning  Him  to  assist  us, 
that  we  may  not  use  His  gifts  for  our  soul's 
detriment,  but  refer  all  praise  to  Him,  the 
fountain  of  all  good,  and  assist  our  neighbor 
according  to  our  means. 

Eminence. — A  title  given  to  cardinals 
by  Urban  VHI.  Up  to  the  period  of  his 
Pontificate,  they  had  been  styled  most 
illustrious  and  most  reverend. 

Emmaus  (Hebr.  Hot  Springs'). — A  vil- 
lage seven  and  one-half  miles  from  Jerusa- 
lem, where  our  Lord  revealed  himself  to 
two  of  His  disciples  on  the  afternoon  of  the 
day  on  which  He  rose  from  the  dead.  Its 
precise  site  is  rnuch  disputed,  but  at  present 
the  most  probable  view  puts  it  at  Kubeibeh, 
a  little  town  about  seven  miles  northwest 
of  Jerusalem. 

Emmeran  (St.). —  Apostle  of  Bavaria. 
He  had  been  formerly  a  chorepiscopus  of 
Poitiers.  Having  started  from  his  home, 
in  the  year  652,  with  the  purpose  of 
preaching  the  Gospel  to  the  Avari,  the 
heathen  inhabitants  of  Pannonfa,  he  ar- 
rived, in  the  course  of  his  journey,  at  Rat- 
isbon,  where  the  Duke  Theodo  was  then 
residing.  The  duke  besought  the  mission- 
ary,   instead    of    proceeding    further,    to 


undertake  the  labor  of  instructing  the  in- 
habitants of  Bavaria,  some  of  whom  had 
but  lately  embraced  the  faith,  while  others 
still  refused  to  give  up  the  errors  of 
heathenism.  After  three  years  of  unceas- 
ing toil,  the  holy  bishop  resolved  upon 
making  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome;  but  before 
setting  out,  he  made  an  effort  to  reclaim 
Ota,  the  daughter  of  the  duke,  from  a  life 
of  shame.  These  kind  offices  brought 
upon  himself  the  anger  of  her  in  whose 
behalf  they  were  rendered.  Ota  repre- 
sented to  her  brother,  Landpert,  that  she 
had  become  pregnant  by  the  bishop,  and 
this  information  so  incensed  the  young 
prince  that  he  took  a  bloody  vengeance 
upon  the  supposed  author  of  his  sister's 
shame.  But,  his  innocence  having  been 
clearly  established,  his  body  was  at  once 
brought  back  to  Ratisbon  and  placed  in  a 
monastery  founded  in  his^onor  and  bear- 
ing his  name.     F.  Sept.  22d. 

EMPERORS    AND    KINGS     (Chrono- 
logical Table  of). 

I.     ROMAN   EMPERORS. 

First  Century. 

Augustus,  died  a.  d 14 

Tiberius 14 — 37 

Caligula 37 — 41 

Claudius 41 — 54 

Nero 54 — 68 

Galba 68—69 

Otho  and  Vitellius 69 

Vespasian 69 — 79 

Titus 79 — 8i 

Domitian 81 — 96 

Nerva 96—98 

Second  Century. 

Trajan 98—1 17 

Hadrian 117 — 138 

Antoninus  Pius 138 — i6r 

Marcus  Aurelius 161 — rSo 

Gommodus 180—192 

Pertinax 192 — 193 

Third  Century, 

Septimius  Severus 193 — 211 

Caracalla 211 — 217 

Macrinus 217 — 218 

Heliogabalus 218 — 222 

Alexander  Severus 222 — 231; 

Maximin 235 — 238 

Gordian 238—244 

Philip 244 — 249 

Decius 249 — 251 


Emperors  and  Kings 


2'j6> 


Emperors  and  Kings 


Gallus 251 — 253 

Valerian ^ 253 — 260 

Gallienus 260 — 268 

Claudius  II 268 — 270 

Aurelian 270 — 275 

Tacitus 275 — 276 

Probus 276 — 282 

Carus 282 — 284 

Fourth  Century. 

t  Diocletian 284 — 305 

(  Maximian  285 — 305 

iConstantius  Chlorus 305 — 306 

Severus 305—307 

Galerius 305 — 311 

Maximin  II 305 — 313 

iConstantine  the  Great 306 — 337 

Maxentius 306 — 312 

Licinius 307 — 324 

iConstantine  II 337 — 340 

Constans 337— 350 

Constantius  II 337 — 361 

Julian  the  Apostate 361 — 363 

Jovian 363—364 

\  Valentinian  1 364 — 375 

\  Valens 364—375 

(  Gratian 375—383 

\  Valentinian  II 375 — 392 

'  Theodosius  I.  (the  Great) ....  379 — 395 

Fifth  Century. 

Honorius 395 — ^423 

Valentinian  III 423 — 455 

Avitus 455—456 

Majorian 457 — ^461 

Severus 461 — 467 

Anthemius 467 — 472 

Nepos 472—475 

Romulus  Augustulus  (last  Ro- 
man emperor) 475 — 476 

Odoacer,  King  of  Italy 476 — 493 

Sixth  Century. 

Theodoric,  the  Ostrogoth,  king 

of  Italy  .* 493 — 526 

Dominion  of  the  Ostrogoths  in 
Italy  under  the  successors  of 

Theodoric     526 — 553 

Italy,  a  province  of  the  East- 
Roman  Empire 553 

Dominion  of   the  Lombards  in 

Italy 568—774 

II.    PRINCIPAL  EMPERORS  OF  THE 
EAST-ROMAN  EMPIRE. 

Arcadius 395 — ^408 

Theodosius  II 408 — ^450 

Marcian 450 — 457 


^^°  ^ 457—474 

^^"o 474-491 

Anastasius  I 491 — 518 

Justin  1 518—527 

Justinian  1 527—565 

J"stin   II 565-578 

Mauritius .  582 — 602 

Phocas 602 — 6io 

Heraclius 610 — 641 

Constans  \\ 641—668 

Constantine  IV.  (Pogonatus)  .  .  668 — 685 

Justinian  II 685 — 711 

Philipicus  711 — 713 

Anastasius  II 713 — 716 

Leo  III.  (the  Isaurian) 718 — 741 

Constantine  V.  (Copronymus)  .  741 — 775 

Leo  IV 775 — 780 

Constantine  VI 780 — 797 

Empress   Irene 797 — 802 

Michael  1 811 — 813 

Leo  V.  (the  Armenian) 813 — 820 

Michael  II.  (Balbus)  820—829 

Theophilus 829 — 842 

Basil  I.  (the  Macedonian) 867—886 

Leo  VI.  (the  Philosopher) 886—911 

Constantine     VII.     (Porphyro- 

genitus) 911 — 959 

Isaac  Comnenus 1057 — 1059 

Baldwin  of  Flanders  (first  Latin 

emperor) 1204 — 1206 

Michael  VIII.  (Palaeologus.  The 

Greek  empire  restored) 1261 — 1282 

Constantine  XI.  (the  last  of  the 

East-Roman  emperors) 1448 — 1453 


III. 


EMPERORS    AND     KINGS    OF 
GERMANY. 


Ninth  Century. 

Charlemagne    (Charles    I.    the 

Great)* 800— S14 

Louis  I.  (the  Mild) 814 — 840 

Lothaire  1 840 — 855 

Louis  II.  (the  German).  ...:...  855 — 875 

Charles  II.  (the  Bald) 875—877 

Charles  III.  (the  Fat) 877—887 

Arnulf 896—899 

Tenth  Century, 

Louis  III.  (the  Child) 900 — 911 

Conrad  1 9" — 9^8 

Henry  1 919 — 936 

Otho  I.  (the  Great) 936 — 973 

Otho  II 973—983 

*  The  Holy  Roman  Empire  under  Charlemagne 
included  all  Germany  and  France,  the  greater 
part  of  Italy,  and  Northern  Spain. 


Emperors  and  Kings 


277 


Emperors  and  Kings 


Eleventh  Century. 

Otho  III 983—1003 

Henry  II.  (the  Saint) 1002 — 1024 

Conrad  II 1024 — 1039 

Henry  III 1039 — 1056 

Henry  IV 1056 — 1106 

Twelfth  Century. 

Henry  V 1106 — 1125 

Lothaire  II 1125 — 1137 

Conrad  III 1137 — 1152 

Frederick  I.  (Barbarossa) 1152 — 1190 

Henry  VI 1 190— 1 197 

Thirteenth  Century. 

Philip  of    Swabia* 1198 — 1208 

Otho  IV 1198— 1215 

Frederick  II 1215 — 1250 

Conrad  IV 1250 — 1254 

Interregnum 1254 — 1273 

Rudolph  of  Hapsburg 1273 — ^291 

Adolph  of  Nassau 1292 — 1298 

Albert  1 1298 — 1308 

Fourteenth  Century. 

Henry  VII 1308— 1313 

{  Louis  of  Bavaria 13 13 — 1347 

(  Frederick  of  Austria 1314 — 1330 

Charles  IV 1347 — 1378 

Wenceslaus 1378 — 1400 

Fifteenth  Century. 

Rupert 1400— 1410 

Sigismund 1410 — 1437 

Albert  II 1438— 1439 

Frederick  III 1439 — 1493 

Maximilian  1 1493 — i^ig 

Sixteenth  Century. 

Charles  V 1519 — 1556 

Ferdinand  I 1556— 1564 

Maximilian  II 1564 — 1576 

Rudolph   II 1576 — 16x2 

Seventeenth  Century. 

Matthias 1612 — 1619 

Ferdinand  II 1619 — 1637 

Ferdinand  III 1637 — 1657 

Leopold  1 1657 — 1705 

Eighteenth  Century. 

Joseph   1 170S— 1711 

Charles  VI 171 1 — 1740 

Maria  Theresa  and  her  consort 

Francis  1 1740— 1780 

*  Philip  and  Otho  were  elected  by  rival  parties. 


Joseph   II 1780 — 1790 

Leopold  II 1790 — 1792 

Francis  II 1792 — 1806 

IV.     EMPERORS  OF  AUSTRIA. 

Francis  (II)   1 1806— 1835 

Ferdinand  1 1835 — 1848 

Francis  Joseph  1 1848 

V.   KINGS  OF  PRUSSIA.t 

Frederick  1 1701 — 1713 

Frederick  William  1 1713 — 1740 

Frederick    II 1740 — 1786 

Frederick  William  II 1786 — 1797 

Frederick  William  III 1797 — 1840 

Frederick  William  IV 1840— 1861 

William  1 1861— 1888 

Frederick  III 1888 

William  II 1888 


VI.    KINGS  OF  FRANCE. 

Carlovingian  Dynasty. 

Charles  II.  (the  Bald) 843—877 

Louis  II.  (the  Stammerer) 877 — 879 

Louis  III 879—882 

Carloman 879 — 884 

Charles  the  Fat,  of  Germany  .  .  884—887 

Charles  III.  (the  Simple) 893 — 923 

Louis  IV.  (d'Outre-mer) 936 — 954 

Lothaire    954 — 986 

Louis  V.  (the  Idle) 986—987 

Capetian  Dynasty. 

Hugh  Capet 987 —  996 

Robert  (the  Pious) 996 — 1031 

Henry  1 1031 — 1060 

Philip  1 1060 — 1 108 

Louis  VI.  (the  Fat) 1108 — 1137 

Louis  VII 1137 — ii8o 

Philip  II.  Augustus 1 180 — 1223 

Louis  VIII 1223 — 1226 

Louis  IX.  (St.  Louis) 1226 — 1270 

PhiHp  III.  (the  Bold) 1270— 1285 

Philip  IV.  (the  Fair) 1285— 1314 

Louis  X, ,  1314 — 1316 

Philip  V.  (the  Long) 13x6 — 1322 

Charles  IV.  (the  Fair) 1322— 1328 

House  of  Valois. 

Philip  VI.  (of  Valois) 1328— 1350 

John  II.  (the  Good) 1350 — 1364 

t  since  1871  hereditary  emperors   of   the  new 
German  Empire. 


Emperors  and  Kings 


278 


Emperors  and  Kings 


Charles  V.  (the  Wise) 1364 — 1380 

Charles  VI 1380—1422 

Charles  VII.  (the  Victorius) . .  .  1422 — 1461 

Louis  XI 1461 — 1483 

Charles  VIII 1483— 1498 

Louis  XII 1498 — 1515 

Francis  1 1515— 1547 

Henry  II 1547—1559 

F>ancis  II 1559 — 1560 

Charles  IX 1560 — 1574 

Henrj  III 1574—1589 

House  of  Bourbon. 

Henry  IV 1589 — 1610 

Louis  XIII 1610 — 1643 

Louis  XIV 1643 — 1715 

Louis  XV 1715 — 1774 

Louis  XVI 1774 — 1792 

First  republic 1792 — 1799 

The  Consular  government ^799 — 1804 

First  empire  under  Napoleon  1. 1804 — 1814 

Louis  XVII 1814 — 1824 

Charles  X 1824— 1830 

Louis  Philip 1830 — 1848 

Second  republic 1848 — 1852 

Second  empire  under  Napoleon 

III 1852—1870 

Third  republic 1870 


VII. 


KINGS    AND    QUEENS   OF 
ENGLAND. 


Saxons  and  Danes. 

Egbert,  ist  king  of  all  England.  827 —  836 

Ethelwulf 837—  858 

Ethelbald 858—  860 

Ethelbert 860—  866 

Ethelred  I ,  866—  871 

Alfred  (the  Great) 871 —  901 

Edward  (the  Elder) 901 —  925 

Athelstan 925 —  940 

Edmund  (the  Elder) 940 —  946 

Edred 946—  955 

Edwy 955—  958 

Edgar 958—  975 

(St.  Edward  (the  Martyr) 975 —  979 

Ethelred  II 979 — 1016 

Edmund  Ironside 1016 

Canute i4i7 — 1035 

Harold  1 1035 — 1040 

Hardicanute 1040 — 1042 

(St.  Edward  (the  Confessor). .  .1042 — 1066 
Harold  II 1066 

House  of  Normandy. 

William  I.  (the  Conqueror).  .  .  .1066 — 1087 
William  II.  (the  Red) 1087 — 1100 


Henry  I noo— 1135 

Stephen 1135 — 1154 

House  oS^  Plantagenet. 

Henry  II. 1154— 1189 

Richard  1 1189—1199 

John  (Lackland) 1 199 — 1216 

Henry  III 1216—1272 

Edward  1 1272 — 1307 

Edward  II 1307 — 1327 

Edward  III 1327 — 1377 

Richard  II 1377 — 1399 

House  of  Lancaster. 

Henry  IV.  of  Lancaster 1399 — 1413 

Henry  V 1413 — 1422 

Henry  VI 1422 — 1461 

House  of  York. 

Edward  IV.  of  York 1461— 1483 

Edward  V 1483 

Richard  III 1483— 1485 

House  of  Tudor. 

Henry  VII.,  Tudor 1485 — 1509 

Henry  VIII 1509 — 1547 

Edward  VI 1547 — 1553 

Queen  Mary I533— 1558 

Qiieen  Elizabeth 1558 — 1603 

House  of  Stuart. 

James   1 1603 — 1625 

Charles  1 1625 — 1649 

The     Commonwealth     under 

Cromwell  and  his  son 1649 — 1659 

Charles  II 1660—1685 

James  II.* 1685—1688 

William  III.  of  Orange 1689^1702 

Queen  Anne 1702 — 1714 

House  of  Hanover. 

George  I.  of  Hanover 1714 — 1727 

George  II 1727 — 1760 

George  III 1760 — 1820 

George  IV 1820 — 1830 

William  IV 1830—1837 

Qiieen  Victoria 1837 

*  Stuart  Family.    James  II.  was  married  twice. 

(  Mary,  wife  of  William  m. ,  1674. 
Hlsflrat  wife,  Anna  Hyde,  167W  Anne,  afterwards  queen  ofEnK- 
(     land,  ITU. 

IJainee  (111.)  Edward,  known  aa 
the  Old  Pretender,   1706.     Hli 
wife  Clementina,  granddangh- 
ter  of  King  John  SobleskI  of 
Poland. 
fCharlea  Edward,  known  as  th« 
/,«  ,  »,..        J    *i-     rtij  I      Young  Pretender,  1788. 
James   an.)  Edward,  the   Old  J  Henry  IX.  Duke  of  York,  died  • 
Pretender  and  hi.  wife  Clem--^     cardinal  In  1807.    With  him  the 
entlna  of  Poland.  male  line  of  the  Stitarta  became 

(     extinct. 


Empire 


279 


Emser 


VIII.     PRINCIPAL  RULERS  OF 
SPAIN. 

Visigoths. 

Foundation    of    the    Visigothic 
Monarchy  by 

Wallia 415 — 419 

Theodorich 419 — 451 

Eurich 466 — 484 

Leovigild 569 — 586 

Reccared  1 586 — 601 

Roderich 709 — 711 

Moors. 

Moorish  dominion  established.   711 
Caliphate  of  Cordova 756 — 1087 

Christian    States. 

1.  Kingdom  of  Asturias,  found- 
ed by  Pelagius 725 —  737 

Alfonso  I.  the  Catholic 739 —  757 

Alfonso  II.  the  Chaste 791 —  824 

2.  Marca  Hispanica,  conquered 

by  Charlemagne 778 

3.  Kingdom  of  Navarre,  founded 
about 860 

4.  Kingdom  of   Leon,  founded 
about 910 

5.  Kingdom  of  Aragon,  founded 
about 103s 

6.  Kingdom  of  Castile,  founded 
about 1037 

Castile  and  Aragon  united 1479 

Conquest  of  Granada 1492 

Isabella  of  Castile  died 1504 

Ferdinand  V.,  the  Catholic   of 
Aragon,  died 1516 

House  of  Hapsburg. 

Charles  I.,  of  Hapsburg  (Charles 

V.  as  emperor) 1516 — 1556 

Philip  II 1556— 1598 

Philip  III 1598— 1621 

Philip  IV 1621— 1665 

Charles  II 1665 — 1700 

House  of  Bourbon. 

Philip  V.  of  Bourbon 1701 — 1746 

Ferdinand  VI 1746 — 1759 

Charles  III 1759— 1788 

Charles  IV 1788— 1808 

Joseph  Bonaparte 1808 — 1813 

Ferdinand  VII 1814 — 1833 

Regent  Christina ; . .  .  1833 — 1840 

Regent  Espartero 1841 — 1843 

Isabella  II 1843— 1868 

Regent  Serrano 1869 — 1870 


Amadeus  of  Sardinia 1870 — 1873 

Republic 1873 — ^874 

Alfonso  XII 1874—1885 

Regent  Maria  Christina  of  Aus- 
tria  1885 

Empire  ( The  Holy  Roman). — See  Char- 
lemagne. 

Empiricism.  —  Philosophical  doctrine 
which  allows  nothing  to  be  true  but  what 
is  given  by  experience,  and  rejects  all  a 
priori  knowledge.  It  sprung  out  of  the 
system  of  Heraclitus,  which  Plato  refuted. 
Its  modern  founder  was  Locke,  who  made 
experience  comprehend  both  sensation  and 
reflection.  Condillac  and  other  French 
writers  pushed  this  to  the  extreme,  reject- 
ing reflection.  Hence  has  been  developed 
what  has  justly  been  called  the  Sensualistic 
Philosophy,  which  is  alike  untrue  and  per- 
nicious.    See  Sensualism. 

Ems  ( Congress  of).  —  A  Congress  held  in 
August,  1786,  between  the  representatives 
of  the  Archbishops  Emmeric  Joseph  of 
Mentz,  Clemens  Wenceslaus  of  Treves, 
and  Maximilian  Frederick  of  Cologne, 
which  produced  the  so-called  Ems  Punc- 
tuation, in  which  certain  restrictions  were 
laid  upon  the  power  of  the  Pope  in  the 
dioceses,  and  especially  the  abolition  of 
nuncio  in  Germany  was  demanded.  The 
Isidorian  decretals  also  were  declared  a 
forgery. 

Emser  (Jerome)  (1477-1527).  —  German 
Catholic  theologian,  born  at  Ulm.  Emser, 
aulic  chaplain  and  secretary  to  Duke 
George  of  Saxony,  was  an  eminent  scholar, 
well  versed  in  the  ancient  and  Oriental 
languages.  He  was  present  at  the  Leipzig 
discussion,  between  Eck  and  Luther,  and 
from  that  time  opposed,  in  union  with  Dr. 
Eck,  the  increasing  influence  of  Luther, 
who  on  that  account  vilified  him  in  his 
wonted  vulgar  style.  In  reply  to  Luther's 
abusive  charges  he  published  a  series  of 
pamphlets ;  he  also  translated  the  work  of 
Henry  VIII.  of  England,  against  the  Wit- 
tenberg "  Reformer."  Also,  to  counteract 
Luther's  translation  of  the  Bible,  Emser 
assisted  in  publishing  a  new  German  ver- 
sion of  the  Scriptures,  and  exposed  the  sys- 
tematic corruption  of  the  Scripture  text  by 
Luther,  whose  translation  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament he  proved  to  contain  no  less  than 
1,400  errors  and  forgeries.  Luther  retali- 
ated with  his  usual  coarse  epithets,  saying 
that  "  popish  asses  were  not  able  to  appre- 


Encratites 


280 


England 


ciate  his  labors,"  and  calling  Emser  "a  wild 
ass,  a  blockhead,  a  basilisk,  and  pupil  of 
Satan." 

Encratites.  —  Heretics  of  the  second  cen- 
tury, who  are  said  by  Theodoret  to  have 
been  followers  of  Tatian,  a  disciple  of  Jus- 
tin Martyr.  Called  thus,  because  they 
abstained  from  wine  and  meats  and  used 
only  water  for  the  Holy  Eucharist. 

Encyclical.  — A  circular  letter  addressed 
by  the  Pope  to  all  the  bishops  in  com- 
munion with  him,  in  which  he  condemns 
prevalent  errors,  and  informs  them  of  the 
attitude  of  the  different  peoples  in  their 
countries  toward  the  Church.  The  letter 
also  contains  suggestions  relating  to  educa- 
tional matters,  and  explanations  of  the 
difficulties  with  which  the  Church  has  to 
contend  in  particular  countries,  as  well  as 
the  means  that  should  be  employed  by 
Catholics  to  aid  the  Church  toward  the  ful- 
fillment of  her  divine  mission. 

Encyclion.  —  An  edict  of  the  Emperor 
Basilicus  (475-477),  in  which  he  denounced 
the  Dogmatic  Epistle  of  Pope  Leo  I.  and 
the  Council  of  Chalcedon  (451). 

Endor.  —  A  city  of  Manasses,  placed  by 
Eusebius  four  miles  south  of  Tabor,  near 
Nain,  on  the  way  to  Scythopolis.  Here 
the  pythoness  lived  whom  Saul  consulted 
(HI.  Ki.  xxviii.  7,  etc.). 

Ener^mens.  —  Name  given  in  the  early 
Church  to  those  who  were  held  as  being 
possessed.  They  were  placed  under  the^ 
care  of  the  Exorcist  who,  by  the  laying  on 
of  hands,  had  the  power  of  expelling  the 
evil  spirit.    See  Possessioxs. 

Engadi  (Hebr.  spring  of  the  goaf).  —  A 
place  abounding  in  caverns,  situated  on  the 
western  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea,  26  miles 
southeast  of  Jerusalem :  the  modern  Ain- 
Jidy.  In  the  desert  of  Engadi  David  hid 
from  Saul. 

Rngland  (Bvangeh'zaiion  of). —  It  can- 
not be  ascertained,  when  or  by  whom 
Christianity  was  first  preached  in  Britain. 
Some  writers  ascribe  it  to  St.  Peter,  while 
Anglican  writers  (hoping  to  show  that  the 
introduction  of  Christianity  into  England 
was  independent  of  the  See  of  Rome!) 
claim  that  St.  Paul,  the  Apostle,  planted 
the  Church  in  Britain.  Both  conjectures 
are  totally  unsupported  by  any  proof. 
There  is  no  evidence,  whatsoever,  to  show 
that  St.    Paul   ever   preached    in  Britain. 


The  testimonies  of  the  early  writers, —  St. 
Clement,  Eusebius,  St.  Jerome,  and  The- 
odoret,—  who  are  quoted  in  support  of  the 
Anglican  claim,  are  wholly  ambiguous 
and  unsatisfactory.  It  is  certain,  however, 
that  there  were  Christians  in  Britain  at  a 
very  early  period.  Tertullian  and  Origen 
refer  to  the  early  triumph  of  the  Church 
among  the  tribes  of  Britain  as  a  well- 
known  fact.  Of  the  Romans  who,  since 
the  subjugation  of  the  island  under  Clau- 
dius, came  to  Britain,  and  of  the  Britains 
who  were  induced  to  visit  Rome,  some,  no 
doubt,  were  Christians  or  were  made  ac- 
quainted at  Rome  with  the  Christian 
religion.  The  two  celebrated  ladies  who 
became  Christians  at  Rome  in  the  time  of 
the  Apostles, —  Claudia,  the  wife  of  the 
senator  Pudens,  and  Pomponia  Graecina, 
the  wife  of  Aulus  Plautius,  the  first  general 
who  made  any  permanent  conquest  in  the 
island, —  are  believed  to  have  been  Brit- 
ains. We  are  assured  by  English  his- 
torians that  Helena,  the  saintly  mother  of 
Constantine  the  Great,  was  also  a  native  of 
Britain.  About  the  year  182,  at  the  re- 
quest of  a  British  cTiieftain  named  Lucius, 
Pope  Eleutherius  sent  Fugatius  and  Dami- 
anus  to  Britain,  by  whom  Lucius  and 
great  numbers  of  the  Britains  were  con- 
verted to  the  faith.  A  regular  hierarchy 
had  alread}'  been  established  in  Britain 
before  the  close  of  the  third  century;  for 
three  British  bishops,  Eborius  of  York, 
Restitutus  of  London,  and  Adelphius  of 
Lincoln,  attended  the  Council  of  Aries, 
314.  The  persecution  of  Diocletian  also 
reached  the  faithful  of  remote  Britain,  and 
St.  Alban,  who  suffered,  A.  D.  303,  is 
called  the  protomartyr  of  England.  When 
the  heresy  of  Pelagius,  himself  a  British 
monk,  began  to  disturb  the  faithful  of 
Britain,  Pope  Celestine  I.  (429),  sent  St. 
Germanus  of  Auxerre  (died  in  448),  and 
St.  Lupus  of  Troyes  (died  in  479),  to 
Britain  to  silence  the  heretics.  Their  mis- 
sion proved  most  successful  in  exterminat- 
ing Pelagianism. 

However,  the  honor  of  bringing  the 
heathen  Anglo-Saxons  to  the  fold  of  Christ 
is  due  to  Pope  Gregory  the  Great,  who,  in 
596,  sent  thirty-nine  Benedictines  under 
the  guidance  of  the  holy  Abbot  Augustine 
to  undertake  the  conversion  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  in  Britain.     See  Augustine. 

England  (John)  (1786-1842). —  Ameri- 
can prelate;  was  born  in  Cork,  Ireland; 
died  at  Charleston.     Dr.  England  was  one 


England 


281 


Ennodius 


of  the  greatest  of  American  bishops.  Was 
ordained  in  1808  and  soon  after  he  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  St.  Mary's  Theo- 
logical Seminary  at  Cork.  When  the  dio- 
cese of  Charleston  was  established,  Dr. 
England  was  selected  for  the  mitre,  and 
was  consecrated  on  the  21st  of  September, 
1820.  The  diocese  committed  to  Dr.  Eng- 
land's charge  involved  great  exertion  and 
labor,  from  which  he  never  shrunk,  but  he 
was  alive  to  the  wants  of  the  Church  in  the 
whole  republic.  He  founded  and  con- 
ducted the  "United  States  Catholic  Mis- 
cellany." Dr.  England's  articles  were 
read  and  copied  in  all  parts  of  the  country, 
producing  incalculable  good.  The  writ- 
ings of  Bishop  England  form  six  volumes 
and  are  highly  prized  in  the  libraries  of 
the  clergy.  A  selection  of  the  most  re- 
markable writings  of  Bishop  England, 
edited  by  Hugh  P.  McElrone,  was  pub- 
lished at  Baltimore  in  1884. 

England  {Protestantism  in).  See  An- 
glicanism, Henry  VHI.,  and  Eliza- 
beth. 

England  {Statistics  of  the  Church  in)  in 


Ennodius  (Magnus  Felix). -^ The  de- 
scendant of  a  noble  but  impoverished  fam- 
ily, was  born  in  473  at  Aries  (or,  according 
to  others  at  Milan).  Died  in  521.  After 
the  premature  death  of  his  parents,  he  was 
left  to  the  care  of  his  aunt  at  Milan,  who 
provided  for  his  education.  He  loved  the 
study  of  rhetoric,  but  tried  his  talents  es- 
pecially in  poetry,  and  the  least  success  in 
that  line  enraptured  him  beyond  measure. 
His  aunt,  who  seems  to  have  destined  him 
for  the  ecclesiastical  state,  committed  him 
to  a  certain  Servilius  for  instruction  in  the 
ecclesiastical  disciplines.  But  she  died  be- 
fore Ennodius  had  reatthed  his  seventeenth 
year,  and  had  it  not  been  for  an  offer  of 
marriage  from  a  wealthy  and  pious  lady, 
he  would  have  been  left  in  extreme  poverty. 
His  new  fortune,  however,  led  him  on  the 
dangerous  path  of  pleasure  and  enjoyment, 
until  a  serious  illness  roused  him  from  his 
worldly  slumber.  Having  been  restored 
to  health  by  the  intercession  of  St.  Victor, 
he  embraced  the  ecclesiastical  state,  and 
his  devout  wife  assumed  the  religious  veil. 
As  a  priest,  he  soon  rose  to  high  distinc- 
tion. In  the  year  494,  he  accompanied 
Epiphanius,  his  bishop,  to  Burgundy.     In 


Dioceses 


Westminster  (archdiocese).. . 

Birmingham 

Clifton 

Hexham  and  Newcastle 

Leeds , 

Liverpool 

Middlesbrough 

Newport  and  Menevia 

Northampton 

Nottingham , 

Plymouth 

Portsmouth 

Salford 

Shrewsbury 

Southwark   

Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Wales 

Total 


112 
69 
62 

34 

20 

107 

23 

23 
II 
40 
46 

47 
61 
12 

150 
50 


278 
162 

43 
140 
96 
257 
57 
37 
50 
76 

52 

59 

191 

63 

175 

20 


390 
231 
105 

174 
116 

364 
79 
60 
61 

116 
98 

106 

252 
75 

325 
70 


200,000 


45,000 
41,400 
9,990 
25,000 
11,000 

223,676 


15 


866 


i»756 


2,622 


As   can   be   seen    from    the   above,  the  number  of  Catholics  is  not  always  given. 
Apparently  the  total  Catholic  population  in  England  is  about  3,000,000. 


Enoch 


282 


Ephraim 


502,  he  was  present  with  his  successor, 
Maximus,  at  a  synod  in  Rome,  where  he 
made  such  a  splendid  defense  of  the  lawful 
Pope,  Symmachus,  against  the  accusations 
of  the  adherents  of  the  antipope  Lauren- 
tius,  that  the  synod  gave  it  its  special  ap- 
probation and  ordered  it  to  be  preserved 
among  its  acts.  After  the  death  of  Max- 
imus, in  511,  Ennodius  became  Bishop 
Pavia.  He  stood  in  high  favor  with  Pope 
Hormisdas,  who  sent  him  twice  to  Emperor 
Anastasius  at  Constantinople  to  heal  the 
rupture  caused  by  the  Monophysite  trou- 
bles. Though  his  mission  at  the  time 
proved  unsuccessful,  and  only  a  source  of 
humiliation  for  him,  he  yet  lived  long 
enough  to  see,  under  the  Emperor  Justin, 
the  restoration  of  peace  to  the  Church. 

Enoch.  —  Son  of  Jared,  the  seventh  patri- 
arch after  Adam.  Father  of  Mathusala. 
He  is  represented  in  the  Sacred  Books  as 
one  of  the  precursors  of  Christ. 

Eon  or  Eudo  de  Stella.  —  An  uncouth 
rustic,  who  revolutionized  Bretagne  and 
Gascony,  about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth 
century.  He  also  gave  himself  out  as  the 
Son  of  God,  and  as  "he  that  should  come 
to  judge  the  quick  and  the  dead."  He  as- 
sumed almost  kingly  power  and  was  ac- 
companied by  great  numbers  of  followers, 
who  perpetrated  great  outrages,  plunder- 
ing churches  and  monasteries.  He  was 
finally  seized  and  cast  into  prison,  where 
he  died  shortly  after. 

Epaphras  (St.).  —  Bishop  and  martyr  at 
Colossae,  in  Phrygia,  in  the  first  century. 
St.  Paul  calls  him  the  companion  of  his 
fetters.  His  remains  were  deposited  at 
Rome,  in  the  Basilica  of  Sancta  Maria 
Majore.     F.  July  22d. 

Eparchy.  —  The  Greek  name  for  a  prov- 
ince in  the  Roman  empire,  and  trans- 
planted over  into  the  Church,  it  was  the 
division  ruled  by  a  metropolitan. 

Ephesians  {Epistle  to  the) .  —  It  was  dur- 
ing St.  Paul's  first  imprisonment  at  Rome 
(62),  that  Epaphras,  Bishop  of  Colossae, 
came  to  comfort  the  Apostle  in  his  chains. 
The  holy  prelate,  in  the  course  of  his  visit, 
mentioned  that  some  designing  Jews  con- 
trived to  insinuate  themselves  among  his 
flock,  and  attempted  to  weaken  their  faith 
by  representing  that  it  was  necessary  to 
observe  the  Mosaic  ordinances,  and  that 
the  great  mystery  of  redemption  had  been 
effected  not  by  Christ,  but  by  angels.     St. 


Paul  suspected  that  the  false  teachers,  who 
had  done  so  much  harm  in  Colossae,  were 
sure  to  make  their  way  to  Ephesus,and  he 
immediately  set  about  his  Epistle  to  the 
Ephesians.  The  beginning  or  doctrinal 
part  of  his  Letter  is  devoted  chiefly  to  re- 
demption, justification,  predestination,  and 
in  the  end  or  moral  part,  the  Apostle 
dwells  on  the  unit}-,  charity,  obedience, 
humility,  and  other  virtues  demanded  by 
the  profession  of  the  Christian  faith. 

Ephesus.  —  A  celebrated  city  of  Asia 
Minor,  situated  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Gayster,  about  forty  miles  south  of  Smyrna. 
It  was  chiefly  celebrated  for  the  worship 
and  Temple  of  Diana ;  the  last  named  was 
accounted  one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the 
world.  St.  Paul  visited  Ephesus  about  the 
year  54  (Acts  xviii.  19-21).  The  Apostle 
St.  John  passed  the  latter  part  of  his  life  at 
Ephesus,  and  died  there. 

Ephesus  (Co««r/7.^  of).  —  i.  The  Third 
Ecumenical  Council,  called  by  Theodosius 
II.,  in  connection  with  Valentinian  III., 
held  at  Ephesus,  under  the  direction  of  St. 
Cyril  of  Alexandria  in  431.  There  were 
present  over  two  hundred  bishops.  It  con- 
demned the  heresy  of  Nestorius ;  defined 
"  that  Christ  consists  of  one  divine  person, 
but  of  two  distinct  natures,  one  divine,  the 
other  human,  not  mixed  and  confounded, 
although  intimately  (hypostatically) 
united,  so  that  He,  true  God  and  the  Son 
of  God  by  nature,  was  born  according  to 
the  flesh  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  who  con- 
sequently is  truly  the  Mother  of  God 
(  Theotocos)."  2.  The  so-called  "  Robber 
Council,"  convoked  by  Theodosius,  held 
at  Ephesus  under  the  presidency  of  Dios- 
corus  of  Alexandria  in  449.  Everything 
in  this  Council  was  carried  on  with  open 
violence.  Dioscorus,  supported  by  the 
imperial  officers  and  a  band  of  fanatical 
monks,  exercised  the  most  arbitrary  des- 
potism against  the  assembled  prelates. 
Eutyches  was  absolved  and  restored ;  his 
accusers  were  excommunicated  and  de- 
posed, and  the  doctrine  of  the  two  natures 
in  Christ  rejected. 

Ephod.  —  A  sort  of  tunic  worn  by  the 
high  priest  of  the  Jews.  This  garment 
was  of  fine  linen,  of  a  heliotrope  or  purple 
color,  and  richly  embroidered. 

Ephraim.  —  i.  City  of  Palestine,  in  the 
tribe  of  Benjamin,  anciently  called  Ophra 
or  Ophera;  now  called  Thayebeh,  north- 
east of  and  adjacent  to  Bethel.     2.  Tribe 


Ephrem 


283 


Epiphany 


of  Israel,  issue  of  the  second  son  of  Joseph, 
whom  Jacob  adopted  in  giving  to  him  the 
same  rank  as  to  his  own  sons. 

Ephrem  (St.). — Father  of  the  Church. 
Surnamed  "  The  Syrian,"  or  also  "  The 
Edessenian,"  probably  on  account  of  his 
•  long  sojourn  in  Edessa.  Was  born,  accord- 
ing to  his  own  account,  of  Christian  par- 
ents, at  Nisibis,  about  306.  As  a  youth, 
he  appears  to  have  been  troubled  by 
doubts  and  difficulties  on  divine  Provi- 
dence. He  received  his  education  from 
the  learned  Bishop  Jacob  of  Nisibis,  whom 
he  accompanied,  at  a  later  period,  to  the 
Council  of  Nice,  and  who  also  appointed 
him  to  teach  Syriac  in  the  schools  he  had 
founded.  When  Nisibis  was  repeatedly 
besieged  by  the  Persian  King  Sapor  II., 
Ephrem  stood  by  his  fellow  citizens,  help- 
ing them  by  wise  counsels.  But  when  the 
city  surrendered  to  the  Persians  (363),  he 
withdrew  and  repaired  to  Edessa,  where, 
uniting  the  contemplative  to  the  active 
life,  he  labored  most  successfully  in  com- 
bating heresies,  preaching  the  Gospel,  as- 
sisting the  poor,  in  the  study  of  Scripture, 
and  the  composition  of  many  able  and  ex- 
cellent works.  In  370  he  visited  Basil  the 
Great  at  Caesarea,  and  journeyed  to  the 
monks  of  Egypt.  As  he  preached  a  pan- 
egyric on  St.  Basil,  who  died  January  ist, 
379,  his  own  death  must  be  placed  at  a 
later  date.  He  was  held  in  high  esteem 
in  the  East  on  account  of  the  holiness  and 
austerity  of  his  life,  as  well  as  because  of 
his  learning  and  good  works,  and  was  called 
"  Pillar  of  the  Church  "  and  ''  Syrorum 
Propketa.  '  It  is  questionable  whether  he 
was  a  priest,  because,  in  his  last  will,  he 
calls  himself  a  deacon.  His  numerous 
works,  which  fill  six  folios,  may  be  divided 
into  exegetical,  dogmatical,  moral,  and  as- 
cetical,  all  written  in  Syriac,  but,  at  an 
early  date,  translated  into  Armenian,  Ara- 
bic, Ethiopian,  Greek,  and  later,  though 
much  too  freely,  into  Latin.     F.  July  9th. 

Epicureans.  — A  school  of  philosophers 
in  high  repute  in  ancient  times.  They 
held  that  the  atoms  of  nature  existed  from 
eternity  and  formed  the  world  by  chance, 
that  the  gods  have  no  concern  about  the 
earth  and  there  is  no  providence,  that  the 
soul  dies  with  the  body,  and  that  man's 
chief  good  lies  in  pleasures  properly  regu- 
lated. Epicurus,  their  founder  (341-270 
B.  c),  was  a  moral  man,  they  say,  but  his 
disciples  deteriorated  and  became  very 
corrupt.   Their  opinions  and  their  life  made 


them  bitterly  opposed  to  all  religion,  and 
especially  to  the  serious  and  humble  doc- 
trines of  the  Gospel  (Acts  xvii.  16-34). 

Epiphanius  (St.)  (310-403).  —  Arch- 
bishop of  Salamis  (Cyprus).  Was  born  of 
Jewish  parents,  in  a  village  of  Palestine. 
After  their  death,  owing  to  the  influence  of 
the  monks,  especially  the  Abbot  Hilarion, 
he  became  a  Christian,  monk,  priest,  and 
abbot  of  a  monastery  founded  by  himself  in 
his  own  native  place.  This  he  governed 
for  the  space  of  thirty  years,  universally 
venerated  for  his  piety  and  learning.  In 
367  he  was  elevated  to  the  Metropolitan 
See  of  Salamis  in  the  island  of  Cyprus.  In 
382  he  journeyed  to  Rome,  for  the  purpose 
of  putting  an  end  to  the  schism  at  Antioch. 
His  almost  exaggerated  zeal  for  the  purity 
of  the  Christian  doctrine,  the  extraordinary 
restlessness  of  his  character,  as  well  as  a 
want  of  keen  judgment  and  worldly  ex- 
perience, led  him  sometimes  into  injudi- 
cious actions.  He  was  the  most  determined 
opponent  of  the  errors  of  Origen,  and  it 
was  he  who,  by  his  proceedings  against 
Bishop  John  of  Jerusalem,  an  admirer  of 
Origen,  was  the  real  cause  of  the  Origen- 
istic  controversy.  Moreover,  he  listened 
to  the  intriguing  Theophilus  of  Alexandria, 
and  shared  in  his  opposition  against  St. 
Chrysostom,  a  supposed  favorer  of  Ori- 
genism,  and  was  even  ready  to  take  part  in 
a  pretended  council  convened  against  him. 
Discovering  however  that  he  had  been 
duped  by  Theophilus,  he  left  Constanti- 
nople before  the  council  assembled,  and 
sailed  for  Cyprus,  but  was  overtaken  by 
death  during  the  voyage.  He  left  quite  a 
number  of  works  which  can  be  found  in 
Migne,  Pat.  gr.  XLI.-XLIII.    F.  May  12th. 

Epiphanius  (St.)  (438-497).  —  Bishop  of 
Pavia ;  born  in  this  city  and  successor  of 
St.  Crispin,  his  teacher,  in  466.  During 
the  troubled  period  which  followed  the  fall 
of  the  Roman  Empire  of  the  West,  Epiph- 
anus  became  the  political  protector  of  his 
country.     F.  Jan.  21st. 

Epiphanius.  —  Surnamed  the  "  Scholas- 
tic." Ecclesiastical  writer  of  the  sixth 
century.  Abbot  of  Viviers  and  friend  of 
Cassiodorous. 

Epiphany  or  Apparition  of  the  Lord.  — 

Festival  celebrated  on  January  6th.  This 
festival  is  set  apart  to  solemnly  commemo- 
rate the  coming  of  the  three  wise  men  from 
the  East,  guided  by  a  miraculous  star 
which  appeared  to  them,  and  directed  them 


Episcopacy 


284 


ESDRAS 


to  Bethlehem,  where  they  found  Christ  in 
the  stable ;  here  they  honored  and  adored 
Him  and  offered  gifts  to  Him. 

Episcopacy.     See  Bishop. 

Episcopals.     See  Anglicanism. 

Epistle  (lesson  drawn  from  the  Holy 
Scripture). — The  Jews  commenced  the 
public  service  of  their  Sabbath  bj'  reading 
from  Moses  and  the  Prophets.  The  first 
Christians  followed  their  example,  and 
during  divine  worship  on  Sunday  read 
passages  from  the  Old  or  New  Testament. 
But  as  these  extracts  were  more  generally 
made  from  the  Letters  of  St.  Paul,  the  Doc- 
tor of  the  Gentiles,  the  scriptural  lecture 
received  the  appellation  of  "  the  Epistle." 
The  Epistle  of  each  Sunday  is  taken  from 
the  Letters  of  St.  Paul,  or  of  the  other 
Apostles,  and  not  without  a  spiritual  mean- 
ing; for  in  causing  the  writings  of  God's 
envoys  to  be  recited  previous  to  the  read- 
ing of  the  Gospel,  the  Church  appears  to 
imitate  the  example  of  Jesus  Christ,  who 
deputed  some  of  His  disciples  to  go  before 
Him  into  those  quarters  which  He  was 
about  to  honor  with  a  visit.  It  is  thought 
that  the  present  distribution  of  Epistles  and 
Gospels  of  the  Sunday  throughout  the  year 
was  arranged  by  St.  Jerome  at  the  desire 
of  Pope  Damasus  about  the  year  376.  The 
number  of  the  Epistles  are :  14  addressed 
by  St.  Paul  to  particular  Churches  and  to 
his  disciples;  7  Catholic  Epistles,  so  called, 
because  the  majority  of  them  are  addressed 
to  all  Christianity  or  to  aggregations  of 
Churches.  See  Canon  of  the  Scrip- 
tures. 

Era.  —  See  Chronology. 

Erasmus  (Desiderius)  (1464-1536). — A 
famous  Dutch  classical  and  philosophical 
scholar  and  satirist.  He  was  the  illegiti- 
mate son  of  Gerhard  de  Praet,  and  was 
left  an  orphan  at  the  age  of  thirteen.  He 
entered,  in  1491,  the  ser\'ice  of  the  Bishop 
of  Cambray,  under  whose  patronage  he 
was  enabled  to  study  at  the  University  of 
Paris,  and  was  ordained  priest  in  1492. 
Erasmus  was  one  of  the  most  polished 
writers  of  his  age.  At  first  he  sided 
with  Luther,  expecting  that  his  move- 
ment would  bring  about  the  reform  of 
certain  abuses  in  the  Church.  Having 
been  drawn  into  the  controversy,  he  di- 
rected against  the  "Reformer"  his  book 
On  Free  Will.  Luther  replied  in  his 
pamphlet  "On  the  Slave  Will,"  attacking 
Erasmus  with  so  much  violence  that  the 


latter  complained,  saying  that  "  in  his  old 
age  he  was  compelled  to  contend  against  a 
savage  beast  and  a  furious  wild  boar."  On 
Luther's  marriage  he  wrote :  "  It  was 
thought  that  Luther  was  the  hero  of  the 
tragedy,  but,  for  my  part,  I  regard  him 
as  playing  the  chief  part  in  a  comedy, 
that  has  ended,  like  all  comedies,  in  a 
marriage." 

Erasmus  (St.)  (also  called  St.  Elmus). 
—  Bishop  of  Antioch  and  martyr  in  Cam- 
pania, about  301,  under  Diocletian  and 
Maximian.  Patron  saint  of  the  mariners. 
F.  June  2d. 

Erastians. — Followers  of  Thomas  Eras- 
tus,  born  probably  at  Baden,  Switzerland, 
died  at  Basle  (1524-1583).  The  sect  of  the 
Erastians,  in  England,  denied  that  the  An- 
glican Church  had  the  power  to  excommu- 
nicate. 

Erigena  (John  Scotus).  —  Great  Irish 
scholar  of  the  ninth  century.  The  fame  of 
his  talents  and  learning  caused  Emperor 
Charles  the  Bald  to  invite  him  to  his 
court  and  place  him  at  the  head  of  the 
Palatine  School.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
master  of  the  Greek,  Hebrew,  and  Arabic 
languages.  He  was  perfectly  familiar 
with  the  writings  and  systems  of  the 
Greek  philosophers,  and  with  the  works 
of  the  Fathers  of  the  Church,  both  Greek 
and  Latin.  He  became  involved  in  the 
predestinarian  controversy  against  Gott- 
schalk.  His  treatise  on  the  Eucharist,  now 
lost,  excited  much  controversy  in  a  later 
age ;  and  his  principal  work.  De  Divisione 
Natures  was  condemned  by  Pope  Leo  IX. 
in  1050.  The  wild  theories  advanced  by 
Erigena,  in  this  and  other  works,  justly 
exposed  their  author  to  the  censures  of 
the  Church.  At  what  date  Erigena  died 
is  not  clearly  ascertained. 

Esau  (Hebr.  hairy). — Twin  brother  of 
Jacob,  to  whom  he  sold  his  birthright  for 
a  dish  of  lentils.     Father  of  the  Idumeans. 

Esdraelon. — Plain  near  Nazareth.  See 
Jezrael. 

Esdras  {Books  of). —  Two  canonical 
books  of  the  Old  Testament.  In  the  first 
of  these  books  it  is  related  that  Esdras,  or 
Ezra,  "the  prince  of  the  Synagogue," 
revised  the  Book  of  the  Law  and  took  care 
that  its  provisions  should  be  observed. 
Mention  is  also  made  of  King  Cyrus  break- 
ing up  the  Babylonian  captivity  by  permit- 
ting the  expatriated  Jews  to  return  to  Jeru- 


ESSENES 


285 


Eucharist 


salem  and  rebuild  their  temple.  This  edict 
of  Cyrus  was  not,  however,  acted  upon 
until  458  B.  c,  in  the  reign  of  Assuerus, 
when  Esdras  led  the  emancipated  Jews 
back  to  the  land  from  which  they  had  been 
exiled .  Nehemias  succeeded  to  Esdras,  and 
how  he  expounded  as  well  as  enforced  the 
law  is  told  in  the  Second  Book  of  Esdras 
by  Nehemias  himself. 

Essenes  (a  Jewish  sect). — The  Essenes 
were  a  society  of  piously  disposed  men, 
who  had  withdrawn  themselves  from  the 
strife  of  theological  and  political  parties 
to  the  western  side  of  the  Dead  Sea,  where 
they  lived  together,  leading  an  ascetic  life. 

Esther. — The  Persian  name  of  the  queen, 
from  whom  one  of  the  Old  Testament 
books  takes  its  name.  She  is  represented 
in  the  book  as  the  daughter  of  Abigail, 
cousin  and  adopted  daughter  of  Mardochai, 
of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin.  She  was  made 
queen  in  the  place  of  Vasthi,  by  King  As- 
suerus (Xerxes,  480-465  b.c),  and  in  this 
position  was  able  to  protect  her  people 
from  the  hostile  contrivances  of  Aman, 
in  memory  of  which  deliverance  the  feast 
of  Purim  is  still  celebrated.  The  author- 
ship of  the  Book  of  Esther  is  generally 
attributed  to  Mardochai,  because  in  the 
ninth  chapter  it  is  stated  that  "Mardochai 
wrote  all  these  things." 

Ethelbert  (that  is,  the  noble  and  valiant) 
(545-615)  — King  of  Kent.  Had  married 
Bertha,  the  daughter  of  Caribert,  king  of 
the  Franks  of  Paris.  This  princess,  being 
a  Christian,  had  been  affianced  to  Ethel- 
bert only  on  condition  that  she  should  be 
permitted  to  observe  the  practices  of  her 
religion.  She  brought  with  her  as  spirit- 
ual adviser,  from  her  native  country,  Luid- 
hard,  a  Christian  bishop,  who  practiced 
the  offices  of  his  religion  in  an  old  Catholic 
church  of  the  Roman  times,  situated  near 
Canterbury,  which  had  escaped  destruction 
at  the  hands  of  the  Barbarians.  King 
Ethelbert,  having  taken  a  few  days  to  de- 
liberate on  the  course  to  be  pursued  with 
regard  to  the  missionaries,  paid  them  a 
visit  on  the  island  where  they  had  landed, 
and,  having  seated  himself  on  an  oak 
stump,  listened  to  their  address,  and 
learned  their  intentions,  informed  them, 
that,  as  they  were  strangers  to  him,  he 
could  not  at  once  give  up  the  belief  of  his 
fathers  and  of  his  nation,  but  assured  them 
that,  since  they  evidently  believed  what 
they  said,  they  should  be  hospitably  enter- 


tained, and  might  go  through  his  kingdom, 
preaching  and  converting  whom  they 
could.  He  also  gave  them  the  old  Roman 
church  at  Dorovernum  (Canterbury,  Kent- 
■war-btiry,  that  is  the  borough  of  the  men 
of  Kent).  This  church  was  dedicated  to 
St.  Martin,  and  thither  Augustine  and  his 
monks  repaired  to  celebrate  Mass,  chant 
the  divine  office,  and  perform  other  offices 
of  the  ministry.  King  Ethelbert,  charmed 
by  the  holiness  of  their  lives,  and  won  by 
the  purity  of  their  doctrine,  asked  and  ob- 
tained permission  to  enter  the  Church,  and 
was  baptized  by  St.  Augustine  on  the  feast 
of  Pentecost  (a.  d.  597).  The  example  of 
the  king  had  a  very  salutary  effect  upon 
his  countrymen,  and  on  the  following 
Christmas  (597)  ten  thousand  of  them  were 
received  into  the  Church.  King  Ethelbert 
built  for  Melitus,  Bishop  of  London,  the 
Cathedral  of  St.  Paul,  and  authorized  the 
erection  of  a  second  bishopric  in  his  king- 
dom of  Kent,  at  the  Roman  city  of  Roch- 
ester, twenty  miles  west  of  Canterbury. 

Ethelwold  (925-984).  —  Surnamed  the 
"  Father  of  Monks."  Bishop  of  Winches- 
ter, and  reformer  of  monastic  orders  in 
England.  Was  born  at  Winchester.  Poet, 
grammarian,  and  theologian. 

Ethiopia. — In  ancient  geography,  a  coun- 
try south  of  Egypt,  corresponding  to  the 
kingdom  of  Meroe,  from  the  neighborhood 
of  Khartoum  northward  to  Egypt.  In  a 
more  extended  sense,  it  comprised  Nubia, 
northern  Abyssinia,  Sennaar,  and  Kor- 
dofan.  About  the  Christian  era  it  was 
ruled  by  a  female  dynasty,  the  Candaces 
(Acts  viii.  27). 

Ethnarch. —  A  ruler  who,  though  not  in- 
dependent, yet  governed  his  people  accord- 
ing to  their  national  laws.  The  term  was 
given  to  the  Jewish  ruler  Simon  (I.  Mach. 
xiv.  47)  and  his  son  Hyrcanus.  In  II.  Cor. 
xi.  32,  the  deputy  of  Aretas  the  king  was 
called  the  "ethnarch," — in  the  English 
version  "  governor." 

Eucharist  (one  of  the  seven  sacraments). 
—  The  sacrament  of  the  holy  Eucharist 
contains  the  true  body,  blood,  and  divinity 
of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  under  the  appear- 
ances of  bread  and  wine.  It  is  called  the 
"  Eucharist,"  because  this  word  in  the  origi- 
nal Greek,  means  thanksgiving.  It  is 
called  the  sacred  "  Host,"  which  word  sig- 
nifies victim,  because  in  it  our  Saviour 
is  really  renewing  the  sacrifice  of  Himself 
for  us  day  by  day.    It  is  called  the  "  Blessed 


Eucharist 


286 


Eucharist 


Sacrament  of  the  Altar,"  because  the  con- 
secration and  mystery  of  Transubstantia- 
tion  take  place  nowhere  lawfully  but  on  the 
consecrated  stone  of  the  altar;  also  be- 
cause the  holy  sacrament  is  kept  in  the 
tabernacle  over  the  altar,  that  we  may  wor- 
ship our  Redeemer  under  the  veil  or  out- 
ward appearance  of  bread,  just  as  He  was 
adored,  when  on  earth,  in  the  form  of  man, 
though  His  divinity  was  hidden  under  the 
veil  or  appearance  of  humanity.  The  holy 
Eucharist  is  the  central  mystery  of  Cath- 
olic worship,  towards  which  all  the  cere- 
monial service  of  the  Church  converges. 
It  contains  the  essential  principle  of  Chris- 
tianity and  is  the  very  soul  of  our  religion. 
Our  Saviour  instituted  the  blessed  sac- 
rament of  the  Eucharist  as  the  great 
means  of  communicating  grace  to  our  souls 
in  the  closest  union  of  Himself  with  us, 
through  the  miracle  of  Transubstantiation. 
On  the  eve  of  His  passion.  He  "took 
bread,  and  blessed,  and  broke;  and  gave  to 
His  disciples  and  said  :  Take  ye  and  eat : 
This  is  My  Body.  And  taking  the  chalice, 
He  gave  thanks,  and  gave  to  them,  saying: 
Drink  ye  all  of  this.  For  this  is  My  Blood 
of  the  New  Testament,  which  shall  be  shed 
for  many  unto  remission  of  sins  "  (Matt, 
xxvi.  26-28).  In  establishing  the  sacra- 
ment of  the  Eucharist,  our  Lord  com- 
manded His  Apostles  to  act  in  accordance 
with  His  words,  and  gave  them  power  to 
do  that  which  He  Himself  had  done,  by 
saying:  "Do  this  for  a  commemoration 
of  me"  (Luke  xxii.  19).  Therefore,  His 
meaning  clearly  was,  that  they.  His  Apos- 
tles and  priests,  were  to  give  thanks,  con- 
secrate, break,  eat,  and  distribute  to  others 
in  the  same  manner  as  He  had  done.  It  is 
quite  certain  that  our  Lord,  knowing  the 
inmost  thoughts  of  His  disciples,  would 
not  have  allowed  them  to  rest  under  a  mis- 
understanding of  His  words  or  the  power 
given  them  by  Him ;  and  thus  not  only  be 
misled  themselves,  but  mislead  all  those 
who  should  follow  their  teaching.  Both 
the  belief  of  our  Saviour's  Apostles  in  His 
Real  Presence,  and  their  distinct  grasp  of 
the  authority  given  them  by  Him  are 
plainly  demonstrated  by  St.  Paul's  words: 
"  The  chalice  of  benediction  which  we 
bless,  is  it  not  the  communion  of  the  blood 
of  Christ?  and  the  bread,  which  we  break, 
is  it  not  the  partaking  of  the  body  of  the 
Lord?"  (I.  Cor.  x.  16).  It  is,  conse- 
quently, an  incontestable  fact  that  this 
most  holy  sacrament  contains  the  real 
Body  and  Blood  of  our  Saviour,  together 


with  His  soul  and  divinity,  united  insepa- 
rably to  them.  His  words  were  absolute, 
and  admit  of  no  other  interpretation  than 
that  given  by  His  Apostles,  which  He  .sanc- 
tioned them  to  retain,  and  was  made  more 
obvious  by  the  fact  that,  in  the  language 
used  in  the  New  Testament,  the  word 
"this,"  employed  by  our  Saviour  in  say- 
ing: "This  is  My  Body,"  is  neuter,  and 
therefore  could  not  have  referred  to  the 
bread  as  merely  bread,  which  word,  in  those 
tongues,  is  of  the  masculine  gender.  There 
is,  accordingly,  no  reason  whatever  for 
doubting  that  our  Lord  intended  us  to  un- 
derstand that  the  substance  of  bread  and 
wine  held  in  His  sacred  hands,  on  this 
memorable  occasion  was,  by  a  miracle  of 
His  almighty  power,  really  and  truly 
changed  into  His  precious  Body  and  Blood. 
If  the  presence  of  our  Saviour  in  the 
blessed  sacrament  were  only  figurative, 
and  had  been  accepted  only  as  such  in  the 
beginning,  it  is  more  than  improbable  that 
during  so  many  ages,  the  true  followers  of 
Christ  would  have  abandoned  this  simple 
belief  for  one  so  infinitely  beyond  our 
reasoning  powers.  It  is,  therefore,  im- 
possible that  our  Lord  should  have  taught 
His  Apostles  to  regard  His  presence  in  the 
holy  Eucharist  as  merely  typical.  It  is 
also  impossible  that  in  past  ages,  when 
the  faculties  of  the  mind  were  as  keen  as 
they  are  now,  the  members  of  His  true 
Church  should  have  adopted  the  belief  in 
the  Real  Presence  of  Christ,  had  His 
teaching,  and  the  teaching  of  His  Apostle? 
after  Him,  been  of  a  presence  figurative. 
Moreover,  there  has  never  been  found  any 
trace  of  a  change  in  the  belief  of  the  Faith- 
ful, that  He  is  really  present  in  the  sacra- 
ment of  the  most  holy  Eucharist;  although 
it  was,  no  doubt,  easy  for  vast  numbers, 
even  w-ith  good  intentions,  to  read  and  ex- 
plain the  Scriptures  according  to  their 
own  fancy,  while  authoritative  and  right- 
ful teaching  is  rejected  for  private  inter- 
pretation. 

Before  the  institution  of  the  holy 
Eucharist  our  Lord  clearly  announced  its 
future  establishment  as  a  sacrament  for 
the  communication  of  grace,  through  His 
sacred  body  and  blood  by  saying :  "  I  am 
the  bread  of  life.  ...  I  am  the  living 
bread  which  came  down  from  heaven.  If 
any  man  eat  of  this  bread  he  shall  live  for- 
ever; and  the  bread  that  I  will  give  is  my 
flesh  for  the  life  of  the  world  "  (John  vi.  48, 
51,  52).  He  furthermore  confirmed  the 
true  meaning  of  His  words  in  the  sense 


EUCHERIUS 


287 


EUGENIUS 


already  explained,  by  reiterating  the  real- 
ity of  His  presence  in  the  sacrament  of 
the  holy  Eucharist,  in  His  answer  to  the 
Jews,  who  asked :  "  How  can  this  man 
give  us  His  flesh  to  eat?  Then  Jesus 
said  to  them :  Amen,  amen,  I  say  unto 
you  :  except  you  eat  the  flesh  of  the  Son  of 
Man,  and  drink  His  blood,  you  shall  not 
have  life  in  you.  He  that  eateth  my  flesh 
and  drinketh  my  blood,  hath  everlasting 
life,  and  I  will  raise  him  up  on  the  last  day. 
For  my  flesh  is  meat  indeed :  and  my 
blood  is  drink  indeed  "  (John  vi.  53-56). 
In  all  this,  our  Saviour's  words  were  abso- 
lute in  declaring  His  future  real  presence 
in  the  sacrament  He  was  about  to  establish, 
and  never  once  referred  to  the  bread  as  a 
figurative  representation  of  Himself,  nor 
did  He  speak  of  it  in  the  light  of  a  spiritual 
presence,  superinduced  by  faith  alone. 
See  Transubstantiation,  Mass,  Sacri- 
fice, and  Communion. 

Eucherius  (St.).  —  Bishop  of  Lyons  was 
descended  from  an  illustrious  Lyonese 
family,  and  on  account  of  his  education 
and  learning,  was  raised  to  senatorial  rank. 
He  was  married  and  lived  happily  with 
his  noble  and  pious  wife  Galla,  and  their 
two  sons  and  daughters.  Forsaking,  how- 
ever, his  high  position,  he  traveled  to  the 
Thebaid,  and,  on  his  return,  became,  with 
his  wife's  consent,  a  monk  at  Lerins,  where 
his  two  sons,  Salonius  and  Veranius,  had 
received  their  education.  Simultaneously 
Galla  and  her  daughters  assumed  the  re- 
ligious veil.  After  a  short  time,  seeking 
still  greater  facility  for  a  contemplative 
life,  Eucherius  went  to  the  neighboring 
and  more  lonesome  isle  of  Lero  (Ste.  Mar- 
guerite). But  the  fame  of  his  virtue  became 
so  widely  extended  that,  about  434,  much 
against  his  will,  he  was  chosen  Bishop  of 
Lyons.  During  his  episcopate  he  built 
many  churches,  founded  various  institu- 
tions and  greatly  encouraged  the  monastic 
life.  In  441,  he  attended  as  metropolitan 
the  Synod  of  Orange,  and  continued  to 
labor  assiduously  for  the  good  of  the 
Church  until  his  death,  about  449.  He 
was  a  man  well  versed  in  sacred  learning, 
mighty  in  eloquence,  and  rich  in  good 
works.     F.  Nov.  i6th. 

Euchites  or  Euphemites. — Heretics  of 
the  fourth  century,  so  called  from  their 
habit  of  long  prayer.  Their  chief  char- 
acteristic was  that  they  professed  to  give 
themselves  entirely  to  prayer ;  refusing  to 
do  any  work,  they  obtained  their  living  by 


begging.  Hence  they  were  also  known 
as  Messalians  {praying people),  and  Adel- 
phians,  from  Adelphius  their  leader.  Re- 
jecting all  external  worship,  they  laid 
great  stress  on  continual  prayer  as  the 
only  means  of  expelling  the  demon,  which 
every  man  had,  as  they  said,  inherited 
through  original  sin.  These  deluded 
spiritualists  spread  over  Syria,  Palestine, 
and  Mesopotamia. 

Euchology. — A  liturgical  book  contain- 
ing the  prayers  and  ceremonies  of  the 
Greek  Church,  and  corresponding  to  the 
Catholic  Ritual. 

Eudists. — Members  of  a  religious  con- 
gregation founded  in  France  in  1643,  by 
Jean  Eudes,  a  priest  of  the  Oratory,  for 
educational  and  missionary  purposes.  Its 
official  name  is  "The  Congregation  of 
Jesus  and  Mary."  The  order  was  sup- 
pressed in  1792,  and  revived  in  1826. 

Eudo  de  Stella.     See  Eon. 

Eugenius  (name  of  four  Popes). — 
Eugenius  I. —  Pope  from  654-657.  Was 
elected  with  the  consent  of  his  predeces- 
sor, St.  Martin,  who  had  been  exiled. 
Eugenius  II.  —  Pope  from  824  to  827,  and 
successor  of  Paschal  I.  During  the  three 
years  of  his  Pontificate,  he  had  to  exercise 
great  prudence  in  the  East  where  the 
Iconoclast  heresy  was  being  agitated,  and 
to  preserve  from  this  error  the  West, 
especially  France.  Eugenius  III. — Pope 
from  1145  to  1 153.  Cistercian  monk,  Ber- 
nard of  Pisa,  and  Abbot  of  St.  Athanasius 
at  Rome.  Owing  to  the  disturbed  state  of 
Rome,  Eugenius  III.  was  consecrated  in 
the  Monastery  of  Farfa,  and  took  up  his 
temporary  abode  at  Viterbo.  He  excom- 
municated the  Patrician  Jordanes,  and 
finally  succeeded  in  re-establishing  his 
authority  at  Rome.  This  Pope  commis- 
sioned St.  Bernard  to  preach  the  second 
Crusade.  Eugenius  IV. — Pope  from  1431 
to  1447.  He  commenced  his  Pontificate 
by  a  diflScult  struggle  with  Colonna, 
nephew  of  his  predecessor,  Martin  V., 
and  he  encouraged  the  continuation  of 
the  war  against  the  Hussites.  He  con- 
firmed the  convocation  of  the  Council  of 
Basle,  as  well  as  the  appointment  of  Car- 
dinal Julian  Cesarini,  as  papal  Legate 
and  president  of  the  assembly.  He  also 
aroused  Poland  and  Hungary  against  the 
Turks,  in  a  war  which  ended  with  the  dis- 
aster at  Varna,  in  1444. 


EULOGIAE 


288 


Evangelical  Alliance 


Eulogise. —  In  the  Greek  Church,  name 
given  to  the  remainders  of  the  Eucharistic 
bread  and  wine,  which  were  distributed 
among  the  Faithful  not  yet  admitted  to 
communion. 

Eunomians.     See  Anomceans. 

Eunuch. —  A  castrated  male,  usually  em- 
ployed to  take  charge  of  women's  apart- 
ments. Sometimes  it  denotes  merely  a 
court  officer,  as  the  treasurer  of  Queen 
Candace  (Acts  viii.  27). 

Eusebius  (St.). —  Pope  in  310.  Native 
of  Greece.  He  reconciled  the  heretics  by 
the  sole  imposition  of  hands ;  but  showed 
himself  more  severe  toward  the  Lapsi 
(  fallen)  who  had  given  up  to  State  officers 
the  Sacred  Books  and  sacred  vessels.  This 
question  divided  the  people  and  provoked 
revolts  and  bloodshed.  Exiled,  he  died  in 
Sicily  in  311.     F.  Dec.  i6th. 

Eusebius  of  Caesarea  (265-340). — Writer 
and  ecclesiastical  historian.  He  was  a  dis- 
ciple of  the  learned  priest  and  martyr  St. 
Pamphylus  of  CsEsarea.  About  the  year 
314,  he  was  made  Bishop  of  Caesarea. 
He  attended  the  Council  of  Nice,  and,  not 
without  some  hesitation,  however,  sub- 
scribed to  the  Nicene  Creed.  In  the  long 
Arian  struggle,  Eusebius  sided  with  the 
opponents  of  the  orthodox  bishops,  and  on 
account  of  his  equivocal  attitude  and  views, 
with  regard  to  the  leading  question  of  the 
day,  the  Divinity  of  Christ,  he  was  justly 
suspected  of  heresy.  However,  his  piety 
and  zeal  for  the  Church  are  highly  praised. 
Eusebius  is  called  "The  Father  of  Ecclesi- 
astical History,"  and  was  one  of  the  most 
learned  prelates  of  his  age.  His  Church 
History  is  one  of  his  most  important 
works. 

Eusebius  of  Nicomedia. —  Greek  heresi- 
arch  ;  died  in  342.  Bishop  of  Berytus,  then 
of  Nicomedia.  He  made  the  attempt  to 
justify  Arius  in  the  Council  of  Nice.  In  a 
Council  of  Jerusalem  he  caused  Arius  to 
be  received  again  into  communion  of  the 
Church  and  was  the  declared  adversary 
of  St.  Athanasius. 

Eusebius  of  Vercelli  (St.)  (315-370). — 
Born  in  Sardinia,  Bishop  of  Vercelli.  He 
zealously  combated  the  heresy  of  Arius. 
F.  Dec.  15th. 

Eustathiens.  —  Heretics  of  the  fourth 
century.  Followers  of  Eustathius,  Bishop 
of  Sebaste.     A  hyper-ascetic  sect,  rejected 


matrimony,  and  ecclesiastical  fasts,  but 
fasted  on  Sundays  and  festivals.  The  Coun- 
cil of  Gangres  (between  360  and  380)  passed 
twenty  canons  against  them. 

Eusthatius  of  Antioch. —  Bishop  of  An- 
tioch  from  325.  Distinguished  himself, 
both  during  and  after  the  Council  of  Nice, 
by  his  strenuous  resistance  against  the 
Arian  heresy,  and  had,  on  that  account,  in- 
curred the  hatred  of  the  Arians.  Constan- 
tine  banished  him  into  Illyria,  where  he 
died,  in  337. 

Eutyches  and  Eutychians.  —  Foremost 
among  those  who  combated  Nestorianism 
in  Constantinople  was  one  Eutyches,  the 
head  of  a  monastery  in  that  city.  Unfor- 
tunately, he  had  more  zeal  in  opposing 
heresy  than  acuteness  to  appreciate  tlie 
subtleties  of  the  controversy;  and  the  re- 
sult was  that  he  misunderstood  some  ex- 
pressions used  by  St.  Cyril  of  Alexandria, 
the  guiding  spirit  of  the  Council  of  Ephesus. 
Eutyches  maintained  that  he  had  the  au- 
thority of  this  great  Doctor  for  a  view 
which  in  truth  destroyed  the  reality  of  the 
Incarnation  as  thoroughly  as  did  that  to 
which  it  was  opposed,  for  it  represented 
the  Human  Nature  as  being  so  completely 
absorbed  in  the  Divine  Nature  that  it 
ceased  to  have  a  distinct  existence.  This 
heresy  was  condemned  by  the  Fourth  Ecu- 
menical Council,  held  at  Chalcedon  in  451, 
but  the  sect  maintained  itself  under  the 
name  of  the  "  Monophysites."  See  this 
subject. 

Eutychianus  (St.).  —  Etruscan  by  birth. 
Pope  from  275  to  285.  SuflFered  martyrdom 
under  Numerian.     F.  Dec.  8th. 

Evagrius  (surnamed  "The  Scholastic") 
(536-600). — Greek  historian ;  born  in  Syria. 
His  Ecclesiastical  History  in  six  books  con- 
tains the  history  of  the  Church  from  431  to 
594- 

Evangeliarium.  —  Book  which  contains 
the  Gospels  read  or  sung  at  each  Mass,  and 
which  is  said  to  have  been  composed  by  St. 
Jerome. 

Evangelical  Alliance. — An  association, 
founded  in  England  in  1815,  by  High 
Churchmen  and  Dissenters,  on  the  broad 
basis  of  their  common  principles  of  Chris- 
tianity, in  order  to  check  the  progress 
of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  kingdom. 
The  meetings  of  these  associations,  which 
were  also  attended  by   French,  German, 


Evangelical  Association      289 


Evil 


and  other  Protestants,  clearly  attest  the 
internal  distractions  that  disturbed  Protes- 
tantism, together  with  the  sentiments  of  its 
adherents  toward  the  Catholic  Church. 

Evangelical  Association. — A  Protestant 
denomination  in  the  United  States,  com- 
monly, though  erroneously,  known  as  Ger- 
man Methodists,  and  sometimes  as  Al- 
brights. It  was  founded  by  Jacob  Albright 
or  Albrecht  (1759-1808),  a  native  of  Potts- 
town,  Pennsylvania,  a  tile-burner  who,  dis- 
satisfied with  the  lax  morality  of  the  neigh- 
boring German  churches,  began  to  preach 
in  1790,  and  in  1800  established  a  church 
and  was  elected  pastor  or  bishop  of  the  va- 
rious stations  where  he  had  made  converts. 
The  name  Evangelical  was  adopted,  and  in 
1816  the  first  annual  conference  was  held. 
They  accept  the  Bible  as  their  only  rule  of 
faith,  interpret  it  according  to  the  teach- 
ing of  Arminius,  but  deny  the  doctrine  of 
original  sin.  Their  church  polity  is  simi- 
lar to  that  of  the  Methodists,  including 
itinerant  preachers. 

Evangelical  Counsels,  or  Counsels  of  the 
Gospel,  are  three :  Poverty,  Chastity,  and 
Obedience.  They  have  been  recommended 
by  Christ  in  particular  as  means  of  perfec- 
tion. By  voluntary  poverty,  the  right  of 
possession  and  free  disposal  of  property  is 
renounced.  Perfect  chastity,  which  volun- 
tarily renounces  not  only  unlawful  pleas- 
ures but  even  the  married  life,  is  recom- 
mended by  our  Lord  in  the  following 
words :  "  There  are  eunuchs  who  have 
made  themselves  eunuchs  for  the  kingdom 
of  heaven.  He  that  can  take,  let  him  take 
it"  (Matt.  xix.  12).  Perfect  o3e(//e»r(?  under 
a  spiritual  superior  has  for  its  object  the 
perfect  regulation  of  such  actions  as  of 
themselves  are  not  prescribed  and  regu- 
lated by  any  law.  By  such  obedience  our 
will  is  not  only  preserved  from  transgres- 
sions and  forced  to  the  performance  of 
many  acts  of  self-sacrifice,  but  also,  by  the 
fact  of  being  subjected  to  the  will  of  God's 
representative  on  earth,  it  is  wholly  con- 
formed with  the  divine  will. 

Evangelical  Church. —  The  abbreviated 
name  of  the  German  United  Evangelical 
Church,  founded  in  Prussia  in  1817  by  a 
union  of  Lutheran  and  Reformed  Churches 
in  Germany.  It  is  the  largest  of  the 
Protestant  Churches  in  Germany;  is  Pres- 
byterian in  polity,  and  is  partially  sup- 
ported by  the  government,  which  ap- 
points the  consistories  or  provincial  boards. 
19 


Evangelist  {bringer  of  good  tidings). — 
Author  of  one  of  the  four  Gospels :  St. 
Matthew,  St.  Mark,  St.  Luke,  and  St. 
John. 

Eve.     See  Adam. 

Evil  {Origin  of).  —  The  great  question 
about  the  origin  of  evil  depends  on  the 
principle  of  causality.  God,  says  St. 
Thomas,  moves  all  things,  but  not  in  the 
same  manner.  In  the  evil,  as  in  all  exist- 
ing things,  we  must  consider  two  things: 
the  substance  and  the  form.  God  concurs 
in  regard  to  evil,  only  relatively  to  the 
substance  and  not  to  the  form  or  malitia 
mali,  which  is  the  work  of  the  finite  will. 
The  pagans  had  also  stated  the  question, 
and  the  answer  approached  that  of  Chris- 
tianity, in  proportion  to  the  development 
of  the  idea  of  a  personal  God.  Zoroaster 
had  admitted  dualism,  — onnuzd,  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  good,  or  thought;  ahriman, 
principle  of  evil  or  matter.  The  Stoics 
based  both  good  and  evil  on  the  will.  In 
order  to  treat  this  question,  we  must  dis- 
card, first,  the  two  opposed  systems : 
Optimism,  which  maintains  that  this  world 
is  the  best  possible,  and  Pessimism,  which 
maintains  that  this  world  is  the  worst  pos- 
sible. Optimism  has  counted  numerous 
defenders,  from  the  time  of  Socrates 
and  Plato  to  Leibnitz.  The  latter  says 
that  "  the  metaphysical  evil,  properly 
speaking,  is  no  evil,  but  only  a  lesser  good, 
an  imperfection  which  disappears  by  itself 
if  we  raise  ourselves  to  a  more  general 
view;  only  moral  and  physical  evils  are 
possible.  Neither  metaphysical  nor  phys- 
ical evil  can  be  imputed  to  God.  As  to 
the  moral  evil,  God  cannot  concur  to  it; 
He  cannot  will  it,  but  only  permits  it. 
Antecedently,  God  always  wills  the  good, 
but  consequently.  He  always  wills  the 
best."  Although  optimism  is  not  opposed 
to  Catholic  doctrine,  we  cannot  however 
admit  it  absolutely,  on  account  of  its  con- 
-sequences.  Pessimism  was  unknown  to 
the  ancients ;  it  was  only  in  the  nineteenth 
century  that  it  appeared,  first  in  Germany, 
then  in  France.  Leopardi,  Schopenhauer, 
and  Hartmann  are  the  chief  representatives 
of  this  error,  whose  influence  made  itself 
felt  in  the  poetries  of  Alfred  de  Vigny  and 
in  the  philosophical  dialogues  of  Renan. 
Leopardi  places  the  metaphysical  principle 
in  the  will,  Schopenhauer  in  the  con- 
sciousness ;  his  fundamental  axiom  is :  "To 
live  is  to  wish  and  to  wish  is  to  suffer." 
The  first  opposes  to  evil  only  a  Stoic  resig- 


Evil-Merodach 


290 


Evolution 


nation :  silence  and  despair.  The  second 
tells  us  that  we  should  work  for  the  deliv- 
erance of  the  world,  by  the  total  annihila- 
tion of  the  beings.  The  Nihilists  pledge 
themselves  to  draw  the  logical  conse- 
quences from  this  doctrine.  Truth  is 
found  between  both  extremes.  The  relative 
perfection  of  the  world  ought  not  to  ex- 
clude the  existence  of  evil,  existence  which 
is  an  undeniable  fact.  But  how  can  we 
explain  this  mystery.?  Maj-  we  not  say 
that  in  the  plan  of  Providence,  evil  is,  in 
regard  to  us,  a  trial,  an  expiation,  a  rem- 
edy.? 

Evil-Merodach  (Chaldaic,  servant  of  the 
god  Aferodach). — Son  of  Nabuchodonosor, 
king  of  Babylon,  561-559  b.  c.  He  released 
the  king  of  Juda,  Joachim,  from  prison, 
after  37  years'  confinement,  and  honored 
him  above  all  the  vassal  kings  and  also 
protected  the  prophet  Daniel.  He  was 
killed  in  a  rebellion  led  by  his  sister's  hus- 
band, Neriglissar  (Nergalsharezer),  who 
then  seized  the  Babylonian  crown.  Ac- 
cording to  Berosus,  he  rendered  himself 
odious  by  his  arbitrary  and  unwise  rule. 

Evodius.  —  Latin  theologian,  born  at 
Tagaste,  Africa ;  died  about  430.  Intimate 
friend  of  St.  Augustine,  and  Bishop  of 
Uzalis,  near  Utica.  Was  a  zealous  adver- 
sary of  the  Donatists  and  Pelagians. 

Evolution  {Theory  of).  —  The  theory 
of  evolution  has  been  used  as  the  designa- 
tion for  the  doctrine  of  Charles  Darwin 
(died  1882),  which  pretends  to  explain  the 
origin  of  all  beings  by  successive  evolu- 
tions or  transformations.  If  we  speak  only 
theoretically  and  reason  on  possibilities 
and  not  on  facts,  it  is  certain  —  if  we  ex- 
cept the  spontaneous  generation  of  the 
first  being,  which  is  impossible  —  that  God 
could  have  created  the  world  according  to 
the  evolutionary  system,  that  is.  He  could 
have  created  only  one  being  capable  of  de- 
veloping itself  gradually  and  of  producing 
the  different  organisms  of  all  actually  ex- 
isting beings.  But  this  is  not  the  question. 
We  are  not  concerned  with  what  could 
have  been,  but  what  is  in  reality.  Now 
the  fact  contradicts  the  doctrine  of  Darwin. 
He  is  unable  to  give  any  direct  proof  of  the 
evolution  of  species ;  he  was  obliged  to 
acknowledge  that  there  exist  many  breaks 
between  the  diflFerent  species,  and  that  the 
passage  from  one  to  another  is  by  insensible 
degrees,  a  passage  which  grinds  the  sys- 
tem, but  which  has  not  been  proved ;  he 


affirms,  then,  as  real,  that  which  is  only 
possible,  although  "«  fosse  ad  actum  non 
valet  ronsecutioy  Not  only  does  Darwin- 
ism affirm  more  than  it  can  prove,  but  it  is 
in  plain  contradiction  with  the  best  authen- 
ticated facts.  It  affirms  the  variability  of 
the  specific  types;  now  history  and  geol- 
ogy, on  the  contrary,  prove  their  stability. 
In  the  ruins  of  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii, 
buried  more  than  1,800  years  ago  under 
lava  from  Mount  Vesuvius,  there  has  been 
found,  in  the  house  of  a  painter,  a  collection 
of  shells,  and,  in  the  store  of  a  fruit  dealer, 
vases  full  of  chestnuts,  of  olives,  and  nuts, 
all  in  a  perfect  state  of  preser^-ation.  These 
shells  and  fruits  are  no  wise  different  from 
the  shells  and  fruits  of  to-day.  Aristotle 
described,  more  than  two  thousand  years 
ago,  a  great  number  of  plants  and  animals. 
His  descriptions  answer  exactly  to  the 
actual  species,  and  show  that,  during  the 
interval  of  time,  these  species  have  under- 
gone neither  variation  nor  change.  During 
this  century,  there  have  been  discovered 
in  the  tombs  of  ancient  Egypt,  the  seeds  of 
different  plants,  and  many  species  of  em- 
balmed animals,  that  had  lived  long  before 
the  epoch  of  Aristotle,  even  as  far  back  as 
the  fourth  dynasty.  These  seeds  and  ani- 
mals are  the  same  as  those  of  to-day. 
Geology  permits  us  to  go  much  further 
back  in  the  past,  far  beyond  the  limits  which 
history  can  reach,  and  its  testimony  is  the 
same.  Darwin  has  been  obliged  to  ac- 
knowledge that  the  skeletons  of  animals 
have  not  been  changed  since  the  glacial 
period.  According  to  Agassiz,  the  south- 
ern extremity  of  Florida  has  been  formed 
by  the  accumulation  of  the  corals  of  the 
tropical  seas,  and,  if  his  calculations  are 
correct,  the  formation  of  those  coral  reefs 
required  no  less  a  period  than  two  hundred 
thousand  years.  Now,  if  we  compare  the 
zoophites  which  have  formed  the  upper- 
most ledges  of  these  reefs,  with  those  which 
formed  their  lowest  strata,  we  cannot  verify 
any  difference  between  them. 

The  comparison  of  the  flora  of  the  gla- 
cial period  with  that  of  our  era,  leads  to 
the  same  results.  There  has  been  dis- 
covered near  Hohenhausen,  in  the  canton 
of  Zurich,  in  the  midst  of  a  peat  marsh, 
quite  a  collection  of  the  flora  of  those  ages. 
These  debris  are  imbedded  in  peat  whose 
formation,  according  to  certain  geologists, 
must  have  taken  place  between  the  two 
glacial  epochs.  The  yew  tree,  the  wild 
pine,  the  larch,  the  birch,  the  maple,  the 
nut  tree,  in  its  two  kinds,  have  been  recog- 


Exaltation  of  the  Cross      291 


Excommunication 


nized  as  having  existed  in  an  age  certainly 
anterior  to  ours.  They  have  been  com- 
pared with  the  same  species  as  they  now 
grow,  and  no  difference  has  been  found  to 
exist  between  them.  In  a  word  history 
and  natural  sciences  have  proved  the  sta- 
bility and  permanence  of  the  species: 
Darwinists  cannot  cite  one  historical 
instance  of  the  gradual  transition  of  one 
species  to  another ;  their  system  is  there- 
fore in  contradiction  with  facts.  Nature  is 
not  "  transformist,"  and  Moses  spoke  the 
truth  when  he  said  that  God  had  created 
plants  and  animals  according  to  their 
kind. 

The  great  flaw  in  Darwin's  system  is 
that  he  takes  what  is  accidental  or  relative 
in  a  species  for  what  is  substantial  or  abso- 
lute. Environment,  heredity,  natural 
selection,  struggle  for  life,  these  serve  to 
give  variations  to  the  species,  but  do  not 
change  substantially  the  original  constit- 
uent type  of  the  same. 

All  known  living  beings^  animal  and 
vegetable  are  divided  into  definite  groups 
by  the  two  following  characteristics :  the 
genetic  and  morphologic.  Within  the 
groups  themselves  the  fecundity  is  unlim- 
ited, but,  as  passing  from  one  group  to  an- 
other, it  is  not  or  is  limited  to  certain 
generations. 

The  members  of  each  of  these  groups 
can  undergo  organic  variations  more  or  less 
considerable,  but  these  modifications  are 
as  so  many  oscillations  around  a  type  in  a 
state  of  stable  equilibrium.  These  mor- 
fhologic  variations  tend  of  themselves  to 
disappear,  when  it  is  only  circumstances 
that  lead  to  their  growth.  Each  of  these 
groups,  commonly  called  a  species  and  the 
morphologic  oscillations,  more  or  less  es- 
tablished by  inheritance  and  by  the  con- 
stancy of  the  circumstances  which  pro- 
duced them,  constitute  the  different  races 
of  the  same  species.  It  has  been  calculated 
that  there  are  more  than  five  hundred 
thousand  groups,  distinguished  by  the 
characteristics  of  stability  which  we  have 
just  mentioned.  This  stability  is  absolute 
even  in  domestic  species,  the  most  plastic 
of  all  others.  Now  it  has  been  always  the 
same  as  far  back  in  the  past  as  our  obser- 
vations can  reach  in  history,  in  prehistoric 
times,  in  the  geological  ages.  There  are 
500,000  facts  in  direct  opposition  to  the 
change  of  species,  the  fundainental  basis 
of  the  hypothesis  of  the  transformists, 
•while  they  have  not  one  to  cite  in  their  be- 
lief.    See  Man. 


Exaltation  of  the  Cross.     See  Cross. 

Exarch.  —  An  ecclesiastical  dignitary  in 
the  early  Church  in  the  Orient.  He  pre- 
sided over  one  of  the  dioceses,  comprising 
several  provinces,  formed  in  imitation  of 
those  made  by  Constantine  in  the  State. 
The  exarchs  took  rank  after  the  patri- 
archs, and  had  quasi-patriarchal  juris- 
diction over  the  metropolitans  of  their 
exarchates. 

Ex  Cathedra  (Latin  words,  literally, 
from  the  chair;  hence,  with  authority, 
authoritatively). — In  the  Acts  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  the  Vatican,  held  in  1870  (Sess.  iv., 
cap.  4),  we  find  the  following:  "The 
Roman  Pontiflf  when  he  speaks  ex  cathedra, 
that  is,  when  in  the  exercise  of  his  office  of 
pastor  and  teacher  of  all  Christians,  he,  in 
virtue  of  his  supreme  apostolic  authority 
defines  that  a  doctrine  on  faith  and  morals 
is  to  be  held  by  the  whole  Church,  by  the 
assistance  of  God  promised  to  him  in  the 
person  of  blessed  Peter,  has  that  infalli- 
bility with  which  it  was  the  will  of  our 
divine  Redeemer  that  His  Church  should 
be  furnished  in  defining  a  doctrine  on  faith 
and  morals,  and  that  therefore  these  defini- 
tions of  the  Roman  Pontiflf,  of  themselves 
and  not  through  the  consent  of  the  Church, 
are  irreformable."     See  Cathedra. 

Excommunication  is  a  spiritual  punish- 
ment sometimes  inflicted  by  the  Church  on 
one  guilty  of  grave  crimes,  for  the  good  of 
his  soul  or  the  vindication  of  the  law.  This 
censure  deprives  the  person  who  has  in- 
curred it  of  the  use  of  the  sacraments,  of  a 
share  of  public  suffrages,  and  certain  other 
spiritual  privileges;  and  this  deprivation 
endures  until  the  censure  is  relaxed  by 
competent  authority.  It  may  happen  that 
it  has  been  inflicted  unjustly,  for  the  hu- 
man judge  who  deals  with  the  case  is  no 
way  guaranteed  against  error;  or  it  may 
be  that  the  censure  was  just,  but  the  cul- 
prit has  repented  of  his  sin,  and  been  re- 
stored to  the  favor  of  God  before  he  has 
procured  the  relaxation  of  the  censure ;  but 
even  in  these  cases  the  censure  produces 
its  effects,  as  is  declared  in  the  Bull  Uni- 
genitus  (Prop.  91) ;  and  the  good  provi- 
dence of  God  can  be  trusted  to  hinder  any 
real  evil  befalling  him  who  incurs  this  un- 
deserved loss.  Writers  differ  as  to  whether 
one  who  is  under  excommunication  can  be 
said  to  belong  to  the  body  of  the  Church. 
Excommunication  is  an  act  of  the  external 
court  of  the  Church,  dealing  directly,  not 


Exeat 


292 


Exodus 


with  sin,  but  with  crime.  The  full  discus- 
sion of  its  nature  and  varieties  belongs  to 
Canon  Law.  It  is  to  be  oBser\ed  that 
though  excommunication  is  not  inflicted 
except  in  cases  where  grievous  sin  has 
been  committed  or  is  supposed  to  have  been 
committed,  vet  it  does  not  directly  affect 
membership  of  the  soul  of  the  Church : 
nothing  but  real  grievous  sin  takes  away 
this  privilege  or  destroys  the  hopes  founded 
in  it. 

In  our  time,  excommunication  is  called 
major  or  minor  excommunication.  Ac- 
cording to  the  discipline  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  the  Christians  had  to  avoid  all  rela- 
tion with  the  excommunicated,  under  pain 
of  personally  incurring  minor  excommuni- 
cation; Pope  Martin  V.  mitigated  the  law 
as  to  this  point.  Henceforth.  Christians 
were  obliged  to  avoid  only  those  nomina- 
tively  excommunicated  and  by  public 
sentence  of  the  judge.  The  Pope  has  the 
right  of  excommunication  in  the  whole 
Church,  and  the  bishop  only  in  his  diocese. 
The  Bull  Apostolicce  sedis  of  Pius  IX. 
(Oct.  1 2th,  1869)  contains  the  latest  disposi- 
tions in  regard  to  excommunication.  Ex- 
communication is  necessary  as  the  right  to 
punish,  without  which  there  could  be 
neither  authority  nor  society.     See  Cex- 

SURK. 

Exeat  (Lat.  let  him  depart).  —  It  means 
the  permission  in  writing  which  a  bishop 
gives  to  an  ecclesiastic,  to  leave  his  diocese, 
to  go  and  exercise  his  priestly  functions  in 
some  other  diocese.  Priests  in  the  United 
States  cannot  obtain  their  exeat  unless 
they  are  to  be  received  into  another  dio- 
cese, or  have  sufficient  means  for  an  honest 
self-support. 

Exegesis.    See  Hermenkutic. 

Exile.     See  Captivity. 

Exodus  (Gr.  exodos,  a  going  out,  a 
marching  out;  second  canonical  book  of 
the  Pentateuch).  —  The  Book  of  Exodus  is 
chiefly  devoted  to  the  departure  of  the 
Israelites  from  Egypt,  about  143  years 
after  the  death  of  Joseph  in  that  country. 
Its  opening  chapter  is  occupied  with  a  de- 
tailed description  of  the  hea^•y  burden  laid 
by  their  Egyptian  taskmasters  upon  the 
Hebrews,  in  order  to  break  down  their 
spirit  and  diminish  their  number.  Then 
follows  an  account  of  the  birth  of  Moses, 
his  education,  and  the  events  of  his  early 
life,  marked  by  his  fearless  sympathy  with 


his  oppressed  countrymen,  whom,  in  the 
wonderful  providence  of  God,  he  was 
raised  up  to  deliver.  This  relief  came 
when  they  had  been  in  Egypt  215  years,  for 
St.  Paul  says  (Gal.  iii.  17),  that  the  solemn 
promulgation  of  the  law  happened  430 
years  after  the  covenant  with  Abraham, 
which  took  place  about  215  years  before 
Jacob  and  his  sons  went  down  into  Egypt, 
so  that  the  Israelites  could  have  been  in 
Egypt  only  215  years.  At  the  end  of  this 
period  Moses  and  Aaron  appeared  for  the 
last  time  before  the  Egyptian  monarch 
with  the  Divine  command  to  let "  the  chil- 
dren of  Israel  go  out  of  his  land."  But 
Pharao  again  stubbornly  refused,  for 
"his  heart  was  hardened,"  and  God  sent 
the  tenth  plague  with  all  its  terrible  conse- 
quences. This  awful  calamity  came  at 
midnight,  when  the  destroying  angel  went 
forth  and  "  slew  ever}-  first-born  in  the 
land  of  Egypt,  from  the  first-born  of 
Pharao,  who  sat  on  his  throne,  unto  the 
first-bom  of  the  captive  woman  that  was 
in  prison,  and  all  the  first-born  of  cattle  " 
(Ex.  xii.  29).  The  groans  of  the  dying  in 
dead  of  night  filled  the  living  with  horror 
and  confusion:  "And  Pharao  arose  in 
the  night,  and  all  his  serv'ants,  and  all 
Egypt;  and  there  arose  a  great  cry  in 
Egypt :  for  there  was  not  a  house  wherein 
there  lay  not  one  dead.  And  Pharao  call- 
ing Moses  and  Aaron  in  the  night  said : 
Arise,  and  go  forth  from  among  my  peo- 
ple, you  and  the  children  of  Israel"  (Ex.  xii. 
30,  31).  Accordingly  the  children  of  Is- 
rael went  out  from  bondage,  600,000  "  men 
on  foot"  with  Moses  at  their  head.  To 
prevent  His  people  from  straying  in  the 
wilderness  God  placed  before  them  a  mi- 
raculous column  of  cloud,  which  at  night 
became  a  pillar  of  fire  to  light  up  their  en- 
campment. The  Egyptians  pursuing  the 
Israelites,  the  Lord  directed  them  to  march 
forward  to  the  sea,  when  Moses  waved  his 
rod  over  the  deep,  and  instantly  the  waters 
divided,  leaving  a  drj-  road  all  the  way 
across  to  the  opposite  shore.  The  Egyp- 
tians tried  to  follow;  but  Moses  "stretched 
forth  his  hand  over  the  sea,"  and  the 
heaped  up  flood  rolled  down,  burying  in 
its  depth  the  whole  Egyptian  army.  The  Is- 
raelites journe>nng  through  the  wilderness 
for  about  a  month,their  provisions  gave  out. 
But  God  rained  down  manna  from  heaven, 
which,  when  ground  like  corn,  and  made 
into  cakes,  became  to  them  "  a  staflF  of 
life  "  during  their  protracted  wandering. 
At   the   foot   of  Mount    Sinai,   God  gave 


Exorcism 


293 


EZECHIEL 


them  the  Ten  Commandments.  The  Lord 
also  dictated  to  Moses  a  regulated  series  of 
laws,  for  the  guidance  of  His  people.  The 
tribe  of  Levi  was  set  apart  for  the  sacred 
ministry,  and  a  portable  temple  or  taber- 
nacle was  constructed  according  to  a  plan 
given  to  Moses  on  the  mountain.  All 
these  important  events  make  up  the  sub- 
ject of  the  Book  of  Exodus. 

Exorcism  and  Exorcists. — Exorcists  are 
those  clerics  who  have  received  the  third 
minor  order.  They  have  the  authority  to 
exercise  the  power  which  Christ  has  given 
to  the  Church  to  cast  out  unclean  spirits 
from  persons  that  are  possessed  by  the  devil. 
Tertullian,  the  Council  of  Carthage  in  255, 
and  the  most  ancient  monuments  mention 
the  exorcism  employed  in  regard  to  the 
Catechumens.  We  need  not  be  surprised 
that  the  Church  grants  power  to  her  infe- 
rior ministers  to  cast  out  devils  from  the 
bodies  of  the  possessed,  who  might  disturb 
the  quiet  of  her  services.  Simple  laymen  in 
the  early  days  of  the  Church  exercised  that 
poAver.  In  our  time,  however,  exorcisms 
are  reserved  to  the  priests,  and  even  these 
cannot  make  use  of  their  faculty,  except  by 
special  permission  of  the  bishop.  The  third 
minor  order  is  conferred  by  the  bishop  in 
this  manner :  The  bishop  takes  and  pre- 
sents to  the  candidate  the  book  in  which 
the  exorcisms  are  written,  which  he  touches 
with  his  right  hand,  while  the  bishop  says  : 
"Take  this  and  commit  it  to  memory  and 
have  power  to  impose  hands  on  persons 
possessed,  be  they  baptized  or  catechu- 
mens."    See  Possessions. 

Extasy.  —  Rapturous  transport  of  the 
spirit,  suspension  of  the  senses,  caused  by 
profound  contemplation.  Natural  extasy 
is  an  alienation  of  the  senses  caused  by 
catalepsy  and  consisting  in  the  complete 
suspension  of  the  sensations  and  volun- 
tary movements,  and  in  the  faculty  which 
the  members  have  to  preserve  the  position 
one  gives  to  them.  Supernatural  extasy 
is  an  elevation  of  the  soul  towards  God 
with  a  separation  of  the  outward  senses 
which  is  caused  by  the  grandeur  of  this 
elevation.  The  rapturous  transport  of  St. 
Paul  into  the  third  heaven  was  a  super- 
natural extasy. 

Extreme  Unction  is  a  sacrament  in- 
stituted by  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  for  the 
spiritual  comfort  and  bodily  relief  of  the 
sick.  This  sacrament  is  called  "Extreme 
Unction"  because  it  is  administered  when 


persons  are  thought  to  be  near  the  close  of 
their  existence  in  this  world,  that  they 
may  by  it  receive  grace  and  strength  for 
the  conflict  with  death.  This  unction, 
made  with  olive  oil,  blessed  by  a  bishop  on 
Holy  Thursday,  is  consecrated  to  the  use 
of  this  sacrament,  and  is  the  outward  sign 
productive  of  an  inward  and  spiritual 
grace,  thus  constituting  a  true  sacrament 
and  ever  held  to  be  such  by  the  Catholic 
Church  (Markvi.  12,  13;  James  v.  14,  15). 
For  the  due  reception  of  the  sacrament  of 
Extreme  Unction,  we  must  be  in  the  state 
of  grace,  and  accept  it  with  sentiments  of 
contrition  for  sin,  and  resignation  to  the 
will  of  God.  Extreme  Unction  effaces 
venial  sin,  part  or  all  the  temporal  punish- 
ment due  to  sin,  and  mortal  sin  sometimes, 
according  to  the  disposition  of  the  person 
anointed.  It  alleviates  bodily  sufferings, 
and  gives  back  health  to  those  whom  God 
wills  should  continue  to  live  (James  v.  15). 
It  renews  our  spiritual  forces  in  the  most 
decisive  moment  of  our  existence,  giving 
us  strength  to  fight  against  the  enemy  of 
our  salvation;  fortifying  us  against  the 
terror  of  death,  and  against  temptations  to 
impatience,  despair,  and  distrust;  sooth- 
ing our  troubles,  and  giving  us  courage  to 
say  with  confidence  and  love,  "  Father, 
into  Thy  hands  I  commend  My  spirit." 

Ezechias.  —  King  of  Juda,  after  the 
death  of  Achaz,  his  father,  from  725  to 
696  or  from  728  to  699  b.  c.  He  reopened 
the  temple  and  restored  the  Mosaic 
worship.  He  made  war  against  Sennach- 
erib whom  he  forced  to  retreat.  Healed 
by  Isaias,  he  composed  the  chant  of  grati- 
tude known  under  the  name  of  Canticle  of 
Ezechias. 

Ezechiel.  —  Prophet ;  son  of  Busi ;  was 
carried  captive  to  Babylon  by  Nabuchodo- 
nosor,  with  Joachim  king  of  Juda.  He 
began  his  prophetic  ministry  in  the  fifth 
year  of  his  sojourn  in  Babylonia  and  con- 
tinued it  until  the  twentj'-seventh.  His 
book,  which  he  appears  to  have  drawn  up 
or  revised,  during  the  latter  years  of  his 
mission,  comprises  four  parts.  The  first 
relates  the  consecration  of  the  prophet. 
The  second  warns  the  Jews  against  foreign 
alliances  and  announces  the  ruin  of  Juda. 
The  third  contains  threats  against  the 
Ammonites,  Moabites,  Edomites,  Philis- 
tines, and  Egyptians.  In  the  fourth, 
Ezechiel  foretells  the  events  that  will  take 
place  after  the  ruin  of  Jerusalem. 


EZNIK 


294 


Faith 


Eznik.  —  A  disciple  of  St.  Mesrop ;  was 
sent  to  Edessa  in  425,  to  translate  the  works 
of  the  Syriac  Fathers  into  Armenian. 
After  a  short  sojourn  in  that  city  he  went 
to  Constantinople,  where  he  continued  to 
occupy  himself  with  translations  till  after 


the  Council  of  Ephesus,  when  he  returned 
to  his  home,  taking  with  him  the  decrees  of 
that  Council  together  with  a  long  coveted 
manuscript  of  the  Bible.  Some  think  he  be- 
came Bishop  of  Bagrevand.  The  year  of 
his  death,  as  also  of  his  birth,  is  unknown. 


Faber  (Frederick  William)  (1814- 
1863). — English  Catholic  theologian  and 
writer;  born  atGalverley,  Yorkshire,  died 
at  the  Oratory,  Brompton,  London.  He 
was  educated  at  Oxford,  where  he  became 
fellow  of  University  College,  1837 ;  in  1839 
he  was  ordained  minister  of  the  Church  of 
England ;  in  1842  accepted  the  rectory  of 
Elton,  Huntingdonshire;  but  three  years 
later  he  formally  adjured  Protestantism  in 
order  to  become  a  Roman  Catholic  —  a 
course  he  had  meditated  for  many  years. 
He  established  at  Birmingham  the  com- 
munity properly  named  the  "  Brothers  of 
the  Will  of  God,"  but  generally  called  the 
"  Wilfridians,"  as  he  had  taken  the  name 
of  "Brother  Wilfrid."  In  1848,  the  en- 
tire community  went  over  to  the  Oratory 
of  St.  Philip  Neri,  and  from  1849  until  his 
death  he  was  at  the  head  of  the  London 
branch.  He  was  the  author  of  many  spir- 
itual works  of  great  merit. 

Faber  (John),  surnamed  '•  Hammer  of 
the  Heretics"  (1470-1541).  —  German 
Dominican,  born  at  Leutkirch,  Suabia. 
Vigorously  combated  the  doctrines  of 
Luther  and  Zwingli.  Confessor  to  Em- 
peror Ferdinand ;  bishop  of  Vienna. 

Fabian  (St.).  —  Pope  from  236  to  250. 
Was  a  contemporary  of  the  Emperors 
Maximin,  Gordian,  Philip,  and  Decius. 
Under  the  latter's  reign  he  suffered  martyr- 
dom. He  confirmed  the  deposition  of 
Privatus,  an  African  bishop,  who  had  been 
condemned  by  a  synod  of  ninety  bishops 
at  Lambesa  in  Numidia  for  many  grievous 
faults.  He  assigned  the  seven  districts  of 
Rome  to  seven  deacons  with  as  many  sub- 
deacons  who  were  to  assist  the  notaries  in 
recording  the  acts  of  the  martyrs.  To 
Fabian,  Origen  addressed  a  letter  in  de- 
fense of  his  own  orthodoxy.  An  ancient 
tradition  ascribes  to  this  Pope  the  found- 
ing of  the  seven  Gallic  Churches  of  Tou- 
louse, Aries,  Tours,  Paris,  Narbonne, 
Clermont,  and  Limoges,  to  which   he  is 


said  to  have  sent  respectively  Satuminus, 
Trophimus,  Gratianus,  Dionysius,  Paulus, 
Astremonius,  and  Martialis,  as  missionary 
bishops.     F.  Jan.  20th. 

Facundus. —  Heretic,  died  about  571. 
Bishop  of  Hermiane,  in  Africa;  upheld 
with  great  zeal  the  so-called  dispute  of 
"  The  Three  Chapters." 

Faith.  —  A  supernatural  virtue  by  which 
we  firmly  believe  all  that  God  has  revealed 
and  all  His  Church  proposes  for  our  belief. 
Faith  requires  that  we  should  believe  in 
the  existence  of  God  as  our  Creator  and 
Remunerator ;  also  in  all  the  truths  He  has 
revealed  and  teaches  us  by  the  infallible 
authority  of  His  Church.  '♦  Without  faith 
it  is  impossible  to  please  God.  For  he  that 
Cometh  to  God,  must  believe  that  He  is, 
and  is  a  rewarder  to  them  that  seek  Him  " 
(Hebr.  xi.  6).  The  precept  of  faith,  being 
an  affirmative  one,  we  should  from  time  to 
time,  display  our  faith  in  God ;  but  we  are 
not  called  upon  to  show  it  continually,  ex- 
cept when  the  occasion  demands :  As  at 
the  hour  of  death,  and  when  it  is  necessary 
to  manifest  an  exterior  profession  of  faith 
in  temptation,  in  the  reception  of  a  sacra- 
ment, and  under  all  circumstances  where 
silence  would  be  interpreted  as  a  denial 
(Matt.  X.  32,  33). 

Faith  {Rule  o/).  — The  rule  of  faith  is 
determined  by  that  which  faith  itself  re- 
quires. Neither  Scripture  nor  tradition 
is  the  sole  rule  of  faith.  In  order  to  be 
the  sole  rule  of  faith,  the  Scripture  should 
of  itself  be  fit  to  secure  in  the  Church  the 
perpetual  and  unchangeable  unity  of  the 
true  faith,  to  solve  with  certainty  the  most 
important  questions  regarding  our  salva- 
tion, as  for  instance,  the  necessity  and  law- 
fulness of  the  baptism  of  infants,  the 
validity  of  baptism  conferred  by  heretics. 
But  under  what  conditions  can  the  under- 
standing of  the  Scriptures,  and  with  it  the 
truths   of    faith,    remain   unchanged,   the 


Faithful 


295 


Faithful 


unity  of  faith  be  maintained,  and  the  more 
important  questions  pertaining  to  salvation 
be  solved  from  the  Scriptures  ?  Only  in 
the  case  that  the  meaning  of  Scripture,  at 
least  in  its  most  important  points,  is  so  ob- 
vious that  it  may  be  understood  by  all  in 
the  same  way.  For,  as  we  learn  from  daily 
experience,  the  opinions  of  men  in  all  that 
does  not  compel  assent  by  its  evidence  soon 
diverge.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  prove 
that  Scripture  does  not  possess  such  evi- 
dence ;  it  is,  on  the  contrary,  very  obscure, 
even  in  most  important  points  of  doctrine. 
In  fact,  heretics  in  every  age  have  sought 
to  prove  their  conflicting  opinions  from 
Scripture.  Hence,  it  is  impossible  that 
Scripture  alone  should  secure  the  perpe- 
tuity of  the  Christian  religion,  maintain 
unity  of  faith,  and  solve  all  the  important 
problems  of  salvation.  Therefore,  it  is  im- 
possible that  it  should  be  the  sole  rule  of 
faith. 

The  same  applies  to  the  tradition.  The 
monuments  of  tradition  are  :  The  Church's 
liturgical  books ;  the  acts  of  the  martyrs ; 
inscriptions  on  tombs  and  monuments; 
Church  history;  the  works  of  the  Fathers 
and  of  ecclesiastical  writers.  Although  we 
find  many  truths  more  clearly  expressed  in 
the  monuments  of  tradition  than  in  the 
Scriptures,  yet  they  cannot  of  themselves 
give  a  satisfactory  solution  to  all  questions 
that  may  arise.  Consequently,  they  are 
not  calculated  to  solve  those  diflSculties 
which,  if  left  unsolved,  may  undermine  the 
truths  of  revelation,  destroy  the  unity  of 
faith,  and  endanger  the  salvation  of  many. 

But  experience  furnishes  the  most  evi- 
dent proof  of  the  insufficiency  of  Scripture 
alone  as  a  rule  of  faith.  Since  Protestant- 
ism set  up  the  Scriptures  as  the  sole  cri- 
terion in  matters  of  faith  we  perceive  an 
ever-growing  disunion;  the  truths  of  faith 
have  been  abandoned  one  by  one,  while  no 
means  was  left  to  check  the  evil-proof  suf- 
ficient that  unless  we  recognize  some  other 
rule  of  faith  than  Scripture  alone,  neither 
the  preservation  of  the  deposit  of  faith,  nor 
the  unity  of  the  faith  itself,  nor  the  security 
of  salvation  is  possible. 

The  necessary  attributes  of  a  rule  of 
faith  are  to  be  found  only  in  the  teaching 
office  of  the  Catholic  Church.  From  what 
we  have  said  it  follows  that  there  must  be 
another  rule  of  faith  different  from  Scrip- 
ture and  tradition — an  authority  to  direct 
us  in  the  understanding  of  these  sources  of 
our  faith.  The  attributes  of  a  rule  of  faith 
must  be  determined  by  its  object,  which  is 


chiefly  the  preservation  of  the  deposit  of 
faith  and  of  the  unity  of  the  Church.  The 
Church  and  the  faith  are  in  most  intimate 
connection  with  the  salvation  of  man ;  and, 
consequently,  another  object  of  the  rule  of 
faith  is  the  securing  of  the  salvation  of  the 
individual,  i.  A  rule  of  faith  must  be  visi- 
ble. Its  object  is  to  remove  the  difficulties 
which  endanger  the  true  faith  and  the 
Church's  unity.  But  this  is  possible  only 
in  case,  that,  being  consulted  by  doubting 
or  contending  parties,  its  voice  may  be 
heard.  Besides,  in  every  society,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  written  law,  there  is  a  living, 
A'isible  authority  which  applies  the  law  in 
given  cases  and  dispenses  justice  between 
litigant  parties.  Now,  if  the  Church  is  a 
visible  society,  it  must  naturally  have  a 
visible  authority  to  settle  doubts  and  dis- 
putes in  matters  of  faith.  2.  A  rule  of  faith 
must,  as  the  supreme  authority,  be  such  as 
to  compel  submission  to  its  decision,  for  it 
must  be  the  means  of  maintaining  unity. 
This  cannot  be  done  unless  its  verdict  de- 
cides all  questions  and  removes  all  doubts. 
A  final  decision,  that  renders  further  op- 
position unavailing,  can  be  given  only  by 
such  supreme  authority  as  commands  the 
unqualified  submission  of  all.  3.  A  rule 
of  faith  must  be  infallible.  An  infallible 
authority,  alone,  can  in  all  cases  decide  in 
matters  of  faith  in  such  a  way  as  not  to  en- 
danger the  integrity  of  the  deposit  of 
faith ;  an  infallible  authority,  alone,  can 
maintain  unity  of  faith;  for  the  obli- 
gation to  believe  exists  only  when  one 
is  morally  certain  that  what  is  proposed 
to  his  belief  is  really  of  divine  revela- 
tion. Only  an  infallible  authority  can 
give  this  assurance.  4.  A  rule  of  faith 
must  be  of  divine  institution.  In  matters 
of  religion,  we  must  consult,  not  man's 
pleasure,  but  God's  ordination. 

From  what  we  have  said,  it  clearly  shows 
that  the  teaching  authority  of  the  Catholic 
Church  possesses  all  these  attributes. 
Though  in  many  cases  it  might  remain 
uncertain  what  is  the  teaching  of  the 
Church  dispersed  throughout  the  world  — 
what  the  Church  proposes  as  revealed 
truth  in  its  ordinary  preaching :  yet,  there 
are  more  ways  than  one  of  interrogating 
this  authority,  and  when  the  importance 
of  the  matter  demands,  the  Church  has 
diverse  means  of  giving  a  public  and  final 
decision  in  all  cases. 

Faithful. — Those  who  have  faith  in 
Jesus   Christ.      This   name,   in   the   early 


Faldstool 


296 


Fathers  of  the  Church 


Church,  was  especially  applied  to  the  bap- 
tized laymen,  distinguishing  them  from 
the  Catechumens,  who  had  not  yet  received 
this  sacrament.     See  Christian. 

Faldstool.  —  A  movable  folding  chair  in 
a  church  or  cathedral,  used  by  the  bishop 
or.  other  prelate,  when  officiating  in  his 
own  church  at  a  distance  from  the  throne, 
or  in  a  church  not  under  his  jurisdiction. 

False  Decretals.     See  Canok  Law. 

Familists.  —  Sectarians  called  the 
"  Family  of  Love,"  founded  in  Holland  and 
England  in  the  sixteenth  century  by  Hans 
Niklas,  or  Nicholas,  who  was  a  disciple  of 
David  Jores,  who  taught  mystical  doc- 
trines based  upon  the  theory  that  religion 
consists  wholly  in  love  independently  of 
the  form  of  faith.  To  them,  Moses  was  the 
Prophet  of  hope,  Christ  the  Prophet  of 
faith,  and  Hans  Nicholas  the  Prophet  of 
love.  The  sect  was  prohibited  by  Queen 
Elizabeth  in  1580,  but  existed  till  the  mid- 
dle of  the  next  century. 

Fast  Days.  —  Fast  days  are  those  on 
which  the  Church  commands  us  to  mor- 
tify the  body  by  abstaining  from  flesh 
meat,  or  by  taking  but  one  full  meal  in  the 
da}'.  Those  days  on  which,  besides  ab- 
stinence from  meat,  but  one  full  meal  is 
allowed,  are  called  Fast  Days  of  Obliga- 
tion; those  days  on  which  it  is  only  re- 
quired to  abstain  from  flesh  meat,  are 
called  Days  of  Abstinence.  See  Absti- 
NENCK.  The  Church  can  institute  fast 
days,  because  the  Church  of  Christ,  as 
mother  of  the  Faithful,  has  the  power  to 
make  all  useful  and  necessary  regulations 
for  the  salvation  of  their  souls.  In  doing 
so  she  only  follows  the  example  of  our 
Lord,  her  Head,  for  He  fasted,  and  of  the 
Apostles,  who,  even  ordered  the  Chris- 
tians to  abstain  from  blood  and  things 
strangled  (Acts  x\-.  29),  in  order  not  to 
prevent  the  conversion  of  the  Jews,  who, 
on  account  of  the  Old  Law,  abhorred  the 
blood  and  meat  of  strangled  animals.  This 
prohibition  was  removed  when  this  danger 
no  longer  existed.  •*  Fasting  is  no  new 
invention,  as  many  imagine,"  writes  the 
Father  of  the  Church,  Basil  the  Great,  "  it 
is  a  precious  treasure  which  our  fore- 
fathers preser\-ed  long  before  our  daj'S, 
and  have  handed  down  to  us."  The  Cath- 
olic Church,  from  the  very  beginning,  has 
looked  upon  external  fasting,  only  as  a 
means  of  i>enance.  Her  object  in  institut- 
ing fast  days,  therefore,  was   and  is,  that 


by  fasting  the  Faithful  should  mortify 
their  flesh  and  their  evil  desires,  seek  to 
pacify  God,  render  satisfaction  for  their 
sins,  practice  obedience  to  the  Church, 
their  mother,  and  by  practicing  these  vir- 
tues become  more  zealous  and  fer\ent  in 
the  ser\-ice  of  God.  Innumerable  texts  of 
Scripture,  as  well  as  experience  prove  that 
fasting  aids  to  this  end.  The  Fathers  of 
the  Church  praise  very  highly  the  useful- 
ness of  fasting,  and  our  Lord  predicted 
that  the  Church,  His  spouse,  would  fast, 
when  He,  her  Bridegroom,  should  be 
taken  from  her  (Matt.  ix.  15).  The  most 
important  fast  days  are:  All  the  week 
days  of  Lent ;  the  Fridays  in  Advent ; 
Vigils  of  All-Saints,  Christmas,  Whitsun- 
day, and  the  Assumption.  If  the  festival, 
however,  occurs  on  Monday,  the  vigil  is 
kept  on  the  Saturday  before ;  as  Sunday  is 
never  a  fast  day. 

Fathers  {Apostolic).  See  Apostolic 
Fathers. 

Fathers  of  the  Christian  Doctrine. — 
Religious  congregation.  The  aim  of  this 
congregation,  and  the  spirit  with  which  it 
was  animated,  were  in  close  sympathy 
with  the  spirit  and  aim  of  the  Ursulines. 
Founded  by  Caesar  de  Bus,  and  approved 
by  Clement  VIII.  in  1597,  it  subsequently 
coalesced  with  the  Somaschans,  thus  form- 
ing an  association  of  secular  priests  living 
under  simple  vows  (1616).  Owing,  how- 
ever, to  disputes  between  the  two  branches, 
relative  to  the  observance  of  their  respec- 
tive statutes  ( 1647), Innocent  X. commanded 
them  to  sever  their  connection  with  each 
other,  and  form  distinct  congregations ; 
and  Alexander  VII.,  by  decree,  ordered 
both  to  establish  novitiates,  and  to  intro- 
duce the  three  monastic  vows.  The 
"  Fathers  of  the  Christian  Doctrine  "  con- 
tinued to  dress  as  secular  priests. 

Fathers  of  the  Church.  — The  Fathers  of 
the  Church  are  those  Christian  writers, 
who  lived  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centu- 
ries, and  with  learning  and  zeal  expounded 
and  defended  the  doctrines  of  Christianit}-. 
At  no  time  was  the  literary  activity  of 
God's  chosen  servants  more  wonderful 
and  productive,  and  never  did  they  arise 
in  greater  numbers  than  during  this  period. 
The  chief  causes  contributing  to  this  ad- 
vancement of  Christian  learning  and  the 
development  of  Christian  doctrine,  were : 
I.  The  learned  schools  at  Antioch,  Alex- 
andria,   Caesarea,    Edessa,     Nisibis,    and 


Faustinus 


297 


Feasts  of  the  Church 


Rhinocorura,  in  Egypt.  2.  The  contro- 
versies with  pagan  writers  who  continued 
to  assail  Christianity.  3.  The  great  here- 
sies of  Arius,  Macedonius,  Pelagius,  Nes- 
torius,  and  Eutyches  and  the  various 
controversies  arising  from  these  heresies. 
4.  The  numerous  councils  which  met  in 
order  to  define,  under  the  special  guidance 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,  what  was  to  be  believed, 
and  what  was  to  be  rejected  as  contrary  to 
Christian  truth.  Against  each  of  the 
numerous  heresies  germinating  during 
this  period,  a  glorious  array  of  the  Fathers 
of  the  Church  came  forward  and  waged  a 
victorious  battle.  It  was  they,  who  at  the 
councils,  defined  the  Catholic  doctrine, 
condemned  the  false  teaching  of  heretics, 
laying  bare  and  demolishing  their  sophist- 
ries with  the  most  penetrating  acuteness. 
In  their  divinely  inspired  writings,  they 
have  bequeathed  to  all  nations  and  ages  a 
rich  treasure  of  solid  and  profound  learn- 
ing, and  most  consoling  doctrine,  while  at 
the  same  time  the  incomparable  holiness 
of  their  lives  has  merited  for  them  the 
honorable  title  of  Fathers  and  Doctors  of 
the  Church.  The  most  illustrious  among 
the  Fathers  of  the  Church,  that  is  to  say, 
those  who  wrote  most  and  whose  doctrine 
is  most  generally  authorized  and  followed, 
are  four  Greek  and  four  Latin  Fathers. 
To  the  first  class  belong:  St.  Athanasius, 
St.  Bazil  the  Great,  St.  Gregory  Nazian- 
zen,  and  St.  John  Chrysostom;  to  the 
second :  St.  Ambrose,  St.  Jerome,  St. 
Augustine,  and  St.  Gregory  the  Great. 
To  these  are  generally  added :  St.  Leo  the 
Great,  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  St.  Bonaven- 
ture,  St.  Hilary,  St.  Bernard,  St.  Alphonse 
Liguori,  and  St.  Francis  de  Sales.  See 
Doctors. 

Faustinus.  —  Deacon,  or  priest  of  the 
fourth  century.  Wrote  against  the  Arians 
and  Macedonians,  and  upheld  the  antipope 
Urcinus  against  Pope  Damasus. 

Feasts  of  Fools  and  Asses  was  a  ludi- 
crous profanity  of  those  relics  of  Pagan 
Saturnalia,  celebrated,  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
at  Christmas  and  New  Years,  before  the 
beginning  of  Lent  and  at  Easter,  in  which 
ecclesiastics  participated,  thus  lending  the 
encouragement  of  their  presence  to  dis- 
graceful parodies  on  the  Holy  Mysteries 
and  the  dignitaries  of  the  Church,  From 
the  fact  that  in  the  "Feast  of  Fools"  an 
inferior  cleric  was  chosen  bishop,  it  was 
sometimes  called  the  "Subdeacon's  Feast." 
The     cleric    thus    chosen    travestied    the 


pontifical  functions ;  but  when  incensed, 
instead  of  olibanum,  an  offensive  and  foul 
matter  was  used.  The  stalls  of  the  canons 
were  filled  by  others  of  the  inferior  clerics, 
who  sang  :  "Deposuit  potentes  etexultavit 
humiles."  At  the  close  of  these  mock 
ceremonies,  the  choir  was  turned  into  a 
banqueting  hall,  and  was  the  scene  of  un- 
seemly antics  and  disgraceful  performances 
of  all  sorts. 

The  "Feast  of  Asses"  is  supposed  to 
have  been  originally  intended  to  commem- 
orate the  Flight  of  Jesus  into  Egypt  or  His 
Entry  into  Jerusalem,  and  accordingly  cel- 
ebrated about  Christmas  or  Easter.  An 
ass  was  clad  in  a  surplice,  and,  when  con- 
ducted into  the  Church,  his  entry  was 
greeted  with  the  singing  of  a  ludicrous 
canticle,  the  refrain  of  which  was:  "Hez, 
Sire  Asnes."  A  remark  of  J.  P.  Richteris 
here  apposite :  "It  was  precisely  in  the 
most  religious  period  that  the  Feasts  of 
Fools  and  Asses,  the  representation  of  the 
mysteries  and  mock  sermons  on  Easter 
Sunday,  were  most  in  favor.  There  was 
no  apprehension  of  religion  suffering  any 
detriment,  being  too  far  above  anything 
like  a  travesty.  The  same  rule  holds  here 
as  in  the  case  of  the  Socrates  of  Xenophon 
and  Aristophanes — the  former  was  not 
injured  by  the  travesty  of  the  latter.  The 
very  fact  of  a  travesty  proves  the  existence 
of  something  higher  travestied ;  a  comedy 
presupposes  a  tragedy."  (Propedeutics  of 
.Esthetics.) 

Feasts  of  the  Church.  —  A  commemora- 
tion of  some  mystery  of  religion  or  in 
honor  of  saints.  The  Church  alone  has 
the  right  to  institute  feasts.  For  to  the 
Church,  and  to  her  alone,  is  intrusted  all 
that  bears  upon  the  religious  life,  and,  con- 
sequently, the  celebration  of  religious  fes- 
tivals. From  the  earliest  ages  the  Church, 
made  use  of  this  right,  as  is  manifest  from 
the  sermons  of  the  Fathers  on  the  various 
festivals.  Nor  could  the  Church  lack  that 
power,  which,  as  Scripture  testifies,  the 
synagogue  of  the  Jews  possessed  and  exer- 
cised. The  right  of  instituting  feasts  nat- 
urally implies  also  the  right  of  abolishing 
existing  ones.  We  distinguish  two  kinds 
of  feasts :  feasts  of  our  Lord  and  feasts  of 
the  saints.  By  the  institution  of  the  feasts 
of  our  Lord,  the  Church  intended,  in  the 
first  place,  to  bring  home  to  us  the  chief 
mysteries  of  our  redemption,  and  so  to 
instruct  us  on  the  chief  contents  of  our  re- 
ligion ;  secondly,  to  awaken  our  gratitude 


Feasts  of  the  Jews 


298 


Felix  I. 


for  the  great  benefit  of  the  redemption ; 
and,  finally,  by  pointing  to  the  virtues  of 
our  Lord,  and  to.inspire  the  Faithful  with 
a  desire  to  imitate  Him.  The  feasts  of  the 
saints  were  instituted,  first,  to  honor  God 
in  His  saints,  by  thanking  Him  for  the 
graces  conferred  upon  our  glorious  breth- 
ren ;  moreover,  to  incite  us  to  the  imitation 
of  their  virtues ;  and,  finally,  to  invoke  their 
intercession.  The  feasts  of  obligation  are 
to  be  celebrated  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
Sundays ;  for  the  end  of  the  festivals  is  the 
same  as  that  of  the  Sundays :  the  honor  of 
God  and  the  benefit  of  our  souls,  and,  con- 
sequently, it  should  be  obtained  by  the 
same  means,  or  manner  of  celebration. 
The  same  may  be  concluded  from  the  cus- 
tom of  the  Church,  which  at  all  times  cele- 
brated the  feasts  of  obligation  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  Lord's  day;  for  the  custom 
of  the  Church  is  itself  a  law.  The  feasts 
of  obligation  in  the  United  States  are  six 
in  number :  Immaculate  Conception  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin,  Christmas,  Circumcision, 
Ascension  of  our  Lord,  Assumption  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin,  and  All  Saints'  day. 

Feasts  of  the  Jews.     See  Leviticus. 

Febronianistn.  —  System  of  John  Nich- 
olas von  Hontheim,  coadjutor- bishop  of 
Treves.  In  1763,  writing  under  the  name 
of  Justinus  Febronius,  he  published  a  book 
On  the  State  of  the  Church  and  the  Legit- 
imate Authority  of  the  Roman  Pontiff, 
in  which  he  endeavored  to  show  the  Ger- 
mans by  historical  arguments  that  the  Gal- 
ilean Articles  were  defensible,  and  that  the 
Pope  had  no  right  to  interfere  in  the  local 
discipline  and  Church  government  of  in- 
dividual dioceses,  thus  restricting  the  es- 
sential jurisdiction  of  the  Holy  See.  He 
held  that  the  Pope  is  in  precisely  the  same 
relation  to  the  bishops  that  the  presiding 
officer  is  to  the  me'mbers  of  a  parliament ; 
that  the  true  constitution  of  the  Church  is 
not  monarchical ;  and  that  the  Church  and 
not  Christ,  invested  the  Bishop  of  Rome 
with  the  Primacy  he  enjoys.  The  Pope  in- 
deed has  authority,  but  not  jurisdiction, 
over  the  Universal  Church.  Clement  XIII. 
condemned  the  book  of  Febronius,  and  or- 
dered it  suppressed  by  all  the  bishops  of 
Germany.  The  author's  archbishop  be- 
sought him  to  retract  the  errors  it  con- 
tained, which  he  did  in  the  year  1778. 

Feehan  (Patrick  A.).  —  An  American 
Catholic  prelate,  born  at  Killenaul,  County 
Tipperary,  Ireland,  Aug.  29th,  1829.      En- 


tering Castle  Knock  College  at  the  age  of 
16  years,  he  studied  there  for  two  years 
and  then  entered  Maynooth  College,  where 
he  studied  philosophy  and  theology  for  five 
years,  and  where,  upon  his  graduation,  he 
was  offered  a  professorship.  Emigrating  to 
America  in  1852  he  entered  the  Ecclesias- 
tical Seminary  at  Carondelet,  where  he  was 
ordained  priest  November  ist  of  that  year 
He  labored  as  priest  and  teacher  for  12 
years  under  Archbishop  Kenrick  of  St. 
Louis,  becoming  professor  of  moral  the- 
ology and  Sacred  Scripture  in  the  Semi- 
nary of  Carondelet.  He  became  bishop  of 
Nashville  in  1865,  and  found  that  diocese 
almost  completely  demoralized  and  deeply 
in  debt  as  a  result  of  the  war.  Despite  the 
great  yellow  fever  epidemic  that  swept  over 
the  diocese  at  the  very  beginning  of  his 
incumbency,  he  rehabilitated  and  wonder- 
fully developed  the  see  of  Nashville,  show- 
ing such  remarkable  ability  as  far  surpassed 
even  the  expectations  of  those  on  whose 
recommendation  he  had  been  assigned  to 
that  diocese,  and  it  was  in  recognition  of 
this  that  he  was  appointed  the  first  arch- 
bishop of  Chicago,  in  1880. 

Felicissimus.  —  Deacon  of  the  Church  of 
Carthage.  Ordained  without  the  knowl- 
edge and  against  the  will  of  St.  Cyprian; 
placed  himself  at  the  head  of  those  Chris- 
tians that  had  apostatized  during  persecu- 
tion and  who  wished  to  re-enter  into 
community  with  the  Church  without  pen- 
ance (250).  The  schism  which  arose  as  a 
consequence  of  this  pretension  spread  quite 
rapidly. 

Felix. — Heretic ;  Bishop  of  Urgel,  Spain, 
died  in  815.  He  pretended  that  Jesus  Christ, 
as  man,  was  only  the  adoptive  son  of  God. 
His  heresy  was  condemned  in  the  Council 
of  Ratisbon  (792) ;  he  abjured  his  errors, 
but  soon  fell  back  into  them,  was  con- 
demned anew  in  the  Councils  of  Frank- 
fort (794)  and  of  Rome  (799).  Summoned 
by  Charlemagne  to  Aix-la-Chapelle,  he  re- 
nounced his  errors  a  second  time,  at  least 
apparently  and  was  committed  to  the  cus- 
tody of  Bishop  Leitrad  of  Lyons. 

Felix  I.  — Pope  from  269  to  247.  Of  the 
acts  of  this  Pope  nothing  is  known  with 
any  certainty,  except  the  part  he  took  in 
the  deposition  of  Paul  of  Samosata,  from 
the  see  of  Antioch.  Felix,  who  is  said  to 
have  confirmed  the  custom  of  saying  Mass 
on  the  tombs  of  the  martyrs,  suflFered  mar- 
tyrdom under  Aurelian.  Felix  II, — Raised 


Felix  of  Valois 


299 


Fetishism 


to  the  Papal  Chair  during  the  banishment 
of  Liberius,  by  the  Emperor  Constantius 
who  favored  the  Arians  (355).  After  the 
re-establishment  of  Liberius  he  retired; 
several  regard  him  as  an  antipope,  others 
say  that  he  became  legitimate  Pope  at  the 
death  of  Liberius  (358)  and  that  he  suf- 
fered martyrdom.  Felix  III.  or  //. — Pope 
from  483  to  492.  Under  the  Pontificate  of 
this  Pope  began  the  Acacian  schism,  the 
author  of  which,  Acacius,  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople,  was  excommunicated  by 
this  Pontiff  at  the  Roman  Synod  of  484. 
Felix  IV. — Pope  from  526  to  530.  To  this 
Pope  are  ascribed  the  twenty-five  canons 
adopted  by  the  Council  of  Orange,  in  529, 
against  the  Semi-Pelagians. 

Felix  of  Valois  (1127-1212).  —  Born  in 
Valois,  France,  founded,  together  with  St. 
John  of  Matha,  the  Order  of  the  Trinita- 
rians for  the  redemption  of  captives.  See 
Trinitarians. 

F6nelon  (  Franqois  dk  Salignac  de  la 
Mothe)  (1651-1715). —  French  divine  and 
author,  born  at  Perigord,  received  holy 
orders  in  1675.  In  1685,  after  the  revoca- 
tion of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  he  was  sent  as 
missionary  among  the  Protestants  of  Sain- 
tonge  and  Poitou.  In  1689,  he  was  ap- 
pointed by  Louis  XIV.  preceptor  of  the 
king's  son,  the  young  Duke  of  Burgundy, 
and  in  1694  was  rewarded  with  the  Abbey 
of  St.  Valery,  succeeding  in  1695  to  the 
Archbishopric  of  Cambrai,  He  took  an 
active  part  in  the  Quietistic  controversy. 
In  the  condemnation  of  the  writings  of 
Madame  Guyon,  Fenelon  acquiesced ;  but 
as  she  made  a  formal  submission  to  the 
Church,  he  vindicated  her  character. 
Moreover,  in  a  work  entitled  Maxims  of 
the  Saints,  Fenelon  defended  the  Quiet- 
ist  idea  of  "holy  indifference  as  to  eternal 
bliss  or  woe,"  springing  from  a  pure  and 
disinterested  love  of  God.  Fenelon  was 
answered  by  many  doctors  of  the  Sorbonne 
and  refuted  by  Bossuet,  and  his-  book  was 
condemned  by  Innocent  XII.  in  1699. 
Fenelon  made  a  most  edifying  submission 
by  publicly  denouncing  his  own  work. 

Fenwick  (Benedict  Joseph).  —  An 
American  Catholic  prelate;  born  in  St. 
Mary's  County,  Maryland,  in  September, 
1782 ;  educated  at  Georgetown  College 
and  in  the  Seminary  of  St.  Sulpice,  at 
Baltimore;  ordained  in  1808;  stationed  in 
New  York  city,  where  he  founded  the 
New   York  Literary  Institute    and  began 


the  erection  of  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral 
from  plans  prepared  by  himself.  In  1816 
he  was  made  vicar-general.  The  following 
year  he  was  appointed  president  of  George- 
town College ;  in  1825  became  bishop  of 
Boston.  In  1843  he  founded  the  College 
of  the  Holy  Cross  at  Worcester,  Massa- 
chusetts, and  placed  it  in  charge  of  the 
Jesuits.  His  diocese  extended  over  the 
whole  of  New  England,  and  he  left  it  with 
fifty  churches,  an  orphan  asylum,  and  many 
schools.  He  died  at  Boston,  Aug.  nth, 
1846. 

Fenwick  (Edward  D.  ).  —  An  American 
Catholic  prelate;  born  in  St.  Mary's 
County,  Maryland,  in  1768;  educated  at 
the  College  of  Bornheim,  in  Belgium,  and 
after  ordination  became  a  professor  in  the 
college.  He  was  driven  from  Belgium  by 
the  French  Revolutionists,  and  returned  to 
America.  Having  become  a  Dominican 
in  Belgium,  and  being  desirous  of  found- 
ing a  province  of  the  order,  he  went  to 
Kentucky  in  1806,  where  he  bought  a  farm 
and  built  the  convent  of  St.  Rose  of  Lima. 
He  resigned  the  office  of  provincial  later, 
became  a  missionary  in  Ohio,  and  built  the 
first  church  in  Cincinnati  in  1819.  He 
was  made  bishop  of  Cincinnati  in  1822. 
He  died  at  Wooster,  Qhio,  Sept.  26th, 
1832. 

Feria.  —  A  name  applied  to  each  day  of 
the  week  with  the  exception  of  Saturday 
and  Sunday.  Monday  is  called  2d  Feria, 
Tuesday  3d,  Wednesday  4th,  Thursday 
5th,  Friday  6th.  The  ordinary  words  are 
used  for  Sunday  and  Saturday.  We  dis- 
tinguish the  Major  Ferice,  the  Church's 
office  of  which  prevails  over  any  other, 
like  Ash  Wednesday,  the  three  last  days 
of  Holy  Week,  the  two  days  after  Easter 
and  Pentecost;  the  Minor  Ferice,  which 
do  not  exclude  the  office  of  a  saint,  but  of 
which  we  make  commemoration ;  the  Sim- 
fle  FericB  which  exclude  nothing. 

Ferrara  {Council of ).     See  Florence. 

Festus  Fortius.  —  Successor  of  Felix  in 
the  government  of  Judea,  about  60-62.  As 
Roman  procurator  in  Palestine,  he  refused 
to  put  the  Apostle  St.  Paul  in  the  power 
of  the  Jews,  and,  after  giving  him  a  hear- 
ing in  the  presence  of  Herod  Agrippa  II., 
sent  him  to  Rome  in  consequence  of  his 
appeal  to  Caesar. 

Fetishism  (the  practice  of  worshiping 
a  fetish ;  that  form  of  religious  belief  and 


Feuillants 


300 


Fitzgerald 


practice  in  which  fetishes  are  the  object  of 
worship). — Fetishes  are  any  material  ob- 
ject regparded  with  awe,  as  having  myste- 
rious .powers  residing  in  it  or  as  being  the 
representative  or  habitation  of  a  deity  to 
which  worship  may  be  paid,  and  from 
which  natural  aid  is  to  be  exi>eeted.  A 
fetish  may  be  an  animal,  as  a  cock,  a 
serpent,  a  bear,  etc.,  or  an  inanimate  ob- 
ject, as  a  tree,  a  river,  a  stone,  a  tooth,  a 
shell,  etc.  The  worship  of  fetishes  be- 
longs to  a  low  and  brutal  stage  or  form  of 
religion. 

Feuillants.  —  Members  of  a  religious 
order.  Originally  (1577)  a  branch  of  the 
Cistercians;  since  1589  an  independent 
monastic  order.  It  derives  its  name  from 
the  Abbey  Feuillant,  eighteen  miles  from 
Toulouse,  France.  Its  founder,  Jean  de 
la  Barriere  (1544-1600),  became  its  first 
Abbot  in  1574.  The  order  came  into 
favor  on  account  of  the  strictness  of  its 
discipline.  It  still  exists  in  France  and 
Italy.     There  are  also  nuns  of  this  order. 

Final  Perseverance.  See  Persever- 
ance. 

Finding  of  the  Cross.  —  See  Cross. 

Firmilian  (St.).  —  Bishop  of  Caesarea, 
in  Cappadocia,  died  at  Tarsus  in  269.  Up- 
held, in  the  Council  of  Iconium  (231 ),  the 
invalidity  of  baptism  administered  by 
heretics.  Presided  at  the  Council  of  Anti- 
och  (264)  against  Paul  of  Samosata,  and 
combated  the  schism  of  Novatian.  F.  Oct. 
28th. 

First  Fruits.     See  Annates. 

Fish.  —  The  figure  of  a  fish,  as  a  Chris- 
tian hieroglyphic,  is  of  very  frequent  re- 
currence on  the  monuments  of  primitive 
antiquity.  The  Greek  term  of  Ichtus, 
which  signifies  a  fish,  is  compwjsed  of  the 
initial  letters  of  the  sacred  name  and  titles 
of  our  divine  Redeemer,  as  written  in  the 
Greek    language :    lesous    JCristos     TeoH 

Yios  Zotet Jesus  Christ  the  Son  of  God, 

the  Saviour.  It  was  on  account  of  that 
spiritual  regeneration  which  man  received 
as  being  born,  as  it  were,  again  by  water, 
and  initiated  into  the  faith  of  Jesus,  and 
from  the  conviction  that  if  they  did  not 
continue  in  that  vivifying  belief  they 
would  be  spiritually  dead  and  must  infalli- 
bly lose  their  salvation,  that  the  first 
Christians  delighted  to  employ  this  sym- 
bol, and  designate  themselves  by  the  enig- 
matical appellation  of  Pisciculi,  or  little 
fishes. 


Fisher  (John)  (1459-1 535).  — Bishop  of 
Rochester,  England ;  was  born  at  Bever- 
ley. Chancellor  of  the  Universitv  at 
Cambridge,  Bishop  of  Rochester,  and  pre- 
ceptor of  Henry  VIII.  Refused  to  ac- 
knowledge the  king's  marriage  with  Anne 
Boleyn  as  '*  good  and  lawful,"  and  for  this 
offense  he  had  to  feel  the  full  weight  of 
the  royal  vengeance.  He  was  arrested  for 
misprision  of  treason,  in  that  he  had  heard 
a  woman  named  Elizabeth  Barton,  better 
known  as  the  Holy  Maid  of  Kent^  say  that 
the  king  would  survive  his  divorce  from 
Catharine  only  seven  months,  and  had 
failed  to  report  the  conversation.  An  oath 
was  presented  to  him,  affirming  the  legal- 
ity of  the  king's  marriage  with  Anne, 
which  he  declined  to  take,  and  was  in  con- 
sequence committed  to  the  Tower,  April 
26th,  1534.  He  was  now  close  to  seventy 
years  of  age,  but  neither  his  gray  hairs  nor 
his  past  ser^•ices  could  move  the  heart  of 
the  royal  despot  to  mercy.  He  languished 
in  prison  for  thirteen  months,  enduring 
privations  the  most  severe,  and  cruelties  of 
the  most  barbarous  nature ;  and  when  he 
again  came  forth  it  was  only  to  appear  be- 
fore a  special  commission  appointed  to  try 
him  at  Westminster,  on  the  charge  of  high 
treason,  for  having  refused  to  take  oath 
that  the  king  was  the  "  Supreme  Head  of 
the  Church  of  England."  After  a  hasty 
trial,  he  was  declared  guilty,  and  beheaded 
June  22d,  1535.  In  the  preceding  May  he 
had  been  created  cardinal  by  Pope  Paul 
III.,  but,  though  he  may  have  appreciated 
the  kindness,  he  had  now  ceased  to  put  any 
value  on  dignities,  and  declared  that,  "if 
the  hat  were  at  his  feet,  he  would  not 
stoop  to  take  it  up."  His  head  was  set  up 
on  London  bridge,  and  his  body,  after 
lying  naked  all  day  at  the  place  of  execu- 
tion, was  carried  away  by  the  guards,  and 
laid  in  the  churchyard  of  All- Hollows, 
Barking. 

Fitzgerald  (Edward) . —  A  Roman  Cath- 
olic prelate;  born  in  Limerick,  in  1833. 
He  emigrated  to  the  United  States  in  1S49, 
and  was  educated  at  the  Catholic  schools 
—  the  College  of  Barrens,  Missouri,  and 
Emmittsburg  Mount  St.  Mary's  College. 
Upon  his  ordination  to  the  priesthood  in 
1857,  he  was  stationed  at  Columbus,  Ohio, 
where  he  made  his  influence  so  felt  that  in 
1867  he  was  chosen  bishop  of  Little  Rock, 
Arkansas.  There  he  was  active  in  inducing 
emigration  and  establishing  variousChurch 
orders. 


Flagellants 


301 


Florence 


Flagellants.  —  Fanatics  of  the  thirteenth 
century.  So  called  from  the  scourges 
{^fla gelid),  with  which  they  lashed  their 
naked  shoulders.  They  first  appeared  at 
Perugia,  in  1260,  and  thence  spread  with 
rapidity  over  the  rest  of  Italy,  and  into 
France,  Germany,  and  Poland.  A  com- 
pany of  a  hundred  and  twenty  Flagellants 
landed  in  London  in  the  time  of  Edward  III., 
but  they  found  no  sympathy  among  the 
English  people.  Large  numbers  of  per- 
sons of  every  age,  sex,  and  rank  marched 
two  by  two  in  procession  through  the 
streets,  and  from  city  to  city,  publicly 
scourging  themselves,  or  each  other,  till 
their  naked  backs  streamed  with  blood  — 
to  appease,  as  they  pretended,  the  divine 
wrath.  They  were  wont  to  scourge  them- 
selves twice  a  day,  for  thirty-three  days,  in 
honor  of  the  thirty-three  years  which  Christ 
lived  upon  earth.  The  secular  magistrates, 
finding  that  the  Church  did  not  sanction 
the  movement,  began  to  prohibit  the  Fla- 
gellant processions.  After  the  black  death, 
which  ravaged  all  Europe  in  the  middle 
of  the  fourteenth  century,  they  again  ap- 
peared. In  1349  Clement  VI.  condemned 
their  practices.  But  they  refused  submis- 
sion and  gave  way  to  many  extravagances. 
As  Gerson  says,  *'  contempt  of  the  priest- 
hood, rejection  of  sacraments,  extortion, 
robbery,  and  all  manner  of  vices  marked 
their  presence." 

Flaget  (Benedict  Joseph).  —  A  French 
American  Catholic  prelate;  born  in  Con- 
tournat,  France,  Nov.  7th,  1763.  He 
was  ordained  priest  in  1788,  and  in  1792 
came  to  the  United  States.  He  was  at 
once  sent  as  chaplain  to  Vincennes,  Indi- 
ana, then  a  military  post  in  the  North- 
west. From  1795  to  1798  he  was  a  professor 
at  Georgetown  College,  and  for  the  next 
three  years  was  in  Havana,  as  a  tutor  to 
the  sons  of  a  wealthy  Cuban.  From  1801 
to  1808  he  was  engaged  in  duties  at 
Georgetown  College  and  in  missionary  la- 
bors ;  in  the  latter  year  was  appointed 
bishop  of  Bardstown,  Kentucky,  in  charge 
of  the  district  between  the  Missouri  river 
and  the  Atlantic  States,  and  the  Great 
Lakes  to  the  35th  parallel.  During  his 
life  he  erected  numerous  colleges  and 
convents,  some  of  which  were  built  at 
his  own  expense.  He  was  the  recognized 
American  counselor  of  the  Pope,  and  was 
respected  by  all  creeds  and  classes  alike. 
He  died  in  Nazareth,  Kentucky,  Feb.  nth, 
1850. 


Flavian  (St.)  —  Patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople (447-449),  who  caused  the  condemna- 
tion of  Eutyches.    F.  Feb.  i8th. 

Flavian  (St.)  —  Patriarch  of  Antioch. 
Obtained  from  Theodosius  pardon  for  his 
people,  who  had  thrown  down,  during  a 
revolt,  the  statue  of  the  Empress  Pris- 
cilla.     Died  in  404.     F.  Feb.  21st. 

Flavian  (St.)  — Bishop  of  Antioch  in 
496.  Died  in  exile  at  Patras  (51S)  for  hav- 
ing refused  to  condemn  the  Council  of 
Chalcedon.    F.  July  4th. 

Flavius  Josephus.     See  Josephus. 

Fleury  (Claude)  (1640-1723). —  French 
ecclesiastical  writer,  born  at  Paris.  His 
most  famous  works  are :  Mosurs  des  Is- 
raelites, Moeurs  des  Chretiens  and  Grand 
Catechisme  Historique. 

Florence  {Council  of). — The  desire  to 
reform  the  Church  induced  Pope  Eugene 
IV.  to  convoke  a  Council  at  Basle  (see 
Basle).  To  facilitate  the  negotiations 
between  the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches, 
the  Council  was  first  transferred  to  Fer- 
rara  (1438).  The  plague  breaking  out  at 
Ferrara,  the  Council  was  removed  to  Flo- 
rence (1439).  Some  prelates  remained  at 
Basle  and  continued  the  Ecumenical 
Council.  They  renewed  the  decrees  which 
asserted  that  the  council  is  superior  to  the 
Pope,  and  they  elected  an  antipope.  Only 
seven  bishops  were  present.  The  real 
Council  at  Florence  did  very  little  in  the 
matter  of  reform,  but  succeeded  in  reunit- 
ing the  Greeks  with  Rome  (1439).  The 
Greeks  accepted  the  Primacy  of  the  Roman 
See,  and  in  conformity  with  the  belief  of 
the  Roman  Church,  they  especially  ac- 
knowledged that  the  Holy  Ghost  proceeds 
from  the  Father  and  the  Son.  The  decrees 
were  signed  by  the  Pope,  the  patriarchs, 
and  the  other  Greek  prelates,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  Bishop  of  Ephesus,  who 
positively  refused  to  add  his  signature. 
The  successful  termination  of  the  Council 
spread  universal  joy  throughout  the  Cath- 
olic Church,  but  this,  unfortunately,  was 
not  of  long  duration.  When  the  Emperor 
Paleologus,  who  also  had  been  present  at 
the  Council,  and  the  Greek  Fathers  re- 
turned to  Constantinople,  they  found  the 
clergy  and  people  strongly  prejudiced 
against  the  reunion.  They  loaded  with 
insults  those  who  had  signed  the  decrees. 
Hereupon  many  prelates  retracted  what 
they  had  done,  and  the  schism  was  thus 


Flotte 


302 


Forty  Hours'  Devotion 


again  revived  in  Constantinople.  The 
Turks  put  an  end  to  the  controversy  by 
taking  the  city  (1453).  The  first  sessions 
of  the  Council  of  Basle,  in  as  far  as  they  are 
recognized  by  the  Pope  and  the  Council  of 
Florence,  as  the  continuation  of  that  of 
Basle,  together,  form  the  Seventeenth 
Ecumenical  Council  (1431-1439).  See 
Basle. 

Flotte  (Peter).  —  French  politician  of 
the  thirteenth  century.  Chancellor  of 
Philip  the  Fair.  Killed  in  the  battle 
of  Courtray  (1302).  He  was  sent  to  Rome 
for  the  canonization  of  St.  Louis  (1292); 
took  part  in  the  controversy  of  the  king 
and  Pope  Boniface  VIII.,  drew  up  the 
act  of  accusation  against  Bernard  Saisset, 
Papal  delegate  at  the  French  court,  carried 
to  the  Pope  the  insqlting  answer  of  Philip 
the  Fair  to  the  Bull  Ausculta  fili,  and 
falsified  this  Bull  in  order  to  irritate 
France  and  to  obtain  the  resolutions  taken 
by  the  General  States  in  1302. 

Flo^vers  are  used  as  an  ornament  for 
altars.  The  innocent  and  expressive 
custom  to  decorate  Churches,  especially 
altars,  is  derived  from  early  Christianity. 
St.  Augustine  particularly  mentions  this 
custom  as  he  notices  the  renunciation  of 
Paganism  for  Christianity  made  by  the 
expiring  Martial,  whose  son-in-law,  after 
praying  with  much  fervor  for  his  conver- 
sion at  the  foot  of  St.  Stephen's  altar,  ap- 
proached as  he  was  going  away,  and  car- 
ried oflP  from  it  some  of  the  flowers  that 
were  placed  there  (r/e  Civitate  Dei,  lib. 
xxii.  cap.  8),  and  conveyed  tl^pm  to  the 
couch  of  his  dying  relative.  St.  Jerome 
particularly  panegyrized  his  friend  Nepo- 
tian  for  his  devotional  assiduity  in  adorn- 
ing the  walls  of  the  church  with  a  variety 
of  flowers  and  the  boughs  of  trees  (Epist. 
Ix.  ad  Heliodorum) ;  and  St.  Paulinus  of 
Nola  refers  to  the  same  practice  as  he  de- 
scribes the  manner  of  celebrating  the  an- 
nual festival  of  his  patron  saint,  St.  Felix, 
in  the  following  verses  :  — 

"  Hymn  praise  to  God,  ye  youths;  discharge  your 
vows; 
Strew  flowers  around;  the  threshold  wreathe 

with  boughs :  — 
Let  hoary  winter  sigh  like  purple  spring. 
And  the  young  year  his  earliest  garlands  bring 
Before  their  season;  thus  shall  nature  pay 
A  fitting  homage  to  this  hallow'd  day."  {De  S. 
Felice  Natalitium.  carmen  iii.  v.  108,  et  seg.) 

Font  {Baptismal). — The  vessel  contain- 
ing the  water  wherewith  the  sacrament  of 
baptism   is   administered.     It  was,  as   we 


have  seen  (see  Bapistkry),  placed  in 
earlier  churches  in  a  separate  building, 
but  it  was  later  transferred  into  the  church. 
The  Western  Church  usually  used  a  stone 
font,  but  it  might  be  of  any  convenient 
material,  and  it  was  to  be  used  for  the 
baptism  alone.  The  font  in  the  Eastern 
Church  is  movable,  of  wood  or  metal,  and 
is  seldom  if  ever  possessed  of  any  beauty. 
The  shape  of  it  in  the  West  was  generally 
octagonal,  though  a  fanciful  mysticism  oc- 
casionally gave  it  the  form  of  a  sepulchre 
or  of  a  cross.  The  font  in  the  baptistery 
was  surrounded  by  a  low  wall,  entered 
by  steps,  usually  seven,  three  without, 
three  within,  excluding  the  top  step. 

The  blessing  of  the  baptismal  font  takes 
place  once  a  year,  namely  on  the  eve  of 
Easter.  On  that  day  the  water  destined 
for  baptism  is  blessed,  and  the  ceremonies 
observed  and  all  the  prayers  which  the 
priest  recites  have  reference  to  the  ancient 
customs  of  the  baptism  of  the  Catechumens 
on  that  day.     See  Baptism. 

Fontevrault  {Order  of).  —  This  order 
was  founded  by  Robert  of  Abrissel,  in  1094. 
Robert  was  a  professor  of  theology  at 
Paris,  and  coadjutor  to  the  Bishop  of 
Rennes;  but  divesting  himself  of  these 
employments,  he  retired  into  the  forest  of 
Craon  and  built  a  monastery  at  La  Roe. 
Urban  II.  confirmed  his  institution  and, 
appointing  him  apostolic  missionary,  or- 
dered him  to  preach  the  First  Crusade.  In 
1 100,  Robert  founded  at  Fontevrault,  on 
the  Vienne,  two  monasteries  —  one  for 
men,  the  other  for  women  —  and  gave  their 
inmates  the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine  for  their 
guide.  He  dedicated  his  order  to  the 
glory  and  honor  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  ;  and 
following  the  example  of  our  Lord,  who, 
when  dying,  committed  St.  John  to  the  care 
of  His  Mother,  he  placed  all  his  convents, 
including  those  of  men,  under  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  abbess  of  Fontevrault.  The 
order  was  approved  by  Pope  Paschal  II. 
in  1 1 13,  and  soon  spread  over  the  continent 
of  Europe.  It  numbered  several  thousand 
monks  and  nuns  at  the  death  of  the  founder, 
in  1117. 

Formosus.  —  Pope  from  885  to  891.  He 
crowned  the  Emperor  Arnulf,  king  of 
Germany.  The  successor  of  Formosus; 
Stephen  VII.,  anathematized  his  memory, 
but  John  IX.  restored  it  in  898. 

Forty  Hours'  Devotion.  —  A  devotion  in 
honor  of  the  Real  Presence  of  Jesus  Christ 


FOSSARIANS 


303 


Francis-Xavier 


in  the  Holy  Eucharist.  The  "Forty 
Hours'  Prayer  of  Adoration,"  or  more 
briefly,  "  the  Forty  Hours,"  is  thus  called, 
because,  during  eight-and-forty  hours,  the 
Blessed  Sacrament  is  conspicuously  ex- 
posed on  the  altar,  that  the  Faithful  may 
come  and  pray  before  it,  and  adore  it.  No 
pains  are  neglected  to  make  this  sacred 
rite  as  solemn  and  devout  as  possible. 
After  a  solemn  Mass  and  procession,  the 
Blessed  Sacrament  is  enshrined  and  en- 
throned above  the  altar,  and  around  it  is 
arranged  a  firmament,  as  it  were,  of  count- 
less lights,  radiating  from  it,  symbolic  of 
the  ever  wakeful  host  of  heaven,  the 
spirits  of  restless  life  and  unfading  bright- 
ness, that  keep  watch  around  the  seat  of 
glory  above ;  and  then  the  Faithful  gather 
about  the  altar  as  about  a  throne,  and 
adore  in  silence  and  in  awe.  During  the 
time  of  Forty  Hours,  the  eyes  and  hearts 
of  those  who  enter  the  church  should 
seek  no  object  but  the  Blessed  Sacrament, 
and  for  this  reason  the  Mass  on  the  second 
day  should  be  said  on  an  altar  different 
from  that  of  the  exposition.  For  the  same 
reason,  the  usual  salutations  are  also 
omitted.  It  is  proper  to  have  a  bench  or 
kneeling  desk  placed  near  the  railing  in 
front  of  the  altar,  and  to  have  one  or  more 
persons  appointed  to  replace  one  another 
at  the  desk  and  remain  there  in  adoration, 
as  the  representatives  of  the  parish,  while 
the  sacrament  is  exposed. 

The  introduction  of  this  devotion  of 
Forty  Hours  is  due,  so  far  as  can  be  as- 
certained, to  Father  Joseph,  a  capuchin  of 
Miland  (died  1556).  In  1560,  Pius  VII. 
approved  the  Confraternity  of  Prayer  to 
the  Blessed  Sacrament.  In  1592,  Clement 
VIII.  introduced  the  public  and  perpetual 
adoration  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  into 
the  churches  of  Rome,  and  soon  the 
devotion  spread  over  the  Catholic  world. 

Fossarians  were  certain  officers  in  the 
Eastern  Church,  who  had  charge  of  the 
burial  of  the  dead.     See  Burial. 

France  {Evangelization  of).  See 
Clovis;  Burgundians. 

France  {Worship  z'»).— The  Catholic 
religion  is  professed  by  the  great  majority 
of  the  French ;  but  the  State  pays  also  a 
salary  to  Protestant  and  Jewish  ministers. 
A  minister  of  State  is  charged  with  the 
direction  of  the  different  worships,  holds 
relations  with  the  court  of  Rome,  with 
the  archbishops  and  bishops ;  he  watches 


over  the  execution  of  the  laws  which  as- 
sure liberty  of  conscience  and  protection 
to  the  different  worships.  Catholic  France 
comprises  18  archbishoprics  and  72  bish- 
oprics. The  Protestants  count  from  4  to 
5,000,000  members,  mostly  belonging  to 
the  Lutheran  and  Calvinistic  Churches. 
The  Jews  number  about  75,000. 

Frances  of  Chantal  (St.).  See  Visita- 
tion {Order  of  the). 

Francis  Borgia  (St.),  Duke  of  Candia 
and  Captain-General  of  Catalonia. — Was 
one  of  the  handsomest,  richest,  and  most 
honored  nobles  in  Spain,  when,  in  1539, 
there  was  laid  upon  him  the  sad  duty  of 
escorting  the  remains  of  his  sovereign, 
Qiieen  Isabella,  to  the  royal  burying  place 
at  Granada.  The  coffin  had  to  be  opened 
for  him  that  he  might  verify  the  body  be- 
fore it  was  placed  in  the  tomb,  and  so  foul 
a  sight  met  his  eyes  that  he  vowed  never 
to  serve  a  sovereign  who  could  suffer  so 
base  a  change.  He  entered  the  Society  of 
Jesus  and  soon  his  order  chose  him  to  be 
its  head.  He  died  in  Rome,  Oct.  loth, 
1572.     F.  Oct.  loth. 

Francis  (St.)  of  Assisi  (1182-1226). — 
Founder  of  the  Order  of  the  Franciscans, 
born  at  Assisi,  Umbria.  Ambitious  for 
glory,  he  tried  the  profession  of  arms,  then, 
touched  by  grace,  he  left  his  family,  em- 
braced absolute  poverty,  and  founded  in 
1208,  the  Order  of  Mendicants.  St.  Francis 
was  canonized  by  Pope  Gregory  IV.  in 
1228.     F.  Oct.  4th. 

Francis  of  Paul  (St.).     See  Minims. 

Francis  of  Sales  (St.)  (1567-1622). — 
Bishop  of  Geneva  and  French  writer,  born 
in  the  Castle  of  Sales,  near  Annecy,  France. 
Doctor  in  theology  and  law,  lawyer  at 
Chambery,  he  left  the  world  in  1595,  to 
enter  sacred  orders.  His  life  was  a  model 
of  virtue.  In  1610,  with  the  help  of  St. 
Frances  of  Chantal,  he  founded  the  order  of 
the  Visitation.  His  wonderful  work,  Intro- 
duction to  the  Devout  Life  passed  through 
forty  editions  whilst  the  saint  was  still  alive. 
Pope  Pius  IX.,  in  1877,  declared  St.  Fran- 
cis of  Sales  a  "  Doctor  of  the  Church."  F. 
Jan.  29th. 

Francis-Xavier  (St.)  (1506-1552). — 
Apostle  of  India  and  Japan.  Was  born  of 
a  noble  family  of  Navarre,  and  was  one  of 
the  first  associates  of  St.  Ignatius  when 
founding  his   order.     At   the  instance  of 


Franciscans 


304     Free  Church  of  England 


King  John  III.,  of  Portugal,  Pope  Paul 
III.  appointed  him  apostolic  missionary 
and  nuncio  for  India.  Francis  landed  at 
Goa,  the  capital  of  the  Portuguese  Indies. 
After  working  some  time  in  that  city, 
where  his  preaching  wrought  a  great 
change,  he  visited  the  tribe  of  the  Para- 
wians  on  the  Fishery  Coast.  His  preach- 
ing, supported  by  miracles,  produced 
wonderful  effects.  He  founded  forty-five 
Churches  along  the  coast.  After  a  year's 
residence  among  the  Parawians,  Francis 
passed  into  other  neighboring  countries. 
In  all  of  them  he  effected  prodigious  num- 
bers of  conversions.  In  the  year  1548,  he 
had  converted  more  than  200,000  pagans  of 
India.  Xavier's  next  mission  was  Japan. 
He  landed  at  Kangoxima,  in  1549.  His 
preaching  again  was  attended  with  mar- 
velous results.  He  converted  several 
princes  to  Christianity  and  left  the  Church 
of  Japan  established  on  a  firm  footing.  In 
1552,  St.  Francis  set  out  for  China.  But 
his  apostolic  course  was  run;  he  expired 
on  the  Island  of  Sancian,  in  the  forty-sixth 
year  of  his  age.  He  was  canonized  by 
Urban  VIII.  in  1623,  with  the  glorious 
title  of  *'  The  Apostle  of  India  and  Japan." 
F.  Dec.  2d. 

Franciscans  (religious  of  the  Order  of 
St.  Francis).  — The  mendicant  order  of  the 
Franciscans  was  based  on  the  principles  of 
absolute  poverty  and  charity,  with  the 
object  of  the  evangelical  preaching.  The 
members  received  the  name  of  Minorites 
{Fratres  minores).  Their  habit  was  an 
ashen-gray  tunic,  a  cord  for  cincture,  and 
sandals  for  shoes.  Their  rule  was  ap- 
proved in  1223  by  Pope  Honorius  III. ;  it 
imposed  the  three  vows  of  obedience, 
chastity,  and  poverty  in  the  strict  sense  of 
the  word,  for  they  should  possess  nothing 
of  their  own.  They  rendered  themselves 
very  popular  by  their  piety,  austerity,  and 
the  vigor  of  their  eloquence.  The  order 
spread  rapidly.  Since  the  founding  of  the 
order  they  count  eight  thousand  houses  in 
thirty-three  countries  and  about  two  hun- 
dred thousand  members.  A  general  guard- 
ian directed  all  the  provinces,  and  the 
order  was  placed  under  the  supervision  of 
a  cardinal  protector.  Devoted  to  the  study 
of  the  sciences  and  especially  to  philosophy, 
the  Franciscans  were  bright  lights  in  the 
universities,  and  became  rivals  of  the  Do- 
minicans; the  latter  were  Thomists,  while 
the  former  were  Scotists.  Their  order 
produced  Alexander  of  Hales,  and  Roger 


Bacon,  as  well  as  the  Popes  Nicholas  IV., 
Alexander  V.,  Sixtus  IV.,  Sixtus  V.,  and 
Clement  XIV. ;  a  poet,  Jacobonus  of  Todi, 
and  St.  Bonaventure.  There  were  diverse 
branches  under  the  names  of  Fathers  of  the 
Obser\'ance,  Fathers  of  the  Strict  Observ- 
ance, also  called  Jaccolanti,  Observantines, 
Recollects,  Discalced,  Reformed  Conven- 
tuals, Capuchins,  and  Cordeliers.  A  general 
division  divided  the  Franciscans  into  Cis- 
montanes  who  had  seventy  provinces,  and 
Ultramontanes  who  had  eighty-one  prov- 
inces. Besides  his  order  for  men,  St.  Fran- 
cis of  Assisi  founded  one  also  for  women, 
commonly  called  "  Poor  Clares,"  after  St. 
Clara  of  Assisi,  who  was  the  first  of  her 
sex  to  embrace  this  manner  of  life.  In 
1224,  St.  Francis  gave  a  written  rule  to  St. 
Clara  and  her  community,  which  was  ap- 
proved by  Innocent  IV.  in  1246.  Within 
a  few  years  the  order  had  spread  in  Italy, 
France,  and  Spain.  In  addition  to  these 
two  orders,  St.  Francis  founded  the  Third 
Order,  for  persons  living  in  the  world  and 
desirous  of  sharing  the  privileges  and 
graces  of  the  religious  state.  St.  Louis 
IX.  of  France,  and  St.  Elizabeth  of  Hun- 
gary belonged  to  the  Third  Order.  St. 
Francis,  after  receiving  the  sacred  stigmata, 
or  marks  of  our  Lord's  Passion,  died  in 
1226. 

There  are  many  branches  of  the  numer- 
ous family  of  the  Franciscans  in  the  United 
States.  The  "Recollects"  who  came  to 
Cincinnati,  Ohio,  in  the  year  1844,  seem  to 
have  been  the  first  religious  of  that  order 
that  settled  in  this  country,  since  the  for- 
mation of  the  United  States. 

Frankfort  (Council  of).  —  The  Council 
of  Frankfort  was  convened  by  Charlemagne 
at  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  in  794.  It  was 
attended  by  more  than  300  bishops  and 
condemned  the  heresy  of  the  Adoptionists. 

Fratricelli.  —  The  common  designation 
of  a  body  of  reformed  Franciscans  author- 
ized by  Pope  Celestine  V.  in  1294,  under 
the  name  of  Poor  Hermits,  who  afterwards 
defied  the  authority  of  the  Popes,  rejected 
the  sacraments,  and  held  that  Christian 
perfection  consists  in  absolute  poverty.  In 
spite  of  persecution,  they  continued  as  a 
distinct  sect  until  the  fifteenth  century. 

Free  Church  of  England.  — A  Protestant 
Episcopal  organization,  founded  in  1844, 
and  enrolled  in  chancery,  in  England,  in 
1863,  "originated as  a  counteracting  move- 
ment to  the  Oxford  Tractarians."     It  is 


Freemasons 


305 


Friday 


free  from  State  control,  and  therefore 
claims  the  liberty  of  entering  a  parish  where 
ritualistic  practices  prevail  and  establishing 
a  liturgical  service,  on  the  basis  of  the  evan- 
gelical party  in  the  national  church,  with 
which  its  ritual  is  practically  identical.  It 
is  governed  by  convocation  and  bishops 
consecrated,  in  the  line  of  the  Canterbury 
succession,  by  the  Rt.  Rev.  Bishop  Cum- 
mins, who  founded  the  Reformed  Episco- 
pal Church  of  America  in  1873,  when  he 
resigned  his  connection  with  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church,  while  claiming,  on  its 
own  grounds,  the  indelibility  of  his  orders. 

Freemasons.    See  Secret  Societies. 

Freppel  (Charles  Emile)  (1827-1891). 
—  A  French  theologian  and  prelate.  Was 
born  at  Obernai,  France ;  died  in  Paris. 
Entered  the  priesthood,  and  in  1870  be- 
came Bishop  of  Angers.  He  was  returned 
to  the  chamber  of  deputies  as  a  Legiti- 
mist in  1881  and  re-elected  in  1885.  He 
wrote  a  criticism  on  Renan's  Vie  de  yesus 
and  several  other  works. 

Friday  {Good  or  Holy). — Good  Friday 
is  the  day  of  God's  mercy,  because  it  is  the 
day  on  which  Jesus  Christ,  by  an  excess  of 
love,  incomprehensible  to  every  created 
mind,  suflfered  the  greatest  torments,  and 
expired  ignominiously  on  the  Cross,  in 
order  that  we  might  be  healed  through 
His  wounds,  washed  in  His  blood,  and  that 
in  His  death  we  might  find  the  principle 
of  our  true  life.  We  call  this  day  Holy  or 
Good  Friday;  it  is  also  called  Parasceve, 
which  means  a  preparation,  it  being  the 
day  in  which  the  Jews  prepared  for  the 
celebration  of  the  Sabbath.  Our  ancestors 
gave  it  the  name  of  Adoration  Friday,  on 
account  of  the  solemn  worship  of  the 
Cross  which  takes  place  on  that  day.  The 
Greeks  call  it  the  Pasch  of  Jesus  Crucified, 
and  the  Sunday  following  it,  they  term  the 
Pasch  of  Jesus  Resurrected.  In  the  office 
of  Good  Friday,  everything  inspires  com- 
punction, and  all  the  ceremonies  and 
prayers  tend  to  penetrate  the  soul  with  the 
most  profound  and  salutary  affliction. 
The  bells  are  silent  on  this  mournful  day, 
the  candles  are  extinguished,  the  altars 
are  stripped  of  their  ornaments ;  over  the 
main  altar  a  simple  cloth  only  is  extended 
to  symbolize  the  winding  sheet  which 
covered  the  dead  body  of  the  Saviour.  At 
the  commencement  of  the  office  the  cele- 
brant and  his  assistants  prostrate  them- 
selves upon  the  floor,  testifying  by  this 
20 


posture  the  bitterness  in  which  the  heart 
is  plunged  at  the  thought  of  the  ignomini- 
ous death  which  Christ  suffered  in  order  to 
take  away  from  us  the  yoke  of  the  devil. 
On  Good  Friday  the  holy  sacrifice  of  the 
Mass  is  not  celebrated.  Although  it  is  a 
real  living  representation  and  continuation 
of  the  Sacrifice  on  the  Cross,  it  can  inspire 
us  only  with  joy  and  fill  us  with  consola- 
tion ;  but  these  sentiments  are  incompatible 
with  the  mourning  of  the  Church  on  ac- 
count of  the  death  of  Jesus  Christ. 
Nevertheless  the  order  and  many  cere- 
monies of  the  Mass  are  preserved  therein; 
it  is  called  the  Mass  of  the  Presanctified. 
This  Mass  was  formerly  observed  on  fast 
days  by  the  Eastern  Churches,  during 
which  the  priest  and  faithful  communi- 
cated by  receiving  the  hosts  which  were 
consecrated  the  preceding  day.  The  office 
of  Good  Friday  commences  with  two  les- 
sons taken  from  Holy  Scripture,  which 
are  followed  by  the  reading  or  chanting  of 
the  Passion,  according  to  St.  John.  After 
this  the  celebrant  offers  solemn  prayers 
for  all  the  states  and  conditions  of  life,  for 
the  just  as  well  as  for  the  unjust,  and 
even  for  heretics,  schismatics,  Jews,  and 
pagans,  because  Jesus  Christ  died  for  all 
men,  and  wishes  all  men  to  be  saved.  The 
foregoing  solemn  prayers  are  followed  by 
the  adoration  of  the  Cross.  The  Cross, 
covered  with  a  veil,  to  signify  that  the 
mystery  of  the  Cross  had  been  hidden  for 
a  long  time,  is  now  solemnly  uncovered. 
After  having  uncovered  the  Cross,  the 
celebrant  raises  it  and  shows  it  to  the  peo- 
ple, with  these  words:  ^' Ecce  lignum 
cruets''''  (behold  the  -wood  of  the  cross);  the 
deacon  and  subdeacon  sing  with  him  :  "  /« 
quo  salus  mundi  pependif''  {upon  -which  has 
rested  the  salvation  of  the  -world),  to  which 
the  choir  replies:  '■'■Venite  adoremus," 
{Come  let  us  adore).  Then  the  cele- 
brant and  ministers  having  taken  off  their 
vestments,  prostrate  themselves  three 
times  and  adore  the  Cross.  The  people 
likewise  do  the  same.  After  this  the  cele- 
brant goes  in  procession,  without  singing, 
to  the  Repository  to  take  to  the  altar  the 
sacred  Host  which  had  lain  in  the  Reposi- 
tory from  the  preceding  day.  Arriving  at 
the  main  altar,  the  priest  proceeds  with 
the  Mass  of  the  Presanctified,  so  called, 
because  he  consumes  the  sacred  Host 
which  had  been  consecrated  the  preceding 
day.  According  to  the  present  discipline 
of  the  Church,  neither  clergy  nor  people 
may  communicate   on    Good    Friday;    an 


Fridolin 


306 


Gabriel 


exception  to  this  rule  is  made  in  favor  of 
those  in  danger  of  death.  See  Holy 
Wekk. 

Fridolin  (St.).  —  The  first  apostle  of  the 
Alemanni;  was  a  native  of  Ireland  or 
Scotland.  Labored  as  a  missionary  in 
Gaul,  where  he  restored  the  congregation 
of  St.  Hilary  at  Poitiers,  which  had  been 
corrupted  by  Arianism,  and  in  Germany, 
where  he  founded  a  monastery  at  Seck- 
ingen,  an  island  in  the  Rhine,  near  Basel. 
St.  Fridolin  lived  in  the  sixth  century.  F. 
March  6th. 

Friends.     See  Quakers. 

Frisians  {Conversion  of  the).  —  See 
WlLLIBRORD  (St.). 

Frumentius  and  Aedesius.  See  Abys- 
sinia. 

Fulbertof  Chartres  (950-1028). —  French 
prelate,  born  in  the  province  of  Poitou. 
He  founded  a  famous  school  at  Chartres, 
and  was  elected  bishop  of  that  place  in 
1007.  One  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his 
century ;  his  virtue  was  at  the  height  of  his 
science ;  the  kiygs  of  France  and  England 
had  recourse  to  his  counsels.  He  built 
the  actual  cathedral  of  Chartres.  His  let- 
ters are  of  great  interest  and  are  found  in 
in  Migne,  Pat.  Lat.  CXH. 

Fulgentius  (St.).  —  Bishop  of  Ruspe, 
was  born  in  467  or  468,  at  Telepte,  a  town 
in  North  Africa,  and  carefully  educated 
by  his  widowed  mother  Mariana.  His  no- 
ble character,  as  well   as   his  knowledge 


and  administrative  talent  earned  for  him, 
though  still  young,  the  high  position  of 
procurator  of  his  native  city.  A  change 
came  over  him  after  reading  St.  Augus- 
tine's exposition  of  the  36th  Psalm.  He 
now  resolved  to  renounce  his  vast  posses- 
sions, and,  in  spite  of  his  mother's  tears, 
retired  to  a  monastery  to  lead  an  ascetic 
life.  Being  driven  away  from  his  monas- 
tery by  the  Arians,  at  whose  hands  he  suf- 
fered inhuman  treatment,  he  wandered 
about  foreign  countries,  but  in  500  re- 
turned once  more  to  his  native  city,  where 
he  built  a  new  monastery,  entered  the 
priesthood,  and  soon  after,  in  508,  in  spite 
of  his  reluctance,  was  consecrated  Bishop 
of  Ruspe.  This  step  involved  direct  op- 
position to  King  Thrasamund,  who  had 
prohibited  any  further  appointments  to 
the  Catholic  bishoprics,  and  in  conse- 
quence, Fulgentius  and  sixty  other  bishops 
were  banished  to  Sardinia,  where  he 
founded  a  monastery  under  the  rule  of  St. 
Augustine.  Twelve  years  later  Thrasa- 
mund recalled  him  to  Carthage,  but  exiled 
him  once  more  in  520,  at  the  instigation  of 
the  Arian  bishops.  The  death  of  Thrasa- 
mund and  the  accession  to  the  throne  of 
Hilderic  opened  the  way  for  the  return  of 
the  banished  bishops  to  their  sees.  Amidst 
the  joyful  acclamations  of  the  people,  Ful- 
gentius re-entered  his  episcopal  city,  and 
from  that  time  forward  lived  peacefully, 
devoting  himself  with  fidelity  and  zeal  to 
the  welfare  of  his  flock.  He  died  in  533. 
His  writings,  whose  style  is  clear  and  con- 
cise, consists  of  treaties,  letters,  and  ser- 
mons. 


G 


Gabaa.  —  Ancient  Levitical  town  of  Pal- 
estine in  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  six  miles 
north  of  Jerusalem.  Country  of  Saul ;  de- 
stroyed during  the  war  with  the  Benja- 
mites,  to  revenge  the  Levite  Ephraim.  In 
its  neighborhood,  David  defeated  the  Phi- 
listines. Gabaa  is  identified  with  the 
modern  Gib. 

Gabaon. — In  the  old  Testament,  six 
miles  northwest  of  Jerusalem.  The  Gaba- 
onites  succeeded  by  stratagem  in  making  a 
treaty  with  the  Israelites  under  Josue.  The 
latter  defeated  them,  together  with  five 
Chanaanite  princes,  who  came  to  besiege 


them  three  days  afterwards.  It  was  in  this 
battle,  that  Josue  commanded  the  sun  to 
stand  still  in  order  to  extend  the  daylight 
on  the  combat  (Jos.  ix.). 

Gabbatha  signifies  an  elevated  place,  and 
was  the  name  of  a  place  in  Pilate's  palace, 
whence  he  pronounced  sentence  against 
our  Saviour.  In  Greek  it  is  called  the 
pavement.  It  was  properly  a  tribunal  with 
a  checkered  marble  pavement,  or  a  pave- 
ment of  mosaic  work. 

Gabriel.  —  Archangel  sent  to  the  Prophet 
Daniel  to  explain  his  visions  and  to  com- 
municate to  him  the  prophecy  of  the  sev- 


Gabrielites 


307 


Galileo 


enty  weeks.  Also  to  Zacharias,  to  announce 
to  him  the  future  birth  of  John  the  Baptist ; 
six  months  afterwards,  he  was  sent  to  Naza- 
reth to  announce  to  the  Blessed  Virgin 
Mary  the  birth  of  Jesus  Christ. 

Gabrielites.  —  Members  of  a  sect  of  Ana- 
baptists founded  in  Pomerania  in  1530  by 
one  Gabriel  Scherling.  They  refused  to 
bear  arms  and  to  take  oaths,  and  preached 
perfect  social  and  religious  equality. 

Gad.  —  I.  A  son  of  the  Patriarch  Jacob, 
by  Zelpha,  servantmaid  of  Lia.  2.  One 
of  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel,  occupying 
the  region  east  of  the  Jordan,  north  of 
Ruben  and  south  of  Manasse.  3.  A  He- 
brew prophet  and  chronicler  at  the  court 
of  David. 

Gadara.  —  In  the  Old  Testament,  a  city 
of  the  Decapolis  in  Syria,  situated  about 
seven  miles  southeast  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee, 
probably  the  capital  of  Peraea  :  the  modern 
village  of  Um  Keis.  It  was  rebuilt  by 
Pompey.  Here  are  remains  of  a  large 
Roman  theatre,  not  excavated  in  a  hill,  but 
entirely  built  up  of  masonry  on  vaulted 
substructions  and  in  good  preservation ; 
there  is  a  smaller  theatre  on  the  same  site. 

Gage  (Thomas)  (1597-1655).  — Irish 
apostate;  was  born  in  Limerick,  Ireland; 
died  in  Kingston,  Jamaica.  He  was  edu- 
cated for  the  priesthood  in  the  Order  of 
the  Dominicans  in  Spain.  He  went  to 
Mexico  with  a  party  of  friars,  and  was 
placed  in  charge  of  a  wealthy  parish,  where 
he  devoted  himself  to  getting  riches  rather 
than  to  his  ministry.  When  he  had  accumu- 
lated a  large  fortune,  he  deserted  his 
people,  and  after  a  roundabout  journey 
through  Central  America,  sailed  from 
Costa  Rica  for  England.  There  he  re- 
nounced Catholicity  and  wrote  an  account 
of  his  adventures  in  Mexico  and  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  Spanish  possessions,  under  the 
title  English- American  Description  of  the 
West  Indies  (1648). 

Gajus.     See  Cajus. 

Galaad  or  Mount  Galaad.  — In  biblical 
geography,  a  part  of  Palestine,  east  of  the 
Jordan,  lying  between  the  Hieromax  on 
the  north,  and  the  Arnon  on  the  south.  In 
an  extended  sense,  it  included  Basan.  Its 
chief  cities  were:  Jabes-Galaad  and  Ramoth- 
Galaad. 

Galatia. —  In  ancient  geography,  a  divi- 
sion of  Asia  Minor  lying  between  Bithynia 


and  Paphlagonia  on  the  north,  Pontus  on 
the  east,  Cappadocia  and  Lycaonia  on  the 
south,  and  Phrygia  on  the  west :  formerly 
a  part  of  Phrygia.  It  was  conquered  and 
settled  by  a  confederation  of  Gallic  tribes 
in  the  third  century  b.  c,  and  was  made  a 
Roman  province  in  25  b.  c.  Theodosius  sub- 
divided it  into  Galatia  Prima  and  Galatia 
Secunda.  The  Epistle  to  the  Galatians, 
which  was  addressed  to  them  from  Ephesus 
by  St.  Paul,  about  the  year  55,  combats 
the  pretension  of  Judeo-Christians  who 
wished  to  add  to  Christianity  circumci- 
sion, and  the  ceremonies  of  the  Mosaic 
Law. 

Galileans.  — i .  Name  which  was  given  to 
the  first  Christians,  because  Christ  and 
His  parents  came  from  Galilee.  2.  Name 
of  Jewish  sectarians  who,  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Judas  of  Galilee,  arose  against  the 
Romans  on  account  of  a  general  census 
prescribed  by  Augustus  in  order  to  im- 
pose a  tax  upon  all  his  subjects  of  the  em- 
pire. 

Galilee,  in  the  Roman  period,  was  the 
most  northern  division  of  Palestine.  It 
was  bounded  by  Phoenicia  and  Cceie-Syria 
on  the  north,  the  Jordan  valley  on  the  east, 
Samaria  on  the  south,  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  Phoenicia  on  the  west.  It  com- 
prised Upper  Galilee  (in  the  north)  and 
Lower  Galilee  (in  the  south),  and  corre- 
sponded to  the  ancient  territories  of  Aser, 
Nephtali,  Zabulon,  and  part  of  Issachar. 
It  now  belongs  to  Turkey. 

Galileo  {Galilei)  (1564-1642). —  Italian 
astronomer,  mathematician,  and  scientist. 
It  was  during  the  Pontificate  of  Urban 
VIII.  that  the  memorable  and  often  falsely 
described  trial  of  Galileo  occurred,  in  the 
courts  of  the  Inquisition.  The  enemies  of 
the  Church,  forget  only  too  often,  that  the 
system  advocated  by  Galileo  had  been  ad- 
vanced, without  censure,  by  the  learned 
Cardinal  of  Cusa  nearly  two  hundred  years 
before;  that  it  had  been  expressly  main- 
tained, with  the  encouragement  of  the  Ro- 
man Pontiffs,  by  Copernicus,  fully  ninety 
years  before  the  Congregation  of  the  In- 
dex pronounced  sentence  against  the  Flor- 
entine astronomer.  They  forgot  too,  that 
Protestants  were  the  first  who  vigorously 
opposed  the  Copernican  system  on  the 
ground  of  Scripture.  *'  Even  such  a  great 
man  as  Bacon,"  says  Macaulay,  "rejected 
with  sJorn,  the  theory  of  Galileo." 
"Had,"  says  Kenrick,  "Galileo  confined 


Gall 


308 


Gallitzin 


himself,  as  he  was  repeatedly  warned,  to 
scientific  demonstrations,  without  med- 
dling with  Scripture,  and  proposed  his 
system  as  probable,  rather  than  as  indubi- 
table, he  would  have  excited  no  opposi- 
tion." It  is  rather  unfair  and  ridiculous 
to  call  the  Church  an  enemy  of  science 
because  she  forbids  writers  to  adduce  the 
Scripture  in  support  of  their  views.  No 
corporal  punishment  was  inflicted  in  the 
case  of  Galileo ;  and  no  dungeon  was 
opened  to  receive  him.  On  the  contrary, 
his  disobedience  and  contempt  were  vis- 
ited only  with  a  slight  penance  —  to  say 
once  a  week,  for  three  years,  the  seven 
penitential  psalms  —  and  he  was  put  under 
some  restraint  —  not  in  a  prison  —  first 
with  the  Archbishop  of  Siena,  his  per- 
sonal friend,  and  afterwards  in  his  own 
villa,  near  Florence.  The  decree  of  the 
Index  against  Galileo  proves  nothing 
against  Papal  Infallibility.  In  the  case  of 
Galileo,  the  Holy  See  condemned  as  heret- 
ical and  opposed  to  Scripture,  an  astro- 
nomical doctrine  which  is  now  universally 
accepted.  On  this  much  debated  question, 
it  may  safely  be  said,  that  no  man  can 
prove  that  the  note  of  heresy  was  attached 
by  the  Pope  himself  to  the  physical  doc- 
trine. The  proof  of  this  would  require  it 
to  be  shown  that  the  Pope  acted  person- 
ally, for  the  gift  of  Infallibility  cannot  be 
delegated  to  any  other  person;  that  he 
acted  with  the  intention  of  exercising  his 
supreme  apostolic  authority  to  teach  the 
Church ;  and,  lastly  and  most  especially, 
that  the  purpose  of  the  decree  was  to  con- 
demn the  doctrine  and  not  merely  to  pro- 
hibit the  books  containing  it.  A  doctrinal 
utterance  is  not  proved  to  be  ex-cathedra 
by  its  occurrence  among  the  motives  for  a 
disciplinary  decree;  and  this  appears  to 
have  been  the  case  with  the  decree  against 
Galileo,  which  therefore  does  not  conflict 
with  our  doctrine.  The  action  of  the 
Holy  See  on  this  matter  may  be  defended 
on  higher  ground  than  what  is  here  taken ; 
but  what  has  been  said  suffices  to  show 
that  nothing  was  done  in  the  case  that  is 
inconsistent  with  the  doctrine  of  Papal 
Infallibility. 

Gall  (St.).— Disciple  of  St.  Columban, 
Native  of  Ireland ;  was  the  chief  assistant 
of  St.  Columban  in  his  missionary  labors; 
well  educated  and  eloquent,  and  able  to 
preach  in  the  German  as  well  as  in  the 
Latin  language.  He  laid  the  foundations 
of  the  celebrated  Monastery  of  St.  Gall,  in 


Switzerland.  Refused  the  Bishopric  of 
Constance,  which  the  Duke  Gunzo  pressed 
upon  his  acceptance.  He  also  refused  the 
prayer  of  a  deputation  of  Irish  monks  from 
Luxeuil,  who,  in  the  year  625,  on  the  death 
of  Eustace,  requested  him  to  become  abbot 
of  that  great  monastery;  because,  as  he 
said,  he  was  a  stranger  to  them,  and  if  he 
accepted  their  offer,  he  should  be  obliged 
to  forsake  the  Alemanni,  who  were  as  yet 
pagans,  or  only  partially  converted.  He 
continued  to  preach  the  Gospel  to  the  in- 
habitants of  the  country  about  the  monas- 
tery of  St.  Gall,  and  at  the  time  of  his 
death,  which  occurred  at  Arbon,  Oct. 
i6th,  646,  when  he  was  in  the  ninety-fifth 
year  of  his  age,  the  entire  country  of  the 
Alemanni  had  become  a  Christian  prov- 
ince.    F.  Oct.  i6th. 

Gallandius  (Andrew)  (1709-1779). — 
Theologian  and  oratorian;  born  at  Venice. 
He  is  justly  famed  for  his  Bibliotheca  ve- 
terum  Patrum  antiquorumque  scriptortim 
ecclesiasticorum  (Venice,  1765-81,  14  vols, 
fol.),  noted  for  the  accuracy  of  its  texts 
and  the  excellence  of  its  dissertations. 

Gallicanism.  — One  of  the  various  forms 
of  opposition  to  the  Papacy  was  Gallican- 
ism, which  restricted  the  authority  of  the 
Holy  See  and  infringed  upon  the  rights  of 
the  Church.  The  so  called  Galilean  Lib- 
erties authorized  the  king  to  convene 
French  synods  and  confirm  their  decrees 
as  well  as  to  enforce  the  decrees  of  the 
Council  of  Constance  which  declared  the 
superiority  of  the  Council  to  the  Pope ; 
they  affirmed  that  the  use  of  the  apostolic 
power  is  to  be  restricted  by  the  canons ; 
that,  in  matters  of  faith,  the  supreme  Pon- 
tiff has  the  chief  part  to  perform,  but  that 
his  judgment  is  not  irreversible  ('•  irre- 
formabile")  unless  the  Church  has  formally 
ratified  it  by  her  consent.  To  further  his 
arbitrary  rule,  Louis  XIV.  (1643-1715) 
made  use  of  these  anti-ecclesiastical  ten- 
dencies in  his  controversy  with  the  Pope 
and  would  have  precipitated  a  schism, 
had  not  Bossuet  opportunely  intervened. 
The  latter  drew  up  the  celebrated  Dec- 
laration of  the  French  clergy  in  the  Four 
Articles,  which  in  after  years.  Napoleon  I. 
endeavored  to  enforce  by  law  and  which 
were  finally  condemned  by  the  Ecumenical 
Council  of  the  Vatican  (1870). 

Gallican  Liberties.     See  Gallicanism. 

Gallitzin  (Dkmetrius). — Son  of  Prince 
Demetrius    Gallitzin,   was    born    at    The 


Gamala 


309 


Garnet 


Hague  Dec.  22d,  1770;  died  at  Loretto, 
Pennsylvania,  May  6th,  1840.  At  the  age 
of  tvventy-two  years,  he  came  to  America 
in  order  to  instruct  himself  in  his  travels 
and  to  prepare  himself  to  fulfill  a  brilliant 
charge  in  the  world.  Providence  awaited 
him  here  to  embrace  quite  a  different  career. 
He  became  a  Catholic  and  resolved  to  em- 
brace the  ecclesiastical  state.  He  was  ad- 
mitted into  the  Seminary  of  Baltimore  and 
ordained  priest  March  loth,  1793.  He  was 
sent  to  exercise  the  sacred  ministry  to  Con- 
ewago,  from  whence  he  visited  a  large  dis- 
trict, and  here  he  fixed  his  residence  in 
1799.  At  first  there  was  in  this  place  only 
a  small  number  of  Catholic  families,  but 
soon  a  number  of  congregations  arose. 
The  Abbe  prince  of  Gallitzin  devoted  him- 
self entirely  to  his  flock.  His  charity,  the 
simplicity  of  his  zeal,  his  perseverance 
among  great  privations,  gained  for  him  the 
people's  esteem  and  confidence.  From 
Conewago,  where  there  were  many  Ger- 
mans, he  went  to  exercise  his  ministry  at 
Taney  Town.  He  left  this  place  with  a 
great  number  of  his  parishioners  to  form  a 
settlement  at  Fort  Cumberland,  in  another 
county.  He  became  their  adviser  and 
guide  for  both  their  spiritual  and  temporal 
welfare,  built  a  church  and  provided  for 
the  needs  of  his  flock.  A  pension  which 
he  received  from  his  family  served  to  assist 
his  colonists.  Amidst  these  apostolic  la- 
bors and  after  having  even  published  some 
writings  of  controversy,  he  died  near  Lo- 
retto, Pennsylvania. 

Gamala.  —  A  city  in  Galilee,  opposite 
Tiberias,  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Sea  of 
Galilee.  It  stood  on  a  hill  which  was  com- 
pared to  the  back  of  a  camel,  from  which 
possibly  its  name  is  derived  (Hebr.  gamal 
camel).  It  was  fortified  and  formed  one  of 
the  centers  of  insurrection  during  the  war 
of  Judea  with  Rome.  It  is  identified  with 
the  modern  Qual'at  el-Hocn. 

Gamaliel. — There  are  several  Gamaliels 
mentioned  in  the  Talmud  as  descendants 
of  Hillel,  who  held  the  dignity  as  president 
of  the  Sanhedrin  and  of  patriarch  (nasi)  of 
the  Jewish  community  in  Palestine  after 
the  fall  of  Jerusalem.  Gamaliel  "  the 
elder"  was  the  grandson  of  Hillel.  It  is 
believed  that  he  was  a  secret  disciple  of 
Jesus  Christ.  The  laws  emanating  from 
him  breathe  a  mild  and  liberal  spirit.  He 
dissuaded  the  Jews  from  taking  strict 
measures  against  the  Apostles  (Acts  v.  34), 
and  is  described  as  '*  a  doctor  of  the  law, 


respected  by  all  the  people."  He  was  a 
teacher  of  the  apostle  St.  Paul.  Another 
Gamaliel,  grandson  of  the  preceding,  presi- 
dent of  the  Sanhedrin  (80-180  a.  d.),  was 
the  first  to  assume  the  title  of  patriarch. 

Gardiner  (Stephen  ).  —  An  English 
prelate  and  statesman.  Born  between  1483 
and  1495,  Gardiner  became  secretary  of 
state  under  Henry  VIII.  In  1531,  he  was 
appointed  Bishop  of  Winchester.  In  the 
case  of  Henry  VIII. 's  disastrous  divorce 
from  Queen  Catharine,  he  warmly  espoused 
his  master's  cause,  and  acted  a  prominent 
part,  both  as  ambassador  to  the  Holy  See, 
and  as  the  king's  advocate  in  the  legatine 
court  before-  Cardinals  Wolsey  and  Com- 
peggio.  He  also  accepted  the  royal 
supremacy,  which  he  defended  in  his  well- 
known  treatise  :  On  True  Obedience.  But 
on  becoming  fully  aware  of  the  evil  he  had 
so  greatly  aided,  he  devoted  his  whole 
energies  to  make  atonement  for  his  error. 
He  offered  the  most  determined  resistance 
to  Cranmer's  innovations,  for  which  he 
was  deprived  of  his  see  and  held  in  close 
confinement  during  the  reign  of  Edward 
VI.  In  his  memorable  sermon,  which  he 
preached  at  St.  Paul's  Cross  in  the  presence 
of  King  Philip  and  the  notables  of  the 
realm,  he  lamented  his  former  conduct, 
and  exhorted  all  who  had  fallen  with  him, 
to  return  with  him  to  the  "  one  fold"  of 
the  "one  shepherd."  His  death,  which 
occurred  in  November,  1555,  was  a  subject 
of  deep  regret  to  Queen  Mary,  who  lost  in 
him  her  most  faithful  minister. 

Garizim.  —  In  Scriptural  geography,  a 
mountain  of  Samaria,  Palestine,  2,848  feet 
high,  situated  opposite  Mount  Hebal,  27 
miles  north  of  Jerusalem.  The  modern 
Naplouse.  The  Samaritans  erected  on  its 
summit  a  temple,  to  oppose  that  of  Jeru- 
salem. Still  to-day  the  inhabitants  of  Na- 
plouse come,  three  times  a  year,  to  cele- 
brate upon  Garizim  the  feasts  of  the  Pasch, 
Pentecost  and  Tabernacles.  It  is  believed 
that  the  ruins  on  its  summit  are  those  of  a 
church  founded  by  the  Emperor  Zeno,  and 
which  Justinian  had  surrounded  with  a 
strong  wall.  M.  de  Saulcy  considers  them 
the  ruins  of  the  ancient  Samaritan  tem- 
ple, founded  by  Sanaballat,  under  the  reign 
of  Alexander  the  Great,  and  dedicated  later 
on,  under  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  to  the 
Hellenic  Jupiter. 

Garnet  (Henry)  (1555-1606).  — Jesuit, 
born   at  Nottingham,  professor  of  mathe- 


Gaza 


310 


Gennadius 


matics  and  of  Hebrew.  Provincial  of  his 
society  in  England.  Wrongfully  accused 
of  having  knowledge  of  the  Gunpo-wder 
Plot,  he  was  hung  and  quartered. 

Gaza.  —  A  town  and  important  trading 
place  in  Syria,  situated  near  the  Mediter- 
ranean. It  was  one  of  the  five  cities  of  the 
Philistines.  It  was  taken  by  Josue  and 
given  to  the  tribe  of  Juda.  An  episcopal 
see  was  established  quite  early  at  Gaza,  and 
Philemon  passes  for  having  been  its  first 
bishop. 

Gedeon.  —  A  celebrated  judge  and  leader 
of  Israel,  who  obtained  a  miraculous  vic- 
tory over  the  Madianites  and  freed  his 
nation  from  their  yoke.  His  history  is 
contained  in  Judges  (vi.-viii.). 

Gehenna.  —  The  valley  of  Hinnom,  or  of 
the  children  of  Hinnom,  situated  south  of 
Jerusalem  ;  also,  called  Hill  of  the  Tombs, 
of  the  Field  of  Blood,  or  of  Evil  Counsel. 
The  name  of  the  valley  occurs  first  in  the 
description  of  the  boundaries  of  Juda  and 
Benjamin  (Jos.  xviii.  16).  In  the  times  of 
Achaz  and  Manasses  children  were  offered 
here  to  Moloch,  in  consequence  of  which 
the  valley  was  called  Topheth  (abomina- 
tion) and  was  polluted  by  Josias  (IV.  Ki. 
xxiii.  10).  In  later  times  it  became  the 
prototype  of  the  place  of  punishment,  and 
was  considered  as  the  mouth  of  hell.  In 
this  sense  it  is  used  in  the  Talmud  and  in 
the  New  Testament. 

Gehon. —  One  of  the  four  rivers  in  Eden 
(Gen.  ii),  variously  identified  with  the 
Oxus,  Araxes,  an  arm  of  the  Euphrates, 
Tigris  system,  etc. 

Gelasius  (name  of  two  Popes). —  Gela- 
sius  I.  Pope  from  492  to  496.  Was  a  man 
of  rare  piety  and  great  experience.  He 
held  a  Council  of  seventy  bishops  at  Rome 
in  496  which  determined :  i.  The  Canon 
of  the  Sacred  Scriptures  of  both  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments.  2.  The  number  of 
Ecumenical  Councils,  which  was  set  at 
four  —  Nice,  Ephesus,  Constantinople,  and 
Chalcedon;  and  3.  A  list  of  the  Fathers 
and  their  books  which  could  be  lawfully 
read,  as  also  a  catalogue  of  forbidden  and 
apocryphal  books.  To  abolish  the  lasciv- 
ious feast  of  the  Lupercalia,  Gelasius  in- 
troduced in  its  stead  the  festival  of  the 
Purification.  He  also  revised  the  Canon 
of  the  Mass  and  enjoined  communion  un- 
der both  kinds  in  opposition  to  the  Manic- 
heans,  who  condemned  the  use  of  wine  in 


the  holy  sacrifice.  The  Sacramentary 
which  bears  his  name  is  by  some  ascribed 
to  Leo  I.  the  Great.  —  Gelasius  II.  Pope 
from  II 18  to  1 1 19.  He  had  to  combat 
against  an  antipope,  set  up  by  Henry  V. — 
the  excommunicated  Archbishop  of  Bur- 
dinus  of  Braga,  as  Gregory  VIII.  Gelasius 
excommunicated  both  the  emperor  and 
his  antipope.  Being  unable  to  maintain 
himself  in  Rome,  he  sought  refuge  in 
France,  where,  after  holding  a  synod  at 
Vienne,  he  died  in  the  monastery  of  Clu- 
ney. 

Gelboe.  —  A  mountain  range  in  the  ter- 
ritory of  Issachar,  1,717  feet  high,  which 
bounds  the  lower  plain  of  Galilee  on  the 
east,  running  from  southeast  to  northwest. 
Here  Saul  and  his  three  sons  fell  in  a  bat- 
tle against  the  Philistines.  The  present 
name  of  the  mountain  is  Jebel  Faku'a,  but 
its  old  name  survives  in  the  village  Jelbon, 
on  the  southern  part  of  the  range. 

General.  —  In  the  Catholic  Church,  the 
supreme  head,  under  the  Pope,  of  the  ag- 
gregated communities  throughout  Chris- 
tendom belonging  to  a  religious  order. 

Generatianism.  —  Opinion  according  to 
which  the  soul  transmits  itself  through 
generation.  Tertullian,  admitting  the  ma- 
teriality of  the  soul,  was  the  first  who 
exposed  this  idea,  which  has  been  com- 
bated by  all  the  Fathers  of  the  Church. 
See  Crkationism. 

Genesareth  ( Sea  of,  also  called  Lahe  or 
Sea  of  Tiberias).  —  A  lake  in  Palestine, 
traversed  by  the  Jordan ;  the  modern  Bahr 
Tabariyeh.  Its  length  is  about  13  miles; 
its  greatest  breadth  6%  miles ;  its  surface 
680  feet  below  that  of  the  Mediterranean. 
Its  shores  were  thickly  peopled  in  the 
time  of  Christ,  and  are  associated  with 
many  events  in  the  New  Testament  his- 
tory. 

Genesis.  —  The  opening  book  of  the 
Pentateuch,  derives  its  Greek  name  from 
the  subject  of  which  it  treats.  This  is  the 
creation  {Genesis)  of  the  world,  and  with 
it  the  history  of  man  till  the  death  of 
Joseph  in  Egypt.  Into  this  narrative,  ex- 
tending over  a  period  of  2,369  years,  is 
woven  an  account  of  all  that  God  did  to 
keep  alive  in  the  hearts  of  men  the  reve- 
lation He  communicated  to  Adam  and  the 
patriarchs. 

Gennadius.  —  Priest  of  Marseilles,  eccle- 
siastical writer  about  the  end  of  the  fifth 


Gennadius 


311 


Germany 


century.    He  seemed  to  have  favored  Semi- 
Pellagianism. 

Gennadius  (George  Scholarius). — 
Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  born  in  that 
city  about  1400;  died  in  1464.  First  judge 
of  the  palace  and  secretary  of  John  VII. 
He  accompanied  this  emperor  to  the 
Councils  of  Ferrara  and  Florence  (1439), 
where  they  occupied  themselves  with  the 
reunion  ot  the  Greek  and  Roman  Churches; 
was  in  turn  adherent  and  adversary  of  a 
reconciliation,  became  patriarch  after  the 
taking  of  Constantinople  by  Mohammed 
II.  (1453)  and  resigned  in  1458. 

Gentiles. — This  name  is  derived  from 
the  Hebrew  Goim,  which  signifies  the  na- 
tions that  have  received  neither  the  faith 
nor  the  law  of  the  Lord.  Thus  the  Jews 
understood  by  Gentiles  all  those  who  were 
not  of  their  religion.  In  St.  Paul,  ordi- 
narily, the  Gentiles  are  comprised  under 
the  name  of  Greeks ;  yudceus  et  Grcecus 
mark  the  Jews  and  the  Gentiles.  St.  Luke, 
in  the  Acts,  expresses  himself  in  the  same 
manner. 

Gentilis  (  Valentine  )  ( 1520  -1566 ) .  — 
Heretic,  born  at  Cosenza,  Italy;  died  at 
Bern,  Switzerland.  Disciple  of  Socinus, 
expelled  from  his  country,  he  led  a  vaga- 
bond life.  After  having  with  difficulty 
escaped  the  fiery  death,  destined  for  him 
by  the  Geneva  Reformers,  Gentilis  was 
beheaded  as  an  Antitrinitarian  at  Bern. 

Genuflectentes.  —  In  the  early  Church  a 
class  of  Catechumens  who  were  allowed  to 
remain  and  join  in  prayers  offered  es- 
pecially for  them  after  the  audiences  were 
dismissed  by  the  priest  or  bishop. 

Genuflection. — Act  of  religious  worship, 
which  consists  in  bending  the  knee  or 
knees.  The  custom  of  kneeling  in  prayer 
is  very  ancient  among  the  Christians. 
They  always  prayed  kneeling,  except  on 
Sunday  and  the  time  from  Easter  until 
Pentecost,  they  prayed  erect,  in  order  to 
honor  the  resurrection  of  our  Saviour. 

George  (  St.  )  (  280-303  ) .  —  Born  at 
Diospolis  or  Lydda  of  Palestine.  Tribune 
in  the  guard  of  Diocletian,  he  suffered 
martyrdom  at  Nicomedia.  His  veneration 
is  much  spread  in  the  Orient  and  in 
Russia.  The  saint  is  generally  repre- 
sented, clad  in  armor,  and  riding  a  white 
horse,  charging  the  dragon  (the  devil)  and 
transfixing  him  with  his  spear  as  he  turns 
to  flee.     F.  April  23d. 


Gerah.  —  A  Jewish  coin  worth  about  two 

cents. 

Gerara.  —  An  ancient  town  or  place  of 
the  Philistines  in  the  time  of  Abraham 
and  Isaac.  It  lay  not  far  from  Gaza,  in 
the  south  of  Juda ;  but  is  not  mentioned  in 
later  history  (Gen.  xx.  i ;  xxvi.  i,  6,  17). 

Gerard  {SegarelU).    See  Apostolians. 

Gerasa. — A  city  of  Decapolis,  Palestine, 
26  miles  northeast  of  Jerusalem.  It  con- 
tains many  antiquities,  and  is  identified 
with  the  modern  Djersash. 

Gerbert.     See  Sylvester  II. 

German  Catholics.  —  Sectarians  in  Ger- 
many, about  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century,  who  were  founded  by  John 
Ronge,  an  apostate  priest.  Nothwith- 
standing  the  thorough  Protestant  and  radi- 
cal principles  they  professed,  they  called 
themselves  the  "German  Catholics,"  also 
the  "Christian  Catholic  and  Apostolic 
Church."  Ronge,  who  was  hailed  by  the 
Liberal  and  Protestant  factions  of  Ger- 
many as  another  Luther,  rejected  all  but 
two  sacraments.  The  remnant  of  this  sect, 
which  was  largely  composed  of  Protes- 
tants, subsequently  joined  the  national 
Protestant  Church  of  Germany.  Ronge 
died  impenitent  in  1887. 

Germanus.  —  Patriarch  of  Constantino- 
ple (715).  Deposed  (730)  on  account  of 
his  resistance  to  the  iconoclastic  measui-es 
of  the  Emperor  Leo.     Died  in  740. 

Germanus  (St.).  —  Born  at  Autun  in  406. 
Bishop  of  Paris  in  555.  A  staunch  de- 
fender of  the  Church  against  the  Mero- 
vingian despots.     F.  May  28th. 

Germanus  (St.)  (380-448). — Governor 
of  Auxerre,  his  native  city,  under  Hono- 
rius.  He  became  bishop  in  418.  Died  at 
Ravenna  whither  he  had  gone  to  ask  Val- 
entinian  II.  to  forgive  the  Amoricans  who 
had  rebelled  against  him.     F.  July  31st. 

Germany  {Christianity  in).  See  Boni- 
face (St.). 

Germany  (  Worship  in).  —  The  dominat- 
ing religion  in  Germany  is  Protestantism 
(62.5  per  cent.).  The  Catholics  form  36 
per  cent.  In  Southern  Germany,  the  num- 
ber of  Catholics  is  double  that  of  Protes- 
tants ;  in  the  North,  on  the  contrary,  the 
proportion  is  2^  Protestants  to  one  Cath- 
olic.    The  sect  of   Old  Catholics   which 


Gerson 


312 


Gibbons 


they  represented  for  a  time  as  having  the 
importance  of  a  new  Church  is  of  little 
importance  (less  than  50,000).  It  is  more 
a  political  party  than  a  religious  sect.  Ac- 
cording to  the  statistics  of  1875,  the  divi- 
sion made  by  the  State  of  the  different 
worships  is  as  follows  :  — 


Gessur.  —  A  small  district  east  of  the 
Jordan,  and  northeast  of  Basan,  allotted  to 
Manasses.  David  married  a  daughter  of 
its  king  (II.  Ki.  iii.  3),  and  thither  Ab- 
salom fled  after  the  murder  of  Amnon. 
It  is  supposed  to  be  a  part  of  the  rocky 
region  now  known  as  El  Lejah. 


States 


Prussia 

Bavaria 

Saxony 

Wurtemberg ,. 

Baden 

Hesse 

Mecklemburg-Schwerin 

Oldenburg 

Anhalt 

Other  States 

Alsace-1-.orraine 

Total 


Protestants 


16,712,700 

1,392,120 

2,674,905 

1,296,650 

517,861 

602,850 

548,741 

245,054 

208,238 

2,234,375 

285,329 


26,718,823 


62.5% 


Catholics 


8,625,840 

3,573,142 

73,349 

567,578 

958,916 

251,172 

2,258 

71,743 

3,473 

39,675 

1,204,981 


15,372,127 


36% 


Other 
Christians 


59,400 
4,889 

6,541 
4,167 

3,842 

3,889 

909 

91 
4,968 
3.198 


91,894 


0.2% 


Jews 


339,790 

51,33s 

5,. 360 

12,881 

26,492 

25,652 

2,786 

1,578 

1,763 

22,650 

39,002 


529,289 


1-2% 


Others 


4,674 
904 

431 

229 

60 

655 

30 

8,942 
19+ 


16,119 


0.1% 


Gerson  (Jkaj?  Charlikr  dk)  (1363- 
1429).  —  Born  at  Gerson,  Ardennes;  died 
at  Lyons.  A  noted  theologian.  He  was 
chancellor  of  the  University  of  Paris,  and 
was  prominent  in  the  Councils  of  Pisa  and 
Constance,  striving  for  the  unity  of  the 
Church  and  for  ecclesiastical  reforms.  In 
1419,  he  went  to  Lyons  where  he  died.  A 
great  number  of  critics  attribute  to  him  the 
Imitation  of  Christ. 

Gertrude  (St.)  (1264-1334).— Religious 
of  the  Order  of  St.  Benedict,  born  at  Eisle- 
ben.  Saxony.  Sister  of  St.  Mechtilda. 
She  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  book  entitled: 
Revelations,  in  which  she  relates  her  com- 
munications with  God. 

Gervase  or  Gervaise.  —  Bom  about  1 150 ; 
died  early  in  the  thirteenth  century.  An 
English  monk  and  chronicler ;  he  wrote  a 
history  of  the  archbishopric  of  Canter- 
bury to  the  accession  of  Hubert;  a  chroni- 
cle of  the  reigns  of  Stephen,  Henry  II., 
and  Richard  I. ;  a  Maffa  Mundi,  showing 
the  episcopal  sees,  monasteries,  etc.,  in  each 
county  of  England,  etc. 

Gervasius  and  Protasius  (Sts.).  —  Born 
very  probably  at  Ravenna.  Were  mar- 
tyred under  Nero.  Twin  sons  of  St.  Vi- 
talius,  consular  personage,  and  of  St. 
Valeria. 


Geth.  — City  of  ancient  Palestine,  in  the 
tribe  of  Dan,  on  the  Mediterranean  sea, 
conquered  by  David.     Country  of  Goliath. 

Gethsemani  (Hebr.  oil  press).  — In  New 
Testament  history,  a  garden  or  orchard, 
east  of  Jerusalem,  near  the  brook  Cedron. 

Ghost  {Gifts  of  the  Holy).— The  Holy 
Ghost  is  in  a  peculiar  manner  the  Giver  of 
Grace,  and  the  work  of  sanctificati^on  of 
men  is  appropriated  to  him.  But  besides 
habitual  grace,  and  the  virtues,  there  are 
certain  supernatural  habits,  which  are 
called  "Gifts  of  the  Holy  Ghost,"  and 
which  are  given  to  man  to  dispose  him  to 
receive  influence  from  God,  leading  him 
on  to  his  salvation.  These  are  commonly 
reckoned  as  being  the  seven  gifts  enumer- 
ated by  Isaias  (x.  2,  3)  of  which  wisdom, 
understanding,  counsel,  and  knowledge  be- 
long the  intellect,  while  fortitude, piety,and 
the  fear  of  God  belong  to  the  will  of  man. 

Ghost  {Holy).     See  Trinity. 

Gibbons  (James).  —  Born  at  Baltimore, 
Maryland,  July  23d,  1834.  An  American 
Catholic  prelate.  He  was  ordained  priest 
at  St.  Mary's  Seminary,  Baltimore,  in  1861, 
became  assistant  priest  at  St.  Patrick's 
Church,  Baltimore,  Maryland.  A  few 
months  later  he  became  pastor  of  St. 
Bridget's  Church,  and  then  was  transferred 


GlHON 


313 


Girdle 


to  the  cathedral,  and  appointed  chancellor 
of  the  archdiocese.  In  1868  he  was  made 
vicar  apostolic  of  North  Carolina,  with  the 
rank  and  title  of  bishop,  and  in  1872  was 
assigned  to  the  see  of  Richmond,  Virginia. 
In  1877  he  became  Archbishop  of  Baltimore 
and  cardinal  in  1886,  being  the  second 
American  to  receive  this  dignity.  He  was 
present  at  the  Vatican  Council  (1870-71), 
and  presided  as  apostolic  legate  over  the 
Council  of  Baltimore  (1884).  He  wrote 
Faith  of  our  Fathers  (New  York,  1874  — 
enormous  sale) ;  Our  Christian  Heritage 
(Baltimore,  Maryland,  1889) ;  The  Ambas- 
sador of  Christ  {Ibid.  1897). 

Gihon.     See  Gehon. 

Gilbert.  —  Bishop  of  Limerick  in  the 
twelfth  century.  At  the  recommendation 
of  St.  Anselm,  he  was  appointed  papal 
legate  for  Ireland.  With  the  consent  of 
Pope  Paschal  II.,  Gilbert,  in  mi,  con- 
vened a  national  synod  at  Aengus-Grove, 
which  was  attended  by  Moelmurry,  Arch- 
bishop of  Cashel,  fifty  bishops,  three 
hundred  priests,  and  about  three  thousand 
persons  of  the  clerical  and  religious  orders. 
By  this  council,  wise  rules  were  framed 
regulating  the  life  and  manners  of  the 
clergy  and  people,  and  abolishing  certain 
abuses  regarding  matrimony. 

Gilbert  de  la  Poree  ( 1070-r  154) .  —  Scho- 
lastic theologian  and  philosopher,  born 
at  Poitiers.  Bishop  of  that  city.  Gilbert 
was  an  extreme  Realist,  fell  into  the  error 
of  Tritheism,  asserting  a  real  distinction 
between  the  Divine  Essence,  or  Being,  and 
God,  and  the  three  Divine  Persons,  whom 
he  considered  as  numerically  distinct  units. 
This  error  was  censured,  at  the  instance  of 
St.  Bernard,  in  a  synod  held  at  Rheims,  in 
1 148,  at  which  Pope  Eugenius  III.  was 
present  in  person.  Gilbert  submitted  to 
the  judgment  of  the  Church,  and  was  al- 
lowed to  return  to  his  diocese. 

Gilbertines.  —  Religious,  so  called  from 
their  founder,  St.  Gilbert,  parish  priest  of 
Springham,  England.  They  embraced 
canons-regular  and  nuns,  the  former  fol- 
lowing the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine,  the  latter 
that  of  St.  Benedict.  The  order,  which 
spread  rapidly  through  England,  was  ap- 
proved by  Pope  Eugenius  III. 

Gilmour  (Richard)  (1824-1891). — 
American  prelate ;  was  born  in  Glasgow, 
Scotland;  died  in  Florida.  His  parents 
were  stanch  Covenanters.     When  he  was 


only  four  years  of  age  his  parents  emigrated 
to  Canada,  and  finally  settled  in  Pennsyl- 
vania. When  young  Gilmour  was  about 
nineteen  he,  one  Sunday,  entered  a  Catholic 
church  some  five  miles  from  his  home,  and 
was  so  struck  by  the  sermon  and  by  the 
devotion  of  the  people  that  he  began  to 
read,  and,  corresponding  to  the  grace  of 
God,  became  a  Catholic.  Entered  Mount 
St.  Mary's  Seminary,  and  was  ordained 
priest  for  the  Diocese  of  Cincinnati,  August 
30th,  1852.  He  was  first  appointed  to  mis- 
sions in  southern  Ohio,  laboring  for  five 
years  to  give  every  mission  a  church  and  a 
school.  No  one  took  a  more  active  part 
toward  advancing  Catholic  education.  Be- 
sides his  labors  in  building  schools,  he 
compiled  School  Recreations,  a  collection 
of  songs  and  hymns,  a  Bible  History,  and 
a  series  of  Readers.  On  the  resignation  of 
Bishop  Rappe,  he  was  elected  to  the  see  of 
Cleveland,  and  was  consecrated  on  the  14th 
of  April,  1872.  From  his  entrance  into  his 
diocese,  Bishop  Gilmour  advanced  Catho- 
lic interests  with  all  the  activity  and  energy 
of  his  nature.  Catholic  education  was 
made  paramount,  and,  to  defend  the  inter- 
ests and  principles  of  the  Church,  he 
founded  The  Catholic  Universe.  Died  on 
the  13th  of  April,  1891. 

Gioberti  (  Vincknzo  )  ( 1802-1852  ) .  — 
Statesman,  philosopher,  and  writer,  born 
at  Turin.  Received  holy  orders.  Taught 
theology  at  the  University  of  Turin.  Was 
banished  in  1833  on  account  of  his  repub- 
lican opinions;  called  back  in  1848,  he  be- 
came minister  of  foreign  affairs,  then 
ambassador  to  Paris.  Catholic  and  Guelph, 
he  dreamed  about  uniting  philosophy  with 
religion,  and  making  Italy  one  State,  of 
which  the  Pope  should  be  the  head,  and 
the  king  of  Sardinia  the  Pope's  protector. 
His  dangerous  writings  (condemned  by  the 
Index)  have  contributed  a  good  deal  to 
the  present  deplorable  situation  of  the 
Holy  See. 

Girdle.  —  A  cord  passed  around  the 
waist  with  which  the  priest  or  other  cleric 
binds  his  alb.  In  more  modern  times  the 
girdle  has  been  generally  made  like  a  cord 
with  tassels  at  the  end ;  anciently,  it  was 
flat;  and,  whilst  it  had  the  appearance, 
was  indiscriminately  denominated  by  the 
terms  of  belt  or  zone,  as  well  as  girdle.  It 
was  formerly  made  of  various  colored  silks, 
not  unfrequently  interwoven  with  gold  and 
decorated  with  embroidery,  and  sometimes 
studded  with  precious  stones.     In  several 


Gloria  in  Excelsis 


314 


Gnosticism 


passages  of  Holy  Scripture  mention  is 
made  of  the  girdle  (Is.  xi.  5;  Ephes.  vi. 
14;  Luke  xii.  35).  The  girdle,  therefore, 
is  very  appropriately  made  a  portion  of  the 
ceremonial  attire  belonging  to  the  sanctu- 
ary, and  is  eloquently  emblematical  of  that 
chastity  and  unsullied  purity  with  which 
both  priest  and  people  should  anxiously 
endeavor  to  array  themselves  before  they 
dare  to  pass  the  threshold  of  a  temple 
sacred  to  the  Lord  of  spotless  holiness. 
The  zone  or  girdle  with  which  the  priest 
girds  himself  around  the  waist,  over  the 
alb,  is  noticed  in  all  the  Greek  and  Oriental 
liturgies. 

Gloria  in  Excelsis  (Latin  words  :  "Glory 
be  to  God  in  the  highest"). —  This  has  been 
denominated  the  Angelic  hymn,  because  it 
commences  with  words  chanted  by  angelic 
voices  in  the  midnight  air,  at  the  birth  of 
our  Divine  Redeemer,  which  was  an- 
nounced to  the  shepherds  by  an  angel 
zoned  in  light,  with  whom  "  there  was  a 
multitude  of  the  heavenly  army,  praising 
God,  and  saying:  "Glory  be  to  God  in 
the  highest,  and  on  earth  peace  to  men  of 
good  will"  (Luke  x^-ii.  13).  This  canti- 
cle, as  the  Fathers  of  the  Fourth  Council 
of  Toledo  (633)  observed,  consists  of  the 
strain  sung  by  the  multitude  of  the  heav- 
enly army,  and  of  pious  aspirations  com- 
posed by  the  pastors  of  the  Church.  The 
Greeks  call  it  the  greater  Doxology.  Its 
author  is  unknown,  but  it  is  found  nearly, 
though  not  quite,  in  its  present  form  in 
the  Apostolic  Constitutions.  It  was  intro- 
duced into  the  Mass  by  the  Roman 
Church,  first  of  all  on  Christmas  day, 
when  it  was  sung  at  the  first  Mass  in 
Greek,  and  at  the  second  in  Latin.  After- 
wards, the  bishops  said  it  on  Sundays  and 
festivals,  priests  only  on  Easter  Sunday; 
this  restricted  use  was  maintained  until 
the  tenth  century.  The  "  Gloria  in  Ex- 
celcis  "  is  now  said  in  all  Masses  except 
those  of  the  Sunday  in  Advent  and  from 
Septuagesima  to  Palm  Sunday  inclusive, 
and  of  all  the  feriae  not  including  the 
Paschal  time.  It  is  not  said  in  votive 
Masses,  except  in  those  of  the  Angels, 
and  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  on  Saturday. 
Being  a  canticle  of  gladness,  it  is  also 
omitted  in  Masses  for  the  dead. 

Gloria  Patri  (Latin  words  :  "Glory  be  to 
the  Father").  —  The  minor  doxology,  or 
short  hymn  of  Glory.  The  first  part  of  it : 
"  Glory  be  to  the  Father,  and  to  the  Son, 
and  to  the   Holy  Ghost,"  is  presumed  to 


have  been  framed  by  the  Apostles.  The 
second  portion:  "  As  it  was  in  the  begin- 
ning, is  now,  and  ever  shall  be,  world 
without  end.  Amen,"  is  ascribed  to  the 
Council  of  Nice  (325),  and  was  appended 
by  the  Nicene  Fathers  as  a  contradiction 
to  the  doctrines  of  Arius,  who  maintained 
that  the  Son  was  not  in  the  beginning,  nor 
equal  to  the  Father. 

Gnosticism  (from  gnosis,  superior  kno-wl- 
edge). — The  name  Gnostics  was  given  to 
a  variety  of  sects  in  the  early  days  of  the 
Church,  each  claiming  a  superior  knowl- 
edge of  Christianity  and  things  divine.  In 
their  attempt  to  reconcile  Christian  dogma 
with  human  reason,  the  Gnostics  blended 
with  the  faith  of  Christ  many  obscure 
and  fantastic  theories  derived  from  pagan 
philosophies  and  the  various  religious 
systems  of  the  Orient.  Hence,  Gnosti- 
cism is  viewed  as  a  fusion  of  Christian  ideas 
with  Hellenic  philosophy,  chiefly  that  of 
Plato  and  Philo,  and  of  Oriental  theosophy. 
Moehler  traces  its  origin  to  an  intense  and 
exaggerated  Christian  zeal,  seeking  some 
practical  solutions  of  the  problem  of  sin 
and  evil.  The  underlying  principles  of  all 
Gnostic  systems  were  "  Dualism,"  or  the 
theory  which  accepts  two  original  princi- 
ples, the  one  good,  the  other  evil;  and  the 
"  Emanation  "  theory,  or  development  of 
the  two  principles  into  a  series  of  beings 
of  their  nature  and  kind.  The  questions 
which  Gnosticism  undertook  to  answer  re- 
garded the  origin  of  the  visible  world,  of 
matter  and  evil ;  the  union  of  the  spiritual 
and  material,  or  mind  and  matter;  the  re- 
lations between  Christianity,  Judaism,  and 
paganism.  The  chief  Gnostic  ideas  may 
be  summed  up  as  follows :  They  taught 
that  eternal  matter  is  the  origin  and  seat 
of  evil,  and  necessarily  antagonistic  to 
God;  that  a  spirit,  called  Demiurge  cre- 
ated the  world  out  of  matter;  the  "yEon 
Christ,"  who  had  no  material  body,  re- 
deemed man  by  communicating  to  him  a 
more  perfect  knowledge.  These  innova- 
tors distorted  passages  of  Holy  Scripture 
upon  which  they  based  their  doctrines; 
they  also  claimed  to  have  received  private 
revelations.  Gnosticism  was  a  return  to 
paganism.  In  its  practical  bearings  it  re- 
vealed a  false  asceticism.  While  some  of 
its  followers  were  given  to  repulsive  as- 
ceticism, others  practiced  every  manner  of 
debauchery.  There  existed  more  than 
thirty  systems  of  Gnosticism,  chief  amongst 
them  being  those  of  Simon  Magus,  Valen- 


GOCH 


315 


Golden  Bull 


tinus,  Saturninus,  Basilides,  Marcion,  and 
Carpocrates.  St.  John  in  his  Gospel  and  St. 
Irenaeus  in  his  work  against  heresies,  were 
the  principal  adversaries  of  the  Gnostics. 

Goch  (  John  van  ).  —  Heretic.  A  native 
of  the  Netherlands  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
He  asserted  that  Christianity  had  been 
adulterated  by  error,  a  defect  which  it  was 
his  mission  to  correct.  He  rejected  tra- 
dition and  religious  vows,  and  was  the  first 
to  advance  the  erroneous  doctrine  of  justi- 
fication by  faith  alone.    He  died  in  1475. 

God  ( name  given  to  the  Creator  of 
heaven  and  earth).  —  We  know  by  the 
Sacred  Scriptures  that  God  manifested 
himself  to  Adam  and  Eve,  to  Moses  and 
the  Prophets,  as  recounted,  with  other  his- 
torical proofs,  in  many  books  of  the  Old 
Testament.  These  writings  were  not  only 
recognized  as  authentic  by  the  Evangelists, 
who  continually  quoted  them,  but  by  our 
Lord  Himself.  His  references  are  repeated 
by  the  Apostles,  and  His  birth,  life,  and 
death  were  predicted  therein.  Faith  in 
God  is  inherent  in  humanity,  springing 
from  nature  and  reason.  It  makes  us  feel 
the  necessity  of  believing  that  there  must 
be  a  Divinity,  —  who  has  formed  the 
heavens,  the  world,  and  all  therein  con- 
tained; for  the  effect  cannot  exist  without 
the  cause,  and  it  is  demonstrable  that  the 
world  has  not  always  existed.  The  har- 
mony, order,  and  wonders  of  nature,  and 
of  the  human  race,  refute  any  theory  of 
spontaneous  generation,  and  proclaim  the 
existence  of  a  primary  and  omnipotent 
Being,  who,  as  the  necessary  and  inde- 
pendent cause  of  all  things,  possesses  in- 
finite power  and  perfection,  and  is  therefore 
God.  He,  by  His  own  might  and  Divinity, 
is,  and  was,  and  ever  will  be,  God  through 
all  eternity,  and  from  Him  emanates  all 
that  is  good,  and  beautiful,  and  true.  God 
is  a  spirit,  pure,  immutable,  and  entirely 
distinct  from  anything  material,  "  and  they 
that  adore  Him,  must  adore  Him  in  spirit 
and  in  truth  "  (John  iv.  24) .  We  have  faith 
in  God  through  our  own  conscience,  giving 
us  the  moral  sense  to  realize  duty  and 
guilt,  —  to  distinguish  right  from  wrong, 
and  to  acknowledge  the  just  recompense 
or  chastisement  our  actions  deserve.  It  is 
a  natural  law,  engraven  in  our  hearts  by 
the  hand  of  God,  —  coming  as  a  whisper 
from  the  soul,  —  leading  mankind  to  admit 
that  there  is  a  sensible  difference  between 
vice  and  virtue,  wrong  and  right.  The 
soul  of  man,  spiritual  and  immortal  as  it 


is,  has  the  faculty  of  spiritual  intelligence 
as  well  as  of  feeling,  elevating  the  whole 
being  above  all  other  living  creatures, 
whose  principle  of  life  does  not  lift  them 
so  high.  And  as  we  can  conceive  it,  so  do 
we  possess  an  unconquerable  desire  for 
perpetual  happiness,  that  we  cannot  find 
in  this  transitory  life,  —  a  desire  that 
teaches  us  there  is  a  God  from  whom 
every  blessing  flows,  and  toward  whom  our 
most  holy  aspirations  tend.  Faith  in  God 
is  manifest  in  all  nations  and  in  all  ages, 
for  no  country  is  without  religion.  "  Cast 
your  eyes  over  the  face  of  the  earth,  you 
may  there  find  cities  without  ramparts, 
without  education,  without  magistrature ; 
people  without  fixed  habitation,  without 
property,  without  money ;  but  you  will 
nowhere  find  a  city  where  the  knowledge  of 
God  does  not  exist."  (Plutarchus.)  For 
Attributes  of  God,  see  Trinity. 

Godfrey  of  Bouillion.     See  Crusades. 

Godparents  are  those  persons  who,  ac- 
cording to  the  practice  of  the  Church, 
assist  at  the  solemn  administration  of 
baptism  to  make  profession  of  the  Chris- 
tian faith  in  the  name  of  the  baptized. 
They  are  also  called  "  sponsors,"  and  are 
in  no  way  ministers  of  the  sacrament. 
They  are  mentioned  by  the  Fathers  under 
the  various  names  of  sponsores,  fideijus- 
sores,  susceptores,  or  offerentes.  Concern- 
ing these,  St.  Thomas  observes  that,  just 
as  in  carnal  birth  the  nurse  receives  the 
child  and  takes  care  of  it,  and  later  on  a 
teacher  has  charge  of  it,  so  in  baptism, 
which  is  a  spiritual  birth,  the  service  of 
similar  persons  are  required  for  the  newly 
made  Christian.     See  Baptism. 

Goethe  (John  Wolfgang)  (1749-1832). 
—  German  poet,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the 
Main,  died  at  Weimar.  The  writings  of 
Goethe,  who  labored  to  cultivate  among 
his  contemporaries  a  taste  for  pagan  liter- 
ature and  a  love  of  the  classic  creations  of 
the  Greek  mind,  contributed  powerfully  to 
extinguish  the  spirit  of  reviving  faith. 
All  the  faculties  of  his  splendid  genius 
were  concentrated  on  the  one  task  of  put- 
ting nature  in  the  place  of  God.  He  de- 
tested both  religion  and  politics,  because, 
he  said,  their  influence  was  fatal  to  art. 

Gog.     See  Magog. 

Golden  BuU. — A  Bull  so  called  from  the 
gold  case  in  which  the  seal  attached  to  it 
was  inclosed.     The  imperial  edict,  known 


Golden  Calf 


316 


Gospel 


in  German  history  under  this  title,  was  is- 
sued by  Emperor  Charles  IV.,  mainly  for 
the  purpose  of  settling  the  law  of  imperial 
elections.  In  Hungarian  history,  there  is 
a  constitutional  edict  called  by  the  same 
name. 

Golden  Calf.  —  An  image  of  a  bullock 
cast  in  gold  by  the  Israelites  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Sinai ;  destroyed  by  Moses,  but 
similar  ones  were  set  up  in  later  times  by 
King  Jeroboam  at  Bethel  and  Dan,  where 
they  became  favorite  objects  of  worship. 
Calf  worship  was  frequently  rebuked  by 
Osee  (viii.  5, 6;  x.  5;  xii.  2). 

Golden  Number  for  any  year,  is  the 
number  of  that  year  in  the  Metomic  Cycle ; 
and  as  this  cycle  embraces  nineteen  years, 
the  Golden  Numbers  range  from  one  to 
nineteen.  Since  the  introduction  of  the 
Gregorian  calendar,  the  point  from  which 
the  Golden  Numbers  are  reckoned  is  i  B. 
C,  as  in  that  year  the  new  moon  fell  on 
the  first  of  January;  and  as  by  Melon's  law 
the  new  moon  falls  on  the  same  day  (first 
of  January)  every  nineteenth  year  from  that 
time,  we  obtain  the  following  rule  for 
finding  the  Golden  Number  for  any  par- 
ticular year :  Add  one  to  the  number  of 
years  and  divide  by  nineteen ;  the  quo- 
tient gives  the  number  of  cycles,  and  the 
remainder  gives  the  Golden  Number  for 
that  year;  and  if  there  be  no  remainder, 
then  nineteen  is  the  Golden  Number,  and 
tliat  year  is  the  last  of  the  cycle.  The 
Golden  Number  is  used  for  determining 
the  epact,  and  the  time  for  holding  Easter. 

Golden  Rose.  —  An  ornament  blessed  by 
the  Pope  every  year  on  the  fourth  Sunday 
of  Lent,  and  sent  occasionally  to  Catholic 
sovereigns,  celebrated  Churches,  great 
generals,  and  illustrious  Catholic  cities 
or  republics. 

Golgotha. — See  Calvary. 

Goliath.  —  In  Biblical  history  a  giant  of 
Gath,  the  champion  of  the  Philistines, 
slain  in  single  combat  by  David  (I.  Kings 
xvii). 

Gomarists.  —  See  Arminians. 

Good  Friday.  —  See  Friday. 

Gorden  (George)  (1751-1793)-  —  Bom 
at  London.  An  English  agitator,  third 
duke  of  Gorden.  He  entered  parliament 
in  1774.  In  1779  he  became  president  of 
the  "Protestant  Association,"  formed  for 


the  purpose  of  securing  the  repeal  oi  the 
Bill  of  Toleration,  passed  in  1778,  remov- 
ing the  Catholic  disabilities.  In  June, 
1780,  he  headed  a  large  and  excited  mob, 
and  dreadful  riots  ensued,  in  the  course  of 
which  many  Catholic  chapels  and  private 
dwellings  were  destroyed. 

Gortonians  or  Nothingarians.  —  Protes- 
tant sect,  the  founder  of  which  was  a  cer- 
tain Samuel  Gorton ;  born  at  Gorton, 
England,  about  1600;  died  in  Rhode  Is- 
land, 1677.  He  was  for  a  time  employed 
by  a  linen  draper  of  London,  but  in  1636 
sought  religious  freedom  in  Boston,  Massa- 
chusetts. Becoming  involved  in  disputes, 
he  removed  to  Plymouth ;  was  accused  of 
heresy  and  expelled  from  the  colony ;  went 
with  a  few  followers  to  Aquidneck  (now 
Newport),  Rhode  Island,  and  was  there 
publicly  whipped  for  treating  magistrates 
with  contempt.  He  then  settled  at  Paw- 
tuxet,  Rhode  Island,  but  again  became 
involved  in  disputes  with  the  colonists,  and 
in  1642  removed  to  Shawomet  (now  War- 
wick), Rhode  Island,  where  he  purchased 
land  of  the  Indians.  His  claim  to  the 
property  was  contested ;  he  and  his  ten 
followers  were  taken  to  Boston,  tried  as 
heretics,  and  sentenced  to  imprisonment 
and  hard  labor ;  but  the  sentence  was  after- 
wards commuted  to  banishment.  Gorton 
then  went  to  England,  procured  an  order 
giving  him  possession  of  the  lands  of 
Shawomet,  returned  there,  and  subse- 
quently became  -a  preacher  and  magistrate 
of  much  consideration.  His  sect  survived 
him  for  nearly  one  hundred  years.  They 
were  known  as  *'Gortonians,"  and  termed 
"Nothingarians,"  because  they  refused  all 
set  forms  in  religious  worship  and  had  no 
ministry. 

Gospel.  —  The  word  gospel  (Anglo- 
Saxon,  god,  good,  and  spell,  history,  or 
tidings)  answers  to  the  Greek  word  evan- 
gelion,  good  tidings,  whence  comes  the 
Latin  er'angelium,  with  the  derived  words 
in  use  among  us,  as  evangelist,  evangelical, 
etc.  It  properly  signifies  the  good  message 
itself,  and  it  is  only  by  a  secondary  usage 
that  it  is  applied  to  the  -n'ritten  histories  of 
the  Saviour's  life,  as  being  the  embodiment 
of  this  message.  The  titles  prefixed  to 
these  Gospels  from  the  beginning:  "The 
Gospel  according  to  St.  Matthew,"  "The 
Gospel  according  to  St.  Mark,"  etc.,  indi- 
cate that  the  written  record  is  not  itself 
the  Gospel,  but  rather  an  account  of  the 
Gospel  according  to  these  different  writers. 


Gospel 


317 


Gospel 


Christ  Himself  is  the  author  of  the  Gospel. 
It  existed  and  was  received  by  many  thou- 
sands before  a  line  of  it  was  put  upon 
record  on  the  written  page. 

A  first  proof  in  favor  of  the  authenticity 
of  the  Gospels  is  furnished  by  the  titles  or 
inscriprtions  which  they  carry  :  Gospel  ac- 
cording to  St.  Matthew,  according  to  St. 
Mark,  according  to  St.  Luke,  according  to 
St.  John.  Since  the  middle  of  the  second 
century,  Tertullian,  Irenseus,  and  Clement 
of  Alexandria,  give  them  these  titles,  and 
it  is  proven  that  this  formula:  according, 
followed  by  the  proper  noun,  serves  for  the 
designation  of  the  author,  according  to  the 
Greek  custom.  Besides,  a  whole  series  of 
direct  testimonies,  going  back  to  the  most 
remote  antiquity,  and  comprising  the  apos- 
tolic Fathers,  attest  to  the  same  authen- 
ticity. St.  Ignatius,  disciple  of  St.  John, 
declares  Christ  really  present  in  the  Gos- 
pel ;  he  makes  mention  of  the  prophetic, 
evangelic,  and  apostolic  Scriptures;  he 
makes  a  comparison  between  the  law  of 
Moses  and  the  Gospels,  etc.  St.  Polycarp, 
another  disciple  of  the  well-beloved 
Apostle,  exhorts  us  not  to  judge  others,  if 
we  do  not  wish  to  be  judged,  to  pardon,  in 
order  to  obtain  pardon;  he  makes  use  of 
the  words  of  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount ;  he 
tells  us  to  watch  and  to  pray,  to  escape 
temptation,  and  he  borrows  words  from 
the  history  of  the  Passion.  Whence  it  fol- 
lows, that  if  the  authenticity  of  the  authors 
is  established,  the  authenticity  of  the  facts 
and  of  the  words  is  this  by  so  much  the 
more.  Tatian,  a  disciple  of  Justin,  wrote 
a  Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels.  St. 
Theophilus  of  Antioch,  composed  a  Com- 
mentary on  the  Four  Gospels.  St.  Ire- 
naeus,  disciple  of  St.  Polycarp,  who  was 
a  friend  of  St.  John,  names  the  authors 
of  the  four  Gospels  and  expresses  him- 
self at  length  on  the  composition  of  these 
sacred  books.  Origen,  who  scrutinized, 
read,  criticised  all  that  had  relation  to 
the  Gospels,  the  versions,  and  the  manu- 
scripts, explains  their  chronology,  genesis, 
and  form.  The  first  heretics  and  pagans 
have  acknowledged  that  our  Gospels  are 
due  to  the  authors  whose  name  they  carry. 
Also  the  Gnostics,  Valentinus,  Basilides, 
and  Heracleon  name  the  Evangelists,  in 
combating  them. 

Besides  the  four  Gospels  received  unani- 
mously by  all  the  Churches,  there  ap- 
peared a  great  number  of  others,  which 
never  enjoyed  a  legal  and  canonical  au- 
thority.    However,    it  is  certain,  because 


they  agree  in  their  great  outlines  with  the 
evangelical  accounts,  that  they  confirm 
and  quite  presuppose  the  four  canonical 
Gospels.  The  apocryphal  gospels  had  the 
following  titles  :  gospels  according  to  the 
Hebrews;  according  to  the  Nazarenes;  ac- 
cording to  the  twelve  Apostles ;  according 
to  the  Egyptians,  which  appears  to  have 
been  composed  by  the  Christians  living  in 
Egypt,  before  St.  Luke  had  written  his 
own ;  gospel  of  the  birth  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin,  in  Greek  and  in  Latin,  attributed 
to  St.  James  the  Less;  gospel  of  the  child- 
hood of  the  Saviour,  or  of  St.  Thomas, 
written  in  Arabic,  etc. 

St.  Matthew,  surnamed  Levi,  is  the 
author  of  the  first  Gospel,  which,  accord- 
ing to  Eusebius,  he  drew  up  for  the  Jews, 
when,  having  preached  for  a  long  time  in 
Palestine,  he  was  ready  to  go  and  an- 
nounce the  good  news  in  other  countries, 
probably  in  Arabia.  According  to  St. 
Jerome,  this  Gospel  was  especially  des- 
tined for  the  Jews  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity. It  was  written  in  the  vulgar 
language  of  Palestine.  The  translator  of 
the  Hebrew  original  is  unknown.  The 
occasion  of  the  Gospel  of  St.  Mark,  co- 
laborer  of  St.  Peter,  was  drawn  up  accord- 
ing to  the  request  which  the  Faithful  made 
to  him  in  order  to  put  down  in  writing  the 
teachings  which  the  Apostle  had  given 
them  at  Rome.  Also,  the  account  of  the 
Evangelist  appears  to  be  a  summary.  It 
was  written  in  Greek,  and  composed  at 
Rome  for  the  Christians  living  in  Rome. 
St.  Luke  wrote  the  third  Gospel  and  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles.  Determined  through 
other  attempts  of  the  same  kind,  he  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  relating  the  history  of 
our  Lord,  with  the  view  to  give  a  worthy 
warranty  of  faith  to  what  had  been  ac- 
complished by  Jesus  as  well  as  by  His 
Apostles.  With  this  intention,  he  col- 
lected information  from  eyewitnesses,  and 
from  the  preachers  of  the  Gospel  them- 
selves,and  he  reported  what  he  learned  from 
the  beginning  to  the  day  he  wrote.  The  en- 
tire work  was  probably  completed  between 
the  years  59  and  69,  and  in  Rome  he 
finished  it.  The  language  is  Greek.  The 
three  first  Gospels  are  called  synoptics ; 
they  agree  in  the  choice  of  facts  which 
they  relate,  but  leave  aside  a  vast  field, 
from  which  St.  John  could  draw  abun- 
dantly, almost  without  touching  the  syn- 
optic authorship.  St.  John  wrote  his 
Gospel  at  Ephesus.  He  must  have  known 
the  other  Gospels,  which  he  completed. 


Gospel 


318 


Grace 


but  at  the  same  time  he  was  faithful  to  his 
mission  in  combating  the  heresies  which 
multiplied  around  him.  He  describes  the 
public  life  of  Jesus  in  Judea,  principally  at 
Jerusalem  during  the  festival  period,  whilst 
the  synoptics  relate,  with  preference,  what 
took  place  in  Galilee,  by  adding  to  their 
account  the  history  of  the  Passion.  In 
his  accounts,  the  fourth  Evangelist  did  not 
loose  sight  of  the  end  which  he  had  in 
view  to  present  an  abridgment  of  the 
dogmas  on  the  person  of  Christ. 

Gospel  {The)  in  Liturgy.  —  The  reading 
of  a  passage  of  the  Gospel  during  Mass 
certainly  goes  back  to  the  first  ages  of 
Christianity.  The  readers  were  charged 
with  this ;  to-day  the  deacons  do  it.  In  the 
time  of  Sozomenus,  in  certain  Churches, 
only  the  priest  or  the  bishop  made  this  sol- 
emn reading  to  the  people.  The  deacon 
asks  the  blessing  from  the  celebrant  before 
he  sings  the  Gospel,  and  incenses  the 
Book.  The  Faithful  trace  the  sign  of  the 
cross  on  the  forehead,  mouth,  and  breast. 
The  celebrant  kisses  the  Gospel  after  hav- 
ing read  it  or  after  the  deacon  has  sung  it, 
and  in  the  latter  case  he  is  also  incensed. 

Goths.  —  The  Goths,  whose  ancient 
home  seems  to  have  been  Scandinavia, 
about  the  beginning  of  the  third  century, 
settled  on  the  shores  of  the  Black  sea  and 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  Danube.  They  were 
divided  into  Ostrogoths  and  Visigoths,  or 
Eastern  and  Western  Goths.  In  the  latter 
half  of  the  third  century,  they  began  to  in- 
vade the  neighboring  provinces,  extending 
their  incursions  over  Illyria,  Greece, 
Thracia,  and  bejond  the  Hellespont  into 
Asia  Minor.  The  Goths  were  the  first  of 
the  Germanic  nations  who  received  the 
light  of  faith,  probably  from  Christian 
captives.  A  Gothic  bishop,  named  Theo- 
philus,  attended  the  Council  of  Nice.  St. 
Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  in  347,  mentions  the 
Goths  among  the  Christians  who  had 
bishops,  priests,  monks,  and  holy  virgins. 
Driven  from  their  new  homes  on  the 
Euxine  by  the  Huns  in  376,  the  Goths  re- 
ceived from  Emperor  Valens,  ample  terri- 
tories in  Thracia  and  Mcesia,  where  they 
were  induced,  mainly  by  the  efforts  of 
their  bishop,  Ulfilas,  to  become  Arians. 
They  continued  to  remain  Arians  until 
after  their  victory  over  Valens  at  Adriano- 
ple,  in  378.  Most  of  them,  however,  were 
Semi-Arians,  as  was  also  Ulfilas,  who  was 
consecrated  bishop  of  his  nation  at  Con- 
stantinople,  between    the    years    341  and 


348.  Ulfilas  rendered  himself  famous  by 
inventing  the  Gothic  characters  of  the 
alphabet,  and  by  translating  the  Bible  into 
the  Gothic  language,  the  greater  part  of 
this  work  being  still  extant.  He  died  an 
Arian,  in  388.  The  Visigoths,  under 
Alaric,  invaded  Italy  and  sacked  Rome  in 
410;  but  unable  to  maintain  themselves  in 
Italy,  they  founded  a  new  kingdom,  which 
subsequently  extended  over  the  greater 
part  of  Gaul  and  Spain.  With  few  excep- 
tions, the  Visigoths  were  tolerant  of  the 
faith  of  others. 

Gottschalk.     See  Lucidus.        , 

Grace.  —  Grace,  in  general,  is  a  gift 
which  God  grants  to  man  through  divine 
beneficence,  whether  we  consider  it  in 
connection  with  this  life  or  the  life  to 
come.  To  merit  this  gift  of  God,  man 
can  do  nothing.  The  nature  of  grace, 
which  is  the  principle  of  justification,  the 
manner  it  operates  on  the  soul,  its  relations 
with  free  will  are  to  us  so  many  mysteries. 
"It  is  so  difficult,"  says  St.  Augustine, 
"to  discern  the  truth  where  there  is  ques- 
tion of  man's  freedom  and  God's  grace; 
that,  when  we  defend  grace,  it  seems  that 
we  deny  free  will." 

As  certain  schools  of  theology  were  not 
sufficiently  careful  in  avoiding  this  obsta- 
cle, they  fell  into  grievous  errors.  For  in- 
stance, the  Pelagians,  the  Semi-Pelagians, 
and  the  Socinians,  under  pretext  of  de- 
fending man's  free  will,  denied  the  neces- 
sity of  grace;  while  the  Predestinarians 
of  the  fifth  and  ninth  centuries,  whose 
errors  were  renewed  in  a  more  or  less 
complete  manner  by  WycliflFe,  Luther, 
Calvin,  Bajus,  Jansenius,  and  Qiiesnel,  in 
wishing  to  exalt  the  operations  and  power 
of  grace,  have  denied  man's  liberty.  In 
order  to  avoid  these  two  extremes,  we  must 
follow  in  everything  the  teaching  of  the 
Church,  which  is  guided  by  Scripture  and 
tradition. 

Grace  comes  to  us  from  God  only,  but 
since  the  fall  of  Adam,  it  is  granted  to 
man  only  on  account  of  the  merits,  actual 
or  foreseen,  of  Jesus  Christ,  who  offered 
Himself  to  God  the  Father  as  a  victim  of 
propitiation  for  all  mankind. 

Habitual  grace  is  distinguished  from 
actual  grace.  The  first,  also  called  sancti- 
fying grace,  is  a  quality  which,  residing 
in  our  soul  in  a  fixed  and  permanent  man- 
ner, purifies  it  from  sin,  renders  it  pleasing 
to  God,  and  worthy  of  the  happiness  of 
heaven.     This   grace  remains  in  the  soul 


Grace 


319 


Grace 


until  it  is  lost  by  mortal  sin.  Actual  grace 
is  both  exterior  and  interior.  Exterior 
actual  grace  consists  in  the  preaching  of 
the  Gospel,  in  exhortations,  counsels,  and 
examples  which  influence  us  for  good. 
Interior  grace,  in  so  far  as  it  is  actual,  is 
the  act  itself  by  which  God  interiorly  en- 
lightens our  understanding  and  strengthens 
our  will  in  order  to  do  good  or  avoid  evil, 
in  view  of  our  eternal  salvation.  This 
grace  is  called  grace  of  the  understanding 
or  grace  of  the  will,  according  as  it  en- 
lightens our  mind  with  a  supernatural 
light,  or  gives  to  our  will  the  power  to  do 
good.  This  same  grace  is  also  called  pre- 
venient,  concomitant,  or  subsequent  grace, 
according  to  the  manner  in  which  it  in- 
fluences us  to  know  the  good  and  desire 
it,  or  accompanies  or  assists  us  in  order 
that  we  may  continue  to  wish  for  the  good 
and  effect  it.  Finally,  actual  grace  is  di- 
vided into  sufficient  and  efficacious  grace. 
It  is  called  sufficient  grace  because  it  gives 
sufficient  strength  to  perform  the  good  or 
avoid  the  evil,  although  the  actual  result 
may  not  be  forthcoming.  Efficacious  grace 
is  that  which  is  followed  by  its  effects, 
that  is,  it  effects  what  God  requires  from 
us.  Hence  the  difference  between  these 
two  forms  of  grace  as  to  their  effects,  con- 
sists in  this,  that  one  may  resist  the  first, 
while  the  second  indicates  non-resistance, 
although  it  certainly  can  be  resisted. 

It  is  of  faith  that  without  interior  grace 
we  can  do  absolutely  nothing  to  effect  our 
salvation.  Grace  is  absolutely  necessary 
for  the  beginning  as  for  the  fulfilling  of  our 
salvation.  Grace  is  also  essentially  gratui- 
tous, otherwise  it  would  be  no  grace.  How- 
ever, when  we  say  grace  is  essentially 
gratuitous,  we  do  not  mean  to  assert  that 
grace  is  never  the  reward  for  a  proper  use 
of  grace  previously  granted.  Hence  the 
maxim  that  God  does  not  refuse  grace  to 
the  one  who  does  what  he  can,  can  only 
signify  that  God  does  not  refuse  a  second 
grace  to  the  one  who  has  done  all  that  was 
required  of  him  with  the  help  of  the  first 
grace.  It  is  also  of  faith  that  all  the  ac- 
tionswhich  precede  justification  are  not  evil 
actions.  Not  only  are  the  good  actions  of 
the  sinner  not  criminal  in  the  eyes  of  God, 
not  only  can  they  be  naturally  good,  but 
can  be  good  supernaturally.  Faith,  the 
fear  of  divine  justice,  hope  in  the  mercy  of 
God,  abhorrence  of  sin,  the  desire  of  bap- 
tism, are  certainly  dispositions  of  a  super- 
natural goodness,  because  they  are  the 
effect  of  grace ;  however,  they  precede  sanc- 


tifying grace  and  perfect  charity.  They 
only  prepare  us  for  justification,  and  hence 
we  can  perform  acts  of  a  supernatural  or- 
der without  sanctifying  grace.  However, 
these  acts  are  not  meritorious,  properly 
speaking,  for  salvation.  Negative  infidel- 
ity, which  never  was  enlightened  by  evan- 
gelical revelation,  is  not  criminal.  It  would 
indeed  be  of  the  heresy  of  Pelagius,  to  as- 
sert that  a  pagan  can,  without  the  help  of 
grace,  observe  the  natural  law  in  a  super- 
natural manner  and  useful  for  salvation ; 
such  is  far  from  Catholic  belief.  The  Cath- 
olic Church,  with  St.  Paul,  does  not  ex- 
clude Gentiles  from  grace.  The  saint 
makes  use  of  the  word  grace  only  in  op- 
position to  the  law  which  was  unknown  to 
the  Gentiles.  Man  could,  even  without 
actual  grace,  do  some  good  in  the  moral 
and  natural  order.  He  could  of  his  own 
strength,  resist  certain  temptations  and 
love  God  as  the  author  of  nature,  with  a 
weak  and  imperfect  love.  He  may  even  go 
further.  Provided  one  acknowledges  that 
our  intellect,  although  obscured  by  the  sin 
of  Adam,  is  not  extinguished,  and  that  our 
free  will  has  been  weakened  by  the  same 
sin,  without  being  lost  or  annihilated,  it 
matters  little  to  know  what  man  can  do  of 
himself  and  of  his  own  strength  in  the 
purely  moral  and  natural  order,  because 
this  order  does  not  exist  and  because  we 
distinguish  it  in  thought  only  from  the 
supernatural  order  or  state  in  which  man 
had  been  originally  placed  by  his  Creator 
and  since  restored  thereto  by  Jesus  Christ. 
The  Gentiles,  also,  had,  in  virtue  of  the 
merits  of  the  Redeemer,  the  necessary 
graces  for  salvation. 

With  ordinary  grace,  the  just  can  avoid 
all  mortal  sin,  although  final  perseverance 
is  a  special  gift  of  God.  The  just  can  also 
with  the  aid  of  special  and  powerful  grace, 
yet  not  having  the  nature  of  a  special  privi- 
lege, preserve  themselves  from  all  deliber- 
ate venial  sins,  at  least  for  a  time,  but  to  so 
continue  to  the  end  of  his  life,  would  re- 
quire a  special  privilege  or  gift. 

The  Predestinarians  admit  efficacious 
grace,  but  deny  that  man  is  free  under  its 
influence;  and  entirely  reject  sufficient 
grace.  It  is  of  faith  that  the  free  will  of 
man  was  not  destroyed  by  the  sin  of 
Adam ;  that  it  exists  and  subsists  even 
under  the  influence  of  sufficient  grace,  that 
in  the  present  state  man  is  really  free, 
that  he  has  liberty  of  choice ;  free,  ex- 
empt, not  only  from  all  restraint  and 
coercion,  but  from  all  simple,  absolute  or 


Gradual 


320 


G  RATI  AN 


relative  necessity,  from  all  propension, 
impulse,  determination,  and  invincible 
delectation ;  and  that  he  can,  at  will,  obey 
or  resist  grace,  give  or  refuse  his  co- 
operation. It  is  of  faith  that  there  is  in 
the  present  state,  which  is  called  the  state 
of  fallen  nature,  a  really  sufficient  grace, 
that  is,  grace  with  which  we  can  do  good, 
even  under  circumstances  where  we  are 
obliged  to  fulfill  a  precept,  overcome  a 
temptation,  avoid  this  or  that  sin,  although 
we  do  not  the  good.  Sufficient  grace  is 
not  useless,  for  it  is  a  gift  of  God ;  it  is  one 
of  the  supernatural  helps  with  which  we 
are  enabled  to  do  good.  When  one  does 
evil  it  is  not  to  grace  or  its  author  that  we 
can  affix  the  responsibility  of  the  act,  but 
to  the  will  which  abused  God's  gifts,  by 
refusing  to  co-operate  with  grace.  Grace 
is  the  total,  efficient  or  co-operating  cause 
of  all  that  is  done  to  obtain  salvation. 
Grace  precedes  us  without  us,  that  is, 
without  our  doings.  But  although  it  oper- 
ates in  us,  it  does  not,  however,  operate 
without  us;  it  operates  with  us,  with  our 
will,  which  it  precedes  by  its  movements, 
and  being  thus  assisted  by  grace,  gives 
itself  freely  to  its  action.  Every  time  we 
do  a  good  work,  say  the  Fathers  of  the 
Second  Council  of  Orange,  God  operates 
in  us  and  with  us  in  order  that  we  may 
operate  ourselves.  Man  is  free  to  cor- 
respond or  to  resist  grace ;  and  this  liberty 
is  a  true  liberty,  a  liberty  of  choice,  which 
does  not  consist  solely  in  the  exemption  of 
constraint  or  coercion,  but  in  the  freedom 
from  all  necessity,  absolute  or  relative. 
There  are  efficacious  graces  which  enable 
the  invariable  performance  of  good,  al- 
though done  quite  freely,  and  on  the  other 
hand,  there  are  graces  which  are  not 
followed  by  their  effects,  not  being  co- 
operated with. 

God  wills  the  salvation  of  all  men,  with 
a  true,  real,  and  sincere  will ;  therefore. 
He  gives  to  all  the  necessary  means  for 
salvation.  God  commands  all  men  to  ob- 
serve His  law,  therefore,  all  men  can  ob- 
serve it,  and  this  they  do  only  by  the  aid  of 
His  grace;  therefore,  He  grants  His  grace 
to  all  men.  The  observation  of  God's 
commandments  is  possible  to  the  just  and 
the  grace  necessary  and  sufficient  to  ob- 
serve them  will  never  be  wanting  to  them. 
Grace  is  granted  not  only  to  the  just,  but 
also  to  the  faithful  in  general,  even  to  those 
who  have  committed  the  most  grievous 
crimes  and  who  lived  in  sin  for  many  years. 
The  Jews  had,  under  the  Old  Law,  suffi- 


cient graces  to  observe  the  commandments 
of  God.  So  also  does  God  grant  to  the 
pagans  and  heretics  the  graces  necessary 
for  salvation,  because  He  wishes  that  all 
men  should  be  saved  and  arrive  at  the 
knowledge  of  truth. 

Gradual.  —  After  the  Epistle  at  Mass,  in 
order  to  unite  prayer  with  instruction,  part 
of  one  of  the  Psalms  is  recited;  this  is 
called  the  Responsory,  because  it  answers 
to  the  Epistle,  or  more  commonly  the 
Gradual,  from  the  custom  which  anciently 
prevailed  chanting  it  whilst  the  deacon 
descended  the  steps  (Latin  gradus)  of  the 
ambo,  in  which  the  Gospel  used  to  be  read. 
The  versicles  composing  the  Gradual  were 
chanted  alternately  and  by  many  voices, 
which  responded  one  to  another.  The 
Gradual  is  always  used  at  Mass,  except  in 
Paschal  time,  from  Low  Sunday  to  the 
octave  of  Pentecost. 

Gradual  Psalms  are  called  the  fifteen 
Psalms  (1 19-133),  which  were  chanted  by 
the  Jews  on  the  steps  of  the  Temple.  The 
Church  chants  them,  especially  during  the 
time  of  Lent. 

Grammont  (Order  of). — The  Order  of 
Grammont,  so  called  from  Grand  Mont, 
near  Limoge,  in  France,  whence  it  took  its 
origin,  was  founded  by  St.  Stephen  of  Ti- 
gerno,  in  Auvergne.  It  received  the  appro- 
bation of  Pope  Gregory  VII.  Stephen, 
who  died  in  1124,  adopted  for  his  order 
the  Benedictine  Rule;  he  enjoined  more- 
over the  absolute  observance  of  poverty, 
forbidding  the  community  to  receive  or 
hold  any  estates  or  possessions  whatever. 
Stephen  of  Lisiac,  the  fourth  prior,  framed 
for  the  order  a  new  rule,  which  was  ap- 
proved by  Clement  III.,  in  1188.  In  1317, 
Pope  John  XXII.  reformed  the  rule  and 
raised  Grammont  to  the  rank  of  an  abbey, 
which  then  had  under  it  thirty-nine  prio- 
ries. 

Gratian.  —  Canonist.  Lived  from  the 
eleventh  to  the  twelfth  century.  Born  at 
Chiusi,  Italy.  Benedictine  monk  and  pro- 
fessor of  Canon  I.^w  at  Bologna.  In  1151, 
he  published  his  famous  Manual,  entitled 
Concordant  i a  discordantium  Canonum, 
but  which  is  commonly  known  as  the 
Decretutn  Gratiani.  The  work  is  divided 
into  three  parts,  treating  respectively  of 
ecclesiastical  persons,  ecclesiastical  judi- 
cature, and  the  Liturgy  of  the  Church. 
Gratian's  collection,  though  never  receiv- 
ing the   formal   approbation  of  the  Holy 


Greece 


321 


Gregory 


See,  acquired  great  authority  in  the 
Schools,  and  superseded  all  other  collec- 
tions in  the  West.  It  lacked,  however, 
what  was  required  in  the  progress  of  eccle- 
siastical judicature. 

Greece  ( The  Church  in)  and  The  Ionian 
Islands. — In  Greece,  the  State's  religion  is 
the  Greek-Schismatic  Christianity.  Until 
1852,  the  government  acknowledged  the  su- 
premacy of  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople. 
A  strong  religious  agitation,  directed  by 
a  monk  under  the  name  Christophoros  Pa- 
poulaki,  decided  the  government  to  adopt 
a  law  fixing  the  organization  and  attribu- 
tions of  a  holy  synod,  instituted  Aug.  9th, 
1852,  sitting  at  Athens  and  directing  the 
Greek  archbishops  and  bishops.  There  are 
twelve  archbishoprics  and  thirteen  bishop- 
rics. There  are  also  in  Greece  two  Roman 
Catholic  archbishoprics  and  seven  bishop- 
rics. Population  :  Orthodox  Greeks  1,902,- 
800 ;  Roman  Catholics  14,677 ;  Israelites 
5,722;    Mohammedans   24,165.     Census  of 


Greek  Schism.     See  Schism. 

Greenland  (  Discovery  and  Evangeliza- 
tion of).     See  Iceland. 

Gregorian  and  Ambrosian  Chants  (the 
name  given  to  certain  choral  melodies). — 
St.  Ambrose  and  St.  Gregory  rendered 
great  service  to  Church  music  by  the  in- 
troduction of  what  are  known  as  the  Am- 
brosian and  Gregorian  Chants.  The  latter, 
composed  of  notes  of  equal  duration 
{cantus  Jirmus,  Romanus),  is,  in  many  re- 
spects, very  similar  to  our  present  choral 
chant.  The  Ambrosian  chant,  with  notes 
of  unequal  duration,  has  more  the  charac- 
ter of  a  recitative.  The  Gregorian  chant, 
so  dignified  and  solemn,  was  taught  and 
brought  to  perfection  in  a  school  founded 
by  the  excellent  Pope  from  whom  it  de- 
rives its  name,  whence  it  gradually  spread 
throughout  the  whole  Church.  The  eccle- 
siastical chant  departed  in  some  instances 
from  the  simple  majesty  of  its  original 
character,  became  more  artistic,  and  on 
this  account,  less  heavenly  and  more  pro- 
fane ;  and  the  Fathers  of  the  Church  were 
not  slow  to  censure  this  corruption  of  the 
old  and  honored  Church  song.  Finally, 
the  organ,  which  seemed  an  earthly  echo 
of  the  angelic  choirs  in  heaven,  added  its 
full,  rich,  and  inspiring  notes  to  the  beau- 
tiful simplicity  of  the  Gregorian  chant. 
See  Music. 


Gregorian  Calendar.  —  See  Calendar. 

Gregory  (name  of  sixteen  Popes.)  —  i. 
Gregory  I.  (St.)  —  surnamed  the  Great. 
Born  at  Rome  in  540.  The  Pontificate  of 
this  Pope  (590-604)  presents  one  of  the  most 
imposing  features  in  the  history  of  the 
Church.  He  adopted  the  title  ^^ servus 
servorum,"  which  his  successors  have  re- 
tained. Though  a  member  of  a  wealthy 
family,  Gregory,  following  the  call  of  God, 
exchanged  his  costly  vesture  for  the  habit 
of  St.  Benedict,  and  relinquished  his  pal- 
ace for  a  cloister,  in  which  he  lived  with 
some  monks,  until  Pope  Pelagius  sent  him 
as  Apocrisiarius  to  Constantinople,  —  a 
position  he  occupied  for  six  years,  after 
which  he  became  abbot  of  his  monastery, 
from  which  the  voice  of  the  clergy  and  of 
the  people,  alike,  called  him  forth  to  oc- 
cupy the  Chair  of  St.  Peter.  As  Pope, 
he  was  incessantly  active  in  promoting  the 
conversion  of  the  heathen  and  the  welfare 
of  the  oppressed  people  of  Italy.  He  la- 
bored for  the  strict  observance  of  the  laws 
of  the  Church,  for  the  celebration  of  re- 
ligious services  in  a  worthy  manner;  and, 
notwithstanding  the  delicacy  of  his  health 
and  his  manifold  occupations,  he  found  time 
to  conduct  personally  the  instruction  in 
choral  chant,  of  which  he  is  the  author, 
and  to  leave  to  posterity  valuable  writings, 
in  which  the  classic  literature,  the  pro- 
foundly religious  sensitiveness,  the  learn- 
ing and  the  practical  sense  of  their  author 
is  beautifully  depicted.  The  principal 
work  of  Gregory  is  his  Expositio  in  fob, 
or  Libri  35  Moralium,  a  moral  theology. 
Gregory  II.  —  Successor  of  the  foregoing 
(715-731).  He  was  a  man  of  rare  virtue 
and  equally  renowned  for  learning  and  ad- 
ministrative ability.  The  endeavors  of  the 
Iconoclast  Leo  III.  were  resisted  by  Greg- 
ory with  all  the  force  of  his  apostolic 
authority.  He  rebuilt  the  ruined  walls  of 
Rome  and  restored  the  Monastery  of 
Monte  Cassino,  which,  one  hundred  and 
forty  years  before,  had  been  destroyed  by 
the  Lombards.  Gregory  III.  — Pope  from 
731  to  741.  With  equal  vigor,  like  his  pred- 
ecessor, he  defended  the  Catholic  faith 
against  the  heresy  of  the  Iconoclasts,  which 
heresy  he  solemnly  condemned  in  a  Roman 
Council  (732).  Under  his  Pontificate  oc- 
curred the  great  victory  of  Charles  Martel 
over  the  Saracens,  near  Poitiers,  in  the  year 
732.  Gregory  IV.  —  Pope  from  827  to 
844.  He  attempted  to  adjust  the  quarrel 
between     the    three    rebellious    sons    of 


Gregory 


322 


Gregory 


Louis  le  Debonnaire  of  France  and  their 
father,  with  the  resuh  that  he  offended 
both  parties,  and  also  the  French  bishops. 
Gregory  V.  —  Pope  from  996  to  999.  He 
was  the  first  German  Pope.  By  him,  Otho 
III.  was  crowned  emperor.  He  was  ex- 
pelled in  997,  by  the  Roman  senator, 
Crescentius,  who  procured  the  elevation 
of  the  antipope,  John  XVI.  He  was  re- 
stored the  next  year  on  the  appearance 
of  Otho,  in  Italy,  with  an  army.  Pope 
Gregory  labored  zealously  for  the  refor- 
mation of  ecclesiastical  life ;  but  his  work 
of  usefulness  was  cut  short  by  premature 
death.  Gregory  VI.  —  Gratian,  a  distin- 
guished and  respected  archpriest.  Pope 
from  1044  to  1046.  He  had  as  rival  claim- 
ants to  the  Papal  dignity  Benedict  IX.  and 
Sj'lvester  III.  In  order  to  restore  peace, 
Gregory,  in  the  Council  of  Sutri  (1046), 
disclaiming  most  solemnly  all  selfish  mo- 
tives in  assuming  the  Pontificate,  abdi- 
cated of  his  own  free  will.  Accompanied 
by  his  disciple,  Hildebrand,  he  went  into 
exile  to  Germany,  where  he  died  in  1048. 
Gregory  VII.  (St.) — Pope  from  1073  to  lO^S- 
The  condition  of  the  Church  at  the  time 
of  Gregory's  election  to  the  Papacy  was 
most  deplorable.  The  bishops,  by  reason 
of  the  fiefs  obtained  from  the  emperors, 
became  the  emperors'  strongest  allies 
against  the  kings.  For  this  reason,  the 
latter  sought  to  fill  the  vacant  bishop- 
rics with  men,  on  whose  political  fidelity 
they  could  depend,  rather  than  select  men 
whose  vocation  and  capacity  would  enable 
them  to  govern  the  Church  in  the  spirit 
of  Christianity.  At  first,  the  temporal 
princes  exercised  an  undue  influence  upon 
the  election  of  a  bishop ;  later,  they  made 
arbitrary  appointments;  still  later,  they 
bestowed  upon  the  prelates  the  insignia  of 
their  office,  the  ring  and  the  crosier. 
This  was  called  the  Right  of  Investiture. 
Thus  unworthy  men,  stained  with  simony 
and  concubinage,  were  forced  upon  the 
Church.  As  long  as  this  arbitrary  rule 
was  exercised,  no  hope  for  reform  could 
be  entertained.  Hence  Gregory  com- 
menced his  great  work  with  the  restora- 
tion of  the  liberties  of  the  Church  and  the 
reformation  of  the  clergy.  Gregory,  as 
Cardinal  Hildebrand,  had  held  responsi- 
ble positions  under  five  Popes.  After  the 
death  of  Alexander  II.  he  was,  by  the 
unanimous  voice  of  the  clergy  and  people, 
called  to  the  Papal  throne.  No  one  knew 
better  than  he,  what  a  gigantic  struggle 
he  would  be  obliged  to  undertake  to  free 


the  Church  from  the  evils  that  beset  her. 
He  had  as  early  as  1073  addressed 
a  letter  of  remonstrance  to  Henry 
IV.  (1056- 1106),  the  dissolute  king 
of  Germany,  advising  him  to  amend 
his  life.  At  the  first  Lenten  Synod 
(1074),  Gregory  restored  the  ancient  laws 
of  the  Church,  forbidding  the  clergy  to 
hold  benefices,  to  practice  simony  or  to 
live  in  concubinage.  He  forbade  the  peo- 
ple to  assist  at  the  ser\'ices  of  such  clerics, 
thereby  making  the  people  the  executors 
of  ecclesiastical  law.  The  guilty  clergy 
ofTered  the  most  determined  opposition. 
Bishops,  who  undertook  to  force  the  de- 
crees were  assaulted  and  threatened  with 
death.  Gregory  excommunicated  the 
counselors  of  the  King,  who  had  been 
guilty  of  simony,  and  he  also  forbade  in- 
vestiture by  laymen.  These  measures  were 
necessary  to  put  an  end  to  the  crying 
abuses  of  ecclesiastical  discipline.  The 
majority  of  the  bishops  appointed  by 
Henry  had  been  associates  in  his  shameful 
deeds.  Bishoprics  were  sold  to  the  highest 
bidders,  and  the  buyers  sold  the  lower  of- 
fices. By  reason  of  his  victories  over  the 
Saxons,  Henry  grew  arrogant  and  refused 
to  listen  to  the  representations  of  the  Pope. 
He  treated  the  laws  of  the  Church  with 
contempt,  deposed  bishops  and  bestowed 
upon  his  concubines  the  precious  stones 
stolen  from  the  churches.  He  assembled 
the  venial  bishops  at  Worms  for  the  pur- 
pose of  deposing  the  Pope.  The  sentence 
of  deposition  was  announced  to  the  Pope 
by  Henry,  in  a  letter  addressed  to  "  The 
False  Monk  Hildebrand."  Gregory  now 
resolved  upon  severe  measures.  At  the 
Lenten  Synod  (1076),  sentence  of  excom- 
munication was  pronounced  upon  the  king. 
By  this  decision  the  king  was  deposed,  but 
according  to  the  Germanic  law,  declared 
incompetent  to  govern.  Even  the  friends 
of  Henry  abandoned  him  now.  Gregory 
solicitous  for  the  temporal  and  spiritual 
welfare  of  the  king  made  efforts  to  effect 
a  reconciliation.  He  prevailed  upon  the 
princes,  then  assembled  at  Tribur  (1076), 
not  to  elect  a  new  king.  Seeing  that  he 
could  conciliate  the  Pope  more  readily 
than  the  princes,  Henry,  clad  in  a  peniten- 
tial garb,  went  in  winter  to  Canossa  ( 1077), 
where  the  Pope  was  then  staying  and 
prayed  to  be  absolved  from  the  ban  of  ex- 
communication. After  a  three  days'  pen- 
ance, absolution  was  given  him.  The 
scene  at  Canossa  has  often  been  repre- 
sented as  an  act  of  cruel  severity.     It  is 


Gregory 


323 


Gregory 


true,  the  winter  was  exceptionally  cold. 
Henry  and  his  companions  stood  in  the 
open  air  for  three  days,  but  during  the 
night  they  retired  into  the  inn,  where  food 
and  drink  were  given  them ;  they  were  at- 
tired in  the  garb  of  penitents  worn  over 
other  clothing.  There  is  no  dishonor  in 
doing  penance  by  one's  own  free  will, 
Henry  was  not  then  emperor,  and  was  not 
forced  by  the  Pope,  but  he  prevailed  upon 
the  Pope  to  reinstate  him  and  thus  pre- 
vented the  princes  from  electing  another 
emperor.  That  the  Pope  ordered  Henry, 
as  an  ordeal,  to  receive  the  Holy  Eucharist, 
is  a  fable.  Soon  after  Henry  disregarded 
his  promises  and  united  with  the  ene- 
mies of  the  Pope.  Thereupon,  the 
princes  declared  him  deposed  and  elected 
Rudolph,  Duke  of  Suabia.  The  Pope 
again  excommunicated  him,  but  Henry 
disregarded  the  act  of  the  Pope,  appointed 
an  antipope,  besieged  Rome  five  times, 
and  amongst  other  depredations  set  fire  to 
St.  Peter's.  Gregory,  having  been  freed, 
went  with  Robert  Guiscard,  Duke  of  Nor- 
mandy, to  Salermo,  where  he  died  1085. 
His  last  words  were:  "  I  loved  justice  and 
hated  iniquity;  therefore  I  die  in  exile." 
Gregory's  character  was  truly  great.  He 
was  noble  and  magnanimous  and  gentle, 
though  inflexible  when  bent  on  doing 
good.  John  von  Mueller  says  of  him : 
"Gregory  had  the  courage  of  a  hero,  the 
prudence  of  a  senator,  the  zeal  of  a 
prophet."  Henry  IV.  died  in  1106  with- 
out having  been  reconciled  to  the  Church. 
Gregory  VIII. — {Albert  of  Mora).  Born 
atBenevento;  successor  of  Urban  HI.  Pope 
from  Oct.  2ist  to  Dec.  i6th,  1187.  Greg- 
ory IX. —  Pope  from  1227  to  1241.  After 
vainly  urging  the  German  sovereign, 
Frederick  H.  to  start  on  his  long  delayed 
crusade,  finally  pronounced  sentence  of 
excommunication  against  him,  in  1227. 
As  Frederick  persisted  in  his  obstinacy, 
and  committed  new  crimes,  Gregory,  in  a 
synod  held  at  Rome,  renewed  his  excom- 
munication, and  laid  the  places,  at  which 
he  sojourned,  under  interdict.  Frederick, 
while  yet  under  excommunication,  at  last 
entered  upon  the  Sixth  Crusade.  In  1230, 
peace  was  concluded  at  San  Germano  be- 
tween the  emperor  and  the  Pope.  But  the 
perfidious  prince  broke  his  agreement;  he 
incited  the  Romans  to  rebellion  against 
the  Pope,  illtreated  and  banished  faithful 
bishops,  hindered  appointments  for  vacant 
sees,  and  allowed,  and  even  employed, 
Saracens  to   destroy  Christian   churches. 


These  violations,  as  well  as  his  many  cruel- 
ties against  the  Lombards,  in  1239  drew 
upon  Frederick,  who  was,  besides,  accused 
of  heresy  and  unbelief,  a  new  sentence  of 
excommunication.  Now  the  animosity  of 
Frederick  against  the  Pope  knew  no 
bounds.  In  the  hope  of  obtaining  peace, 
Gregory  summoned  a  General  Council  to 
meet  at  Rome,  in  1241.  But  Frederick,  by 
a  gross  outrage,  hindered  its  assembling. 
He  had  the  Genoise  fleet,  conveying  the 
prelates  to  Rome,  intercepted  through  his 
son  Enzio,  and  in  defiance  of  all  interna- 
tional law,  condemned  three  cardinals,  and 
more  than  a  hundred  bishops  and  dele- 
gates to  imprisonment.  Gregory  did  not 
long  survive  the  news  of  this  terrible 
outrage ;  he  died  of  a  broken  heart,  at  the 
age  of  one  hundred  years.  Gregory  ^.(St.) 
—  Pope  from  1272  to  1276.  No  sooner  had 
he  ascended  the  Apostolic  Chair  than  he 
summoned  the  Fourteenth  Ecumenical 
Council,  which  met  at  Lyons,  in  1274. 
The  declared  objects  of  the  Council  were: 
succor  to  the  Holy  Land,  the  reconcilia- 
tion of  the  Greek  Church,  and  reforma- 
tion of  morals.  The  Council  opened  with 
great  solemnity,  the  Pope  himself  officiat- 
ing. For  the  succor  of  the  Holy  Land,  a 
tenth  of  all  ecclesiastical  revenues  was 
voted  for  six  years.  In  the  fourth  ses- 
sion, the  reunion  of  the  Greek  Church 
with  the  Latin  was  solemnized;  and  the 
Council,  besides,  passed  thirty-two  canons 
regulating  the  discipline  of  the  Church, 
and  providing  for  the  reformation  of 
morals.  Also  a  new  constitution  providing 
for  the  speedy  and  concordant  election  of  a 
Roman  PontifT  received  the  approbation  of 
the  Council.  Gregory  XI.  —  Pope  from 
1370  to  1378.  To  him  belongs  the  merit  of 
having  put  an  end  to  the  "  Babylonian 
Captivity "  of  the  Popedom  in  Avignon. 
To  avert,  in  the  event  of  his  death,  the  dan- 
ger of  an  interregnum  or  schism,  Gregory, 
by  a  special  Bull,  empowered  the  sixteen 
cardinals,  who  had  accompanied  him  to 
Rome,  to  elect  at  once  a  successor  by  sim- 
ple majority,  without  holding  a  conclave, 
or  awaiting  the  arrival  of  the  cardinals  then 
at  Avignon.  Gregory  XII. — Pope  from 
■  1406  to  1415.  Was  a  man  of  sterling  virtue, 
and  sincerely  desirous  of  peace.  His  first 
act  was  a  letter  to  the  antipope  Benedict 
XIII.,  in  which  he  expressed  his  willing- 
ness to  resign,  if  the  Avignon  claimant 
would  do  the  same.  The  Council  of  Pisa, 
in  1409,  pretending  to  be  the  lawful  repre- 
sentative  of  the   Universal   Church,  with 


Gregory  Nazianzen 


324 


Gregory  Nazianzen 


power  to  judge  and  depose  the  rival  Popes, 
it  declared  that  all  Christians  ought  to  re- 
nounce all  obedience  to  both  claimants. 
It  proceeded  to  depose  them  as  contuma- 
cious and  schismatical,  and  declared  the 
Holy  See  to  be  vacant;  lastly,  it  ordained 
the  holding  of  a  conclave,  from  which 
came  forth  Cardinal  Philargi  as  Alexander 
V.  Now  the  Church,  to  her  great  dismay, 
instead  of  two,  had  three  claimants  to  the 
Papacy.  Alexander,with  only  a  Pontificate 
of  ten  months,  was  succeeded  by  Cardinal 
Balthasar  Cossa,  as  John  XXIII.  In  the 
Council  of  Constance,  in  1414,  as  a  means 
of  restoring  the  union  of  the  Church,  Car- 
dinal Filastre  proposed  the  simultaneous 
abdication  of  the  three  claimants,  and  the 
election  of  a  universally  acknowledged 
Pope.  Being  the  only  rightful  Pope,  Greg- 
ory, in  the  fourteenth  session  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Constance,  proffered  his  unreserved 
resignation  of  the  Papacy;  and  by  doing 
so,  he  put  an  end  to  the  schism.  To  reward 
his  magnanimity,  the  synod  appointed  him 
to  the  bishopric  of  Porto  and  Legate  Apos- 
tolic of  Ancona.  He  died  in  the  odor  of 
sanctity,  in  1417.  See  Council  of  Con- 
STANCK.  Gregory  XIII.  —  Pope  from 
1572  to  1585.  He  directed  his  attention 
chiefly  to  the  promotion  of  ecclesias- 
tical science.  He  published  a  new  edi- 
tion of  Canon  Law  and  corrected  the 
Julian  Calendar.  His  love  for  Catholic 
education  prompted  him  to  found  six  col- 
leges at  Rome,  among  them  being  the 
Irish  and  German  colleges,  and  the  college 
for  the  youth  of  Rome,  usually  called  the 
Roman  College.  He  also  established  nun- 
ciatures at  Luzern,  Vienna,  and  Cologne. 
Gregory  XIV.  —  Pope  in  1590.  Reigned 
only  a  few  months.  Gregory  XV.  —  Pope 
from  1621  to  1623.  This  Pope  founded 
the  famous  "  Z>«  Propaganda  Fide." 
He  also  gave  to  papal  elections  the  rules 
and  forms  —  by  "Scrutiny,"  "Compro- 
mise, and  Quasi-Inspiration  "  —  which 
have  ever  since  been  in  force.  Gregory 
XVI.  —  Pope  from  1831  to  1846.  A  mem- 
ber of  the  Order  of  the  Camaldolites. 
Ascended  the  Papal  throne  at  a  most 
critical  time.  With  undaunted  courage 
and  confidence  he  combated,  during  his 
whole  Pontificate,  the  revolutionary  ideas 
and  tendencies  that  were  widespread 
throughout  the  States  of  the  Church. 
Gregory  introduced  judicial  reforms  as 
well  as  reforms  in  the  administration,  tax- 
ation, etc.  He  held  the  revolutionary  ele- 
ments in  restraint  by  severity,  rather  than 


by  concessions.  His  efforts  in  behalf  of 
the  Church  were  unceasing;  science  and 
art  found  in  him  an  ardent  promoter.  He 
warned  the  faithful  against  the  errors  con- 
tained in  the  system  of  Hermes,  Bautain, 
and  Abbe  De  Lamennais.  He  protested 
against  the  violation  of  the  rights  of  the 
bishops,  by  the  king  of  Prussia ;  protected 
Clement  Augustus,  the  venerable  Arch- 
bishop of  Cologne ;  and  Dunin,  Archbishop 
of  Gnesen  and  Posen,  who  had  been  vio- 
lently thrust  from  their  sees  by  the  Prussian 
government  (1838).  Gregory  also  con- 
demned in  severe  terms  the  slave  trade 
(1839).  He  erected  new  bishoprics  and 
extended  the  influence  of  the  Propaganda. 
With  apostolic  zeal,  he  reproached  the 
Emperor  Nicholas  I.,  of  Russia,  for  the 
tyrannical  persecution  of  the  Catholics. 
In  the  midst  of  the  approach  of  a  revolu- 
tionary storm  Gregory  died,  beloved  by 
all  Catholics,  hated  and  despised  by  the 
Revolutionists. 

Gregory  Nazianzen  (St.).  —  Bishop  of 
Nazianzum,  in  Cappadocia.  Was  born  at 
Nazianzum,  about  the  year  329.  His 
father,  Gregory,  who  before  his  conver- 
sion, had  belonged  to  the  Hypistarians  (a 
mongrel  sect,  partly  Jew  and  partly  pagan), 
became  Bishop  of  Nazianzum,  and,  with 
his  mother,  Nonna,  is  honored  by  the 
Church  as  a  saint.  On  his  return  from 
Athens  to  Nazianzum,  Gregory  was  bap- 
tized, and  for  some  years  lived  in  seclusion 
as  a  hermit,  in  company  with  St.  Basil. 
He  was  ordained  priest  in  361,  though,  in 
his  extreme  humility,  he  was  quite  reluc- 
tant to  accept  that  dignity;  and  he  hence- 
forth assisted  in  the  government  of  his 
father's  diocese.  About  the  year  372,  he 
was  consecrated  by  St.  Basil,  Bishop  of 
Sasima,  but  he  was  never  able  to  occupy 
that  see.  In  381,  Gregory  was  chosen 
Bishop  of  Constantinople  by  the  Second 
General  Council,  yet,  on  account  of  the 
opposition  against  him,  he  resigned  this 
see  and  retired  to  Nazianzum,  where  he 
died  about  the  year  389.  His  writings 
contain:  i.  Forty-five  orations  which, 
properly  speaking,  are  dogmatical  treatises 
on  the  Holy  Trinity.  Of  these,  the  most 
famous  are  his  five  theological  orations  on 
the  Divinity  of  the  Son  and  the  Holy 
Ghost  against  the  Eunomians  and  Mace- 
donians, which  acquired  for  their  author 
the  name  of  "  Theologian."  2.  Two  hun- 
dred and  forty-two  letters,  which  are 
highly  interesting,  and  are  distinguished 


Gregory  of  Nyssa 


32s 


Grotius 


for  their  clearness  and  brevity.      F.  May 
9th. 

Gregory  of  Nyssa  (St.).  —  Father  of  the 
Greek  Church,  a  younger  brother  of  St. 
Basil,  was  born  at  Sebaste  in  331.  He  was 
married,  but,  after  the  death  of  his  wife, 
was  induced  by  Basil,  and  their  common 
friend,  Gregory  Nazianzen,  to  dedicate  his 
talents  to  the  sacred  ministry.  In  371, 
Gregory  was  made  Bishop  of  Nyssa  in 
Cappadocia.  He  was  deposed  by  the 
Arians  and  exiled  under  Valens,  but  upon 
the  death  of  that  emperor  he  was  restored 
to  his  see  by  the  Emperor  Gratian.  He 
was  deputed  in  379,  by  the  Council  of  An- 
tioch,  to  visit  the  churches  of  Jerusalem 
and  Arabia.  In  the  Second  Ecumenical 
Council  of  Constantinople,  Gregory  held 
an  important  place,  and  the  high  reputa- 
tion of  his  learning  procured  for  him  the 
title  of  "  Pater  Patrutn."  -  He  died  about 
the  year  395.  His  works,  which  are  very 
numerous,  contain  the  most  complete  ex- 
position of  Christian  dogma  given  by  any 
of  the  Greek  Fathers.  See  Migne,  Pat. 
^r.  XLIV.-XLVI.     F.March  9th. 

Gregory  of  Tours  (St.)  —  Bishop  and 
historian.  Was  born  of  a  noble  family  at 
Clermont,  in  the  Province  of  Auvergne, 
in  539.  Members  of  his  father's  and 
mother's  families  had  held  high  offices 
in  both  Church  and  State.  His  educa- 
tion was  directed  by  his  uncle,  St.  Gall, 
Bishop  of  Clermont,  and  by  Avitus,  at 
first  archdeacon,  afterwards  Bishop  of 
Auvergne.  In  573,  he  was  chosen  Bishop 
of  Tours,  and  as  such,  he  displayed  great 
zeal  and  courage  in  vindicating  the  rights 
of  the  Church  and  the  oppressed,  against 
the  Merovingian  kings.  He  died  on  Nov. 
17th  in  the  year  594.  Has  left  several  val- 
uable historical  writings.  His  principal 
work,  the  Ecclesiastical  History  of  the 
Franks,  procured  him  the  name  of  "  Father 
of  French  History."  His  other  works  are 
four  books  On  the  Miracles  of  St.  Martin, 
two  books  On  the  Glory  of  Martyrs,  and 
one  book  On  the  Glory  of  Confessors. 

Gregory  Thaumaturgus  (St.)  —  Father 
of  the  Church ;  from  his  extraordinary 
miracles  surnamed Thaumaturgus  {-wonder- 
worker). He  was  born  in  Neo-Csesarea 
in  Pontus  about  270,  and  was  educated  as  a 
pagan  until  he  came  to  Csesarea,  Palestine, 
where  he  and  his  brother  Athenodorus 
were  converted  to  the  faith  by  Origen. 
He  passed  five  years  in  the  school  of  Ori- 


gen and  three  at  Alexandria,  during  the 
persecution  of  Maximian.  By  Phsedimus, 
the  Metropolitan  of  Pontus,  Gregory  was 
made  bishop  of  his  native  city,  which 
then  numbered  only  seventeen  Christians ; 
but  at  his^  death,  in  270,  only  seventeen 
pagans  remained.  The  works  of  Gregory 
contain  A  Panegyrical  Oration  on  Origen, 
a  Symbolum  or  Exposition  of  the  Faith, 
especially  on  the  doctrine  of  the  Holy 
Trinity,  a  paraphrase  on  the  Book  of  Ec- 
clesiastes  and  a  Canonical  Epistle,  con- 
taining the  penances  to  be  enjoined  on 
penitents.     F.  Nov.  17th. 

Gregory  the  Illuminator  (St.).  —  Apostle 
of  the  Armenians.  Was  born  about  257  at 
Valarshabad,  in  the  province  of  Ararat, 
Armenia;  was  educated  at  Csesarea,  Cap- 
padocia. In  302,  he  baptized  King  Tiri- 
dates,  and,  with  the  aid  of  Greek  priests, 
propagated  the  faith  throughout  the  whole 
country  of  Armenia.  Having  been  con- 
secrated bishop  by  Leontius,  Archbishop 
of  Caesarea,  in  Cappadocia,  and  constituted 
Metropolitan  of  Armenia,  he  ordained  a 
great  number  of  bishops  (it  is  said  about 
400)  for  the  converted  nation.  He  left  the 
Church  of  Armenia  in  a  flourishing  condi- 
tion when  he  died,  in  332.     F.  Oct.  ist. 

Grey  Nuns.    See  Sisters  of  Charity. 

Grosseteste  (Robert).  —  Died  in  1253. 
Bishop  of  Lincoln,  England,  in  1235.  With 
unremitting  zeal  he  made  exertions  for  a 
general  renovation  of  his  vast  diocese.  He 
fearlessly  condemned  every  abuse,  and 
manfully  resisted  every  interference  of  the 
nobility  and  the  Crown,  in  ecclesiastical 
affairs.  The  visitation  of  the  churches  and 
monasteries  of  his  see,  though  hampered 
by  the  opposition  of  the  clergy  and  the 
monks,  and  by  the  disfavor  shown  to  him 
at  court,  he  resolutely  and  canonically  per- 
formed. Grosseteste  was  a  voluminous 
writer,  and  long  exerted  a  great  influence 
upon  English  thought  and  literature. 

Grotius  (Hugo)  (1583-1645).  —  Born  at 
Delft,  Netherlands ;  died  at  Rostock,  Ger- 
many. A  celebrated  Dutch  jurist,  theolo- 
gian, statesman,  and  poet,  the  founder  of 
science  of  international  law.  He  was  made 
pensionary  of  Rotterdam  in  1613 ;  as  a 
Remonstrant  leader  was  condemned  to  life 
imprisonment  at  Loevestein  in  1619;  es- 
caped in  1621 ;  and  was  Sjvedish  ambassa- 
dor to  France  (1635-1645).  He  published 
De   jure   belli  et  pads ;  De  veritate   re- 


GUALBERT 


326 


Gyrovagi 


ligionis    Christiance ;  annotations  on  the 
Old  and  the  New  Testament,  etc. 

Gualbert  (John).     See  Valombrosa. 

Guardian  Angel.     See  Angel. 

Gunpcwder  Plot. —  Under  the  reign  of 
James  I.,  of  England  (1603-1625),  the  great 
body  of  the  English  Catholics,  though  sadly 
dashed  in  their  hopes,  submitted  without 
opposition  to  the  new  inflictions,  after  so 
many  others  they  had  endured,  and  patiently 
awaited  the  designs  of  providence.  But  a 
few  reckless  and  misguided  men,  driven  to 
desperation  by  the  tyrannous  treatment  of 
their  Catholic  brethren  and  the  treacher- 
ous conduct  of  James,  formed  the  wicked 
plot  of  destroying,  by  one  blow,  the  authors 
of  the  persecution.  They  conceived  the 
atrocious  design  called  "Gunpowder  Plot," 
the  execution  of  which  they  fixed  on  the 
opening  of  parliament,  in  November,  1605. 
The  conspirators  acted  entirely  on  their 
own  blinded  judgment,  and  their  attempts 
to  obtain  ecclesiastical  approval  of  the  mad 
scheme  had  utterly  failed.  Nor  did  they 
receive  any  encouragement  from  the  Cath- 
olic party;  indeed.  Lord  Monteagle,  a 
Catholic  peer,  to  whom  the  plot  was  re- 
vealed, at  once  forwarded  the  information 
to  the  king.  The  conspirators  were  appre- 
hended and  executed.  Among  those  who 
were  executed,  wrongfully  accused  of  the 
gunpowder  treason,  were  several  Jesuits, 
who  had  no  knowledge  whatever  of  its  ex- 
istence, or  like  Father  Garnet,  who  refused 
to  violate  the  seal  of  confession. 

GUntherianism.  —  Doctrine  of  Anthony 
Gunther,  German  Catholic  philosopher 
and  theologian  born  at  Lindenau,  Bohemia 
(1783-1863).  Ordained  priest  in  1820,  he 
lived  at  Vienna,  occupying  himself  with 
sciences  and  belles-lettres,  then  became 
vice-director  of  the  Faculty  of  Philosophy 
of  Vienna.  His  writings  were  condemned 
by  Pope  Pius  IX.,  June  15th,  i860.  Among 
other  errors,  Gunther  maintained  that  the 
soul  is  not  the  real  and  immediate  form 
of  the  body. 

Gustavus  Vasa  (1496-1560). —  King  of 
Sweden.  He  favored  Protestantism  from 
political  and  mercenary  motives.  First 
by  artifice  and  misrepresentation,  and 
afterwards    by    open    violence     the    wily 


monarch  succeeded  in  procuring  the  tri- 
umph of  Lutheranism  over  Catholicism. 
Those  of  the  clergy  who  offered  resistance 
were  made  to  feel  the  wrath  of  the  tyrant. 
The  Dominicans  were  banished  from  the 
country,  while  Archbishop  Knut  of  Up- 
sala  and  Bishop  Jacobson  of  Westeroes 
were  put  to  death,  in  1527.  Intimidated 
by  the  royal  despot,  the  Diet  of  Westeroes, 
in  1527,  enacted  that  the  pure  word  of 
God,  as  taught  by  Luther,  should  be 
preached  in  all  the  churches  of  the  king- 
dom, and  sanctioned  the  confiscation  of  the 
property  of  monasteries.  The  king  was 
made  supreme  in  matters  ecclesiastical, 
and  the  nobles  were  authorized  to  take 
back  all  the  property  which  their  ances- 
tors, as  far  back  as  the  year  1453,  had  be- 
stowed on  the  Church.  Sweden  was  thus 
severed  from  Catholic  unity  and  the  king 
acted  henceforth  as  head  of  the  Swedish 
Church. 

Guyon  (Jeanne  Marie  Bouvier  de  la 
Motte)  (1648-1717). — A  French  woman  of 
extraordinary  piety  and  purity  of  life. 
Her  Quietist  ideas  she  gave  to  the  world 
in  a  number  of  mystical  treatises,  of  which 
the  following  are  the  principal  ones  :  "  A 
Short  and  Easy  Method  of  Prayer," 
"  Spiritual  Torrents,"  and  "  Mystical 
Sense  of  the  Canticles."  Her  writings, 
giving  great  offense,  were  examined  and 
condemned  by  a  commission  of  bishops 
which  met  at  Issy,  in  1695,  ^"^  o^  which 
the  celebrated  Fenelon  and  Bossuet  were 
members.  The  commission  drew  up  thirty- 
four  articles  concerning  the  sound  maxims 
of  a  spiritual  life  —  Articles  of  Issy  — 
which  Madame  Guyon  humbly  subscribed. 
She  died  a  very  edifying  death.  In  the 
condemnation  of  the  writings  of  Madame 
Guyon,  Fenelon  had  acquiesced ;  but  as  she 
made  a  formal  submission  to  the  Church, 
he  vindicated  her  character.  See  Fene- 
lon. 

Gyrovagi.  —  Vagabond  monks  who 
roamed  about  from  monastery  to  monas- 
tery, in  black  robes  and  with  unshorn  hair, 
stopping  at  each  place  as  long  as  they 
could  enjoy  hospitality,  but  rather  leaving 
the  monastery  than  conform  to  its  rules. 
They  caused  at  one  time  considerable  scan- 
dal and  not  a  little  trouble,  and  were  con- 
demned by  the  Synod  of  Trullo  (691),  when 
regulating  monastic  discipline. 


Habacuk 


327 


Haydn 


H 


Habacuk.  —  The  eight  of  the  twelve 
minor  prophets ;  lived  in  the  sixth  century 
B.  c.  He  foretold  the  captivity  of  the 
Jews  and  the  fall  of  the  Assyrian  empire. 

Hadrian.     See  Adrian. 

Hail  Mary.     See  Ave  Maria. 

Hales  {Alexander  of).  See  Alex- 
ander. 

Halo.     See  Aureola. 

Haman.     See  Aman. 

Hamilton  (Patrick)  (1504-1528). — 
Protestant  protomartyr.  A  Scottish  re- 
former, son  of  Sir  Patrick  Hamilton.  In 
1525,  the  Scottish  parliament  enacted  laws 
prohibiting  the  preaching  of  new  doctrines 
and  the  importation  of  heretical  books. 
Hamilton  having  adopted  and  advocated 
the  doctrines  of  the  Reformation,  was  the 
first  that  suffered  death  for  heresy  under 
these  laws. 

Haran.  —  A  city  in  Mesopotamia,  situ- 
ated on  the  Bellas  (Belich  ancient  Bili- 
chus),  a  small  affluent  of  the  Euphrates, 
30  miles  southeast  from  Edessa.  In  the 
Old  Testament  it  is  mentioned  in  connec- 
tion with  the  patriarch  Abraham,  who  dwelt 
there  with  his  father  Thare,  and  Ezechiel 
(xxvii.  23)  speaks  of  it  as  a  considerable 
trading  center.  It  is  often  mentioned  in 
the  cuneiform  inscriptions.  In  the  fourth 
century,  it  was  the  seat  of  a  bishop.  At 
present  it  is  a  small  village  inhabited  by  a 
few  Arab  families. 

Hardouin  (Jean)  (1646-1729).  —  Jesuit; 
classical  scholar,  numismatist,  and  chro- 
nologist ;  was  born  at  Quimper,  France ; 
died  at  Paris.  In  spite  of  his  vast  knowl- 
edge, he  fell  into  strange  errors.  He 
maintained  in  the  "  Prolegomena  ad  cen- 
suram  veteruni  Scriptorum,"  the  paradox 
that,  with  a  few  exceptions,  all  the  works 
ascribed  to  classical  antiquity  had  been 
forged  by  monks  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
under  the  direction  of  a  certain  Severus 
Archontius.  He  also  attacked  the  genu- 
ineness of  ancient  coins  and  of  all  Church 
Councils  before  that  of  Trent.  He  also 
wrote  Chronologia  Veteris  Testamenti,  etc. 

Harmonies  of  the  Gospels.  —  Numerous 
attempts    have    been    made   to    construct 


Harmonies  of  the  four  Gospels.  One  plan 
is  to  form  out  of  the  whole,  in  what  is  sup- 
posed to  be  the  true  chronological  order, 
a  continuous  narrative  embracing  all  the 
matter  of  the  four,  but  without  repetitions 
of  the  same  or  similar  works.  Another 
plan  is  to  exhibit  in  chronological  order, 
the  entire  text  of  the  four  Gospels  arranged 
in  parallel  columns,  so  far  as  two  or  more 
of  them  cover  the  same  ground.  The  idea 
is  very  imposing,  but  the  realization  of  it  is 
beset  with  formidable,  if  not  insurmount- 
able difficulties.  It  is  certain  that  the 
Evangelists  do  not  always  follow  the  exact 
order  of  time,  and  it  is  sometimes  impos- 
sible to  decide  between  the  different  ar- 
rangements of  events  in  their  records.  In 
the  four  narratives  of  the  events  connected 
with  the  resurrection,  for  instance,all  Har- 
monists find  themselves  baffled.  Experi- 
ence shows  that  the  most  profitable  way  of 
studying  the  evangelical  narrative  is  to  take 
each  Gospel  as  a  whole,  but  with  continual 
reference  to  the  parallel  parts  of  the  other 
Gospels,  so  far  as  they  can  be  ascertained. 

Harmonists.  —  Members  of  a  religious 
community,  of  communistic  character,  or- 
ganized by  George  Rapp  (1770-1847),  a 
German  of  Wiirtemberg.  Disturbed  by 
the  authorities,  they  removed  in  1803 
to  Butler  county,  Pennsylvania,  and 
formed  a  settlement  which  they  called 
Harmony.  In  1815  they  removed  to  New 
Harmony,  Indiana,  but  returned  to  Penn- 
sylvania ten  years  later,  and  formed  the 
township  of  Economy,  a  few  miles  fVom 
Pittsburg,  where  they  own  thirty-five 
hundred  acres  of  land  and  carry  on  impor- 
tant manufactures.  They  hold  all  property 
in  common,  do  not  marry,  lead  blameless 
lives,  and  believe  in  an  early  second  com- 
ing of  Christ.  They  make  hardly  any 
proselytes  and  the  community  is  not  more 
than  two  hundred  and  fifty  strong  (1890). 
Their  very  valuable  estate  will  finally  be- 
come the  property  of  the  last  survivor. 

Haydn  (Francis  Joseph)  (1732-1809). 
—  Austrian  composer,  born  at  Rohrau,  ^ 
died  at  Vienna.  Son  of  a  wheelwright 
who  was,  at  the  same  time,  sacristan  and 
organist;  he  showed  from  his  childhood 
remarkable  dispositions  for  music.  At 
the  age  of  thirteen  years,  he  wrote  a  Mass 


Heart 


328 


Heaven 


which  he  showed  to  his  teacher,  Reuter. 
The  latter  laughed  at  him,  and  told  him  to 
learn  first  to  write  before  composing. 
Sent  away  on  account  of  his  "  frolics," 
Haj'dn  found  an  asylum  at  a  poor  wig- 
maker  named  Keller,  gave  some  lessons, 
played  the  violin  in  churches,  and  finally, 
through  the  protection  of  Metastate,  en- 
tered as  a  domestic  of  a  certain  Porpora. 
After  miany  other  vicissitudes,  he  repre- 
sented a  comic  opera,  entitled  The  Lame 
Devil  (1756).  Having  become  chapel- 
master  of  Count  Murtzin,  he  wrote  (1759) 
his  first  symphony,  whose  hearing  charmed 
Count  Esterhazy  in  such  a  manner  that  he 
took  Haydn  in  his  service,  where  he  lived 
until  sixty-two  years  old,  then  retired  into 
a  suburb  of  Vienna,  Gumpendorf,  and  here 
he  peacefully  ended  his  days.  Through 
gratitude  he  had  married  the  daughter  of 
Keller.  In  1791  and  in  1793,  Haydn  went 
to  London,  where  they  overwhelmed  him 
with  honors.  His  works  comprise  four 
oratorios:  Tobias  (1782);  The  Seven 
Words  of  Christ  (1785) ;  The  Creation 
{1798);  The  Seasons  (1801);  163  pieces  for 
the  string  barytone;  24  operas;  125  sym- 
phonies, etc ;  in  all  about  800  compositions. 

Heart  {Feast  of  the  Sacred).  — hitcr 
many  devout  souls  had  venerated  the  Sa- 
cred Heart  of  Jesus,  with  sincere  devotion, 
in  the  solitude  of  quiet  life,  our  divine 
Saviour  willed  that  His  heart's  infinite  love 
should  be  recognized  by  all  men,  and  be  en- 
kindled in  cold  hearts  by  a  new  fire  of  love. 
For  this  end  He  made  use  of  a  feeble,  ob- 
scure instrument,  that  all  the  world  might 
know,  that  the  devotion  of  His  loving 
heart,  previously  almost  entirely  unknown, 
was"  His  own  work.  This  instrument,  dis- 
regarded by  the  world,  was  one  who  shone 
before  God  in  all  the  radiance  of  the  most 
sublime  virtues,  the  nun  Margaret  Ala- 
coque,  of  the  Order  of  the  Visitation  of 
Mary,  at  Paray,  in  Burgundy.  In  the  year 
1675,  whilst  she  was  one  day  in  prayer  be- 
fore the  Blessed  Sacrament,  our  Lord  ap- 
peared to  her,  and  pointing  to  His  heart 
which  He  showed  to  her,  surrounded  with 
flames,  surmounted  by  the  Cross,  enriched 
with  a  crown  of  thorns,  and  pierced  with  a 
gaping  wound,  He  said  to  her:  "Behold 
this  heart  which  has  loved  mankind  so 
much,  and  which  receives  only  ingratitude 
and  coldness  in  return  for  its  love.  My  de- 
sire is  that  you  should  make  reparation  to 
My  heart  for  this  ingratitude,  and  induce 
others  also  to  make  reparation. "    Our  Lord 


then  designated  the  Friday  after  the  Octave 
of  Corpus  Christi  as  the  special  day  for 
this  duty.  In  several  subsequent  appari- 
tions our  divine  Lord  repeated  this  injunc- 
tion.and  made  the  most  unbounded  promises 
in  favor  of  all  who  would  apply  themselves 
to  this  office  of  reparation  of  His  Sacred 
Heart.  Margaret  obeyed,  but  found  every- 
where the  greatest  opposition,  even  from 
her  sisters  in  religion,  until  finally  she  suc- 
ceeded in  inflaming  them  with  the  same 
love  of  His  Sacred  Heart.  This  devotion 
soon  spread  from  the  convent  throughout 
the  adjoining  dioceses,  where  confraterni- 
ties in  honor  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus 
arose,  and  Pope  Clement  XIII.,  after  caus- 
ing the  strictest  investigation  to  be  made, 
commanded  the  Festival  of  the  Sacred 
Heart  of  Jesus  to  be  observed  throughout 
the  Catholic  Church,  on  the  first  Friday 
after  the  Octave  of  Corpus  Christi.  See 
Heart  of  Mary. 

Heart  of  Mary  {Immaculate). — Title 
of  a  church  festival  and  of  several  confra- 
ternities. This  devotion  rests  upon  the 
same  principles  as  those  which  are  the 
foundation  of  the  Catholic  devotion  to  the 
Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus.  Catholics  worship 
the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus  because  it  is 
united  to  the  Person  of  the  Word,  just  as 
they  venerate  and  honor  Ihe  heart  of  Mary 
because  united  to  the  person  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin.  The  physical  heart  of  each  sym- 
bolizes charity  and  the  inner  life,  while 
the  charity  and  virtues  of  Marj'  are  in- 
finitely inferior  to  those  of  her  divine 
Son.  The  devotion  to  the  Immaculate 
Heart  was  first  propagated  by  John  Eudes, 
founder  of  a  congregation  of  priests  which 
was  named  after  him.  They  were  called 
Eudists.  Pius  IX.  extended  the  feast  in 
1855,  and  it  is  celebrated  on  the  Sunday 
after  the  Octave  of  the  Assumption. 

Heaven  is  the  kingdom  far  "above  all 
heavens  "  (Ephes.  iv.  10),  where  our  happi- 
ness is  complete  and  eternal,  in  the  con- 
templation of  God  by  the  beatific  vision, 
the  ever  enduring  union  with  our  Saviour, 
and  the  joy  which  results  therefrom  :  thus 
completing  our  heavenly  happiness  in  this 
triple  recompense  of  the  three  theological 
virtues,  of  which  the  one  that  is  everlast- 
ing in  heaven  is  charity.  Faith,  which 
we  possess  on  earth,  is  the  steadfast  belief 
of  beholding  God,  cannot  have  place  in 
paradise,  when  there  we  see  what  we  have 
here  believed  without  seeing.  Likewise 
the    hope   we    experience    in   this  world. 


Heber 


329 


Heiss 


that  causes  us  to  await  with  patience  and 
confidence  the  realization  of  our  Redeem- 
er's promises,  disappears,  when  we  possess 
that  for  which  we  have  hoped.  Charity 
alone  remains,  to  become  more  and  more 
perfect,  and  more  like  the  charity  of  Him 
who  is  ever  merciful,  and  ever  great  in 
His  love  for  all  mankind.  See  Vision 
(Beatific) . 

Heber.  —  Grandson  of  Sem.  In  Gen. 
xiv.  13,  the  name  Hebrew  is  applied  to 
Abraham.  The  same  name  is  repeatedly 
given  to  the  people  of  Israel  (Gen.  xliii.  32 ; 
Exod.  i.  15;  I.  Ki.  xiii.  3,  7,  etc.).  The 
opinion  which  derives  this  appellation  from 
Heber,  grandson  of  Sem,  has  been  con- 
tested without  good  reasons.  We  know 
that  the  name  Israel  was  imposed  upon 
Jacob  by  the  angel  with  whom  he  had 
been  wrestling;  the  descendants  of  Abra- 
ham and  Jacob  also  received  this  name, 
whilst  keeping  that  of  Hebrew.  Later  on, 
after  the  schism  of  the  ten  tribes,  the  name 
Jew  was  given  to  the  members  of  the 
kingdom  of  Juda. 

Hebre-ws  {Epistle  to  the).  —  In  his  letter 
to  the  Hebrews,  St.  Paul,  making  use  of 
the  authority  of  the  Old  Testament,  de- 
scribes under  the  most  sublime  traits  the 
divinity  of  Jesus  Christ,  His  quality  as 
Mediator  and  Redeemer,  His  eternal  priest- 
hood, the  superiority  of  the  New  Covenant 
over  the  Old,  and  the  intimate  relation  of 
both. 

Hebron.  —  A  city  in  Palestine,  situated 
on  a  hill  among  the  mountains  of  Juda, 
about  twenty  miles  south  of  Jerusalem.  It 
is  one  of  the  oldest  existing  Biblical  towns. 
According  to  Num.  xiii.  22,  it  was  built 
seven  years  before  Zoan  (/.  e.,  Tanis,  the 
capital  of  Lower  Egypt),  and  Josephus  says 
that  in  his  day  it  was  2,300  years  old.  Its 
former  name  was  Cariath  Arbe  (Jos.  xiv.  15). 
It  was  the  burial  place  of  Abraham  and  of 
Sara,  his  wife,  of  Isaac  and  of  Rebecca,  of 
Jacob  and  of  Lia.  Afterwards  it  became 
an  important  city  in  the  territory  of  Juda. 
David  resided  here  the  first  seven  years  of 
his  reign.  Later  it  was  taken  possession  of 
by  the  Idumeans,  from  whom  Judas  Mach- 
abeus  captured  it  (I.  Mach.  v.  65) .  At  pres- 
ent it  has  about  10,000  inhabitants,  of 
whom  500  are  Jews,  the  rest  are  Moham- 
medans. As  the  city  of  Abraham  it  is 
called  by  Mohammedans  Al-Halil  ("  City 
of  the  Friend  of  God").  Upon  the  tradi- 
tional site  of  the  burial  place  of  the  patri- 


archs, Machpelah,  a  magnificent  mosque  is 
erected,  accessible  only  to  Mohammedans. 
Dean  Stanley  and  Major  Conder  have  ex- 
amined the  mosque,  and  described  the  sup- 
posed cave  of  Abraham's  burial  place. 

Hacker  (Isaac  Thomas)  . — An  American 
clergyman,  founder  of  the  Paulists ;  born 
in  New  York  City,  Dec.  18th,  1819.  In 
1843,  he  joined  the  Brook  Farm  Com- 
munity, near  Boston,  where  for  nine 
months  he  baked  the  bread  eaten  by  the 
members.  In  1845  he  became  a  Roman 
Catholic ;  went  to  Germany  to  study  for 
the  priesthood,  joined  the  Redemptorist 
Fathers  in  Belgium  in  1847,  and  was  or- 
dained priest  in  London  in  1849  by  Car- 
dinal Wiseman.  After  being  released  from 
connection  with  the  Redemptorists,  he 
founded,  in  1858,  the  new  congregation  of 
the  missionary  priests  of  St.  Paul  (The 
Paulist  Fathers)  in  New  York  City.  .Its 
members  take  no  vows,  and  any  priest  can 
leave  the  order  when  he  chooses.  Hecker 
established  The  Catholic  World,  a  monthly 
periodical,  in  1865  ;  wrote  the  Questions  of 
the  Soul;  Aspirations  of  Nature,  and  a 
pamphlet  on  Martin  Luther  (1883).  Died 
in  New  York  City,  Dec.  22d,  1888.  Father 
Elliot,  a  mer^ber  of  the  Paulists,  wrote 
Hecker's  biography,  which  was  much 
criticized,  and  even  censured  by  the  Holy 
See  in  1898. 

Hefele  (Karl  Joseph  von)  (1809-1893). 
—  German  Catholic  prelate;  Bishop  of 
Rottenburg  in  1869,  and  Church  historian. 
He  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  ecclesias- 
tical history  and  Christian  archaeology  at 
Tubingen  in  1840.  His  chief  work  is. 
History  of  Church  Councils  (1855-1874). 

Hegesippus.  —  A  Jew  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity; died  in  Rome  about  181.  He  is 
called  the  first  Church  historian.  Desirous 
of  learning  the  doctrines  handed  down  by 
the  Apostles,  he  made  a  journey  from 
Jerusalem  to  Rome,visiting  many  Churches 
on  the  way.  The  result  of  his  inquiries 
and  collections  was  his  Five  Books  of 
Ecclesiastical  Events,  of  which  nothing 
remains  but  the  paragraphs  quoted  by  Eu- 
sebius. 

Heiss  (Michael)  (1818-1890).  — Ameri- 
can prelate;  born  at  Phahldorf,  Bavaria, 
died  at  Milwaukee.  He  went  through  a  theo- 
logical course  in  the  University  of  Munich, 
entered  the  ecclesiastical  seminary  at 
Eichstadt,  and  was  ordained  in  1840.  Came 


Helena 


330 


Henoticon 


to  the  United  States  in  1843,  and  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  church  of  the  Mother  of 
God  in  Covington,  Kentucky.  On  the 
appointment  of  Dr.  H^nni  as  bishop  of  Mil- 
waukee, Rev.  M.  Heiss  accompanied  him  as 
acting  secretary,  and  did  mission  work  as 
far  as  fifty  miles  north  of  the  city.  Bishop  of 
La  Crosse,  Wisconsin,  in  1868;  coadjutor  to 
Archbishop  Henni  in  1880.  As  theologian 
Dr.  Heiss  took  an  active  part  in  the  councils 
of  St.  Louis  and  the  Second  Plenary  Coun- 
cil of  Baltimore.  He  attended  the  Vatican 
Council  in  1869-70,  and  was  appointed  by 
Pope  Pius  IX.  a  member  of  one  of  the 
four  great  commissions.  On  the  death 
(1881)  of  Archbishop  Henni  he  became 
second  archbishop  of  Milwaukee.  Among 
his  published  works  are  the  Four  Gospels, 
and  a  Latin  treatise  on  matrimony. 

Helena  (St.).  —  The  mother  of  Constan- 
tine  the  Great.  She  was,  according  to 
some  authorities,  the  daughter  of  an  inn- 
keeper at  Drepanum,  Bithynia;  according 
to  others,  a  British  or  Caledonian  prin- 
cess. She  became  the  wife  of  Constantius 
Chlorus,  who,  on  his  elevation  to  the 
dignity  of  Caesar  in  292,  divorced  her  in 
order  to  marry  Theodora,  the  step- 
daughter of  the  Augustus  Maximianus 
Hercules.  Subsequently  on  the  elevation 
to  the  purple,  Constantine,  her  son  by 
Constantius,  she  received  the  title  of  Au- 
gusta, and  was  treated  with  marked  dis- 
tinction. About  325  she  made  a  pilgrimage 
to  Jerusalem,  where  she  built  the  Church 
of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  and  that  of  the 
Nativity,  at  Bethlehem.  Died  about  330. 
F.  Aug.  18th. 

Heli.  —  A  Hebrew  judge  and  high-priest. 
He  failed  to  punish  the  sins  of  his  two 
sons,  Ophni  and  Phinees,  and  the  destruc- 
tion of  his  house  ensued.  At  the  news  of 
the  defeat  of  the  Israelites  by  the  Philis- 
tines, in  which  his  sons  were  killed  and  the 
Ark  of  the  Covenant  taken,  he  fell  back- 
ward from  his  seat  and  broke  his  neck. 
He  judged  Israel  forty  years  and  was 
ninety-eight  years  old  when  he  died. 

Hell  is  a  place  of  anguish  and  torment, 
where  those  who  have  voluntarily  and 
finally  defied  God  suffer  the  everlasting 
punishment  of  their  sins,  proportioned  in 
its  violence  to  their  deserts.  It  consists  of 
absolute  and  eternal  separation  from  God, 
enchained  in  darkness,  as  ♦'  the  angels  who 
kept  not  their  principality  "  (Jude  i.  6) ; 
where  the  fire  of  remorse  for  having  vol- 


untarily merited  damnation,  and  of  despair 
for  this  incomparable  and  unending  an- 
guish, is  unextinguishable ;  "where  the 
worm  dieth  not,  and  the  fire  is  not 
quenched"  (Mark  ix.  47).  If  sinners  die 
with  determined  will  for  evil,  they  freely 
place  themselves  beyond  recall  of  good, 
and  in  ceaseless  degradation  and  torture. 
See  Reprobatio:^  and  Devil. 

Hellenists. — Jews  who  had  lost  their  ex- 
clusive spirit  by  constant  intercourse  with 
the  Gentiles,  and  who  habitually  spoke 
Greek  and  read  the  Scriptures  in  Greek. 
They  are  not  to  be  confounded  with  the 
Hellenes,  who  were  native  Greeks  alike  in 
religion  and  language. 

Helvidius.  —  Heresiarch  of  the  fourth 
century,  disciple  of  Auxentius,  Bishop  of 
Milan,  He  pretended  that  Mary  had,  after 
the  birth  of  Jesus  Christ,  several  children 
with  St.  Joseph,  and  declared  that  the  state 
of  marriage  is  as  meritorious  as  that  of  vir- 
ginity.    St.  Jerome  refuted  him, 

Hemerobaptists.  —  Members  of  an  old 
Jewish  sect  which  used  daily  ceremonial 
ablutions,  or  of  an  early  Christian  sect 
which  believed  in  daily  baptism ;  little  is 
known  of  either. 

Henni  (John  Martin)  (1805-1881). 
—  American  prelate ;  was  born  in  Ober- 
saxen,  in  the  Swiss  canton  of  the  Gris- 
sons ;  died  at  Milwaukee, Wisconsin.  After 
studying  at  St.  Gall  and  Luzern  he  pro- 
ceeded to  Rome  to  complete  his  theological 
studies.  Moved  by  the  appeal  of  Bishop 
Fenwick,  Bishop  of  Cincinnati,  he  came  to 
America  in  1829.  He  took  charge  of  the  Ger- 
mans in  Cincinnati,  and  also  taught  philos- 
ophy in  the  Athenaeum.  His  next  field  of 
labor  was  in  Northern  Ohio,  extending 
from  Canton  to  Lake  Erie.  Returning  to 
Cincinnati,  he  established  in  1837  the 
'■^  Wahrheits  Freund,"  the  first  German 
Catholic  paper  in  the  United  States.  Was 
appointed  bishop  of  Milwaukee  in  1844. 
In  the  very  year  of  his  arrival  to  Mil- 
waukee he  opened  a  little  theological 
seminary  under  the  direction  of  Rev.  Mr. 
Heiss,  gradually  preparing  to  place  it  on 
a  solid  basis.  In  1855,  he  laid  the  corner 
stone  of  the  Salesianum.  In  1875,  the 
Holy  See  created  him  an  archbishop. 

Henoch.     See  Enoch. 

Henoticon.  — An  edict  which  Zeno, 
Emperor  of  the  East,  published  in  482,  in 


Henricians 


331 


Hergenrother 


order  to  restore  unity  of  belief  in  the 
Church  and  to  reunite  the  Catholics  with 
the  Eutychians. 

Henricians.  —  Sectarians  of  the  twelfth 
century;  followers  of  a  certain  Henry  the 
Deacon,  an  apostate  monk  of  Cluny. 
The  Henricians  rejected  all  kinds  of  wor- 
ship and  did  not  even  suffer  singing  in 
their  Churches.  For  more  particulars  see 
Petrobusians. 

Henry  IV.     See  Gregory  VII. 

Henry  VIII.  — King  of  England  (1509- 
1547).  Having  defended  the  Catholic  doc- 
trine against  Luther,  he  received  from  the 
Pope  the  title,  "  Defender  of  the  Faith." 
A  short  time  afterwards  he  wished  to 
marry  Anne  Boleyn.  In  order  to  be  free 
to  do  so,  he  pretended  that  his  marriage 
with  Catharine  of  Aragon,  the  widow  of 
his  brother,  was  invalid.  His  court  chap- 
lain, Thomas  Cranmer,  who  was  married 
and  a  Lutheran  in  disguise,  assisted  in 
preparing  England  for  apostasy.  Having 
been  promoted  by  the  king  to  the  see  of 
Canterbury,  and  taken  the  oath  of  alle- 
giance to  the  Pope,  though  actually  himself 
a  Protestant,  he,  for  the  sake  of  appear- 
ance, begged  leave  to  examine  the  validity 
of  Henry's  marriage.  Soon  after  he  pro- 
nounced the  marriage  with  Catharine  in- 
valid and  the  one  with  Anne  Boleyn  to  be 
lawful.  Pope  Clement  VIL,  though 
threatened  with  the  apostasy  of  the  king- 
dom, condemned  the  decision  of  Cran- 
mer. This  action  resulted  in  the  complete 
separation  of  the  king  from  the  Church. 
In  1534,  Henry  compelled  all  the  clergy 
and  officers,  under  the  pain  of  high 
treason,  to  take  the  oath  of  supremacy. 
In  order  to  confiscate  their  property, 
Henry  suppressed  3,219  ecclesiastical  in- 
stitutions, "  To  please  God  and  for  the 
glory  of  the  kingdom."  The  profits  of 
this  spoliation  which  amounted  to  $25,- 
000,000,  were  spent  in  debauchery  in  the 
short  space  of  ten  years.  Magnificent 
churches,  libraries  and  works  of  art  were 
demolished ;  the  tomb  of  Alfred  the  Great, 
was  desecrated ;  all  valuables  were  confis- 
cated by  the  greedy  commissioners.  In 
the  meantime,  the  want  and  misery  of  the 
poor  were  greatly  increased;  the  king's 
tyranny  was  directed  against  all  who  re- 
mained true  to  the  Catholic  faith.  Chan- 
cellor Thomas  More  and  Archbishop  John 
Fisher,  died  as  martyrs.  A  prize  of  50,000 
ducats  was  offered  for  the  head  of  Cardi- 


nal Pole.  The  cardinal  being  in  safety 
on  the  continent,  the  king's  anger  knew  no 
bounds.  By  a  royal  mandate,  the  mother 
and  two  relatives  of  the  cardinal  were  put 
to  death.  Even  Cromwell,  his  pliable  and 
servile  tool,  was  executed.  Henry  was 
married  six  times.  Two  of  his  wives  were, 
by  his  order,  put  to  death.  During  his 
reign,  he  ordered  the  execution  of  two 
queens,  twelve  dukes  and  earls,  164  noble- 
men, two  cardinals,  two  archbishops, 
eighteen  bishops,  more  than  500  abbots 
and  monks,  and  over  70,000  commoners. 
Henry  adhered  to  the  main  points  of  the 
Catholic  doctrine  and  even  punished  the 
violation  of  the  vow  of  celibacy.  See  An- 
glicanism. 

Heracleon.  —  Heresiarch  of  the  second 
century.  Fragments  of  his  commentaries 
on  the  Gospels  of  St.  John  and  of  St.  Luke 
are  found  in  the  writings  of  Origen. 

Heresy  (Gr.  haircsis). — The  word 
heresy  denotes  a  choice,  a  selection,  and, 
in  its  application  to  religious  belief,  it  is 
used  to  designate  the  act  of  choosing  for 
one's  self,  and  maintaining  opinions  con- 
trary to  the  authorized  teachings  of  the 
religious  community  to  which  one's  obe- 
dience is  due,  as  the  heterodox  opinions 
thus  adopted,  and  the  party  which  may 
have  adopted  them.  In  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles  (v.  17;  XV.  5;  xxiv.  5;  xxviii.  22), 
the  word  seems  to  be  used  for  a  sect  or 
party,  abstracting  from  the  consideration 
of  its  character  whether  good  or  bad ;  but 
in  the  Epistles  and  by  the  early  Christian 
writers  it  is  almost  invariably  used  in  a  bad 
sense,  which  is  the  sense  uniformly  ac- 
cepted in  all  subsequent  theological  litera- 
ture. The  notion  of  heresy,  as  understood 
by  theological  writers  involves  two  ideas ; 
first,  the  deliberate  and  voluntary  rejection 
of  some  doctrine  proposed  by  the  supreme 
authority  established  in  any  Church  as 
necessary  to  be  believed ;  and,  secondly,  a 
contumacious  persistence  in  such  rejection, 
with  the  knowledge  that  the  belief  of  the 
doctrine  is  required  of  all  the  members 
of  that  particular  religious  community. 
Catholic  writers  regarding  the  authority 
of  their  own  Church  as  supreme  and  final, 
apply  the  name  of  heresy  to  any  formal 
denial  of  a  doctrine  proposed  by  the 
Catholic  Church  as  necessary  to  be  be- 
lieved. 

Hergenrother  (Joseph)  (1824-1890)  — 
Bavarian    cardinal;    born    at   Wiirzburg; 


Herman 


332 


Hermes 


died  in  Rome.  Professor  of  Canon  Law 
and  Church  history  in  the  University  of 
Munich,  in  1855.  In  1868,  he  went  to 
Rome  as  one  of  the  committees  to  prepare 
for  the  Vatican  Council,  and  he  was  from 
the  beginning  a  zealous  defender  of  Papal 
Infallibility.  Pius  IX.  made  him  one  of 
his  domestic  prelates  and  Leo  XIII.  a 
cardinal  (1879)  and  prefect  of  the  apostolic 
archives.  Of  his  numerous  publications 
may  be  mentioned  PJiofius,  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople,  His  Life,  Writings,  and 
the  Greek  Schism;  Manual  of  Universal 
Church  History;  Catholic  Church  and 
Christian  State.  All  these  works  are  in 
German,  but  the  latter  is  translated  into 
English. 

Herman  (surnamed  "  Contractus,"  that 
is,  the  Paralytic)  (1013-1054). — German 
chronicler,  offspring  of  the  family  of  the 
Counts  of  Vehringen.  Benedictine,  and 
Abbot  of  Reichenau,  where  he  died.  He 
was  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his  time. 

Hermas.  —  A  book  belonging  to  the 
earliest  days  of  Christianity,  and  most  re- 
markable for  its  matter,  form,  and  com- 
prehensiveness, has  come  down  to  us  under 
the  name  of  The  Shepherd  (Pastor).  The 
author  calls  himself  Hermas,  and  tells 
us  that,  when  still  young,  he  was  sold  as  a 
slave  to  a  certain  Rhode,  and  afterwards 
set  free  by  her.  He  mariied,  and  amassed 
a  considerable  fortune,  partly  by  dishonest 
trade,  and  led  with  his  own  family  a  life  of 
little  edification.  In  punishment  of  his 
sins  he  lost  all  his  possessions,  except  one 
field,  and  had  to  suffer  many  hardships, 
which,  however,  brought  about  a  moral 
reform  of  himself  and  family.  He  lived 
in  Rome  at  the  time  of  Pope  Clement,  and 
probably  held  the  office  of  a  lector  in  the 
Church.  Whether  he  is  the  same  Hermas 
to  whom  St.  Paul  sent  greeting  in  his 
Epistle  to  the  Romans  (xvi.  14),  or  whether 
he  is  a  brother  of  Pope  Pius  I.  (140-155), 
is  still  a  much  disputed  question.  In  favor 
of  the  former  opinion  may  be  adduced,  not 
only  the  testimony  of  early  Christian 
writers,  such  as  Origen,  Irenaeus,  Euse- 
bius  and  others,  but  also  the  circumstance 
that  the  writer  represents  himself  (  Vis.  II, 
iv.)  as  a  contemporary  of  Clement  of  Rome, 
and  that  the  book  was  recognized  in  the 
Eastern  Church  as  the  work  of  a  disciple 
of  the  Apostles,  and  consequently  consid- 
ered to  possess  Apostolic  authority,  like 
the  Epistles  of  Clement  and  Barnabas. 
Against  this  ancient,  and  for  a  long  time 


generally  prevailing  opinion,  various  ob- 
jections have  been  urged  in  modern  times, 
the  chief  one  being  the  so-called  Muratorian 
fragment,  which  is  a  catalogue  enumera- 
ting the  books  that  are  to  be  consid- 
ered as  canonical  or  uncanonical,  dating 
from  the  end  of  the  second  century.  Here 
it  is  quite  definitely  stated  that  Hermas,  a 
brother  of  Pope  Pius  I.,  was  the  author  of 
The  Shepherd.  We  are  thus  confronted 
with  two  directly  contradictory  opinions, 
both  apparentl}^  well  attested.  Dr.  Nirschl 
and  others  have  sought  to  reconcile  them 
by  making  the  older  Hermas  the  real 
author  of  the  work  in  Greek,  and  the 
younger  the  translator  of  it  into  Latin.  A 
third  opinion  maintains  that  it  is  the  work 
of  an  entirely  unknown  person,  and  written 
soon  after  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Trajan. 
The  work  is  written  in  the  apocalyptic 
style,  and  furnishes  precepts  and  instruc- 
tions as  the  way  of  becoming  a  Christian, 
and  how  to  live  a  truly  Christian  life.  It 
contains  five  visions,  twelve  command- 
ments, and  ten  similitudes.  In  the  first 
four  visions,  the  Church  appears  to  Her- 
mas under  the  figure  of  a  matron,  and 
teaches  him ;  but  in  the  fifth  vision,  which 
forms  the  transition  to  the  commandments 
and  similitudes,  as  well  as  throughout  the 
latter,  his  informant  is  an  angel  of  pen- 
ance, appearing  in  the  garb  of  a  shepherd, 
whence  the  name  of  the  whole  book.  The 
commandments  treat  of  faith  in  one  God, 
of  simplicity,  innocence,  charity,  truthful- 
ness, lying,  the  duties  of  husband  and 
wife,  justice,  patience,  discernment  of 
spirits  and  their  inspirations,  and  struggle 
against  concupiscence.  The  similitudes 
are  a  series  of  telling  images,  illustrating 
various  Christian  truths  and  precepts. 

Hermeneutic  or  Exegesis  is  the  gram- 
matical and  historical  interpretation  of  the 
Bible.  It  is  authentic,  if  it  is  given  by  the 
author  himself;  doctrinal  or  traditional, 
if  it  is  furnished  by  others  ;  rational,  if  it 
is  based  upon  the  proceedings  of  reason ; 
revealed,  if  the  interpretation  presents 
itself  as  coming  from  God.  The  Catholic 
exegesis  supports  itself  upon  the  decrees 
of  the  Councils,  the  dogmatic  decisions  of 
the  Popes,  and  the  writings  of  the  Holy 
Fathers.  The  Protestant  interpretation  is 
individual  and  has  no  religious  value.  See 
Interpretation. 

Hermes  (George)  (1775-1831).  —  Ger- 
man theologian,  born  at  Dreyerwalde, 
Westphalia.       Professor    of    theology    at 


Hermias 


333 


Herrnhuters 


Munster  and  at  Bonn  (1819).  He  fell  into 
the  error  of  rationalism  respecting  certain 
dogmas.  For  instance,  he  maintained  that 
human  reason  could  attain  to  certainty  on 
religious  and  moral  truths  or  that  the 
dogmas  could  be  proved  by  reason  alone, 
that  this  was  an  article  of  faith,  and  that 
besides,  the  Church  has  not  the  right  to  re- 
quire belief.  He  was  censured  by  the 
Church  and  his  disciples,  the  "  Hermes- 
ians,"  were  excluded  from  the  Catholic 
Universities. 

Hermias.  —  Heresiarch  who  lived  in 
Galatia  in  the  second  century.  He  taught 
that  God  is  a  corporal  being,  that  matter 
is  eternal,  like  God,  that  the  human  souls 
are  not  created  by  God,  but  by  angels, 
that  they  are  composed  of  fire  and  air,  that 
the  evil  is  derived  sometimes  from  God 
and  sometimes  from  matter.  He  rejected 
the  baptism  of  water  and  admitted  only  a 
baptism  of  fire  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
without  describing  how  this  was  done. 

Hermias  The  Philosopher.  —  Christian 
writer  of  the  second  or  of  the  third  cen- 
tury. He  left  a  polemical  work  entitled 
Irrisio  gentilium  philosophorum,  in  which 
he  ridicules  the  pagan  philosophers  by  ex- 
'  posing  their  errors  and  contradictions, 
but  without  seriously  refuting  them.  The 
work  was  written  in  the  second  century ; 
according  to  some,  in  the  third.  In  forci- 
ble and  sarcastic  language  he  deals  with 
the  doctrines  of  heathen  philosophers  on 
God,  the  world,  and  the  soul,  pointing  out 
their  glaring  contradictions,  but  failing  at 
times  to  grasp  or  exhibit  the  pagan  doc- 
trines in  their  systematic  connection. 

Hermits.     See  Monasticism. 

Hermogenes.  —  Heresiarch,  born  in 
Africa,  in  the  second  century.  He  made 
the  attempt  to  reconcile  the  doctrine  of  the 
pagan  philosophers  with  those  of  Chris- 
tianity and  maintained  that  the  world 
would  never  come  to  an  end,  that  matter 
was  coeternal  with  God,  who  only  put  it 
into  operation.  He  was  refuted  by  Ter- 
tullian. 

Hermon(  The  Great)  (Djebel eck-Cheikk, 
chief  of  the  mountains)  —  Mountain  of  Pal- 
estine ;  the  highest  of  the  mountain  chain 
of  Anti-Libanon  and  which  formerly 
served  toward  the  north  as  frontier  of 
Palestine.  Height  8,400  feet.  On  its  sum- 
mit considerable  ruins  can  be  seen  and 
here    very     probably,   they     primitively 


adored  the  god  Baal.  This  mountain  is 
covered  with  snow  a  great  part  of  the 
year. 

Herod.  —  Name  of  several  members  of  a 
large  family  of  Idumean  origin,  of  whom 
several  reigned  over  Judea.  Herod  the 
Great.  —  Founder  of  the  dynasty  of  An- 
tipater,  procurator  of  Judea.  He  was 
named  governor  of  Galilee  (b.  c.  47),  then 
of  Coelo-Syria,  and  in  41  ethnarch  of  Judea. 
Driven  away  by  Antigonus,  he  fled  to 
Rome,  where  he  obtained  a  decree  from 
the  senate  naming  him  king  of  Judea,  to 
the  exclusion  of  the  Asmonean  line  (b.  c. 
40),  a  dignity  which  was  confirmed  upon 
him  after  the  battle  of  Actium.  He  killed 
Aristobolus,  the  last  male  descendant  of 
the  Asmoneans,  put  to  death  his  wife 
Mariamne,  on  account  of  jealousy,  and  the 
two  sons  he  had  from  her.  The  massacre 
of  the  children  of  Bethlehem  crowned  this 
series  of  crimes.  Under  his  cruel  and  am- 
bitious reign,  Idumea  and  Trachonitis 
were  added  to  his  kingdom ;  he  rebuilt 
Samaria  and  called  it  Sebaste,  created  on 
the  coast  the  great  port  of  Caesarea,  sur- 
rounded Jerusalem  with  fortifications,  and 
commenced  to  repair  the  great  Temple  of 
this  city.  Herod-Antifas. — Son  of  Herod 
by  Malthace,  one  of  the  two  wives  of  the 
tyrant;  received,  by  the  will  of  his  father, 
which  Augustus  confirmed,  the  tetrarchy 
of  Galilee  and  of  Persia,  whilst  Judea  was 
reserved  to  Archelaus.  He  repudiated  his 
first  wife  in  order  to  marry  Herodiada, 
wife  of  his  half-brother  Herod-Philip.  He 
beheaded  St.  John  the  Baptist,  and  it  was 
before  him  Jesus  Christ  was  sent  by  Pon- 
tius Pilate.  Through  the  intrigues  of 
Herod-Agrippa  (38),  he  was  robbed  of  his 
States,  exiled  with  his  wife  to  Lyons  and 
then  to  Spain,  where  he  died.  Herod- 
Philip. —  Son  of  Herod  the  Great  and 
Mariamne,  half-brother  of  the  preceding, 
first  husband  of  Herodiada.  The  Evangel- 
ists repeatedly  mention  him  under  the 
name  of  Philip.  Herod-Agrippa.  —  See 
Agrippa. 

Herodians.  —  Jewish  sectarians  who  had 
acknowledged  Herod  the  Great  as  the 
Messias.  Their  chief  was  a  certain  Men- 
ahen,  of  the  sect  of  the  Saducees. 

Herrnhuters.  —  Heretics.  The  sect  of 
the  Herrnhuters  includes  three  different 
troops  or  modifications :  The  Lutheran, 
Calvinistic,  and  Moravian,  and  adnjits 
Christians   of  all   denominations  without 


Hesychasts 


334    Hierarchy  of  the  Church 


compelling  them  to  renounce  their  pe- 
culiar tenets.  In  1741,  Zinzendorf,  who 
had  himself  been  ordained  a  bishop  of  his 
sect,  by  a  pretended  Moravian  bishop, 
came  to  America  and  founded  a  colony  of 
Herrnhuters  at  Bethlehem,  in  Pennsyl- 
vania. This  sect,  however,  is  not  very 
numerous  in  this  country,  and  even  less  so 
in  Europe.  These  sectaries  have  always 
been  distinguished  by  a  spirit  of  pride, 
which  has  been  the  fruitful  source  of  fresh 
divisions. 

Hesychasts.  —  Members  of  the  Eastern 
Church  in  the  twelfth  century,  in  the 
monasteries  of  Mount  Athos,  who  aimed 
to  attain,  by  the  practice  of  contemplation 
and  asceticism,  entire  tranquillity  and 
serenity  of  mind  (hence  their  name)  and 
hence  supernatural  insight  and  divine 
light,  with  knowledge  of  the  Deity.  See 
Raskolniks. 

Hesychius  (St).  —  Lived  probably  in 
the  fifth  century.  Egyptian  bishop,  mar- 
tyred at  Alexandria.  He  published  an 
edition  of  the  New  Testament,  and  revised 
the  edition  of  the  Septuagint.  —  Hesy- 
chius of  Jerusalem,  Greek  ecclesiastical 
writer,  born  at  Constantinople,  about  435. 
—  Hesychius  of  Miletus,  Asia  Minor,  lived 
at  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century. 
Surnamed  the  "  Illustrious " ;  a  Greek 
historical  writer. 

Hetheans. —  Chanaanite  people  of  the 
mountains  of  Hebron,  comprised  in  the 
tribe  of  Juda. 

Hexaemeron. — Name  of  the  works  made 
by  various  authors  on  the  first  chapters  of 
Genesis  and  the  first  six  days  of  creation. 

Hieracites. —  Heretics  and  followers  of 
Hierax  (285-375),  an  Egyptian  ascetic; 
taught  Gnostic  and  Montanistic  errors. 
He  also  rejected  marriage,  denied  the  re- 
surrection, and  believed  that  children  who 
died  before  attaining  knowledge,  did  not 
enter  heaven. 

Hierarchy. — A  body  of  persons  organized 
in  ranks  and  orders  for  the  exercise  of  rule 
over  sacred  things ;  hence  an  organized 
body  of  ecclesiastics  intrusted  with  the 
government  of  the  Church.  The  Council 
of  Trent  declares  that  the  divinely  insti- 
tuted Hierarchy  in  the  Church  consists  of 
bishops,  priests,  and  ministers.  Since 
deacons  are  the  highest  order  in  the  Hier- 
archy after  bishops  and  priests,  it  follows 
that,  according  to  the  Council,  the  order 


of  deacons  is  of  divine  institution;  but  the 
Council  does  not  tell  us  whether  the  same 
can  be  said  of  subdeacons  and  others. 

Hierarchy  of  the  Church  throughout  the 
World. — Pope  Leo  XIII.,  elected  February 
2oth,  crowned  March  3d,  1878. 

SUMMARY   OF    CATHOLIC   SEES. 

(Gerarchia  Catlolica,  18^.) 
The  Sacred  College  of  Cardinals: 

Suburban  sees 6 

Titular  Churches 53 

Diaconies 16 

75 
The  Patriarchal  Sees: 

I^tin  Rite S 

Constantinople,  Alexandria,  Antioch, 
Jerusalem,  Lisbon,  East  Indies, 
West  Indies,  Venice. 

Oriental  Rites 6 

Antioch  of  the  Melchite  Rite,  Antioch 
of  the  Maronite  Rite,  Antioch  of  the 
Syriac  Rite,  Cilicia  of  the  Arme- 
nian Rite,  Babylon  of  the  Chal- 
daic  Rite. 


A  rchhishoprics: 
Latin  Rite : 

Immediately  subject  to  the  Holy  See.  19 

With  Ecclesiastical  Provinces 155 

Oriental  Rites: 

With  Ecclesiastical  Provinces : 

Armenian  Rite i 

Greek-Roumenian  Rite i 

Greek-Ruthenian  Rite i 

Subject  to  Patriarchates : 

Armenian  Rite i 

Greek-Melchite  Rite 3 

Syriac  Rite 3 

Syro^haldaic  Rite .,. a 

Syro-Marooite  Rite 6 

192 
Bishoprics: 
Latin  Rite : 

Immediately  subject  to  the  Holy  See.  83 

Suffragan  Sees  in  Ecclesiastical  Prov- 
inces   637 

Oriental  Rites: 

Immediately  subject  to  the  Holy  See: 

Greek-Ruthenian  Rite 3 

Suffragan  Sees  in  Ecclesiastical  Prov- 
inces: 

Greek-Roumenian  Rite 3 

Greek-Ruthenian  Rite 6 

Subject  to  Patriarchates: 

Armenian  Rite 16 

Coptic  Rite 2 

Greek-Melchite  Rite 8 

Syriac  Rite 5 

Syro-Chaldaic  Rite 9 

Syro-Maronite  Rite 2 

773 
Sedes  "Nullius  Dioceseos": 

Archabbey i 

Abbeys la 

Archpresbjrteiy 1 

Priory I 

Prelattires 2 

17 
Grand  Totai.  of  Catholic  Sbbs 1071 


Hierarchy  of  the  Church    335 


Latin  Rite 


In  the  following  tables  the  sees  are  given  by  countries,  added  up  from  the  special 
enumeration  of  sees  on  pp.  34,  etc.,  of  Gerarchia  Cattolica  for  1898:  — 

LATIN   RITE 


Countries 


Europe 

Austria-Hungary 

Bosnia  and  Herzegovina. 

Belgium 

Bulgaria 

France  

German  Empire 

Luxemburg 

England 

Ireland 

Scotland 

Colonies 

Greece 

Italy  and  Islands 

Monaco 

Montenegro 

Holland 

Portugal 

Roumania 

Russia 

Russian  Poland 


North  America 

Newfoundland 

St.  Pierre  Island  (French) . 

Canada  

Mexico 

United  States 


Total 


South  America 

Argentine  Republic 

Bolivia 

Brazil 

Chili 

Columbia 

Ecuador  

Guyana 

Patagonia    (North) 

Patagonia  (South) 

Paraguay 

Peru  

Uruguay  

Venezuela 


Total 


8-> 


27 


42 
2 

5 

67 
H 

24 
4 

4 
156 


22 
69 


109 


7 
2 

5 
61 


ostn 


Ej3 


So 
5  V 


Hierarchy  of  the  Church    336      Latin  and  Oriental  Rites 


Countries 

8 

el 

■c 

n 

< 

B 

1 

5 

ate 
-5  .Si. 

■•33 

h 

01 

3 

3 

•a 

00 

0 
■| 

Q 

1 

« 

V 

'C 
S 
> 

0 

<: 

n 
u 

S 
Or 

Central  America 
West   Ind  es 

I 

3 
I 

7 
4 
2 

I 

2 

I 

Republics 
Suffragan 

of  Central  America 

to  Bordeaux  (France) 

il 

Tot£ 

I 

4 

13 

I 

3 

Oceania 

Australia . 

5 
I 
I 

13 
3 
4 

I 
■  ■ 

4 
II 

I 
2 

New  Zealand 

Islands  . .  . 

Total 

7 

20 

I 

IS 

3 

Total  in   - 

f  Europe  

3 
3 

I 

I 

95 

ID 

2 
27 

4 
10 

7 

408 
27 
10 

109 

13 
61 
20 

17 

I 

I 

82 

I 

2 

16 
I 

I 

2 

4 
I 

I 

10 

56 

27 

6 

3 

4 
15 

4 
10 
20 

3 

2 
3 

Asia 

Africa 

North  America 

Central    America 

South    America 

Oceania 

Total 

8 

155 

648 

19 

85 

18 

8 

121 

42 

Total  of  Archbishoprics  imtnediateVy  subject  to  the  Holy  See 19 

Total  of  Archbishoprics  with  ecclesiastical  provinces 155 

Total  of  Bishoprics  immediately  subject  to  the  Holy  See 85 

Total  of  Bishoprics  in  ecclesiastical   provinces 648 

The  difference  between  these  totals  and  those  given  on  page  471  of  Gerarchia  Cattolica  is  to  be  ex- 
plained that  some  of  the  dioceses  were  united  with  others  and  not  properly  mentioned. 

ORIENTAL  RITES 


Europe 
Armenian  Rite                          

I 

3 

3 
2 

6 

I 

14 
8 

5 
9 

2 

I 

2 

I 

I 

I 

3 
6 

2 

2 

3 

I 

Greek  Rite  *      .                   

Greek-Roumanian  Rite 

Greek- Ruthenian  Rite 

Greek-Bulgarian   Rite  + 

Asia 
Armenian  Rite 

Greek-Melchite   Rite 

Syriac    Rite   

Syro-Chaldaic  Rite 

Syro-Maronite    Rite 

Syro-Malabric  Rite  X 

Africa 
Armenian  Rite 

Coptic  Rite 

I 
6 

Copts  of  Ethiopia  and  Abyssinia  TP 

Total 

IS 

42 

3 

9 

2 

6 

f 

*  The  Catholics  of  the  Greek  Rite  are  dependent  on  the  Apostolic  Delegates  at  Athens  and 
Constantinople. 

t  The  Catholics  of  the  Greek-Bulgarian  Rite  are  under  the  jurisdiction  of  two  Bishops  as  Admin- 
istrators, with  residences  in  Tracia  and  Macedonia. 

\  The  Catholics  of  the  Syro-Malabric  Rite  are  under  the  jurisdiction  of  three  Vicars  Apostolic  of 
the  .same  Rite,  with  residences  in  Trichoor,  Changanacchery,  and  Ernaculam. 

\  The  Catholics  of  the  Ethiopic  and  Abys.sinian  Rite  ( in  Central  Africa )  are  under  the  iurisdic- 
tion  of  a  Vicar  Apostolic  of  the  Xatin  Rite,  who  resides  in  Abyssinia. 


HiEROCLES 


337 


Hilary  of  Poitiers 


Hierocles.  —  Governor  of  Bithynia,  and 
later  on  of  Egypt,  in  the  fourth  century. 
He  openly  defended  the  superiority  of  the 
pretender  ApoUonius  of  Tyana  over  Christ ; 
caused  Christian  matrons  and  virgins  to  be 
exposed  in  brothels;  wrote  a  work  entitled 
Address  to  the  Christians  from  a  Friend 
of  Truth,  in  which  he  repeated  all  the 
slanders  of  Celsus  and  Porphyrins  against 
the  Christians.  Of  the  work  of  Hierocles, 
which  has  been  lost,  Eusebius  made  an  am- 
ple refutation. 

Hieronymites.  —  Members  of  a  religious 
order  founded  in  Spain.  They  were  monks 
of  an  order  of  canons  regular,  founded  in 
1373,  in  honor  of  St.  Jerome.  Their  most 
famous  community  has  been  that  of  St. 
Lawrence.  These  religious  at  first  lived  as 
hermits,  but  afterwards  embraced  a  ceno- 
bitic  life,  following  a  rule  collected  from 
the  writings  of  St.  Jerome. 

Hieronymus  (St.).     See  Jerome. 

High-Priest.  —  The  chief  of  the  Jewish 
priesthood.  His  dignity  was  hereditary  in 
the  line  of  Eleazar,  the  son  of  Aaron  ;  and 
many  more  restrictions  were  attached  to  it 
than  belonged  to  the  ordinary  office  of  a 
priest.  His  functions  consisted  principally 
in  the  general  administration  of  the  sanctu- 
ary and  all  that  belonged  to  the  sacred  serv- 
ice. He,  alone,  was  allowed  to  enter  the  Holy 
of  Holies  on  the  Day  of  Atonement,  and  to 
consult  the  Urim  and  Thummim.  No  less 
was  his  costume  of  surpassing  splendor 
and  costliness,  comprising  more  numerous 
vestments  than  those  of  the  ordinary  priests. 
This  brilliant  costume,  however,  was  laid 
aside  by  the  high-priest  when,  on  the  Day 
of  Atonement,  he  went  to  perform  the 
most  awful  service  in  the  Holy  of  Holies. 
A  simple  garb  of  white  linen  —  the  funeral 
dress  of  the  Jews  in  later  times  —  was  all 
he  wore  on  that  occasion. 

Hilarion  (St.)  (288-371).  — Founder  of 
the  monastic  life  in  Palestine,  born  at 
Tabathe,  near  Gaza,  became  a  Christian 
at  Alexandria,  and  visited  St.  Anthony  in 
the  Thebaid.  Returning  into  his  country 
in  307,  he  divided  all  his  goods  among  the 
poor  and  retired  into  the  frightful  solitude 
of  Majuma,  where  numerous  disciples 
placed  themselves  under  his  direction, 
founded  numerous  monasteries  in  Pales- 
tine and  in  Syria,  left  his  solitude  and  re- 
tired to  the  island  of  Cyprus,  in  order  to 
escape  celebrity.     F.  Oct.  25th. 


Hilary.  —  Pope  from  461  to  467.  Suc- 
cessor of  St.  Leo,  born  in  Sardinia.  De- 
fender of  Bishop  Flavian  against  the 
Eutychians  in  the  Second  Council  of 
Ephesus,  in  449. 

Hilary  of  Aries  (St.).  —  Hilary,  born 
about  401,  in  Gaul,  received  an  education 
befitting  his  distinguished  birth,  and  made 
great  progress  in  all  branches  of  human 
knowledge,  particularly  in  rhetoric  and 
philosophy.  After  spending  most  of  his 
youth  in  worldly  pursuits,  he  resolved, 
after  a  hard  struggle,  to  follow  the  advice 
of  a  relative  (afterwards  Bishop  Honoratus 
of  Aries),  and  enter  the  religious  state. 
He  sold  his  goods  and  distributed  the  pro- 
ceeds among  the  poorer  monasteries,  and 
then,  leaving  the  land  of  his  birth,  repaired 
to  the  isle  of  Lerins,  where  as  a  monk,  he 
was  soon  distinguished  for  his  love  of 
prayer,  and  self-denial.  When  Honoratus 
became  bishop  of  Aries,  Hilary,  yielding 
to  his  constant  entreaties,  followed  him 
thither.  However,  he  soon  returned  to 
his  beloved  solitude,  but  on  the  death  of 
Honoratus  he  was  elected  to  the  vacant 
see.  As  bishop,  he  lived  with  all  the 
strictness  of  a  monk;  his  charity  toward 
the  poor  was  extraordinary,  and  in  preach- 
ing, his  zeal  was  almost  excessive.  He 
founded  a  seminary  for  the  training  of  his 
clergy,  held  numerous  synods,  and  put  in 
force  most  excellent  disciplinary  enact- 
ments. Ever  ready  to  encourage  those 
aspiring  to  perfection,  he  founded  new 
monasteries  and  frequently  visited  the  va- 
rious monastic  institutes.  For  his  extant 
writings,  see  Migne,  Pat.  Lat,  L.  1214— 
1292.     F.  May  5th. 

Hilary  of  Poitiers  (St).  —  Hilary,  the 
scion  of  a  noble  family  of  Poitiers,  was 
born  between  320  and  325.  He  received 
his  scientific  education  in  his  native  town 
and  in  Bordeaux,  where  he  more  espe- 
cially applied  himself  to  the  study  of  rhet- 
oric. The  more  he  saw  of  the  profligate 
life  of  his  fellow-citizens,  the  more  his  no- 
ble soul  was  filled  with  disgust  and  longed 
after  the  knowledge  of  truth.  The  pe- 
rusal of  Holy  Scripture  freed  him  from  all 
the  doubts  which  heathen  philosophy  had 
raised  in  his  mind,  and  together  with  his 
wife  and  daughter  he  embraced  Christian- 
ity in  350.  On  account  of  his  holy  life, 
both  the  clergy  and  people  demanded  his 
elevation  to  the  bishopric  of  Poitiers,  and 
he  was  consecrated  shortly  before  355. 
Thenceforth  he  led  a  life  of  continency. 


HiLLEL 


338       Holiness  of  the  Church 


devoting  himself  entirely  to  his  episcopal 
duties.  His  uncompromising  opposition 
to  Arianism,  favored  by  the  Emperor  Con- 
stantius,  caused  him  to  be  banished  by 
that  prince  to  Phrygia.  But  as  his  influ- 
ence here  seemed  to  be  still  more  dreaded 
by  the  Arians,  he  was  allowed,  in  359,  to 
return  to  his  bishopric,  where  he  con- 
tinued, by  word  and  writing,  and  espe- 
cially by  means  of  synods,  to  combat 
Arianism  with  such  success,  that  he  caused 
the  Galilean  bishops  completely  to  re- 
nounce it.  True,  he  was  not  able  to  gain 
over  Auxentius,  Bishop  of  Milan,  which 
city  was  the  stronghold  of  Arianism,  but 
he  forced  him  to  be  more  cautious.  The 
latter  years  of  his  life  were  spent  in  quie- 
tude, occupied  with  exegetical  labors.  He 
died  at  Poitiers,  Jan.  13th,  366.  His  works 
are  contained  in  Migne,  Pat.  Lat.  IX,  X. 
F.  Jan.  14th. 

Hillel,  surnamed  the  Ancient.  —  Born  in 
Babylonia,  a  descendant  of  the  family  of 
David.  President  of  the  Sanhedrin  (30B.C.- 
9  A.  D.),  appointed  by  Herod  I.  He  lived  in 
poor  circumstances,  ^nd  went  to  Jerusalem 
to  studythe  law  under  Shemaiyah, becoming 
there,  the  organizer  of  Jewish  life  and  the 
founder  of  Talmudic  Judaism.  By  his  in- 
terpretation of  the  seven  dialectical  rules 
for  the  interpretation  of  the  law,  he  gave 
its  study  a  rational  basis.  He  also  enacted 
many  reforms  which  aflfected  the  whole 
social  fabric  of  his  time.  He  was  the  first 
of  the  presidents  of  the  Sanhedrin  to  be 
honored  with  the  title  nasi  (^prince,  pa- 
triarch), and  the  patriarchate  remained 
thenceforth  hereditary  in  his  family  until 
its  extinction.     See  Talmud. 

Hincmar  of  Laon.  —  Bishop  of  Laon, 
nephew  of  the  following,  died  in  880.  He 
was  deposed  by  the  Council  of  Douzi  in 
871,  for  excesses  committed  in  the  govern- 
ment of  his  Church.  His  own  uncle  had 
become  his  accuser.  Two  years  afterwards 
he  was  blinded. 

Hincmar  of  Rheims  (806-882).  —  States- 
man and  theologian.  Monk  of  St.  Denis, 
Abbot  of  St.  Germain  de  Compiegne, 
named  Archbishop  of  Rheims  in  845  to  re- 
place Ebbo,  with  whom  he  had  vehement 
wrestlings.  He  played  a  conspicuous  part 
in  the  theological  movement  of  his  time, 
notably  in  the  predestinarian  controversy, 
in  which  he  supported  Paschasius  Rad- 
bertus.  He  also  enjoyed  considerable 
influence  over  Charles  the  Bald,  presided 


over  the  Council  of  Quierzi  wherein 
Gottschalk  was  condemned,  and  upheld 
the  emperor  against  the  Pope. 

Hippolytus. — A  Roman  presbyter,  who 
flourished  in  the  first  half  of  the  third 
century,  was  a  pupil  of  St.  Irenaeus  and 
the  head  of  a  learned  school  at  Rome.  He 
was  a  valiant  champion  of  orthodoxy 
against  the  Patripassians,  but  afterwards 
fell  into  the  opposite  heresy,  maintaining 
the  inferiority  of  the  Son  to  the  Father. 
He  became  the  bitter  opponent  of  Popes 
Zephyrinus  and  Calixtus,  and,  when  the 
latter  ascended  the  Papal  Chair,  he  figured 
as  an  antipope.  He  was,  however,  recon- 
ciled with  the  Church,  and  died  a  martyr 
about  235  under  Maximin.  As  a  writer, 
Hippolytus  was,  after  Origen,  perhaps  the 
most  prominent  of  his  age.  His  writings 
comprised  exegetical,  historical,  doctrinal, 
and  controversial  treatises.  His  great 
work  entitled  Philosophumena,  or  Refuta- 
tion of  all  Heresies,  in  ten  books,  which 
was  discovered  in  a  monastery  at  Mount 
Athos  in  1842,  has  thrown  light  on  many 
important  questions  relating  to  the  early 
Church.  In  it,  however,  the  author  basely 
misrepresents  the  character  of  Pope  Calix- 
tus and  his  predecessor,  Zephyrinus.  His 
other  works  extant  are  On  Antichrist; 
Against  the  Noetian  Heresy;  Address  to 
the  yews;  On  Gifts;  etc. 

Hiram.  —  King  of  Tyre  about  1000  b.  c, 
a  contemporary  with  David  and  Solomon, 
with  whom  he  entertained  amicable  re- 
lations, assisted  at  the  building  of  the 
Temple  at  Jerusalem  by  furnishing  ma- 
terials and  artisans,  and  entered  with 
Solomon  into  a  commercial  alliance.  The 
tomb  of  Hiram  is  shown  on  a  hillside  east 
of  Tyre. 

Holiness. — A  title  of  the  Pope.  He  is 
addressed  as  •'  Your  Holiness,"  "  His 
Holiness,"  ^^Beatissime  Pater,^'  etc.  The 
insignia  of  the  Pope  are  the  straight  cro- 
sier; the  pallium,  which  he  wears  con- 
stantly, and  the  tiara,  or  triple  cyown. 

Holiness  of  the  Church.  —  One  of  the 

four  distinctive  marks  of  the  true  Church 
of  Christ.  We  maintain  that  the  Catholic 
Church  is  holy,  because  it  teaches  a  holy 
doctrine,  and  offers  to  all  means  of  holi- 
ness. It  surpasses  and  eclipses  every  sect 
by  the  efficacy  of  its  doctrine  and  worship, 
and  by  its  laws  for  the  sanctification  of 
souls.  The  reality  of  such  holiness  is 
manifest  in  many  of  its  members  by  match- 


Holland 


339 


Holy  Week 


less  external  effects,  such  as  are  evinced 
through  holy  teaching,  holy  acts  and  mir- 
acles. For  instance,  there  have  been  mar- 
tyrs of  all  ages,  both  sexes,  all  conditions, 
all  nationalities,  who  have  suffered  will- 
ingly for  the  love  of  God,  giving  proof  of 
the  sanctity  of  the  Church.  The  apostle 
or  missionary  who  voluntarily  quits  his 
country  and  sacrifices  all  his  earthly  well- 
being,  even  his  very  life,  for  the  conquest 
of  souls  for  Christ,  is  a  living  proof  of  the 
holiness  of  the  Church  to  which  he  belongs. 
Virtues  of  charity,  patience,  chastity,  or 
alienation  from  the  world,  carried  to  a  de- 
gree of  heroism,  prove  that  holiness  exists 
in  that  Church,  whereof  those  who  practice 
these  virtues  are  members.  Real  mir- 
acles can  only  be  performed  by  divine 
power,  and  consequently  it  is  to  the  saints, 
and  to  no  others,  that  God  accords  the 
privilege  of  working  them  unceasingly  in 
the  true  Church  ;  and  this  is  an  undeniable 
demonstration  of  its  holiness. 

Holland  {Church  in).  See  Nether- 
lands. 

Holy  Coat.     See  Coat. 

Holy  Family.  —  The  name  given  in  the 
language  of  art,  to  every  representation  of 
the  infant  Saviour  and  his  attendants.  In 
the  early  part  of  the  Middle  Ages,  when 
the  object  in  view  was  to  excite  devotion, 
the  Virgin  and  Child  were  usually  the  only 
persons  represented.  At  a  later  period 
St.  Joseph,  St.  Elizabeth,  St.  Anna  (the 
mother  of  the  Blessed  Virgin),  and  St. 
John  the  Baptist  were  included.  Some 
of  the  old  German  painters  have  added 
the  Twelve  Apostles  as  children  and  play- 
fellows of  the  infant  Christ,  as  well  as 
their  mothers,  as  stated  in  the  legends. 
The  Italian  school,  with  its  fine  feeling 
for  composition,  was  the  first  to  recog- 
nize of  how  many  figures  the  group  must 
consist,  if  the  interest  is  to  remain  undi- 
vided, and  be  concentrated  on  the  figures 
of  the  Child  Jesus,  the  Blessed  Virgin  and 
St.  Joseph. 

Holy  Fire.  — In  the  Catholic  Church,  a 
light  kindled  at  Easter  in  remembrance  — 
according  to  the  Missal  —  of  Christ  as  the 
great  corner  stone,  and  hailed  by  kneeling 
ecclesiastics  with  the  words  "  Light  of 
Christ  "  (Z«we«  Christi).  This  ceremony 
takes  place  on  Holy  Saturday. 

Holy  Ghost.     See  Trinity. 


Holy  Ghost  {Orders  of  Me).  — Three 
orders  called  by  this  name  were  instituted 
by  the  Catholic  Church  (1178,  1588,  and 
1700).  The  latter,  a  society  of  missionary 
priests,  is  still  alive.  Its  general  mother- 
house  is  at  Paris.  A  branch  thereof  exists 
at  Cornwells,  Bucks  county,  Pennsylvania. 

Holy  Office  {Sanctum  Officium).  —  A 
term  applied  to  the  spiritual  court  of  the 
Congregation  of  Inquisition. 

Holy  Orders.     See  Orders. 

Holy    Places,    Holy    Sepulchre. —  The 

name  Holy  Places  of  Jerusalem  more 
strictly  designates  the  group  of  sacred 
places  of  which  the  Church  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre  is  the  center,  and  which  are 
supposed  to  comprise  the  sites  of  the  chief 
events  of  Our  Lord's  passion,  death,  and 
burial:  Ge;thsemane,  the  Supper- room, the 
Church  of  the  Ascension,  the  Tomb  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin,  etc. 

Holy  Water.     See  Water. 

Holy  Week.  —  Holy  Week,  at  the  end 
of  Lent,  begins  with  a  Sunday,  which,  in 
both  the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches,  they 
designate  under  the  name  of  Palm  Sunday. 
On  this  day  Mass  is  preceded  with  a  pro- 
cession, in  which  the  Faithful  hold  palm 
branches,  previously  blessed,  in  their 
hands,  in  commemoration  of  the  Triumph- 
ant Entry  of  Jesus  into  Jerusalem,  six  days 
before  His  death.  This  rite,  as  so  many 
other  ceremonies  of  the  same  kind,  was  at 
first  peculiar  to  Jerusalem.  It  is  described 
in  the  Peregrination  of  Silvius ;  Cyril 
of  Scythopolis,  writer  of  the  sixth  century 
also  mentions  it.  It  was  introduced  into 
the  West  only  about  the  eighth  century. 
The  ancient  Latin  liturgical  books  do  not 
mention  it  at  all.  Amalarius,  of  Metz, 
speaks  thereof,  but  in  terms  which  do  not 
indicate  that  the  custom  was  universal. 
However,  St.  Isidore,  without  explicitly 
mentioning  the  procession,  speaks  of  the 
dies  Palmarum,  of  the  custom  of  carrying 
on  that  day  branches  in  the  church  and  of 
singing  "  Hosanna." 

Holy  Thursday,  which  in  the  cycle  of 
the  movable  feasts,  reminds  of  the  anni- 
versary of  the  institution  of  the  Eucharist, 
could  not  fail  to  be  a  day  of  liturgical  re- 
union. In  Africa,  the  Eucharist  was  cele- 
brated, as  something  unusual,  after  the 
repast  in  the  evening,  with  the  view  of  a 
greater  conformity  with  the  circumstances 
of  the  Last  Supper. 


Holy  Week 


340 


Holy  Week 


On  Holy  Friday,  consecrated  to  the  re- 
membrance of  the  passion  and  death  of  the 
Saviour,  they  celebrated  nowhere  the 
eucharistic  liturgy.  The  service  of  this 
day,  according  to  the  Roman  rite,  has  pre- 
served to  us,  in  its  first  part,  the  exact  type 
of  the  ancient  non-liturgical  reunions.  It 
became  complicated,  about  the  seventh  and 
eighth  centuries,  with  the  two  ceremonies 
of  the  adoration  of  the  Cross  and  of  the 
Mass  of  the  Presanctified.  The  first  is  de- 
rived from  Jerusalem,  where  it  was  prac- 
ticed since  the  fourth  century.  In  the 
holy  city,  the  wood  of  the  Cross  was  sol- 
emnly presented  on  this  day  to  the  Faith- 
ful, who  could  approach  and  kiss  it. 

Almost  all  the  ancient  Roman  liturgical 
books  speak  of  the  adoration  of  the  Cross 
as  forming  a  part  of  the  religious  ser\'ice 
on  Good  Friday,  but  they  diflFer  a  good 
deal  in  the  manner  they  combine  it  with 
the  other  ceremonies.  The  chants  exe- 
cuted at  present,  during  the  adoration  of 
the  Cross,  have  certainly  a  very  ancient 
touch.  The  "Mass  of  the  Presanctified" 
is  hardly  pointed  out  in  the  ancient  Roman 
books.  It  was  nothing  else  but  the  commun- 
ion, isolated  from  the  eucharistic  liturgy 
properly  speaking.  The  details  of  the  cere- 
mony are  found  only  in  the  books  from 
the  eighth  to  the  ninth  century ;  but  it 
must  be  much  more  ancient.  In  the  time 
when  the  non-liturgical  synaxes  were  of 
frequent  use,  it  must  have  been  the  same 
with  the  "Mass  of  the  Presanctified."  In 
the  Greek  Church,  it  is  celebrated  every 
day  during  Lent,  except  on  Saturday  and 
Sunday;  in  the  Latin  Church,  only  on 
Good  Friday.  At  Rome  this  ceremony 
was  very  simple.  They  brought  on  the 
altar  the  box  (casfa)  containing  the  rem- 
nant of  the  consecrated  bread ;  recited  the 
Pater  with  its  short  preface  and  embolism 
{Libera  nos) ;  then  they  put  a  fragment  of 
the  consecrated  bread  into  a  chalice  filled 
with  unconsecrated  wine,  and  everybody 
communicated  with  the  consecrated  bread 
from  the  casfa  and  the  sanctified  wine  as 
described.  We  may  believe  that,  when  the 
Faithful  administered  holy  communion  to 
themselves  at  home,  as  it  was  frequently 
the  case  during  the  times  of  persecution 
for  the  solitaries  in  the  desert,  and,  in 
general,  for  persons  living  very  far  from  a 
church,  they  followed  a  ceremony  analo- 
gous to  this. 

On  Holy  Saturday,  there  is  no  special 
reunion.  The  ceremonies  of  the  Paschal 
vigil  were  already,  about  the  eighth  cen- 


tury, transferred  to  the  afternoon  of  Satur- 
day ;  at  present,  it  is  celebrated  in  the 
morning.  Outside  the  rites  that  have 
reference  to  the  baptismal  initiation,  this 
solemn  vigil  offers  some  particularities: 
the  blessing  of  the  new  fire;  that  of  the 
Paschal  candle;  and  finally  the  Mass,  in 
which  we  find  preserved  certain  archaic 
traits.  They  arrived  to  these  rites  by  a  quite 
natural  symbolism.  The  death  of  Christ, 
followed  by  His  resurrection,  found  an  ex- 
pressive image  in  the  fire,  the  Paschal  can- 
dle,and  thflamp.whichisput  out  andlighted 
again.  We  know,  still  in  our  day,  of  the  im- 
portance of  the  ceremony-  of  the  new  fire  in 
the  Paschal  rite  of  the  Greek  Church,  at 
Jerusalem.  However,  in  the  East,  this  cere- 
mony is  peculiar  to  the  holy  city;  it  does 
not  figure  in  the  common  Byzantine  ritual. 
In  the  West,  the  legend  of  St.  Patrick 
supposes  that,  at  least  since  the  sixth  cen- 
tury, the  Irish  were  in  the  habit  to  light 
great  fires  at  the  beginning  of  the  Paschal 
night.  From  the  correspondence  of  St. 
Boniface  with  Pope  Zacharias,  it  goes  forth 
that  these  fires  were  lighted,  not  with  other 
fires,  but  with  fire  from  flints ;  they  were 
really  new  fires.  This  custom  appears  to 
be  a  peculiarity  of  British  or  Irish  origin, 
brought  on  the  continent  of  Europe  by 
the  missionaries  of  the  eighth  century. 
The  ancient  Merovingian  books  have  no 
trace  thereof.  Neither  did  they  know  it 
at  Rome.  However,  they  obser\'ed  there 
a  rite  of  analogous  sense.  On  Holy  Thurs- 
da}',  at  the  time  of  the  consecration  of  the 
chrism,  they  gathered  from  all  the  lamps 
of  the  Lateran  basilica  a  quantity  of  oil 
sufficient  to  fill  three  large  vases  which 
were  deposited  in  a  corner  of  the  church. 
The  oil  burned  therein  by  means  of  wicks, 
until  the  Paschal  vigil.  From  these  large 
lamps  they  lighted  the  candles  and  other 
lights  which  served,  during  Easter  night, 
to  lighten  the  ceremony  of  baptism.  It  is 
still  a  foreign  custom  at  Rome  to  solemnly 
bless  the  Paschal  candle  and,  in  general, 
the  light  of  the  church,  at  the  beginning 
of  the  Paschal  vigil.  It  is  useless  to  say 
that  this  custom  has  the  most  intimate  re- 
lation with  that  to  preserve  as  a  spark  from 
the  old  fire  or  to  solemnly  produce  from 
it  a  new  fire.  At  Rome,  where  the 
blessing  of  the  Paschal  candle  was  not  in 
use,  the  large  lamps  prepared  on  Holy 
Thursday  ser\'ed  on  Holy  Friday  and 
Saturday  to  light  the  two  candles  which 
they  carried,  on  these  days,  in  procession 
before  the  Pope,  instead  of  the  seven  can- 


Homily 


341 


HONORIUS  I. 


dies  which  generally  preceded  him.  Out- 
side of  Rome,  that  is,  in  Upper  Italy, 
Gaul  and  Spain,  the  blessing  of  the  Paschal 
candle  was  in  use  quite  early.  Perhaps  it 
was  the  same  in  Africa :  St.  Augustine 
(Civ.  Dei,  XV.  xxii.)  quotes  verses  which 
he  had  composed  in  laudem  quadam  cerei. 
It  is  not  certain  that  this  Latis  Cerei  was 
not  composed  by  some  deacon  of  Milan  or 
of  a  neighboring  Church.  This  ceremony 
was  so  popular  that  the  Popes,  without 
adopting  it  for  their  own  Church,  were  ob- 
liged to  permit  it  for  those  Churches  of  the 
suburbicarian  diocese.  The  Liber  pontifi- 
calis  establishes  this  concession,  from  the 
middle  of  the  sixth  century,  and  it  is  attrib 
uted  to  Pope  Zosimus.  We  meet  with  the 
Paschal  candle  at  Ravenna,  in  the  time  of 
St.  Gregory  the  Great  and  at  Naples,  in 
the  eighth  century.  Even  in  Lower  Italy, 
the  blessing  of  the  Paschal  candle  has  left 
the  most  imposing  traces  in  the  liturgical 
paleography. 

The  formula  of  blessing,  there  where  it 
was  in  use,  was  pronounced,  not  by  the 
bishop,  nor  by  a  priest,  but  by  the  arch- 
deacon, who  for  this  effect  ascended  the 
ambo,  near  which  the  candle  to  be  blessed 
was  placed.  First  he  announced  in  a  kind 
of  invitatory,  the  beginning  of  the  great 
feast;  then  assuming  a  tone  and  style  of 
the  most  solemn  prayer,  the  eucharistic 
prayer,  he  called  down  the  divine  blessing 
upon  this  luminous  column  which  is  going 
to  illuminate  the  mysteries  of  the  Christian 
Pasch,  as  formerly  a  fiery  column  guided 
in  the  desert  the  exodus  of  the  children  of 
Israel.  Then  he  poetically  celebrated  its 
different  elements,  the  papyrus  which 
formed  the  wick,  the  virgin  oil  and  the 
beeswax,  which  formed  its  matter.  The 
formula  now  in  use  is  the  Extiltet.  See 
this  Subject.  After  these  ceremonies  came 
the  long  series  of  lessons,  chants  and 
prayers,  then  the  blessing  of  the  baptismal 
font,  the  administration  of  baptism  and 
confirmation,  and  finally  the  Mass.  For 
more  particulars,  see  Thursday,  Friday, 
Saturday. 

Homily  (Gr.  homilia,  converse)  primi- 
tively signifies  a  discourse  held  with  one 
or  more  individuals ;  but  in  ecclesiastical 
use  it  means  a  discourse  held  in  the  Church, 
and  addressed  by  the  bishop  or  priest  to  the 
congregation.  These  discourses  employed 
for  this  purpose  were  of  the  most  simple 
character ;  but  with  the  exception  of  one  as- 
cribed to  Hippolytus,  we  have  no  sample  of 


this  form  of  composition  earlier  than  the 
Homilies  of  Origen,  in  the  third  century. 
Taking  these  as  a  type,  the  early  Christian 
homily  may  be  described  as  a  popular  ex- 
position of  a  portion  of  Scripture,  accom- 
panied by  moral  reflections  and  exhorta- 
tions. The  Schools  of  Alexandria  and 
Antioch  appear  to  have  been  the  great 
centers  of  this  class  of  sacred  literature ; 
and  in  the  early  century  we  find  the  names 
of  Hippolytus,  Metrodorus,  Clement  of 
Alexandria,  Dionysius,  and  Gregory  Thau- 
maturgus,  as  principally  distinguished. 
But  it  was  in  the  following  centuries  that 
the  homily  received  its  full  development  in 
the  hands  of  the  Oriental  Fathers  :  Athana- 
sius,  the  two  Gregories  of  Nyssa  and  of 
Nazianzum,  Basil,  the  two  Cyrils  of  Jerusa- 
lem and  of  Alexandria,  and  above  all 
Chrysostom;  and  in  the  West:  Ambrose, 
Augustine,  Peter  Chrysologus,  Leo  and 
Gregory  the  Great.  The  name  "  homily" 
is  very  frequently  used  as  a  synonym  for 
sermon.     See  Sermon. 

Homoosion  {of  the  same  substance)  Ho- 
moiousion  {of  a  similar  substance)  and 
Heteroosion  {of  another  substance),  denote 
the  three  different  standpoints  in  the  great 
Christological  controversy  of  the  fourth 
century.  The  first  was  employed  by  the 
orthodox  Athanasius,  the  second  by  the 
great  middle  party,  the  Semi-Arians,  and 
the  third  by  the  heretic  Arius,  when  defin- 
ing the  relations  between  the  first  and  the 
second  Person  in  the  Most  Holy  Trinity. 

Honoratus  (St.).  —  Born  probably  at 
Toul,  France;  died  in  429.  Converted 
with  his  brother  Venantius,  both  distrib- 
uted their  goods  to  the  poor,  and  embarked 
at  Marseilles  for  the  Orient.  Venantius 
having  died  in  Greece,  Honoratus  returned 
to  Gaul,  founded,  on  the  island  of  Lerins, 
about  410,  a  famous  monastery  of  which  he 
became  Abbot,  and  was  named  Archbishop 
of  Aries  in  426.  His  Life  was  written  by 
St.  Hilary.     F.  Jan.  i6th. 

Honorius  I.  —  Pope  from  625  to  638. 
Successor  of  Boniface  IV,  He  sent  into 
England  St.  Birnus,  who  baptized  the  king 
of  Wessex  Kynegil  and  gave  the  pallium 
to  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  exhorted 
the  Irish  to  follow  the  Roman  custom  for 
the  date  of  celebrating  Easter.  He  built 
at  Rome,  magnificent  aqueducts  and  con- 
structed or  ornamented  a  great  number  of 
churches.  The  Ecumenical  Council  of 
Constantinople   (see   below),   in  65o   con- 


HONORIUS  I. 


342 


Hospital 


demned  his  memory  as  having  impru- 
dently favored  the  error  of  the  Monothe- 
lites.  Honorius  II.  —  Antipope,  Bishop  of 
Parma,  elected  Pope  in  1061  at  Basle,  by  the 
lords  of  Germany  and  Italy,  who  declared 
the  election  of  Alexander  II .  as  illegitimate. 
He  was  deposed  by  the  Council  of  Mantua 
and  died  in  neglect.  Honorius  II.  —  Pope 
from  1124  to  1130.  Successor  of  Calixtus 
II.  He  was  elected  by  a  number  of 
cardinals,  while  others  gave  the  title  to 
Theobald,  cardinal-priest  of  St.  Athana- 
sius,  who  took  the  name  of  Celestine  III. 
To  avoid  a  schism,  they  both  renounced 
their  dignity,  and  the  election  of  Ho- 
norius was  confirmed  by  a  new  vote. 
He  confirmed  the  Order  of  the  Templars 
at  the  Synod  of  Troyes  in  1128.  Hono- 
rius III.  —  Pope  from  1216  to  1227.  The 
primary  object  of  his  Pontificate  was  the 
organization  of  a  Crusade  for  the  relief  of 
Palestine.  He  confirmed  the  Order  of  the 
Dominicans  in  1216  and  that  of  the  Fran- 
ciscans in  1223.  Honorius  IV.  —  Pope 
from  1285  to  1287.  Successor  of  Martin 
IV.  He  confirmed  the  Order  of  the 
Hermits  of  St.  Augustine  and  that  of  the 
Carmelites. 

Honorius  I.  {Condemnation  of).  —  Pope 
Honorius  was  anathematized  as  a  heretic  by 
the  Fourth  General  Council  of  Constanti- 
nople (680).  Not  as  a  heretic  in  the  proper 
sense  of  the  word,  but  as  having  negligently 
permitted  the  spread  of  heresy  of  the  Mon- 
othelites,  and  so  being  involved  in  the  same 
condemnation  as  the  actual  heretics.  Hon- 
orius wrote  a  letter  to  Sergius,  the  Monothe- 
lite  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  in  which, 
as  the  event  proved,  he  did  not  make  a  suf- 
ficiently firm  protest  against  the  heresy ; 
but  it  cannot  be  shown  that  the  letter  it- 
self contained  heresy;  and  even  were  it 
otherwise,  the  letter  was  a  purely  private 
document,  and  neither  in  form  nor  in 
substance  or  in  mode  of  issue,  showed  any 
trace  of  being  for  the  instruction  of  the 
universal  Church.      See  Monothelitks. 

Hontheim    (Nicholas   von).     See  Fk- 

BRONIANISM. 

Hope  is  a  supernatural  virtue,  by  which 
we  trust  with  entire  confidence,  that  God 
will  give  us  possession  of  the  eternal  life 
of  happiness  with  Him,  and  the  means  of 
obtaining  it,  promised  to  us  through  the 
merits  of  our  Saviour,  by  God  who  is 
truth  itself.  The  principle  is  represented 
by  the  word    '*  supernatural,"   significant 


of  hope  being  a  direct  gift  from  God,  a 
filial  confidence  in  divine  Providence 
amidst  all  the  events  of  life.  "  Possession 
of  the  eternal  life  of  happiness  with  Him, 
and  the  means  of  obtaining  it,"  denotes 
the  double  object  of  our  hope ;  and  "  prom- 
ised through  the  merits  of  our  Saviour,  by 
God  who  is  truth  itself,"  gives  the  mo- 
tive ;  expressing  the  infallibility  of  God's 
pledges,  without  which  we  cannot  obtain 
salvation.  We  must,  therefore,  live  "  unto 
the  hope  of  life  everlasting,  which  God, 
who  lieth  not,  hath  promised  before  the 
times  of  the  world  "  (Tit.  i.  2). 

Hor,  —  Mount  of  Arabia  Petraea,  on  the 
confines  of  Idumsea,  between  the  Dead  Sea 
and  the  gulf  of  Akabah.  A  grotto  can  be 
seen  there  which,  they  claim,  contains  the 
tomb  of  Aaron. 

Horeb.     See  Sinai. 

Horebites.     See  Hussites. 

Hormisdas.  —  Pope  from  514  to  523.  A 
quiet  reign  was  alloted  to  his  Pontificate; 
he  effected  the  restoration  of  ecclesiastical 
peace  with  Constantinople,  and  was  on 
friendly  terms  with  the  imperial  court  at 
that  palace. 

Hosanna.  —  A  Hebrew  word  taken  from 
Ps.  cxviii.  (Vulg.  cxvii.)  25:  "O  Lord,  we 
beseech  Thee,  save  now;  save,  we  pray." 
A  joyous  chant. 

Hosius  (257-358).  —  Bishop  of  Cordova 
in  296,  merited  the  title  of  confessor 
through  the  firmness  which  he  showed 
during  the  persecution  of  Diocletian  and 
Maximian.  Constantine  sent  him  to  Alex- 
andria, where  he  assembled  a  Council 
with  a  view  of  composing  the  difficulties 
of  the  Meletians,  Arians,  and  followers  of 
Colluthus  (319).  He  presided  over  the 
first  Council  of  Nice  (325)  and  that  of 
Sardica  (347).  The  supposed  fall  of  Ho- 
sius is  untrue,  since  it  is  plainly  rejected 
by  such  authorities  as  Sulpitius  Severus 
and  St.  Augustine.  St.  Athanasius  assures 
us  that  Hosius,  broken  down  by  old  age 
and  vanquished  by  tortures,  gave  way  for 
a  moment  and  communicated  with  the 
Arians,  but  without  subscribing  against 
him  or  the  orthodox  faith.  Renewing  the 
condemnation  of  the  Arian  heresy,  the 
venerable  prelate  died  in  exile,  or  accord- 
ing to  another  account,  in  Spain. 

Hospital  (from  Lat.  hospes,  guest). — 
Hospital  is  an  asylum  open  to  the  needy 


Hospitalers 


343 


Hughes 


and  often  where  wealth  enriches  itself  at 
the  expense  of  misery.  A  house  estab- 
lished to  receive  and  treat  gratuitously  the 
needy  sick.  The  first  hospitals  date  from 
the  end  of  the  second  century,  and  served 
especially  for  travelers.  The  first  foundation 
of  a  hospital  for  sick  persons  is  attributed 
to  a  Roman  lady,  Fabiola.  Constantine 
the  Great,  St.  John  Chrysostom,  and  St. 
Basil  encouraged  the  creation  of  hospitals 
and  gave  to  these  establishments  their  first 
regulations.  By  the  impulse  of  bishops 
numerous  hospitals  were  created,  directed 
by  priests  and  nourished  by  alms  as  well 
as  by  a  portion  of  the  revenues  and  rents 
belonging  to  the  clergy  and  monastic 
orders.  In  the  eighth  century,  Rome 
counted  five  hospitals.  A  magnificent  hos- 
pital was  erected  by  the  Arabs  at  Cordova. 
The  Hospital  St.  Christopher,  now  the 
"Hotel-Dieu"  at  Paris,  dates  from  the 
beginning  of  the  ninth  century.  The 
spreading  of  leprosy  in  Europe  imported 
by  the  crusades,  increased  extraordinarily 
the  number  of  these  institutes.  The  Coun- 
cil of  Trent  ordained  that  the  administra- 
tion of  hospitals  should  be  intrusted  to 
laymen  of  good  reputation.  In  our  time, 
hospitals  are  generally  directed  by  reli- 
gious ;  this  is  especially  the  case  in  regard 
to  their  management  in  the  United  States. 

Hospitalers.     See  Knights. 

Host  (from  Lat.  hosfia,  victim.  The 
consecrated  bread  of  the  Eucharist). — The 
unleavened  bread  destined  to  be  conse- 
crated, the  Body  and  the  Blood  of  our 
Saviour  Jesus  Christ,  and  His  reception  in 
holy  communion.  The  custom  to  form 
the  Eucharistic  host  flat  and  circular,  may 
be  traced  back  to  the  remotest  periods  of 
Christian  antiquity.  The  Greeks  prepare 
their  hosts  (altar  bread)  occasionally 
square  as  well  as  circular,  for  which  the 
following  mystic  reason  is  furnished.  The 
circular  is  allusive  to  the  divinity  which 
the  bread  and  wine  receive  when  they  are 
transubstantiated ;  the  square  expresses 
that,  by  the  sacrifice  of  Christ  upon  the 
Cross,  salvation  is  imparted  to  the  four 
quarters  of  the  earth. 

Hours  {Canonical). — The  canonical 
hours  are  vocal  prayers,  which  are  to  be 
recited  every  day,  at  the  appointed  time, 
by  the  persons  obliged  to  say  the  divine 
office.  We  call  them  "hours,"  because 
they  should  be  recited  at  certain  hours  of 
the  day  or  night,  according  to  the  custom 


of  the  places.  We  call  them  *'  canonical,'* 
because  they  have  been  instituted  by  the 
canons  and  ought  to  be  recited  by  ecclesi- 
astical persons  who  lead  a  canonical  or 
regular  life.  All  the  clerics  in  sacred  or- 
ders, although  not  beneficiaries,  are  obliged 
under  pain  of  mortal  sin,  to  the  recitation 
of  the  canonical  hours,  even  outside  the 
choir.  This  custom  is  founded  upon  both 
the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches  as  well 
as  upon  the  words  of  the  twenty-first  ses- 
sion of  the  Council  of  Basle :  "^uoscttmque 
beneficiatos  in  sacris  constitutos  quum  ad 
horas  canonicas  tencanfur,  admonet  syn- 
odus,"  etc.  The  suspended,  excommuni- 
cated, deposed,  or  degraded  clerics  are  not 
discharged  from  this  obligation,  because 
nobody  is  permitted  to  draw  advantage 
from  his  perversity.     See  Breviary. 

Hubert  (St.).  —  St.  Hubert's  early  life  is 
so  obscured  by  popular  traditions  that  we 
have  no  authentic  account  of  his  actions. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  passionately  ad- 
dicted to  hunting,  and  was  entirely  taken 
up  in  worldly  pursuits.  One  thing  is  cer- 
tain :  that  he  is  the  patron  saint  of  hunters. 
Moved  by  divine  grace,  he  resolved  to  re- 
nounce the  world.  His  extraordinary  fer- 
vor, and  the  great  progress  which  he  made 
in  virtue  and  learning,  strongly  recom- 
mended him  to  St.  Lambert,  Bishop  of 
Maestricht,  who  ordained  him  priest,  and 
intrusted  to  him  the  principal  share  in  the 
administration  of  his  dioceSe.  That  holy 
prelate  being  barbarously  murdered  in  621, 
St.  Hubert  was  unanimously  chosen  his 
successor.  With  incredible  zeal  he  pene- 
trated into  the  most  remote  and  barbarous 
places  of  the  Ardennes,  and  abolished  the 
worship  of  idols;  and  as  he  performed  the 
office  of  the  Apostles,  God  bestowed  on  him 
a  like  gift  of  miracles.  He  died  on  the 
30th  of  May,  in  727. 

Hughes  (John)  (1797-1864). — American 
prelate;  was  born  at  Annalogan,  County 
Tyrone,  Ireland  ;  died  in  New  York.  Emi- 
grating with  his  family  to  America  in  1817, 
he  applied  for  entrance  to  Mount  St. 
Mary's  Seminary  in  order  to  receive  the 
theological  instruction  to  fit  him  for 
the  priesthood.  After  having  been  or- 
dained priest  in  1826,  he  was  stationed  at 
Bedford,  but  was  soon  removed  to  Phila- 
delphia, where  his  abilities  were  displayed 
at  St.  Joseph's  and  St.  Mary's.  In  1837,  he 
was  selected  as  coadjutor  to  Dr.  Du  Bois, 
became  Bishop  of  New  York  in  1842,  and 
archbishop  in  1850.     He  broke  the  power 


Hugh  of  St.  Victor 


344 


HUMILIATI 


of  the  trustees  in  his  diocese ;  restored  the 
credit  of  the  Catholic  Congregations,  gave 
a  new  impulse  to  the  erection  of  churches, 
and  founded  St.  John's  College  at  Fordham. 
In  1858,  he  laid  the  corner  stone  of  St.  Pat- 
rick's Cathedral.  When  the  civil  war  broke 
out,  he  gave  his  earnest  support  to  the 
national  government,  and  went  to  Europe 
on  a  diplomatic  mission  with  a  view  to 
counteract  the  feeling  unfavorable  to  the 
United  States,  which  envoys  of  the  seced- 
ing States  had  excited  in  more  than  one 
European  cabinet.  No  man  ever  exercised 
greater  influence  in  the  Catholic  Church 
in  the  United  States  than  Archbishop 
Hughes. 

Hugh  of  St.  Victor. — Canon  of  the  Abbey 
of  St.  Victor  of  Paris,  born  near  Ypers 
about  1090,  died  in  1140.  Surnamed  the 
"Second  St.  Augustine"  ;  wrote  in  Latin 
several  works:  Commentaries  on  Holy 
Scripture;  Summa  of  the  Sentences; 
Treatise  on  the  Sacrament;  Explanation 
of  the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine;  De  Sapientia 
Christi;  and  Chronicle,  extending  until 
1 128.  The  best  edition  of  his  works  is 
that  of  Rouen  (1648,  3  vols.),  reprinted  in 
Migne,  Pat.  Lat.  CLXXV-CLXXVII. 

Huguenots. —  Name  applied  to  the  Prot- 
estants in  France.  According  to  Theodore 
Beza,  there  was  not  one  Huguenot  in 
France  in  153;^,  while  in  1539  there  were  as 
many  as  400,000.  The  French  King  Fran- 
cis I.  (1515-1547)  entered  into  compact 
with  foreign  Protestants,  while  in  his  own 
country  he  persecuted  the  new  sect  with 
great  force.  The  Huguenots  soon  formed 
a  political  party  and  on  the  plea  of  religion 
instigated  several  civil  wars.  They  were 
protected  by  the  Bourbon  princes  who  op- 
posed the  king.  Having  obtained  approval 
of  their  plans  from  their  theologians  the 
Huguenots  formed  the  conspiracy  of  Am- 
boise  (1560),  against  the  king,  but  this,  as 
well  as  two  subsequent  conspiracies,  ended 
in  failure.  With  the  hope  of  satisfying 
these  heretics,  an  Edict  of  Toleration  was 
issued  in  1562,  but  the  Huguenots  did  not 
seek  toleration;  their  object  was  the  total 
annihilation  of  the  Catholic  Church,  for 
which  they  had  the  explicit  approbation 
of  their  preachers  who  decreed  the  penalty 
of  death  against  the  "Papists."  Churches 
were  pulled  down,  priests  were  mutilated 
and  put  to  death.  The  Massacre  of  Vassy, 
in  which  sixty  Huguenots  were  killed,  was 
the  signal  for  an  open  war.  The  Huguenots 
headed  by  the  prince  of  Condd,  took  up  arms, 


sought  assistance  from  the  German  Prot- 
estants, and  surrendered  Havre  de  Grace 
to  England.  Duke  Francis  de  Guise,  the 
eminent  Catholic  general  was  assassinated 
by  a  Huguenot.  Notwithstanding  their 
three  defeats,  the  Huguenots,  by  the  peace 
of  St.  Germain-en-Laye  in  1570,  obtained 
not  only  freedom  of  worship,  but  also  ac- 
cess to  all  political  offices.  They  soon 
acquired  influence  at  the  court  and  excluded 
the  Catholics  and  even  the  queen-mother 
from  the  affairs  of  the  government.  En- 
raged at  this  effrontery,  the  queen-mother 
took  revenge  in  the  massacre  of  St.  Bar- 
tholomew.    See  Bartholomew. 

Humanists.  —  Classical  studies,  though 
never  neglected  during  the  mediaeval 
times,  received  a  great  impulse  during  the 
fifteenth  century.  This  was  occasioned 
by  the  negotiations  made  for  the  union  of 
the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches  by  the 
Greek  refugees,  who  came  west  after  the 
conquest  of  Constantinople.  The  study 
of  pagan  authors,  or  classical  studies,  was 
called  "  Humanities,"  its  promoters  were 
named  "  Humanists."  These  exercised  a 
healthful  influence  on  science  and  litera- 
ture, supplanting  the  awkward  language 
of  the  later  scholastics  by  a  classical  Latin. 
But  far  greater  was  their  influence  for 
evil,  which  resulted  in  a  frantic  and  ridicu- 
lous preference  for  classical  expression. 
Christ  was  called  :  Minerva  a  yovis  cafite 
orta;  in  an  overrating  of  pagan  philosophy, 
Plato  and  Aristotle  were  placed  on  the 
same  level  with  the  Bible ;  in  bitter  strife 
with  scholasticism,  it  produced  a  false  en- 
thusiasm for  pagan  ideas,  contempt  for  the 
Church,  indiflPerentism,  and  frivolity. 
Many  Humanists  ridiculed  priests  and 
monks,  and  by  their  lascivious  writings, 
undermined  religion  and  morality.  Ulrich 
sung  in  classical  Latin,  the  consequences 
of  his  immorality.  We  distinguish  two 
periods  of  Humanism:  The  ancient  and 
Christian  without  losing  sight  of  the  high 
value  of  scholasticism,  and  the  latter  a  new 
pagan  Humanism,  whose  advocates  used 
their  talents  and  linguistic  acquirements 
against  religion  and  the  Church;  they 
were  men  of  dubious  character,  servile 
flatterers  and  beggars,  or  shameless  calum- 
niators. This  form  of  Humanism  soon 
gained  preponderance. 

Humiliati  (religious).  —  The  Humiliati 
were  at  first  an  association  of  laymen,  es- 
tablished for  purposes  of  religion  in  the 
twelfth  century.      Innocent  III.,   in  1200, 


Huss  AND  Hussites 


345 


Huss  AND  Hussites 


approved  them  as  a  religious  order  under 
the  rule  of  St.  Benedict.  A  plot  formed 
by  some  of  its  members  against  the  life  of 
St.  Charles  Borromeo  caused  Pope  Pius  V. 
to  suppress  them  in  1571. 

Huss  and  Hussites.  —  From  England  the 
heresy  of  Wycliflfe  was,  about  the  beginning 
of  the  fifteenth  century,  transplanted  into 
Bohemia,  where  John  Huss  (1369-1415) 
became  its  chief  propagator.  Huss  him- 
self, and  at  that  time  professor  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Prague,  translated  Wycliffe's 
writings  into  Bohemian.  In  1408,  the  Uni- 
versity condemned  the  works  of  Wycliffe 
and  their  reading  was  prohibited  by  the 
Archbishop  Sbinkc  of  Prague.  Huss  hav- 
ing become  rector  of  the  University,  he 
now  preached  boldly  and  without  reserve 
the  doctrines  of  Wycliffe  —  doctrines  sub- 
versive of  all  order,  ecclesiastical  and  civil. 
Having  obtained  a  Bull  from  Alexander  V. 
for  the  suppression  of  the  Wycliffe  doc- 
trines, Sbinko  ordered  two  hundred  vol- 
umes of  the  English  heresiarch  to  be 
burnt,  then  suspended  and,  finally,  excom- 
municated Huss.  The  sentence  was  con- 
firmed by  John  XXHI.,  and  the  city  of 
Prague  was  placed  under  the  interdict  so 
long  as  Huss  should  be  allowed  to  remain 
there.  But  to  this  Huss  paid  no  regard; 
he  appealed  from  the  Pope  to  a  General 
Council,  and  continued  to  preach  and 
pour  forth  his  coarse  and  loose  invectives 
against  the  Papacy,  the  hierarchy,  and  the 
clergy.  The  infection  of  the  errors  of 
Huss  soon  spread  throughout  Bohemia, 
and  was  propogated  by  Jerome  of  Prague 
throughout  Poland  and  Moravia.  The 
Council  of  Constance  having  meanwhile 
assembled,  Huss,  who  had  appealed  to  a 
General  Council  was  prevailed  upon  to 
appear  before  that  assembly  by  the  Em- 
peror Sigismond.  Huss  had  three  public 
hearings  before  the  Council.  Thirty  articles 
extracted  chiefly  from  his  "  Treatise  on  the 
Church,"  were  condemned.  In  this  work 
the  heresiarch  asserts:  i.  The  one  holy 
and  universal  Church  consists  wholly  of 
the  predestined.  None  but  the  el^ct  can 
belong  to  the  Church  of  Christ.  2.  Peter 
never  was  the  head  of  the  holy  Catholic 
Church.  The  Papacy  owes  its  origin  to 
imperial  favor  and  authority.  3.  A  priest 
though  excommunicated,  provided  he  be- 
lieves the  sentence  unjust,  ought  to  con- 
tinue to  preach  and  exercise  his  functions, 
in  spite  of  ecclesiastical  prohibition.  4. 
The  claim  of  the  Church  to  the  obedience 


of  her  members  is  a  pure  invention  of 
priests  and  contrary  to  Holy  Scripture. 
5.  No  ruler,  spiritual  or  temporal,  has  any 
power  and  jurisdiction,  if  he  be  in  mortal 
sin.  Huss  admitted  to  the  day  of  his  death 
many  Catholic  doctrines  which  Wycliffe 
had  rejected,  such  as  the  Real  Presence, 
the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  and  some  others. 
The  Council  called  upon  Huss  to  retract 
his  errors.  His  former  friends  earnestly 
besought  him  to  make  at  least  a  modified 
disavowal  of  his  errors.  But  his  indomi- 
table obstinacy  frustrated  every  well-meant 
endeavor.  At  length  the  Council  solemnly 
declared  him  an  obstinate  heretic,  degraded 
him  from  the  priesthood,  and  transferred 
him  to  the  civil  authorities.  In  accordance 
with  the  penalty  of  civil  law  which  made 
heresy  punishable  with  death,  Huss  was 
burnt  at  the  stake,  July  6th,  1415.  His 
friend,  Jerome  of  Prague,  met  with  a  simi- 
lar fate  the  following  year. 

The  news  of  the  death  of  Huss  incited 
his  followers  in  Bohemia  and  Moravia  to  a 
furious  religious  war.  Ufraquism,  or 
Communion  under  both  kinds,  became 
their  distinctive  characteristic,  and  the 
chalice  was  adopted  by  them  as  the  symbol 
of  their  cause.  In  1419,  they  rose  in  arms 
against  the  imperial  government.  Terrible 
excesses  were  committed  by  the  Hussites ; 
during  a  war  which  lasted  thirteen  years, 
they  indiscriminately  murdered  priests  and 
monks  and  laid  a  great  number  of  churches 
and  convents  in  ashes  and  many  cities  waste. 
All  Bohemia  was  soon  in  the  hands  of  the 
rebels.  After  the  death  of  John  Ziska, 
their  leader,  in  1424,  the  Hussites  became 
divided  into  four  conflicting  parties — the 
"  Taborites,"  the  "Orphans,"  the  "Horeb- 
ites,"  and  the  "  Calixtines,"  After  much 
negotiation  the  Synod  of  Basle  succeeded 
in  reconciling  the  more  moderate  Calix- 
tines. By  the  "Compact  of  Prague,"  in 
1433,  the  Synod  conceded  to  them  Com- 
munion under  both  kinds,  besides  several 
reforms  on  certain  points  of  discipline. 
The  Taborites  and  Orphans,  however,  re- 
jected the  Compact  and  continued  their 
incendiary  course  till  1434,  when  they  suf- 
fered a  crushing  defeat  near  Prague.  By 
the  treaty  of  Iglau,  in  1436,  the  greater 
number  of  them  returned  to  the  unity  of 
the  Church.  The  united  Hussites  went 
under  the  name  of  "Utraquists,"  while  the 
Catholics  who  adhered  to  the  old  discipline 
of  the  Church,  were  called  '*  Subunists," 
or  communicants  under  one  kind.  Never- 
theless,  a  great   number  of   the  Hussites 


Hyacinth 


346 


Hymn 


continued  in  their  separation  from  the 
Church  until  the  preaching  of  the  eloquent 
St.  John  Capistran  (between  145 1  and  1453) 
effected  a  general  reconciliation.  Only  a 
small  remnant  of  extreme  Hussites  per- 
sisted secretly  in  their  schism,  and  formed 
the  sect  known  under  the  name  of  "  Bo- 
hemian "and  "Moravian  Brethren." 

Hyacinth  (St.)  (  i  183-1257).  —  Polish 
Dominican,  apostle  of  northern  Europe, 
born  in  the  Castle  of  Sasse  (Siberia),  died 
at  Cracow.  Received  at  Rome  the  reli- 
gious habit  from  the  hand  of  St.  Dominic, 
who  appointed  him  superior  of  the  mission 
established  in  Poland,  founded  a  monastery 
of  Dominicans  at  Cracow  (1217)  and  sev- 
eral others  in  the  principal  cities  of  Poland. 
He  made  numerous  conversions  all  over 
northern  Europe  and  preached  the  Gospel 
to  the  Tartary.     F.  Aug.  i6th. 

Hyacinth  (Charles  Loysox)  (known 
under  the  name  of  '*  Pere  Hyacinth"). — 
Ex-religious  of  the  Carmelite  Order,  born 
at  Orleans  in  1827.  Ordained  priest  in 
the  Seminary  of  St.  Sulpice  (1849),  pro- 
fessor in  the  great  seminaries  of  Avignon 
and  Nantes,  priest  attached  to  the  parish 
of  St.  Sulpice  at  Paris,  entered  at  the 
Carmelites  at  Lyons  about  the  year  i860. 
Celebrated  preacher,  he  appeared  in  the 
pulpit  of  Notre  Dame,  at  Paris,  in  1865, 
and  obtained  as  orator  a  real  success.  His 
conferences  on  independent  morals  (1866) 
and  on  the  family  (1867)  commenced  to 
trouble  the  Catholics.  Called  to  Rome  in 
1869,  Hyacinth,  on  his  return  to  Paris,  in 
the  month  of  June  of  the  same  year,  lec- 
tured before  the  "  International  League  of 
Peace,"  comparing  the  Catholic,  Protes- 
tant, and  Jewish  religions,  and  considered 
them  as  the  three  great  religions  of  the 
civilized  nations.  On  Sept.  20th,  1869, 
Hyacinth  left  his  Order.  Having  been 
excommunicated,  he  left  for  the  United 
States.  At  his  return  into  France,  a  few 
months  afterwards,  he  went  to  reside  at 
Rome,  then  in  London  and  finally  went  to 
Munich  (1871),  to  assist  at  the  Congress  of 
the  "Old  Catholics,"  assembled  by  the 
ex-canon  Dollinger.  Having  completely 
broken  with  the  Roman  Church,  he  mar- 
ried at  London,  in  1872,  a  certain  widow 
Merriman ;  then  he  became  pastor  of  the 
liberal  Catholics  at  Geneva.  Here  dissen- 
sions, which  soon  broke  out,  forced  him 
to  leave.  He  came  to  Paris  and  asked 
permission  from  the  government  (1875)  to 
hold  conferences,  which   was   granted   to 


him  (1877)  under  condition  to  conform 
himself  to  the  regulations  for  private  as- 
semblies. He  finally  opened  the  so-called 
"  Galilean  Church  "  in  a  building  formerly 
used  as  a  cafe-concert  (1879).  Financial 
difficulties  forced  him  to  abandon  this 
locality.  After  different  fruitless  attempts 
to  find  another  place  and  troubles  with 
one  of  his  vicars,  the  ex-abbe  Bichery, 
Hyacinth  made  himself  an  object  of  ridicule 
more  every  day,  and  at  present  nobody 
hardly  takes  any  notice  of  him. 

Hyacintha  (St.)  (1585-1640).  —  Italian 
religious  of  the  Order  of  St. Clare,  daughter 
of  Mariscotti,  Count  of  Vignanello,  born 
near  Viterbo.  Founded,  under  the  name 
of  Oblates  of  Mary,  two  congregations,  for 
the  relief  of  old  people  and  infirm,  shame- 
ful poor  and  prisoners.     F.  Jan.  3d. 

Hyginus  (St.).  —  Pope  from  137  to  141. 
Successor  of  St.  Telesphorus,  he  combated 
the  heresies  of  Valentinus  and  Cerdo,  or- 
dained that  there  should  be  only  one  god- 
father and  one  godmother  at  baptism ;  he 
received  the  crown  of  martyrdom  under 
the  Emperor  Antoninus.     F.  Jan.  nth. 

Hylozoism.  —  Philosophical  system 
which  attributes  to  matter  a  primitive  and 
inherent  life. 

Hymeneus.  —  Probably  a  citizen  of 
Ephesus,  converted  by  some  of  the  earlier 
discourses  of  St.  Paul.  He  afterwards  fell 
into  heresy  which  denied  the  resurrection 
of  the  body  and  said  it  was  already  ac- 
complished (II.  Tim.  ii.  17,  18). 

Hymn  (canticle  in  honor  of  the  Deity). 
— The  hymn,  as  we  understand  it  from  the 
religious  point  of  view,  existed  in  Greece 
(chants  of  the  mysteries  of  Eleusis)  and  at 
Rome  (chants  of  the  Salian  priests).  But 
this  kind  of  literature  was  little  cultivated, 
and  the  first  real  authors  of  all  hymnology 
are  the  Jews ;  the  Psalms  of  the  Bible  con- 
stitute the  models,  and  the  first  examples 
of  our  liturgical  chants.  The  custom  to 
celebrate  the  praises  of  the  Lord  by  music 
and  poetry  passed  directly  from  the  Israel- 
ites to  the  first  Christians.  It  is  thus  that 
Jesus  and  the  Apostles  chanted  a  canticle 
after  the  institution  of  the  Holy  Eucharist 
at  the  Last  Supper,  that  St.  James  and  St. 
Paul  recommended  to  the  Christian  com- 
munities to  sing  Psalms.  The  Christian 
Churches  of  Bithynia  possessed  hymns  to 
the  praise  of  the  Saviour,  which  the  Faith- 
ful chanted   in   antiphons.      St.    Ignatius 


Hyperdulia 


347 


Hypnotism 


received  in  a  dream  the  order  to  introduce 
the  singing  of  hymns  in  the  Church  of 
Antioch,  from  whence  this  rite  was  spread. 
We  have  from  this  epoch  several  Greek 
hymns,  one  from  St.  Clement,  King  of  the 
Saints,  another  which  is  the  prototype  of 
the  Gloria  in  Excelsis.  In  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, Ephrem  of  Syria  composed  a  great 
number  of  the  hymns  which  we  possess.  At 
the  same  time  Methodius,  Bishop  of  Tyre 
(died,  311) ;  Synesius,  Bishop  of  Ptolemais; 
and  Gregory  of  Ndzianzum  wrote  hymns 
mostly  in  the  anacreontic  rhythm,  which 
was  still  employed  by  Sophronius,  Bishop 
of  Jerusalem,  in  the  fourth  century.  But 
from  the  end  of  the  preceding  century, 
Anatolius,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
and  Romanus,  the  hymnographer,  wrote  in 
Greek  religious  chants  which  had  noth- 
ing common  any  more  with  the  classic 
prosody  and  presented  the  first  attempts  of 
modulated  hymns  which  are  still  in  use  in 
the  schismatic  Church  of  the  East.  Among 
the  hymnographers  who  have  developed 
this  free  form  of  the  religious  chant  in  the 
Church  of  the  East,  we  can  quote  Leo  the 
Philosopher,  Constantine  Porphyrogene- 
tus,  Cosmas,  John  Damascene,  Theodore, 
and  Joseph.  In  the  Church  of  the  West, 
the  custom  of  singing  hymns  appears  to 
have  been  introduced  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury only,  in  imitation  of  the  Eastern 
Church,  by  St.  Hilary  of  Poitiers,  and  St. 
Ambrose  of  Milan.  The  first  would  be 
the  author  of  the  hymn  Hymnum  dicat 
turba  Fratrum .  The  second  composed  sev- 
eral, for  instance,  the  TV  Deum  laudamus, 
which  the  Benedictine  monks  recasted 
about  the  end  of  the  sixth  century,  and  ap- 
propriated for  the  liturgical  service.  It  was 
this  Ambrosian  ritual,  to  which  Spain  op- 
posed the  Mozarabic  ritual  fixed  in  the  sev- 
enth century  byLeander  and  Isidore.  The 
Council  of  Toledo,  in  633,  approved  the 
use  of  these  rituals  in  the  Churches.  Among 
the  hymnographers  of  this  primitive  epoch, 
we  must  quote  Pope  Damasus  and  Pru- 
dentius.  In  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries, 
there  was  Pope  Gelasius;  the  priest  Sedu- 
lius;  Eunodius,  Bishop  of  Pavia;  then  to- 
ward the  close  of  the  sixth  century,  Pope 
Gregory  the  Great  and  the  poet  Venantius 
Fortunatus  of  whom  we  can  quote  the 
Vcxilla  Regis.  Most  of  these  chants 
were  written  in  iambic  meters.  But  begin- 
ning with  the  sixth  century,  a  great  modi- 
fication took  place  in  this  kind  of  literature. 
They  commenced  to  consult,  for  the  forma- 
tion of  the  verses,  no  longer  the  quantity 


of  words,  but  their  tonic  accent,  and  to 
give  the  strophe  more  harmony,  they  had 
recourse  to  the  assonance  of  the  final  syl- 
lables of  the  verses  and  to  the  rhyme." 
We  find  traces  of  the  new  system  in  most 
of  the  Breviaries  of  the  various  national 
Churches  since  the  beginning  of  the  Mid- 
dle Ages  and  one  quotes,  among  their  au- 
thors, the  Venerable  Bede  and  Paul  the 
Deacon,  the  first  of  which  composed  the 
famous  hymn  Attetide  homo;  Paulinus,  Pa- 
triarch of  Aquileia;  Theodulphus,  Bishop 
of  Orleans,  to  whom  we  owe  the  Gloria, 
Laus  et  Honor  Tibi  sit,  chanted  on  Palm 
Sunday.  Finally,  Fulbert,  Bishop  Char- 
tres  (died,  1028),  author  of  the  Chorus 
novte  Hierusalem,  which  is  perhaps  the 
most  remarkable  production  of  this  epoch, 
together  with  the  Veni  Creator  Spirit  us 
which  is  anterior  and  due,  perhaps,  to 
Charles  the  Bald,  and  the  Sancti  Spiritus 
adsit  nobis  Gratia,  which  is  very  probably 
from  Notker.  The  latter  is  the  first  author 
of  Sequences  or  Proses,  which  were  admit- 
ted in  the  Eucharistic  service,  between  the 
reading  of  the  Epistle  and  that  of  the  Gos- 
pel. We  can  quote  among  these  composi- 
tions the  Vent  sancte  Spiritus,  whose 
author  is  uncertain,  and  the  hymns  of 
Adam  of  St.  Victor.  The  most  famous 
among  these  Sequences  is  the  Dies  Irce, 
composed  by  Thomas  of  Celano,  and  the 
Stabat  Mater  dolorosa,  due  to  Jacobonus 
or  Jacobus  de  Benedictis.  These  two  hymns 
have  served  as  text  to  the  masters  of  music 
until  our  days.  St.  Thomas  of  Aquin  wrote 
hymns  on  the  occasion  of  the  institution  of 
Corpus  Christi  by  Urban  IV.  (1261)  and 
St.  Bernard  of  Clairvaux  is  the  author  of 
several  canticles,  breathing  great  fervor. 

Hyperdulia.     See  Worship. 

Hypnotism. — An  abnormal  mental  con- 
dition characterized  by  insensibility  to 
most  impressions  of  sense,  with  excessive 
sensibility  to  some  impressions,  and  an  ap- 
pearance of  total  unconsciousness;  espe- 
cially, that  variety  of  this  condition  which 
is  artificially  induced,  usually  by  concen- 
trating the  attention  of  the  subject  upon 
some  object  of  vision,  as  a  bright  bit  of 
glass,  or  upon  the  operator,  who  generally 
aids  in  producing  the  result  by  making  a 
few  slight  passes  with  his  hands.  When 
in  this  condition,  the  mental  action  and 
the  volition  of  the  subject  are  to  a  large 
extent  under  the  control  of  the  operator. 
Whether  and  how  far  hypnotism  is  a  lawful 
practice  ?     Some   grave   theologians  have 


Hypostasis 


348 


Iceland 


condemned  hypnotism  absolutely,  chiefly 
on  account  of  abuses  which  they  deemed 
inseparable  from  it ;  but  other  standard 
authorities  teach  that  hypnotism  may  not 
be  universally  condemned  as  evil  in  itself, 
although  it  is  unquestionably  dangerous. 
This  latter  opinion  seems  to  be  the  more 
common  one. 

Hypostasis.  —  It  is  an  article  of  Catholic 
faith  that  there  is  in  God  one  sole  sub- 
stance or  nature  and  three  Hypostases  or 
Persons.  This  word  formerly  caused 
lively  discussions  among  the  Greeks,  and 
afterwards  among  the  Greeks  and  Latins. 
In  the  language  of  some  Greek  Fathers, 
hypostasis  appears  to  be  the  same  thing  as 
substance ;  according  to  this  meaning  it 
was  a  heresy  to  say  that  Jesus  Christ  was  a 
different  hypostasis  from  that  of  the 
Father;  but  all  the  Greeks  did  not  under- 
stand it  that  way.  On  their  part,  the 
Latins,  who  held  that  hypostasis  signifies 
substance  or  essence,  were  scandalized,  be- 
lieving that  the  Greeks  admitted  in  God 


three  substances  or  three  natures,  like  the 
Tritheists.  In  a  synod  of  Alexandria, 
over  which  St.  Athanasius  presided  about 
the  year  362,  each  party  explained  itself, 
and  thus  they  came  to  an  understanding; 
it  can  be  seen  that  under  different  terms 
they  rendered  precisely  the  same  idea. 
However,  at  first  not  all  the  minds  were 
quieted,  because  about  the  year  376,  St. 
Jerome,  passing  through  the  Orient,  when 
requested  to  teach  like  the  Greeks  three 
hypostases  in  the  Most  Holy  Trinity,  con- 
sulted Pope  Damasus  about  what  he  should 
do  and  in  what  manner  he  ought  to  express 
himself. 

Hyssop.  —  A  plant  which  is  often  men- 
tioned in  Scripture  (Ex.  xii.  22;  Hebr.  ix. 
19),  the  twigs  of  which  were  used  for 
sprinkling  in  the  ceremony  of  purification. 
It  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  been  the 
caper  bush,  Capparis  spinosa,  and  by 
others  a  plant  or  several  plants  growing  in 
Palestine  and  allied  with  the  European 
hyssop. 


Ibas.  —  Bishop  of  Edessa  (436),  died 
about  457.  Accused  of  defending  the  doc- 
trines of  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  he  was 
condemned  by  the  Council  of  Ephesus 
(449)  and  deposed,  then  restored  to  his  see 
by  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  (451). 

Ibirians  {Conversion  of  the). — The  Ibe- 
rians, at  the  foot  of  the  Caucasus,  were  won 
to  the  faith  by  a  Christian  slave,  named 
Nunia.  She  cured  the  queen  of  an  illness 
by  her  prayers,  and  by  this  means  lent  a 
powerful  impulse  to  the  conversion  of  the 
whole  nation.  The  king,  named  Miraeus, 
is  said  to  have  requested  Constantine  the 
Great  to  send  him  Christian  missionaries. 
From  Iberia  the  Gospel  was  carried  to  the 
Albanians,  and  in  the  sixth  century,  also 
to  the  Lazi  (Colchians)  and  the  Abasgi. 
Tzathus,  the  chief  of  the  Lazi,  was  bap- 
tized at  Constantinople  in  the  year  522. 
St.  Maximus  and  St.  Stephen  in  the  seventh 
century  labored  successfully  among  these 
nations. 

Iceland.  —  Iceland,  which  was  discov- 
ered by  the  Norwegians  in  861,  is  indebted 
to  King  Olaf  I.  of  Norway,  for  the  intro- 
duction of  Christianity.     In  the  year  1000, 


the  Christian  religion  was  universally  re- 
ceived in  Iceland  by  a  popular  assembly. 
In  1056,  Adalbert,  Archbishop  of  Bremen, 
by  order  of  the  Pope,  consecrated  Isleif 
first  bishop  of  Skalholt ;  he  died  in  the 
odor  of  sanctity,  in  to8o.  Benedictine 
and  Augustinian  monks  founded  monas- 
teries in  Iceland,  and  a  second  bishopric 
was  founded  in  Hoolum,  in  1107.  By  ty- 
rannical means,  Catholicism  was  destroyed 
in  Iceland.  Protestantism  was  established 
against  the  known  and  clearly  expressed 
wishes  of  the  people,  by  the  Norwegians. 
John  Areson,  Bishop  of  Hoolum,  who  op- 
posed the  introduction  of  Lutheranism 
with  all  his  might,  was  put  to  death,  and 
the  disaffection  of  the  Icelanders  was 
overcome  by  the  force  of  arms. 

The  Icelanders,  under  Eric  the  Red,  dis- 
covered Greenland  in  982,  and  planted  a 
colony  there,  comprising  two  cities,  with 
sixteen  churches  and  two  monasteries.  In 
1055,  Adalbert  of  Bremen,  consecrated  Al- 
bert first  bishop  of  Greenland,  who  estab- 
lished his  see  at  Gardar.  From  Greenland, 
Christianity  is  said  to  have  been  propa- 
gated to  America.  About  the  year  looi, 
Leif,   son    of    Eric    the   Red,  discovered 


ICONIUM 


349 


IDUMEA 


Helluland,  Markland,  and  Vinland,  which 
are  supposed  to  be  modern  Labrador, 
Nova  Scotia,  and  New  England.  Most  of 
the  Northmen  in  America  were  converted 
by  the  missionaries  whom  Leif  led  with 
him  frftm  Norway,  where  he  himself  had 
been  induced  by  King  Olaf  I.  to  embrace 
the  faith.  Of  these  missionaries,  the  most 
celebrated  was  Eric,  who  was  consecrated 
first  American  Bishop  at  Lund,  in  Den- 
mark, by  Archbishop  Adzer,  in  1121. 
Icelandic  historians  ascribe  the  first  dis- 
covery and  evangelization  of  their  island, 
as  well  as  of  the  North  American  coast 
lands,  to  the  Irish,  the  latter  country  be- 
ing named  by  them"  Irland  it  Mikla,"  or 
Greater  Ireland. 

Iconium. — A  large  and  opulent  city  of 
Asia  Minor,  now  called  Konieh.  In  the 
time  of  St.  Paul,  it  probably  belonged  to 
Pisidia  (Acts  xiv.  i).  A  Church  Synod 
was  held  in  this  city  in  the  year  230. 

Iconoclasm  (The  act  of  breaking  or  de- 
stroying images).— The  Emperor  Leo  III., 
the  Isaurian  (718-741),  desirous  either  to 
further  the  conversion  of  the  Jews  and 
Mohammedans  or  to  interfere  with  the  laws 
of  the  Church,  forbade  the  veneration  of 
images.  In  726  he  published  an  edict  en- 
acting the  immediate  removal  of  all  pic- 
tures of  saints,  and  of  all  statues  and 
crucifixes  from  churches  and  public  places. 
In  vain  did  the  whole  Christian  world  rise 
up  against  the  imperial  mandate.  This 
war  against  images  was  pursued  by  Leo's 
son,  Constantine  V.  Copronymus  (741- 
775),  and  Leo  IV.  (775-780).  Many  costly 
libraries,  monasteries,  and  sacred  vessels 
were  demolished,  and  churches  were 
robbed  of  their  treasures  of  art  {Icono- 
clasm). Bishops  and  monks  defended  the 
veneration  of  images  and  in  consequence 
were  abused,  persecuted,  or  murdered  (730- 
780).  More  than  300  bishops,  creatures  of 
the  emperor,  and  too  cowardly  to  oppose 
the  despotic  ruler,  assented  to  his  peremp- 
tory edicts.  The  greater  number  of  the 
monks  remained  faithful.  St.  John  Da- 
mascene was  the  chief  defender  of  the 
doctrines  of  the  Church.  The  Empress 
Irene  favored  the  veneration  of  images, 
which  put  an  end  to  the  warfare  (780). 
See  Images. 

Iconostasis.  —  In  Greek  churches  a  solid 
high  screen,  usually  of  wood,  reaching  at 
least  halfway  and  often  nearly  or  quite  to 
the    ceiling,    and    separating    the    bema. 


chapel  of  prothesis,  and  diaconicon  from 
the  rest  of  the  church.  Its  name  is  derived 
from  its  being  always  ornamented  with 
icons  {images)  of  our  Lord  and  the  Blessed 
Virgin  and  other  saints. 

Idioms  {Communication of )  (Interchange 
of  attributes  between  the  God  Christ  and 
the  Man  Christ.)  — The  divine  and  human 
predicates  properly  belong  to  the  subject 
connoted  by  the  terms  "  Christ "  and 
"Word  Incarnate";  yet,  according  to  a 
general  rule  of  logic,  they  may  be  con- 
nected with  any  other  term  demonstrating 
or  supposing  the  same  subject,  though  this 
ether  term  does  not  "formally"  represent 
the  subject  as  bearer  of  the  predicate  used ; 
V.  g-.,  of  the  Man  Christ  we  predicate  di- 
vine attributes,  although  "  formally  as 
man"  He  is  not  entitled  to  them.  Vice 
versa,  of  the  God  Christ  we  predicate  pas- 
sibility,  etc.,  though  as  God  He  is  impas- 
sible. We  have  thus  a  transfer  of  predicates 
or  attributes  from  one  nature  to  the  other, 
and  an  exchange  of  properties,  technically 
known  as  "Communication  of  Idioms." 
The  exchange  of  Idioms  in  Holy  Scripture 
is  the  strongest  proof  for  the  unity  of  Per- 
son in  Christ,  and  the  most  prominent 
manifestation  of  its  wonderful  character. 
The  law,  however,  by  which  in  our  speech 
we  interchange  the  predicates,  is  not  pe- 
culiar to  Christ;  it  is  a  general  law  of 
logic,  which  finds  its  application  in  the 
human  compound  and  in  many  others,  but 
nowhere  so  perfectly  as  in  Christ. 

Idolatry.  — By  idolatry  is  meant  the  in- 
ward adoration  and  the  outward  worship 
bestowed  on  some  created  being,  or  some 
passion  preferred  to  God  "  which  is  the 
service  of  idols"  (I.  Cor,  iii.  5),  and 
distinctly  prohibited  by  God  by  the  First 
Commandment.  Idolatry  appears  to  have 
been  common  among  all  ancient  nations, 
except  the  Jews.  It  was  most  developed 
among  the  Egyptians,  Greeks,  and  Romans. 
It  exists  still  more  or  less  in  all  the  non- 
Christian  countries.     See  Paganism. 

Idumea.  —  The  name  given  by  the  Greeks 
to  the  land  of  Edom,  which  extended 
originally,  from  the  Dead  Sea  to  the  Elan- 
itic  gulf  of  the  Red  Sea.  Afterwards  it 
extended  more  into  the  south  of  Juda,  to- 
ward Hebron.  The  Idumeans  were  de- 
scendants of  Esau.  Saul  attacked  them 
and  subdued  them  (I.  Ki.  xiv.  27;  II.  Ki; 
viii.  13). 


Ignatius 


350 


ILLUMINATI 


Ignatius  (St.).  —  Little  is  known  of  the 
life  of  St.  Ignatius,  who  was  also  called 
Theophorus.  All  we  know  is,  that  he  was 
a  disciple  of  St.  John  the  Evangelist,  that 
he  occupied  the  episcopal  chair  at  Antioch 
(70-107)  for  thirty-seven  years,  as  succes- 
sor of  St.  Peter  and  Evodius ;  that  during 
the  persecution  of  Domitian,  he  encour- 
aged and  strengthened  by  prayer,  fasting, 
and  teaching  the  flock,  intrusted  to  him; 
and  that  he  suffered  martyrdom  for  Christ, 
according  to  his  own  ardent  desire,  in  the 
Roman  ampitheatre  on  Dec.  20th,  between 
107  and  117,  probably  107.  We  have  seven 
Epistles  of  St.  Ignatius,  written  on  his 
painful  journey  to  Rome.  These  Epistles 
are  veritable  jewels  of  ancient  Christian 
literature ;  they  are  full  of  unction,  and 
every  page  bears  witness  to  the  episcopal 
fortitude,  faithfulness,  pastoral  solicitude, 
and  the  invincible  faith  of  the  great  martyr. 
See  MiGNE,  Pat.  gr.  V,  10-996.  F. 
Feb.  ist. 

Ignatius  (St.)  (798-877). —  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople,  in  846.  Son  of  Emperor 
Michael  I.,  was  persecuted,  dispossessed 
of  his  see  by  the  heresiarch  Photius  (857) 
and  reinstated  by  a  decree  of  Pope  Nicho- 
las I.  in  867.     F.  Oct.  23d. 

Ignatius  of  Loyola  (St.).     See  Jesuits. 

Ignorantines  (Fr.  Freres  Ignorantins). 
—  A  religious  congregation  of  men  of  the 
Catholic  Church,  associated  for  the  gratui- 
tous instruction  of  poor  children  in  sacred 
as  well  as  secular  learning.  It  was  founded 
in  France,  in  the  early  part  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century  (1724),  by  the  Abb6  de  la 
Salle,  and  has  gradually  been  introduced 
almost  all  over  the  world.    See  Brothers. 

I.  H.  S.  —  These  three  letters  are  some- 
times used  as  an  abbreviation  of  the  Holy 
Name  of  Jesus,  or  symbol  of  it ;  they  are 
sometimes  ignorantly  explained  as  if  they 
stood  for  the  Latin  words,  'fesus,  Hominum 
Salvator,  which  means  yestts,  Saviour  of 
Men;  but,  in  fact,  they  are  of  Greek  origin, 
for  in  the  Greek  alphabet,  the  character  H 
has  the  same  sound  as  the  Latin  E.  The 
letters  I.  H.  S.,  therefore,  are  the  first 
three  letters  of  the  Holy  Name. 

Ildefonsus  (St.)  (606-667).  —  Ecclesias- 
tical writer,  born  at  Toledo  of  a  noble 
family.  Disciple  of  St.  Isidore;  archbishop 
of  his  native  city  in  6*57,  the  most  popular 
of  the  saints  of  Spain.  He  has  left  a  great 
number   of  works,  such   as :  De  ferpetua 


Virginitate     sanctcB     Marice;     Liber    de 
Scriptoribus  Ecclesiasticis,  etc.  F.  Jan.  23d. 

Illuminati  {enlightened). —  Illuminati 
they  formerly  called  the  neophytes  or 
newly  baptized,  because  in  baptizing  them 
they  put  a  lighted  candle  into  their  hand; 
a  symbol  of  the  faith  and  grace  which  they 
received  in  baptism. 

Illuminati  {Sect  «?/^^e).— This  sect  owed 
its  origin  to  Adam  Weishaupt(i 748-1 830), 
professor  of  Canon  Law  at  the  University 
of  Ingolstadt,  Bavaria.  Weishaupt  tried 
to  withdraw  the  studying  youth  from  the 
influence  of  the  Jesuits,  overthrow  the 
latter,  then,  to  combat  both  positive  reli- 
gion and  monarchy.  In  1776,  he  founded 
the  secret  society  of  the  Illuminati,  obliged 
its  members  to  be  strictly  obedient  to  its 
chiefs,  to  labor  to  procure  to  it  new  adher- 
ents, and  to  address  to  him  frequent 
reports.  Following  Freemasonry,  he 
established  secret  grades  and  preparatory 
degrees.  The  Illuminated  {enlightened,  in- 
structed), in  the  measure  he  became  priest, 
sage,  regent,  and  king,  learned  that  the 
evilsof  humanity  are  derived  from  religion 
and  the  power  of  the  mighty,  but  that 
providence  has  procured  to  him  the  means 
to  get  out  of  his  degradation  :  these  means 
are  the  secret  schools  of  wisdom ;  no 
longer  any  princes,  nor  acts  of  violence; 
reason  will  become  the  only  code  of  hu- 
manity, and  men,  after  having  abolished 
all  the  social  distinctions,  will  lead  quite  a 
patriarchal  life  without  priests  and  without 
kings.  Such  was,  they  maintained,  the 
hidden  sense  of  the  doctrine  of  the  great 
Master  of  Nazareth,  the  mystery  revealed 
to  his  friends  and  indicated  to  others  by 
simple  comparisons.  The  dogmas  of  the 
Fall,  regeneration,  and  grace  only  signify 
that  man  lost  his  primitive  liberty  and 
purity  through  intrigues  and  passions,  and 
fell  into  a  state  of  barbarity;  that  he  was 
reduced  to  the  imperfect  condition  in  which 
we  behold  him  now  through  the  prifests, 
statesmen,  and  legislators,  but  that  he  will 
leave  it  by  the  force  of  his  enlightened 
reason,  regain  conscience  and  the  free  use 
of  his  inborn  liberty,  and  will  be  trans- 
formed into  the  kingdom  of  grace.  The 
flaming  star  and  the  letter  G  symbolize 
light  and  grace ;  those  penetrated  with 
this  light  and  grace  are  the  enlightened 
{illuminated).  In  a  few  years  this  secret 
society  gained  thousands  of  followers  and 
counted  among  its  number  several  influen- 
tial personages,   who  elevated  their  asso- 


ILLYRICUM 


351      Immortality  of  the  Soul 


dates  to  the  highest  charges  of  both 
Church  and  State.  The  designs  of  the 
lUuminati,  which  were  hostile  both  to  the 
Church  and  the  State,  some  time  after 
were  discovered,  when  their  order  was 
suppressed  and  Weishaupt  banished  by  the 
Elector. 

Illyricum.  —  Orie  of  the  four  great  pre- 
fectures into  which  the  later  Roman  Em- 
pire was  divided.  It  comprised  the 
Dioceses  of  Macedonia  and  Dacia,  and  cor- 
responded generally  to  Greece,  Crete, 
Macedonia,  Albania,  and  Servia.  St.  Paul 
preached  there  (Rom.  xv.  19)  and  Titus 
visited  the  country  (II.  Tim.  iv.  10). 

Images.  —  The  use  of  images  in  the 
house  of  God  is  authorized  by  Scripture. 
Moses  was  commanded  to  place  the  im- 
ages of  two  cherubim  upon  the  Ark  (Ex. 
XXV.  and  xxvi.),  and  Solomon  "  carved  all 
the  walls  of  the  Temple  round  about  with 
divers  figures  and  carvings "  (III.  Ki.  vi. 
29).  The  primitive  Christians  were  studi- 
ous to  represent  a  variety  of  subjects  se- 
lected from  Holy  Scripture,  or  allusive 
to  their  religion,  upon  the  walls  of  those 
subterranean  oratories  to  which  they  were 
accustomed  to  resort  in  times  of  persecu- 
tion. These  paintings  still  remain  visible 
at  the  present  day,  and  it  is  demonstrated 
that  some  of  them  are  the  productions  of 
the  second  century.  These  ancient  paint- 
ings triumphantly  refute  the  assertions  of 
Protestants  that  no  pictures  or  images 
were  allowed  in  the  churches  for  the  first 
three  centuries;  and  that  they  were  first 
introduced  by  Paulinus  and  his  contem- 
poraries, privately  and  by  degrees,  in  the 
latter  end  of  the  fourth  century.  It  cannot 
be  denied  that  the  image  of  Jesus  Christ 
suspended  from  the  Cross  must  awaken  in 
our  minds  the  most  aflfecting  remem- 
brance of  Him  "who  had  loved  us  so,  as  to 
deliver  Himself  up  for  us  "  (Gal.  ii.  20). 
As  long  as  the  religious  sentiments  created 
by  this  image  keep  possession  of  the  mind 
we  are  naturally  prompted  to  manifest,  by 
some  exterior  token,  the  ardor  of  that 
grateful  piety  with  which  the  heart  is 
glowing;  and  while  we  humble  ourselves 
in  presence  of  the  image,  we  express  our 
love  and  testify  our  submission  toward  its 
glorious  and  heavenly  origin.  We  Catho- 
lics adorn  our  altars  and  our  churches 
with  the  pictures  and  images  of  Christ  and 
His  sainted  servants,  and  preserve  them 
with  decent  and  pious  respect,  not  only 
through  a  reverence  for  their  illustrious 


prototypes,  but  that  the  sight  of  them  may 
recall  to  our  remembrance  their  heroic 
virtues  which  made  their  lives  so  cele- 
brated, and  quicken  us,  if  not  to  emulate, 
at  least  to  follow  their  example  at  a  hum- 
ble distance,  by  some  faint  imitation  of 
their  holiness.  Not  only  can  sculpture 
and  painting  furnish  the  knowledge,  and 
exhibit  the  detailed  account  of  every  fact 
recorded  in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments, 
to  the  man  who  cannot  read,  but  not  un- 
frequently  the  eye,  by  their  assistance, 
convey  to  the  imagination  a  more  impres- 
sive and  accurate  idea  than  could  be  im- 
printed by  a  perusal  of  the  passage  itself 
in  which  it  is  registered,  or  by  listening 
attentively  to  a  disquisition  on  the  subject 
from  some  learned  commentator.  This  is 
particularly  applicable  with  regard  to  the 
Crucifix.  To  the  custom  of  having  pic- 
tures and  images  in  our  churches,  they 
have  raised  objections,  and  adduced  a  pre- 
cept in  the  Decalogue  in  support  of  their 
hostility.  The  commandment,  however, 
does  not  prohibit  the  making  of  images; 
for,  if  it  really  did,  God  would  have  been 
the  first  to  violate  His  own  injunctions  by 
directing  Moses  to  make  and  set  up  the 
figures  of  the  cherubim ;  but  what  it  for- 
bids is  the  making  of  idols,  that  is,  of 
images  to  be  adored  and  served  as  gods. 
Such  a  caution  was  necessary  for  the  He- 
brew people,  surrounded  as  they  were  by 
nations  that  followed  the  most  ridiculous 
idolatry.     See  Veneration  of  Saints. 

Images  (  Controversy  on  ) .     See  Icono- 

CLASM. 

Immaculate  Conception  {Feast  of  the) 
(of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  celebrated 
on  the  8th  of  December).  —  By  the  Im- 
maculate Conception  of  the  Blessed  Virgin 
Mary,  we  understand  that  the  Blessed 
Virgin,  from  the  first  moment  when  her 
soul  was  united  to  her  body,  was  pre- 
served from  original  sin  and  exempted 
from  every  stain,  by  a  Divine  privilege,  in 
view  of  the  future  merits  of  Jesus  Christ. 
See  Mary. 

Immortality  of  the  Soul.  —  Viewed  his- 
torically, the  belief  in  the  immortality  of 
the  soul  has  been  interwoven  everywhere 
and  at  every  time  with  the  history  of  the 
human  race.  It  is  a  most  prominent  fea- 
ture in  the  records  of  the  most  ancient  re- 
ligions of  antiquity,  but  under  three  dis- 
tinctive forms :  I.  One  is  the  simple  idea 
of  the  survival  of  the  soul  after  the  death 


Immortality  of  the  Soul     352     Immortality  of  the  Soul 


of  the  body,  without,  however,  any  de- 
termined moral  state  being  assigned  to  it. 
2.  Another  is  similar  to  that  taught  by 
Christianity:  after  death  judgment  takes 
place,  and  the  lot  of  the  deceased,  accord- 
ing to  the  life  spent  in  this  world,  is  settled 
for  good  or  for  evil.  3.  And  a  third  form 
is  that  of  metempsychosis,  or  the  return 
of  souls  to  actual  life,  either  as  men  or 
animals,  while  their  new  condition  is  al- 
lotted to  them  in  view  of  their  former 
lives  on  earth.  Relatively,  however,  this 
doctrine,  it  is  admitted,  is  of  recent 
origin. 

In  this  century,  the  graves  of  ancient 
Chaldea  have  been  made  to  bear  witness  to 
the  belief  in  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  as 
held  b}'  the  ancient  Assyrians.  The  ex- 
plorations of  Mr.  L.  Loftus  and  others  in 
those  ancient  lands  have  shown  with  what 
superstitious  care  the  dead  were  treated  in 
view  of  their  passage  to  another  world.  In 
their  coffins  or  tombs  they  put  provisions, 
lamps,  arms,  etc.  "The  same  practice," 
writes  Mr.  Loftus,  "  is,  I  believe,  con- 
tinued among  the  Arabs,  who  conceive 
that  these  articles  are  necessary  to  give  the 
spirit  strength  on  its  long  journey."  In 
ancient  Egypt,  belief  in  the  soul's  immor- 
tality was  a  fundamental  doctrine  of 
religion.  A  clear  proof  of  this  is  found  in 
the  Book  of  the  Dead,  as  old,  it  is  said,  as 
the  Egyptian  nation  itself.  It  consists  of 
prayers,  which  the  dead  were  expected  to 
recite,  in  order  to  secure  for  themselves  a 
favorable  judgment.  For  this  end  to  re- 
fresh their  memories,  a  copy  of  the  book, 
more  or  less  perfect,  was  laid  in  the  tomb 
with  each  mummy.  The  book  also  de- 
scribes how  man  after  death  will  be  con- 
ducted by  the  god  Horus  before  the 
tribunal  of  Osiris  to  receive  judgment. 
There  he  will  have  to  plead  his  cause  be- 
fore forty-two  judges  on  forty-two  different 
species  of  sin.  This  belief  in  immortality 
was  brought  before  the  eye  on  all  sides  in 
Egypt.  It  was  written  on  papyrus,  and 
was  carved,  under  some  sensible  form,  on 
walls,  on  tombs,  and  on  public  monuments. 
It  was  also  the  belief  of  ancient  India,  of 
China,  of  Greece,  and  pagan  Rome. 

From  the  early  beginning,  the  Hebrew 
race  steadily  adhered  to  the  doctrine  of 
the  immortality  of  the  soul  as  a  first  prin- 
ciple. For  them,  as  a  people,  it  required 
no  proof,  as  being  a  truth  which  could  not 
be  gainsaid  ;  moreover,  it  underlay  all  He- 
brew tradition,  and  was  assumed  by  the 
Doctors  of  the  Law  as  an  undeniable  pos- 


tulate.    The  Hebrews  knew  that  death  was 

a  punishment  for  sin,  and  not  the  complete 
annihilation  of  man.  This,  their  firm  be- 
lief, they  manifested  in  various  ways.  In 
his  obituaries  of  the  patriarchs,  Moses  ends 
his  narrative  with  these  significant  words, 
"and  he  was  gathered  to  his  people," 
words  which  Rationalists  interpret  as  mean- 
ing that  the  patriarchs  were  buried  in  the 
tombs  or  among  the  graves  of  their  fathers. 
This  interpretation,  at  first  sight  plausible 
enough,  is,  however,  contrary  to  the  facts 
of  the  Mosaic  narrative.  Abraham  was 
buried  in  Hebron,  while  his  father,  Thare, 
died  at  Haran  in  Syria,  and  Abraham's 
ancestors  died  and  were  buried  in  Chaldea. 
Jacob  died  in  Egypt,  and  months  elapsed 
before  his  body  was  buried  in  Mambre,  in 
the  land  of  Chanaan,  and  yet  Moses  writes 
of  his  death  :  "  and  he  was  gathered  to  his 
people."  Aaron  died  on  Mount  Horeb 
and  was  buried  there,  away  from  every 
Israelite;  Moses  himself  died  on  Mount 
Nebo,  but  the  place  of  his  burial  was  not 
known,  and  still  both  Aaron  and  Moses  are 
said  to  have  been  gathered  to  their  people. 
These  and  many  other  such  texts  clearly 
prove  that  for  the  Hebrew  mind  the  afore- 
said phrase  meant  that  the  soul  of  the  lately 
deceased  friends  lived  beyond  the  grave,  in 
the  company  of  the  souls  of  other  deceased 
acquaintances. 

This  meaning  is  determined  still  more 
minutely  by  the  fact  that  in  the  ancient 
Hebrew  Scriptures  a  place  was  designated 
in  which  the  souls  of  the  departed  dwelt. 
In  Hebrew  it  was  called  scheol,  the  Latin 
infernus,  and  the  English  hell.  In  the 
books  of  the  Old  Testament,  written  before 
the  captivit}-  of  Babylon,  the  word,  it  has 
been  calculated,  occurs  65  times;  in  the 
Pentateuch  alone,  it  occurs  seven  times. 
The  Septuagint  version  of  the  Scriptures 
translates  the  word  scheol  by  the  Greek 
hades,  the  place  which  the  Greeks  assigned 
for  the  dwelling  of  the  souls  of  the  dead ; 
only  twice  does  the  Septuagint  translate 
the  word  danatos,  death.  Scheol  is,  indeed, 
a  general  term, — not  designating  especially 
the  abode  of  the  just  or  that  of  the  unjust. 
Hence,  even  in  the  Apostles'  Creed,  we  say 
of  Christ  that  "  He  descended  into  hell," 
that  is,  into  limbo,  where  the  souls  of  the 
just  under  the  Old  Testament  were  de- 
tained. When  Jacob,  according  to  the  false 
report  given  to  him,  imagined  that  his  son 
Joseph  had  been  devoured  by  a  wild  beast, 
he  exclaimed  :  "  I  will  go  down  to  my  son 
into   hell    (scheol)    mourning."     Not   cer- 


Immunities 


353 


Imputation 


tainly  into  the  hell  of  the  wicked,  since  he 
and  his  son  were  just  men.  And  on  the 
other  hand,  it  is  written  of  Core  and  Abiron, 
who  with  their  followers,  rebelled  against 
Moses,  "  that  the  earth  broke  asunder 
under  their  feet,  and  opening  her  mouth, 
devoured  them  with  their  tents  and  all 
their  substance"  (Num.  xvi.  31-32) — clearly 
the  hell  of  the  damned.  But  the  Hebrew 
faith  in  the  different  states  of  the  just  and 
unj  ust  in  another  world  and  the  rewards  that 
are  there  assigned  to  them  is  given  at  length 
in  the  fifth  chapter  of  the  Book  of  Wisdom. 
In  other  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  such 
as  the  Books  of  Kings,  Job,  the  Psalter  of 
King  David,  Ecclesiasticus,  the  Prophecy 
of  Isaias,  allusions  are  often  made  to  the 
doctrine  of  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  not 
of  purpose,  as  it  were,  a  matter  of  contro- 
versy, but  incidentally,  and,  as  it  were,  to 
unquestioned  convictions  that  spring  up 
naturally  from  a  common,  settled,  national 
belief.  Indeed,  so  popular  and  so  absorb- 
ing, even  for  the  Hebrew  mind,  was  the 
doctrine  of  immortality,  that  some  persons, 
in  spite  of  all  prohibitions,  grossly  exag- 
gerated it  and  fell  into  superstition.  The 
Israelites  believed  not  only  in  the  survival 
of  the  souls  of  the  dead,  but  some  among 
them  by  superstitious  rites,  evoked  and 
consulted  them,  and  even  made  offerings 
to  them,  as  if  they  were  adorable.  The 
practice  is  expressly  mentioned  and  con- 
demned in  the  Book  of  Deuteronomy;  it 
is  also  spoken  of  in  the  Book  of  Leviticus, 
in  t^e  Books  of  Kings,  in  the  Prophecy 
of  Isaias.  Sinful,  undoubtedly,  as  it  was 
in  itself,  as  being  a  superstition,  the  prac- 
tice points  directly  to  the  faith  in  the  soul's 
immortality ;  it  was,  indeed,  a  corruption 
of  that  faith,  but  even  by  its  extravagance 
it  speaks  to  us  of  the  vividness  with  which 
men  then  believed  in  the  future  existence 
of  souls. 

The  books  from  which  we  have  just 
quoted,  antedate  the  Babylonian  captivity, 
but,  again  those  that  follow  that  date  bear 
also  the  most  ample  testimony  to  the  He- 
brew belief  in  the  immortality  of  the  soul. 
In  them,  all  through  the  ages,  the  same 
voice,  in  grave,  strong  undertones,  seems 
continually  to  repeat:  "  It  is,  therefore,  a 
holy  and  wholesome  thought  to  pray  for 
the  dead,  that  they  may  be  loosed  from 
sin."  Considered  in  time  and  place,  the 
testimony  given,  as  we  have  seen,  was  uni- 
versal ;  belief  in  a  future  undying  life, 
seemed  to  be  taken  as  a  postulate  of  reason, 
and  to  live  forever  in  the  unseen  world  was 
33 


held  to  be  the  natural  development  of  hu- 
man life  on  earth.  Consequently,  since 
this  doctrine  has  been  universally  held  by 
the  human  race,  it  must  be  inevitably  true. 

Immunities.  —  In  ecclesiastical  usage,  the 
exemption  of  certain  sacred  places  and  ec- 
clesiastical personages  from  secular  bur- 
dens and  functions,  and  from  acts  regarded 
as  repugnant  to  their  sanctity.  This  im- 
munity is  of  three  kinds  :  i.  Local,  giving 
to  the  sacred  place  the  character  of  a  ref- 
uge or  asylum  to  any  one  fleeing  to  its 
protection.  2.  Real,  exempting  the  prop- 
erty of  the  Church  and  clergy  from  secular 
jurisdiction  and  taxation.  3.  Personal,  ex- 
empting the  clergy  themselves  from  the 
civil  duties  incumbent  on  other  citizens 
and  from  lay  jurisdiction.  These  ecclesi- 
astical immunities,  once  very  numerous, 
are  now  very  much  restricted. 

Impanation.  —  In  theology,  the  doctrine, 
held  by  Lutherans,  that  the  body  and  blood 
of  Christ  are  locally  included  in  the  bread 
and  wine  after  consecration.  It  differs 
from  transubstanfiation,  or  the  doctrine 
that  the  bread  and  wine  are  actually  changed 
by  the  consecration  into  the  body  and  blood 
of  Jesus  Christ. 

Impediments  of  Matrimony.  See  Mat- 
rimony. 

Imposition  of  Hands.  —  Ceremony  much 
in  use  among  the  Hebrews  and  Christians 
on  several  occasions.  The  Jews  imposed 
the  hands  upon  those  for  whom  they 
prayed;  upon  the  judges  and  magistrates 
in  establishing  them;  upon  the  priests  and 
sacred  ministers  in  ordaining  them,  offer- 
ing them  to  the  Lord.  They  also  imposed 
hands  upon  the  victims  which  they  pre- 
sented at  the  tabernacle  for  sin.  The  wit- 
nesses imposed  hands  upon  the  head  of  the 
person  accused ;  Jesus  Christ  imposed 
hands  upon  the  children  they  presented  to 
Him,  and  He  blessed  them.  The  Apostles 
gave  the  Holy  Ghost  to  the  baptized  by 
imposing  their  hands,  and  the  Church  im- 
poses hands  upon  those  she  ordains  to  the 
priesthood. 

Improperia.  —  Verses  which  the  Church 
sings  on  Good  Friday  and  which  contain 
the  reproaches  which  our  divine  Saviour 
addressed  to  the  Jews. 

Imputation  is  one  of  the  most  common 
technical  expressions  in  Christian  the- 
ology. It  is  meant  to  denote  the  trans- 
ference of  guilt  or  of  merit,  of  punishment 


Incarnate  Word 


354 


In  Coena  Domini 


or  reward.  The  doctrine  of  the  imputa- 
tion of  sin,  for  example,  is  the  doctrine 
which  inculcates  that  all  mankind  are 
sharers  in  the  fact  and  consequences  of 
Adam's  fall  from  innocence;  and  the  cor- 
relative doctrine  of  the  imputation  of 
Christ's  righteousness  is  that  which  incul- 
cates that  the  merit  or  righteousness  of 
Christ  is  transferred  to  those  who  believe 
in  Him,  or,  in  other  words,  that  they 
become  sharers  in  His  merit  or  righteous- 
ness. The  race,  one  "with  Adam,  the  be- 
liever, one  -with  Christ,  are  the  ideas  that 
are  really  true  in  the  phrases  *'  imputation 
of  sin"  and  "imputation  of  righteous- 
ness." The  logic  of  theology  has  evolved 
many  more  applications  of  the  phrases,  but 
these  applications  are  rather  the  refine- 
ments of  theological  pedantry  than  the 
expression  of  true  spiritual  relations. 

Incarnate  Word  {Ladies  of  the').  —  A 
congregation  of  nuns  founded  in  1625  for 
instruction,  but  afterwards  assumed  the 
care  of  hospitals.  Eight  of  their  houses 
still  remain  in  Texas. 

Incarnation  {Mystery  of  the).  —  By  the 
mystery  of  the  Incarnation  we  understand 
that  Jesus  Christ,  the  second  Person  of  the 
Trinity,  took  a  body  and  soul  like  ours. 
The  Incarnation,  of  course,  is  a  mystery 
we  cannot  fathom,  still  we  know  that  it 
was  the  Son,  the  second  Person  of  the 
Trinity,  who  became  Man  for  the  Redemp- 
tion of  the  world  —  not  the  Father  nor  the 
Holy  Ghost;  notwithstanding  that  the 
three  Persons  of  the  Trinity  are  but  one 
God.  "  For  God  indeed  was  in  Christ, 
reconciling  the  world  to  Himself,  not  im- 
puting to  them  their  sins ;  and  He  hath 
placed  in  us  the  word  of  reconciliation 
(II.  Cor.  V.  19).  It  is  evident  that  God 
became  incarnate  for  several  principal 
reasons,  namely:  To  make  Himself  visible 
to  us ;  to  manifest  His  love  and  goodness 
toward  us;  to  enable  us  to  yield  perfect 
adoration,  praise,  and  obedience ;  to  atone 
for  our  sins;  and  to  obtain  the  salvation  of 
man  by  meriting  for  us  sanctifying  grace 
on  earth,  and  eternal  glory  in  heaven. 
See  Jesus  Christ. 

Incense  (Lat.  thus,  incensum,  an  aro- 
matic material,  which  exhales  perfume 
during  combustion). — By  the  command  of 
God,  the  use  of  incense  was  very  frequent 
in  the  service  of  the  Jewish  temple  and  it 
was  thus  that  Moses  received  particular 
injunction  from  God  to  employ  incense  in 


the  service  of  the  Tabernacle  (Ex.  xxx.  34- 
37;  Lev.  xvi.  12,  13;  III.  Ki.  vii.  50).  The 
primitive  Christians  imitated  the  example 
of  the  Jews  and  adopted  the  use  of  incense 
at  the  celebration  of  the  Liturgy.  By  the 
third  of  the  apostolic  canons  we  find  it 
enacted  that,  among  the  very  few  things 
which  might  be  offered  at  the  altar  while 
the  Eucharistic  sacrifice  was  celebrated 
were  oil  for  the  lights,  and  incense.  The 
use  of  incense  in  all  the  Oriental  Churches 
is  perpetual  and  almost  daily,  nor  do  any 
of  them  ever  celebrate  their  Liturgy  with- 
out it,  unless  compelled  by  necessity.  The 
Coptic  as  well  as  the  Eastern  Christians 
observe  the  same  ceremonial  as  the  Latin 
Church  in  incensing  the  altar,  the  sacred 
vessels,  and  ecclesiastical  personages.  The 
most  ancient  of  the  three  Greek  liturgies, 
that  of  St.  James,  commences  with  burning 
incense,  which  the  celebrant  puts  into  the 
thurible  after  he  has  approached  the  altar. 
Immediately  afterwards  he  incenses  the 
Eucharistic  bread,  the  smaller  veil  with 
which  he  covers  the  chalice,  and  the  larger 
one  which  he  spreads  over  the  disc  and 
chalice.  He  then  incenses  all  the  altar 
around,  as  well  as  those  who  are  assisting 
here,  meanwhile  all  reciting  a  prayer  as 
the  officiating  priest  passes.  Among  the 
munificent  and  truly  imperial  donations  of 
Constantine  the  Great  to  the  Churches  of 
Rome,  the  liber  fontificalis  mentions  two 
thuribles  formed  of  the  purest  gold,  pre- 
sented by  that  emperor  to  the  Lateran 
Basilica,  and  a  third,  likewise  of  the  purest 
gold  and  ornamented  with  a  profusion  of 
gems  and  precious  stones,  given  by  him  to 
the  baptistery  of  the  same  Church. 

Incense  is  the  most  appropriate  symbol 
of  prayer.  In  fact,  it  would  be  impossible 
to  select  any  symbol  better  calculated  to 
signify  to  us  what  our  prayers  should  be. 
The  incense  cannot  ascend  on  high  unless 
it  be  first  enkindled  ;  so  our  prayers,  which 
are  in  reality  the  desires  of  the  heart,  can- 
not mount  before  the  throne  of  heaven, 
unless  that  heart  be  glowing  with  the  fire 
of  God's  holy  love.  Nothing  arises  of  the 
incense  but  what  is  of  a  grateful  odor ;  we 
should,  therefore,  ask  of  God,  that  He 
would  prepare  our  hearts  in  a  manner  that 
such  petitions  may  be  breathed  from  them 
as  have  a  holy  fragrance;  we  should  ex- 
claim with  the  Psalmist:  "  Let  my  prayer, 
O  Lord,  be  directed  as  incense  in  Thy 
sight"  (Ps.  cxl.  2). 

In  Coena  Domini.      See  Ccena  Domini. 


Index  LiBRORUM  Prohibitorum  355 


Indulgence 


Index    Librorum     Prohibitorum. 
Censure  of  Books. 


See 


India  and  China  {Christianity  in).  See 
Missions. 

India  and  China  {Worship  in). — The 
most  of  the  Hindoos  profess  Brahmanism, 
and  count  about  187,937,450  followers.  In 
Ladakh,  Nepaul,  Boutan,  and  in  some 
parts  of  Assam  and  Ceylon,  Buddhism 
counts  3,418,875  Faithful.  Islamism  (50,- 
121,585)  is  professed  in  the  provinces  of 
Delhi,  Oude,  Sindhi,  Malabar,  Malwah,  the 
Laquedives,  and  Maldives.  The  religion 
of  the  Sikhs  or  of  Manak  is  followed  in 
Pendjab  by  1,853,385  natives.  India  counts 
12,000  Jews,  83,250  Parsis  or  Guebres; 
952,058  seem  to  profess  no  religion,  and 
6,426,127  natives  simply  adore  nature. 
The  Christians  number  1,862,634,  of  which 
953>058  are  Roman  Catholics;  20,135 
Episcopalians;  373,747  Anglicans;  29,577 
Lutherans ;  107,886  Protestants,  I  n  d  e  - 
pendents,  etc. ;  some  Nestorians,  Ana- 
baptists, etc.  —  Bishoprics,  Vicariates, 
Prefectures,  Apostolic.  Archbishopic  of 
Goa,  with  suffragan  bishoprics  of  Cochin, 
San-Thome  of  Meliapour,  Macao,  Ma- 
lacca; Vicariates:  Agrah,  West  Bengal, 
East  Bengal,  Bombay  (missions  north  and 
south),  Visagap^tam,  Koimbatour,  Co- 
lombo, Hayderabad,  Jafnapatam,  Madras, 
Madura,  Mangalore,  Maissur,  Patnah, 
Pondichery,  Quilon,  Sardhana,  Verapolly. 
Prefecture  Apostolic  of  central  Bengal. 

In  Farther  India,  or  Indo-China,  com- 
prising the  kingdoms  of  Burmah,  Siam, 
and  Annam,  Catholicity  has  been  making 
steady  progress,  in  spite  of  the  hostility  of 
the  natives  toward  foreigners  and  the  re- 
ligion of  Christ.  The  missions  of  the  two 
first-named  kingdoms  have  between  60,000 
and  70,000  Christians  under  the  care  of 
six  vicars  apostolic,  and  120  missioners. 
In  the  empire  of  Annam  there  were  about 
400,000  Christians  in  1820.  This  promis- 
ing mission  has  been  the  scene  of  cruel 
persecutions  within  the  last  sixty  years. 
In  our  own  day,  under  the  provocation  of 
the  French  invasion  (1882-1885),  Christian 
blood  has  flown  in  torrents.  Hundreds  of 
churches  and  religious  institutions  have 
been  destroyed  and  thousands  of  Catholics 
have  been  massacred.  But  in  spite  of  in- 
cessant persecutions,  the  missions  of  An- 
nam, which  include  nine  vicariates,  may 
be  said  to  flourish  exceedingly.  They 
count  some  710,000  Catholics,  over  500,000 


in  Tong-King,    108,500  in   Cochin-China, 
and  about  20,000  in  Cambodia. 

In  China  great  efforts  have  been  made 
within  the  last  fifty  years  to  reconstruct 
the  missions  which  heathen  fanaticism  had 
destroyed.  The  work  of  evangelization 
was  much  retarded  by  the  official  hostility 
to  foreigners  and  by  the  persecutions 
which  the  "Taiping  Rebels,"  the  sworn 
enemies  of  everything  Christian,  raised 
against  the  Church.  In  1870,  a  popular 
outbreak  occurred  which  resulted  in  the 
massacre  of  two  Lazarists  and  forty-six 
Sisters  of  Charity.  Nevertheless  the 
Church  of  China  is  growing  every  year, 
especially  since  1858,  when  France  and 
England  compelled  the  Chinese  govern- 
ment to  grant  the  Christians  the  free  exer- 
cise of  their  religion.  At  the  present  day 
there  are  in  China  Proper  over  half  a 
million  Catholics,  governed  by  36  bishops 
and  two  prefects  apostolic,  while  the  de- 
pendencies of  the  Chinese  Empire  —  Thi- 
bet, Manchuria,  Mongolia,  and  Corea  — 
count  some  55,000  Christians  in  charge  of 
six  vicars  apostolic. 

Indians  in  America.     See  Missions. 

Indulgence  (The  name  Indulgence  is 
derived  from  a  Latin  word  meaning  par- 
don).—  An  indulgence  is  an  act  of  mercy 
exercised  by  the  Church  apart  from  the 
sacrament  of  penance,  by  which  we  may 
gain  partial  or  plenary  remission,  through 
the  merits  of  our  Saviour,  of  the  temporal 
punishment  remaining  due  for  sin;  the 
guilt  and  eternal  punishment  having  been 
already  remitted  in  absolution.  Through 
an  indulgence  is  gained  the  canceling  of 
temporal  punishment  due  for  sin,  equiva- 
lent, as  some  hold,  though  mistakingly,  to 
that  canonical  or  public  penance  inflicted 
on  sinners  according  to  the  ancient  disci- 
pline of  the  Church.  A  partial  indulgence, 
in  like  manner,  is  supposed  by  some  to 
forgive  a  limited  portion  of  the  temporal 
punishment,  represented  by  a  certain  num- 
ber of  days  or  years  equal  to  the  chastise- 
ment enforced  by  the  Church  in  the  early 
ages  of  Christianity,  which  would  have 
lasted  that  space  of  time.  Such  views 
have  been  condemned,  or  are  now  ex- 
ploded. A  plenary  indulgence  is  not  the 
entire  remission  of  the  penalty  tnat  would 
have  been  imposed  at  the  time  of  canonical 
penances,  but  a  remission  of  all  penalty 
due  on  account  of  sin,  to  the  end  of  time. 

It  is  an  article  of  faith  that  the  Church 
has   power  to   grant    indulgences  by   au- 


Indulgence 


356 


INDULGENCE 


thority  of  our  Lord,  who  gave  that  right  to 
His  Apostles  when  He  said:  "Amen,  I 
say  to  you,  whatsoever  you  shall  bind 
upon  earth,  shall  be  bound  also  in  heaven ; 
and  whatsoever  you  shall  loose  upon  earth, 
shall  be  loosed  also  in  heaven.  Again  I 
say  to  you,  that  if  two  of  you  shall  con- 
sent upon  earth,  concerning  anything 
whatsoever  they  shall  ask,  it  shall  be  done 
to  them  by  My  Father  who  is  in  heaven  " 
(Matt,  x^'iii.  18,  19).  The  use  of  this 
power  may  be  seen  in  Scripture  where  St. 
Paul  absolved  the  sinner,  whom  he  had 
before  excommunicated,  on  his  doing 
penance,  saying:  "To  him  that  is  such  a 
one,  this  rebuke  is  sufficient,  that  is 
given  by  many  :  So  that  contrariwise,  you 
shall  rather  pardon  and  comfort  him,  lest 
perhaps  such  a  one  be  swallowed  up  with 
over-much  sorrow.  For  which  cause  I 
beseech  you,  that  you  would  confirm  your 
charity  towards  him.  .  .  .  And  to 
whom  you  have  pardoned  anj'thing,  I  also. 
For  what  I  have  pardoned,  if  I  have  par- 
doned anything,  for  your  sakes  have  I 
done  it  in  the  person  of  Christ "  (H.  Cor.  ii. 
6-8,  10). 

Bishops  may  in  their  respective  diocese 
accord  a  partial  indulgence  of  forty  days, 
or  of  one  vear,  on  the  day  a  new  church  is 
consecrated ;  but  the  plenary  power  of 
granting  indulgences  pertains  exclusively 
to  the  Pope. 

The  virtue  of  indulgence  outflows  from 
the  infinite  merits  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  and  the  abundant  merits  of  the 
ever  Blessed  and  Immaculate  Virgin ;  as 
also  from  the  merits  of  the  saints,  whose 
merits,  being  superfluous  in  their  own  of- 
fering of  the  satisfaction  due  to  divine 
justice,  have  remained  in  the  spiritual  and 
common  treasury  of  the  Church.  Indul- 
gences remit  not  either  the  guilt  or  the 
eternal  punishment  of  sin,  and  a  most 
wicked  calumny  it  is  to  assert  that  they 
are  a  permission  to  commit  sin.  They  re- 
mit, under  given  conditions,  a  part  or  the 
whole  of  the  temporary  punishment  due 
to  sin.  They  apply  directly  to  those  who 
gain  them,  and  are  rendered  profitable  to 
those  to  whom  they  are  made  over.  They 
can  be  applied  to  the  dead,  yet  benefit 
them  only  by  the  way  of  suffrage. 

To  gain  an  indulgence  we  must  not  only 
have  the  intention  to  do  so,  either  actually 
at  the  moment,  or  virtually  by  reason  of  an 
intention  previously  fixed  upon,  but  we 
must  be  in  a  state  of  grace  at  least  when 
carrying   out   the    ultimate    condition   to 


which  the  indulgence  is  attached,  and  fullv 
discharge  all  the  other  conditions  pre- 
scribed. To  gain  a  plenary  indulgence  it  is 
further  necessary  to  be  exempt  from  delib- 
erate affection  even  of  venial  sin.  It  is  not 
out  of  place  to  remark,  in  reference  to 
plenary  indulgences,  that  communion  when 
prescribed  may  be  received  in  any  Church 
whatsoever,  provided  that  a  contrary  ordi- 
nance be  not  otherwise  attached.  No  pray- 
ers of  ordinary  obligation  can  serve  for  the 
gaining  of  an  indulgence,  unless  such  be 
declared  permissible  in  the  edict  connected 
therewith.  As  no  indulgence  can  be  ob- 
tained when  there  is  sin  unforgiven  in  the 
soul,  it  follows  that  the  desire  to  obtain  an 
indulgence  for  ourselves  or  others  is  a  most 
powerful  incentive  to  repentance.  It  should 
be  added  that  the  Council  of  Trent  pro- 
nounces anathema  against  those  who  assert 
that  indulgences  are  useless,  or  who  deny 
that  the  power  to  grant  them  abides  in  the 
Church. 

Indulgences  are  in  no  way  compulsory, 
but  we  should  regard  the  gaining  of  them 
as  tantamount  to  the  amassing  of  untold 
wealth  —  a  fortune  that  dies  not  with  us, 
but  is  of  inestimable  value  in  the  future. 
We,  who  have  such  a  natural  repugnance 
for  all  suffering  in  this  world,  should  un- 
questionably strain  every  effort  to  mitigate 
or  perhaps  exempt  ourselves  from  those 
immeasurably  more  intense  sufferings  in 
the  life  to  come.  Of  greater  merit  it  un- 
doubtedly is  to  gain  indulgences  for  the 
dead  than  for  ourselves,  because  charity  is 
most  pleasing  to  God,  in  whose  sight  we 
acquire  higher  favor  by  self-abnegation  in 
the  heroic  act  of  offering  all  our  deeds  of 
satisfaction  and  the  suffrages,  that  may  be 
applied  to  us  after  death,  to  the  Blessed 
Virgin,  that  she  may,  at  will,  distribute 
and  bestow  such  favors  on  souls  in  purga- 
torv.  This  offering,  or  donation,  called 
"  The  Heroic  Act,"  accords  us  certain  very 
great  privileges  applicable  to  the  dead,  and 
does  not  prevent  priests  from  offering  the 
holy  sacrifice  of  the  Mass  for  other  inten- 
tions, nor  the  laity  from  praying  for  whom 
they  will,  or  from  gaining  other  merit  by 
other  and  further  acts  of  virtue. 

Indulgence  ( yubilee) .  —  The  indulgence 
of  the  Jubilee  is  a  plenary  indulgence  to 
which  are  added  several  extraordinary 
privileges,  i.  It  is  given  to  the  universal 
Church,  while  other  plenary  indulgences 
are  only  for  portions  of  the  flock  of  Jesus 
Christ.     2.  Approved  confessors  have  the 


Indulgences 


357 


Indulgences 


power  of  absolving  from  all  censures  and 
reserved  cases ;  and  of  commuting  vows,  as 
well  as  the  works  prescribed  for  gaining 
the  Jubilee,  to  those  who  cannot  accom- 
plish them.  These  works  are  usually 
seven  in  number :  procession,  visiting  of 
churches,  prayer  in  churches,  confession, 
communion,  fasting,  and  almsgiving. 

During  the  Jubilee  all  the  ordinary  in- 
dulgences are  suspended,  the  following 
and  a  few  others  are  usually  excepted  :  in- 
dulgences granted  for  the  hour  of  death ; 
those  which  are  attached  to  the  recital  of 
the  Angelus,  to  the  pious  action  of  accom- 
panying the  Blessed  Sacrament  to  the 
sick,  to  altars  privileged  for  the  departed ; 
and  those  which  are  granted  directly  in 
favor  of  the  souls  in  purgatory. 

The  Jubilee,  properly  so  called,  or  the 
Great  Jubilee,  is  that  which  returns  every 
twenty-five  years,  and  the  year  in  which  it 
occurs  is  called  the  "  Holy  Year."  The 
word  Jubilee  means  dismissal  or  remission. 
Among  the  Jews,  it  was  the  name  of  every 
fiftieth  year.  On  the  return  of  this  happy 
year,  all  prisoners  and  slaves  were  restored 
to  liberty,  inheritances  received  were  given 
back  to  their  former  masters,  debts  were 
annulled,  and  the  land  remained  unculti- 
vated. It  was  a  year  of  pardon  and  rest 
(Lev.  XXV.;  Num.  x.).  Now,  the  Jubilee 
of  the  Old  Law  was  only  a  figure  of  that 
of  the  New.  The  Jubilee  of  Christianity 
forgives  the  spiritual  debts  with  which 
sinners  are  laden ;  it  sets  free  the  prisoners 
and  slaves  of  the  devil ;  it  enables  us  to  re- 
cover possession  of  the  spiritual  goods 
which  we  have  lost  by  sin. 

Indulgences  (,Sale  of).  —  It  is  true  that 
the  Catholic  Church  formerly  imposed 
canonical  penances  for  certain  sins ;  it  is 
also  true  that  she  has  shortened  the  dura- 
tion and  changed  the  nature  of  these  canon- 
ical penances  by  granting,  on  certain 
conditions,  what  is  called  an  indulgence 
either  in  consideration  of  the  person  of  the 
penitent,  or  for  the  furtherance  of  the  pub- 
lic good.  Thus  in  the  time  of  the  Cru- 
sades, the  Popes  granted  the  remission  of 
the  temporal  punishment  due  to  sins 
which  were  already  pardoned  by  the 
worthy  reception  of  the  sacrament  of  pen- 
ance, to  those  who  would  take  part  in  the 
expedition  for  the  rescue  of  the  Holy 
Land.  By  complying  with  the  conditions, 
the  Crusaders  gained  the  indulgence. 
Thus  again  in  the  fifteenth  century,  indul- 
gences were  often  granted  to  those  who 


gave  alms  toward  the  building  or  endow- 
ment of  hospitals  and  churches.  This 
was  a  means  frequently  and  usefully  em- 
ployed by  ecclesiastical  authority  in  order 
to  excite  its  children  to  the  practice  of 
almsgiving.  Hence  it  happened  that  un- 
der the  Pontificates  of  Alexander  VI., 
Julius  II.,  and  Leo  X.,  indulgences  were 
quite  frequently  granted.  This  is  what 
Protestants  have  not  ceased  to  call  "  Sale 
of  Indulgences,"  These  accusations  were 
especially  brought  forth  on  the  occasion  of 
the  indulgence  granted  by  Leo  X.,  in  the 
year  1567.  We  will  not  inquire  here 
whether  the  end  Leo  X.  had  in  view, 
which  was  to  procure  revenues  to  enable 
him  to  complete  the  great  Basilica  of  St. 
Peter,  perfectly  justified  the  publication  of 
a  general  indulgence.  It  is  sufficient  for 
us  to  remark  that  those  who  contributed, 
did  so  to  the  erecting  of  a  temple  destined 
for  general  usefulness  and  which  would 
forever  be  the  glory  of  Christian  genius. 
Neither  does  criticism  attack  the  Bull  it- 
self, for  this  was  drawn  up  and  published 
according  to  the  ordinary  form,  nor  its  ob- 
ject, but  the  manner  in  which  the  pre- 
scriptions of  the  indulgence  were  applied 
and  observed.  Here  we  must  admit  real 
abuses  and  of  a  nature  to  throw  discredit 
on  indulgences  in  general.  The  effective 
execution  of  the  Bull  of  Indulgence  de- 
manded preachers  and  intermediaries,  in 
order  to  draw  from  it  those  resources 
which  were  expected,  and  to  transmit  the 
same  to  Rome.  The  Roman  chancery, 
not  being  able  to  find  among  the  secular 
clergy  collectors  zealous  enough,  was 
obliged  to  use  other  intermediaries,  and 
transferred  to  them  the  power  to  publish 
and  distribute  the  indulgences.  In  Ger- 
many this  right  was  bought  by  Albert, 
Bishop  of  Mayance,  then  given  by  the  lat- 
ter to  the  banker  Fugger  of  Augsburg. 
This  was  certainly  a  specimen  of  business 
transaction,  of  gain  and  barter,  the  result 
of  which  inevitably  served  to  discredit  re- 
ligion and  to  seriously  diminish  the 
amount  of  alms  intended  by  the  donors  for 
Rome.  Moreover,  many  of  those  who 
preached  and  published  the  indulgences 
used  very  many  improper  methods  and 
shifts  which  gave  to  their  work  rather  the 
character  of  an  every  day  market-sale 
transaction  than  an  assembly  of  the  Faith- 
ful bent  on  fulfilling  a  pious  work.  The 
many  accusations  against  Tetzel  are  un- 
doubtedly false.  Even  the  Protestant 
writer,  Leidemann,  has  conclusively  proved 


Indult 


358 


Infallibility 


him  to  be  innocent  of  the  charges  heaped 
on  him  by  his  enemies  and  prejudiced  his- 
torians. Tetzel  was  undoubtedly  a  good 
theologian  and  an  honest  man.  He  made 
mistakes,  and  lacked  prudence  in  the  per- 
formance of  his  duties.  *'  Had  Leo  X.," 
says  Cardinal  Palaviceni,  *'  surrounded 
himself  with  more  and  better  theologians 
and  followed  their  advice,  he  certainly 
would  have  acted  with  more  precaution 
and  avoided  many  mistakes  which  fol- 
lowed the  promulgation  and  dispensation 
of  the  general  indulgences." 

Indult. — An  indult  is  an  exceptional 
favor  granted  by  the  Sovereign  Pontiff  to 
a  state,  community,  or  individuals.  A 
familiar  instance  is  that  of  the  Lenten  in- 
dult, by  which  the  Pope  authorizes  the 
bishops,  according  to  the  circumstances  of 
different  countries,  to  dispense  more  or 
less  with  the  rigor  of  the  canons  as  to  the 
Lenten  fast.  In  former  times,  indults 
chiefly  related  to  the  patronage  of  church 
dignities  and  benefices. 

Infallibility  of  the  Church  and  Pope. — 

The  Church  is  infallible,  that  is  to  say,  she 
can  neither  err  nor  deceive  in  matters  of 
faith  and  morals.  In  fact :  i.  Jesus  Christ 
has  said  :  "  Go,  teach  all  nations ;  .  .  . 
and  behold  I  am  with  you  all  days,  even  to 
the  consummation  of  the  world."  When 
our  Saviour,  who  is  truth  itself,  is  always 
with  his  Church,  how  could  she  teach  any 
error?  2.  Jesus  Christ  again  has  said,  in 
speaking  to  St.  Peter:  "Thou  art  Peter 
and  upon  this  rock  I  shall  build  my 
Church,  and  the  gates  of  hell  shall  not 
prevail  against  her."  But  if  the  Church 
could  err  or  deceive  the  Faithful  in  her 
teaching,  the  gates  of  hell  would  prevail 
against  her.  3.  St.  Paul  calls  the  Church 
the  pillar  and  column  of  truth.  But  would 
she  be  the  pillar  and  column  of  truth,  if 
she  ever  could  teach  any  error.''  The 
promise  of  infallibility  has  been  made  by 
Jesus  Christ,  to  the  Church  and  in  the 
Church,  first  to  Peter,  and  in  his  person 
to  all  his  legitimate  successors,  whence  it 
follows  that  if  the  sovereign  PontiflF,  if 
from  the  height  of  his  Pontifical  Chair  he 
condemns  an  error  or  proclaims  a  truth, 
all  the  pastors,  as  well  as  the  simple  Faith- 
ful, are  bound  to  submit  themselves,  with- 
out fear  of  being  led  into  any  error.  How, 
indeed,  could  he  teach  error,  to  whom  it 
has  been  said  in  the  person  of  blessed 
Peter :  "  I  have  prayed  for  thee  in  order 
that  thy  faith  fail  not."     Again  to  the  one 


to  whom  it  has  been  said:  "  Confirm  thy 
brethren." 

The  seat  of  infallibility  rests  in  the  Cath- 
olic bishops  in  communion  with  the  see  of 
Rome,  whether  dispersed  or  united  in  a 
general  council.  The  Church  is  infallible 
in  her  work  of  teaching,  and  the  work  of 
teaching  belongs  to  the  governing  body  of 
the  Church,  the  Hierarchy.  From  this  it 
follows  that  the  governed,  the  Church  as 
learners  will  never,  as  a  whole,  fall  from  the 
faith,  for  this  would  imply  the  failure  of 
the  teachers  in  their  work.  Hence,  these 
teachers,  the  bishops,  are  the  proper  seat 
of  infallibility,  but  not  the  whole  of  them, 
for  history  and  experience  prove  that  not 
only  do  individuals  among  them  make 
shipwreck  of  the  faith,  but  at  times  a  large 
part  of  the  clergy  of  entire  provinces  have 
lapsed,  as  happened  in  the  days  of  the 
Donatist  schism,  in  southern  France  in  the 
twelfth  century,  and  in  various  parts  of 
northern  Europe  at  the  time  of  the  Refor- 
mation. History  further  shows  that  simple 
priests,  whether  charged  with  the  care  of 
parishes  or  not,  have  never  been  con- 
sidered as  ranking  with  bishops  as  judges 
of  the  faith  ;  and  the  doctrine  according  to 
which  they  have  in  virtue  of  their  ordina- 
tion a  right  to  judge,  is  condemned  as  at 
least  erroneous  by  Pope  Pius  VI. 

Thus  the  gift  of  infallibility  belongs  to 
the  divinely  appointed  official  witnesses. 
It  pertains  in  reality  to  the  apostolic  office, 
and  consequently  to  those  with  whom  the 
apostolic  office  and  power  rests.  Now,  in- 
dividual bishops  have  not  full  apostolic 
power;  their  jurisdiction  is  limited  to 
their  diocese;  and,  again,  that  jurisdiction, 
including  the  power  to  teach  and  testify, 
is  received  from  an  Apostle,  and  may  be 
taken  away  by  him,  and  against  his  will 
there  is  no  appeal.  A  bishop,  in  order  to 
make  even  his  limited  jurisdiction  truly 
apostolic,  requires  missio  apostolica.  This 
holds  good  for  all  times.  Without  such 
connection  with  an  Apostle,  no  bishop  can 
be  reputed  in  the  apostolic  succession,  and 
his  testimony  is  of  no  value  whatever. 
This  being  so,  it  clearly  follows  first,  that 
the  testimony  of  individual  bishops  in 
union  with  him  who  alone  is  an  Apostle 
(real  successor)  is  not  infallible,  because  it 
is  not  the  testimony  of  the  full  apostolic 
power;  secondly,  that  the  testimony  of  all 
the  bishops  in  union  with  the  Apostolic 
See  is  and  must  be  infallible ;  thirdly,  that 
the  testimony  of  him  who  is  a  true  suc- 
cessor of  an  Apostle  is  by  itself  infallible. 


Infidels 


359 


Inneity 


The  first  two  propositions  have  always 
been  explicitly  taught  by  the  Church,  the 
latter  only  since  the  Vatican  Council. 
Thus  the  subject  of  infallibility  is  both 
the  Pope  as  successor  of  St.  Peter  by  him- 
self, and  the  Pope  and  bishops  considered 
as  one  body,  because  the  subject  in  the  last 
analysis  is  the  apostolic  office  and  power. 
As  to  the  infallibility  of  the  Pope,  in  the 
acts  of  the  Vatican  Council,  held  in  1870 
(Sess.  iv.  cap.  4),  we  find  the  following: 
"  The  Roman  Pontiff,  when  he  speaks  ex 
cathedra,  that  is  to  say,  when  in  the  exer- 
ci.se  of  his  office  of  pastor  and  teacher  of 
all  Christians,  he,  in  virtue  of  his  supreme 
apostolic  authority  defines  that  a  doctrine 
on  faith  and  morals  is  to  be  held  by  the 
whole  Church,  by  the  assistance  of  God 
promised  to  him  in  the  person  of  blessed 
Peter,  has  that  infallibility  with  which  it 
was  the  will  of  our  Divine  Redeemer  that 
His  Church  should  be  furnished  in  defin- 
ing a  doctrine  on  faith  or  morals,  and  that 
therefore  these  definitions  of  the  Roman 
Pontiff,  of  themselves  and  not  through 
the  consent  of  the  Church,  are  irreforma- 
ble."  See  Art.,  Pope  and  Prerogatives 
OF  THE  Pope. 

Infidels.  —  By  infidels  we  understand 
those  to  whom  the  Catholic  religion  has 
never  been  proposed  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  bring  home  to  their  minds  the  fact  that 
they  cannot  prudently  decline  to  embrace  it. 
These  are  negative  infidels,  and  are  to  be 
distinguished  from  men  to  whom  the  truth 
has  been  proposed  but  who  have  refused  it, 
or  having  embraced  it,  have  afterwards  re- 
nounced it.  These  latter  are  positive  in- 
fidels.    See  Atheism. 

Infralapsarians.  —  Sectarians  professing 
that  God  has  destined  to  damnation,  after 
the  fall  of  Adam,  a  certain  number  of  men. 

Inneity.  —  Innate  ideas,  ideas  which  are 
naturally  in  the  mind.  Amidst  the  di- 
vergence of  opinions  about  the  famous 
question  on  the  origin  of  ideas,  there  exists 
one  capital  point,  namely,  that  the  under- 
standing possesses  an  apart  order  of  notions 
or  ideas  irreducible  to  experience  and  im- 
agination; first  notions  or  ideas,  which 
Descartes  has  called  innate  ideas.  Plato 
had  already  taught  that  God  contains 
in  Himself  the  idea  of  the  essential 
qualities  that  constitute  the  species;  after 
this  type  the  individuals  were  formed. 
He  adds  that  these  same  types  form  an 
inherent  part  of  man's  thought  before  all 


intellectual  development.  Be  it  as  it  may 
as  to  the  latter  opinion,  it  is  certain  that 
there  exist  in  our  mind  first  ideas  whose 
origin  we  can  attribute  neither  to  the  inner 
nor  to  the  outward  senses,  whence  it  fol- 
lows that  we  are  obliged  to  admit  in  the 
intellect  an  apart  faculty,  called  reason. 
It  is  certain  again  that  the  idea  of  the  in- 
finite, in  particular,  exists  in  us,  before  all 
intellectual  development,  an  idea  which  is 
the  basis,  the  starting  point  of  all  others. 
Reason  itself  cannot  give  us  this  idea, 
because  it  is  contained  in  none  of  the  ideas 
we  have  from  observation.  Man,  it  is  true, 
in  presence  of  the  finite,  seems  to  remem- 
ber the  infinite;  but  he  does  not  take 
knowledge  thereof.  By  admitting  as  an  in- 
nate idea,  the  idea  of  the  infinite,  we  are 
far  from  admitting  the  system,  or  rather 
the  hypothesis  of  Plato,  admitted  for  a  long 
while  in  philosophy  on  account  of  an  in- 
sufficient psychological  analysis.  The  er- 
ror of  Plato  was  derived  because  he  did  not 
know  how  to  distinguish  the  idea  of  the  in- 
finite ;  because  he  could  not  explain  the  idea 
of  relationship,  and  conceive  how  we  can 
conclude  from  the  particularon  the  general, 
he  drew  the  conclusion  that  man  contained 
at  his  birth  all  the  ideas  in  the  germ ;  but 
the  idea  of  the  infinite  is  sufficient  to  ex- 
plain all  these  difficulties.  At  the  bottom, 
there  is  only  one  innate  idea  for  him  who 
considers  that  the  idea  of  the  infinite,  pro- 
ducing the  accounts  of  experience,  is  suf- 
ficient to  raise  the  edifice  of  all  our  knowl- 
edge. When  St.  Thomas,  after  Aristotle, 
says  that  the  intellect  is  a  kind  of  tabula 
rasa  (blank  tablet)  upon  which  nothing  is 
written,  he  understands  thereby  that  the 
species  (innate  ideas)  are  not  in  act  or  real- 
ity in  the  intellect,  but  he  admits  that  they 
are  therein  in  power ;  whence  it  follows  that 
the  sensible  things  are  not  the  completecause 
of  our  knowledge.  St.  Augustine  teaches 
that  in  the  present  state,  the  soul  knows  all 
things,  in  the  eternal  reasons  as  in  their 
causes.  "  We  can,"  says  St.  Thomas, 
"  know  one  thing  in  another  in  two  ways  : 
I.  Objectively:  thus  we  see  in  a  looking- 
glass  the  things  the  images  of  which  it 
reflects ;  in  this  sens6  the  soul  cannot  see 
everything,  in  this  life,  in  the  eternal 
reasons.  2.  In  the  principle  itself  of  this 
knowledge :  thus  we  say,  to  behold  in  the 
sun  the  things  which  its  light  makes  known 
to  us ;  in  this  sense  it  is  true  to  say  that 
the  human  soul  knows  all  in  the  eternal 
reasons."  (St.  Thomas,  Prima  primae, 
^uaest.  84,  5,  c.)      According  to  this  dis- 


Innocent 


360 


Innocent 


tinction  of  St.  Thomas,  might  we  not 
reconcile  the  various  systems  since  Demo- 
critus,  who  did  not  distinguish  the  under- 
standing from  the  senses  :  nihil  est  in  in- 
tellectu  quod  non  frius  in  sensu,  until 
Malebranche,  who  maintained  that  we  see 
all  things  in  God.  Why  would  it  be  ab- 
surd to  believe  that  God  placed  in  the  soul 
some  traces  of  the  first  ideas.?  Man  being 
naturally  inclined  to  adoration,  might  this 
not  be  a  necessary  and  absolute  relation 
between  the  Creator  and  the  spiritual  being 
which  is  the  breath  of  His  mouth.?  We 
may  conclude  that  there  is  an  innate  idea, 
the  idea  of  the  infinite,  and  which  is  God 
Himself  eternally  subsisting,  "  In  whom," 
says  St.  Paul,  "we  have  the  being,  move- 
ment, and  life." 

Innocent  (name  of  thirteen  Popes).  —  In- 
nocent I.  (St.) —  Pope  from  402  to  417.  He 
warmly  espoused  the  cause  of  St.  John 
Chrysostom,  who  had  been  unjustly  de- 
posed and  exiled.  To  save  Rome  from  be- 
ing sacked,  he  urged  Emperor  Honorius  to 
treat  for  peace  with  Alaric.  Innocent  con- 
demned the  heresy  of  Pelagius.  Innocent 
II.  —  Pope  from  1130  to  1143.  He  had  to 
combat  against  the  antipope  Peter  de  Leone, 
son  of  a  recently  converted  Jewish  family, 
■whose  wealth  commanded  great  influence 
in  Rome.  He  was  crowned  with  the  title 
of  Anacletus  II.  The  Romans,  who  had 
been  gained  over  by  a  lavish  distribution 
of  money,  declared  in  favor  of  the  anti- 
pope.  Innocent  was  obliged  to  flee  into 
France.  He  returned  to  Rome  in  1136  and 
crowned  Lothaire  emperor  of  Germany,  in 
the  Lateran  Basilica.  To  repair  the  evils 
and  disorders  caused  by  the  late  schism. 
Innocent  (1139),  convened  the  Second  Lat- 
eran Synod,  or  Tenth  General  Council, 
which  was  attended  by  a  thousand  bishops, 
countless  abbots,  and  ecclesiastical  digni- 
taries. The  Council  passed  thirty  canons, 
renewing,  for  the  most  part,  the  censures 
of  former  synods  against  simony,  clerical 
incontinence,  and  lay  investiture.  Besides, 
it  condemned  the  errors  of  Peter  Bruis 
and  Arnold  of  Brescia,  deposed  all  those 
who  had  been  raised  to  ecclesiastical  dig- 
nities by  the  antipope,  and  excommunicated 
Roger  of  Sicily,  who  still  refused  submis- 
sion to  Innocent.  Innocent  III. —  Pope 
from  1 198  to  1216.  Of  the  illustrious  fam- 
ily of  Conti,  he  was  endowed  with  extraor- 
dinary gifts  and  talents.  His  first  thoughts, 
as  Pope,  were  directed  to  the  reformation 
of  the  papal  court;    he  established  great 


simplicity,  reformed  the  administration  of 
finances  and  gave  public  audiences  to  all. 
During  the  Fourth  Crusade,  he  founded 
the  Latin  empire  at  Constantinople  (1204- 
1261)  ;  he  protected  the  indissolubility  and 
sanctity  of  marriage  in  France,  and  pro- 
cured the  victory  of  Tolosa  in  Spain  (1212), 
by  means  of  which  the  power  of  the  Saracens 
was  destroyed.  Innocent  exercised  his  pa- 
pal authority  also  in  England,  Portugal, 
Aragon,  Norway,  Hungary,  and  Bulgaria. 
Toward  the  close  of  his  life.  Innocent  con- 
voked the  Twelfth  Ecumenical  (Fourth 
Lateran)  Council,  in  1215.  The  Council 
decided  to  organize  a  new  Crusade.  It 
also  passed  several  important  laws  of  dis- 
cipline, such  as  the  obligation  of  annual 
confession  and  Easter  communion,  etc. 
The  Pontificate  of  Innocent  III.  is  the  most 
illustrious  in  history.  Innocent  IV. — 
Pope  from  1243  to  1254.  He  inherited 
from  his  predecessors  a  feud  with  the  Em- 
peror Frederick  II.,  who  had  been  excom- 
municated by  Gregory  IX.  in  1230.  After 
the  death  of  Frederick  in  1250,  and  of  his 
son,  the  Emperor  Conrad  IV.  in  1254,  the 
struggle  was  continued  with  Manfred,  the 
uncle  and  guardian  of  Conrad's  son,  Con- 
radin  of  Sicily,  who  inflicted  a  decisive  de- 
feat on  the  papal  troops  five  days  before 
Innocent's  death.  Innocent  V.  —  Pope  from 
Jan.  20th  to  June  22d,  1276.  His  early 
death  hindered  Michael  Paleologus  to  ratify 
the  reunion  of  the  two  Churches  agreed 
upon  in  the  Council  of  Lyons.  Innocent 
VI.  —  Pope  from  1352  to  1362.  His 
first  act  was  to  rescind  a  statute,  or 
compact,  of  the  Conclave,  which  the 
cardinals  had  separately  agreed  upon. 
By  this  compact,  which  would  have 
raised  the  Sacred  College  to  an  independ- 
ent, dominant,  and  autocratic  body,  the 
future  Pope  would  bind  himself  not  to  in- 
crease the  number  of  cardinals,  nor  nomi- 
nate for,  nor  depose  from,  the  higher  offices 
of  the  Roman  Church  or  the  papal  States, 
without  the  consent  of  two-thirds  of  the 
College.  He  kept  his  court  at  Avignon. 
Innocent  VII. —  Pope  from  1404  to  1406. 
He  was  opposed  by  the  antipope  Benedict 
XIII.,  who  resided  at  Avignon.  Innocent 
VIII. —  Pope  from  1484  to  1492.  The  elec- 
tion of  this  PontiflF  was  a  disgrace  to  the 
Sacred  College,  and  a  scandal  to  the 
Church.  After  a  loose  life  in  youth  he 
was  married.  On  the  death  of  his  wife,  he 
entered  the  ecclesiastical  state,  in  which 
his  conduct,  as  well  as  his  ability,  won 
general  esteem,  and  secured  his  promotion 


Innocents 


361 


Inquisition 


to  the  episcopate  under  Paul  III.,  to  the 
cardinalate  under  Sixtus  IV.,  and  finally 
to  the  government  of  the  universal  Church. 
His  successful  efforts  in  effecting  a  recon- 
ciliation between  the  rival  houses  of  the  Or- 
sini  and  Colonnas,  and  restoring  order  in 
the  papal  dominions,  procured  Innocent  the 
title  of  "  Father  of  the  Country."  On 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella  of  Spain,  after  their 
conquest  of  Granada,  in  1492,  he  conferred 
the  title  of  *'  Catholic  Majesty."  But  much 
needed  reforms  were  neglected,  and  crying 
abuses  at  the  papal  court  were  allowed 
to  continue.  To  fill  his  depleted  treas- 
ury. Innocent  VIII.  increased  the  number 
of  curialistic  offices,  which  were  conferred 
for  high  sums.  For  keeping  in  custody 
Prince  Dshem,  the  brother  and  rival  of 
Sultan  Bajazet  II.  of  Constantinople,  the 
latter  paid  the  Pope  annually  forty 
thousand  ducats.  Innocent  IX.  —  Pope 
from  Oct.  30th  to  Dec.  30th,  1591.  During 
his  short  Pontificate  of  two  months  he  oc- 
cupied himself  to  lighten  the  misery  of 
the  people  by  lowering  the  taxes  and  creat- 
ing a  treasury  for  the  poor.  Innocent  X. 
—  Pope  from  1644  to  1655.  His  Pontificate 
deserves  to  be  numbered  among  the  most 
fortunate;  but  its  reputation  has  suffered 
somewhat  from  the  undue  influence  which 
his  sister-in-law.  Donna  Olympia  Malda- 
china,  was  allowed  to  exercise  over  the  ad- 
ministration of  ecclesiastical  affairs.  The 
charges  against  his  morals  on  that  account 
are  the  fabrications  of  bigotry.  His  apolo- 
gist is  the  Protestant  Ranke,  who  says  of 
him :  "  In  his  earlier  career,  as  nuncio  and 
as  cardinal.  Innocent  had  shown  himself  in- 
dustrious, blameless,  and  upright,  and  this 
reputation  he  still  maintained."  He  con- 
demned the  Treaty  of  Westphalia  in  165 1, 
and  the  Jansenist  heresy  in  1653.  Inno- 
cent XI. —  Pope  from  1676  to  1689.  Was 
a  man  of  austere  morals  and  distinguished 
for  his  eminent  talents  and  virtues.  He 
applied  himself  with  much  zeal  to  revive 
ecclesiastical  discipline  and  displayed  un- 
common courage  in  defending  the  rights 
of  the  Church  and  the  prerogatives  of  the 
Holy  See.  He  had  scarcely  ascended  the 
Papal  Chair,  when  he  became  involved  in 
warm  controversy  with  the  haughty  Louis 
XIV.,  of  France.  He  annulled  the  "Dec- 
laration of  the  Galilean  Clergy,"  severely 
censured  the  bishops  who  had  taken  part 
in  drawing  up  this  Declaration,  and  refused 
canonical  confirmation  to  such  as  advocated 
the  so-called  "Gallican  Liberties."  Inno- 
cent XII. —  Pope  from  1691  to  1700.     He 


succeeded  in  terminating  the  great  contest 
with  France,  which  had  arisen  from  the 
famous  "Declaration  of  the  Gallican  Lib- 
erties" of  1682.  It  was  by  this  Pope  that 
tlie  book  of  the  famous  Fenelon,  Archbishop 
of  Cambray,  entitled  Maxims  of  the  Saints 
was  condemned.  Infiocent  XIII. —  Pope 
from  172 1  to  1724.  He  invested  Charles 
VI.  with  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  upheld 
the  claims  of  James  III.  to  the  throne  of 
England,  and  maintained  the  Bull  Unigen- 
itus  against  the  pretensions  of  seven  French 
bishops  who  asked  for  its  abolition. 

Innocents  {Feast  of  the  Holy). — One  of 
the  Christmas  festivals,  held  in  the  West- 
ern Church  on  Dec.  28th,  and  in  the 
Eastern  on  the  29th.  It  is  intended  to 
commemorate  the  massacre  of  the  children 
"from  two  years  old  and  under"  (Matt, 
ii.  16)  at  Bethlehem.  The  concurrence  of 
the  East  and  the  West  in  celebrating  the 
festival  is  an  evidence  of  its  antiquity. 

Inquisition  ( The)  called  also  Holy  Of- 
fice, a  tribunal  in  the  Catholic  Church  for 
the  discovery  and  repression  of  heresy, 
unbelief,  and  other  offenses  against  reli- 
gion. From  the  very  first  establishment 
of  Christianity  as  the  religion  of  the  Ro- 
man empire,  laws,  more  or  less  severe, 
existed,  as  in  most  of  the  ancient  religions, 
for  the  repression  and  punishment  of  dis- 
sent from  the  national  creed;  and  the 
Emperors  Theodosius  and  Justinian  ap- 
pointed officials  called  "inquisitors," 
whose  special  duty  it  was  to  discover,  and 
prosecute  before  the  civil  tribunals,  offenses 
of  this  class.  The  ecclesiastical  cogniz- 
ance of  heresy,  and  its  punishment  by 
spiritual  censures,  belonged  to  the  bishop 
or  the  episcopal  synod ;  but  no  especial 
machinery  for  the  purpose  was  devised 
until  the  spread,  in  the  eleventh  and 
twelfth  centuries,  of  certain  sects  reputed 
dangerous  alike  to  the  State  and  the 
Church  —  the  Cathari,  Waldenses,and  Al- 
bigenses  —  excited  the  alarm  of  the  civil 
as  well  as  of  the  ecclesiastical  authorities. 
In  the  public  mind,  at  that  time,  heresy 
was  regarded  as  a  crime  against  the  State, 
no  less  than  against  the  Church.  An  ex- 
traordinary commission  was  sent  by  Pope 
Innocent  III.  into  the  South  of  France  to 
aid  the  local  authorities  in  checking  the 
spread  of  the  Albigensian  heresy.  The 
Fourth  Lateran  Council  (1215)  earnestly 
impressed,  both  on  bishops  and  magis- 
trates, the  necessity  of  increased  vigilance 
against  heresy;  and  a  council  held  at  Tou- 


Inspiration 


362 


Inspiration 


louse  directed  that  in  each  parish  the  priest 
and  two  or  three  laymen  of  good  repute 
should  b2  appointed  to  examine  and  report 
to  the  bishop  all  such  offenses  discovered 
within  the  district.  So  far,  however,  there 
was  no  permanent  court  distinct  from  those 
of  the  bishops;  but  under  Innocent  IV., 
in  1248,  a  special  tribunal  for  the  purpose 
was  instituted,  the  chief  direction  of  which 
was  vested  in  the  then  recently  established 
Dominican  Order.  The  Inquisition  thus 
constituted  became  a  general,  instead  of, 
as  previously,  a  local  tribunal ;  and  it  was 
introduced  in  succession  into  Italy,  Spain, 
Germany,  and  the  South  provinces  of 
France. 

In  Spain,  the  secret  aim  of  the  Inquisi- 
tion established  by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella 
(1481),  was  to  curb  the  power  of  the  no- 
bility, but  its  avowed  office  was  to  ferret 
out  the  disguised  Jews  and  Mohammedans, 
who  secretly  assailed  Christianity.  Many 
of  these  had  been  ordained  priests  and 
bishops.  In  the  year  1497,  about  1,000 
Franciscan  monks,  unwilling  to  yield  to 
ecclesiastical  reforms,  became  Mohamme- 
dans. The  Spanish  Inquisition  was  also 
directed  against  immorality,  murder, 
usury,  etc.  The  king  appointed  the  grand 
Inquisitor,  the  counselors,  and  officers. 
He  issued  the  statutes.  In  his  name  the 
penalties  were  decreed.  Popes  and  bish- 
ops were  often  obliged  to  reprimand  the 
Inquisitors,  who,  besides  their  immediate 
aim,  sought  also  to  increase  the  power  of 
the  monarchy  and  lessen  the  independence 
of  the  clergy  and  the  nobility.  Later  on, 
the  king  made  use  of  the  Inquisition 
against  disagreeable  bishops  and  nobles 
who  could  not  be  summoned  before  the 
ordinary  tribunals.  Even  the  Pope  expe- 
rienced much  difficulty  in  rescuing  Cardi- 
nal Bartholomew  Caranza,  Primate  of 
Spain,  from  the  hands  of  the  Inquisitors. 
The  Holy  See  frequently  exercised  its  full 
influence  and  power  against  the  Inquisi- 
tion. Leo  X.  excommunicated  all  the 
Inquisitors  of  Toledo.  Ranke,  Guizot, 
and  other  historians  maintained  that  the 
Spanish  Inquisition  was  a  purely  local  in- 
stitution. Its  most  zealous  advocates  were 
certainly  men  who,  like  Pombal,  had  made 
themselves  odious  to  the  Church  and  fos- 
tered the  absolutism  of  the  crown.  The 
number  of  victims  has  been  greatly  exag- 
gerated. Nearly  99  per  cent,  of  those  who 
went  to  the  Auto  da  fe,  performed  merely 
an  ecclesiastical  penance.  They  wore  the 
Sanbenito  or  blessed  penitential  garb  dur- 


ing   the     absolution.      See    Toleration 
(  Religious) . 

Inspiration.  —  We  call  inspiration  a  su- 
pernatural help  by  which  God  gives  to  an 
author  the  will  to  write,  in  suggesting  to 
him  at  least  the  foundation  and  substance 
what  to  write.  We  must  not  confound 
inspiration  with  assistance,  which  is,  really, 
a  supernatural  help,  but  which  suggests 
nothing  to  the  author,  and  limits  itself  to 
preserve  him  from  falling  into  any  error. 
This  notion  of  inspiration  well  understood, 
we  profess  that  all  the  parts  of  Holy  Scrip- 
ture, without  exception,  have  been  in- 
spired, for  this  is  a  dogma  of  faith  expressly 
taught  by  the  Church.  "  The  Roman 
Church,"  says  the  Council  of  Florence, 
"  confesses  the  sole  and  same  God  as 
author  of  both  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments, that  is,  of  the  law  of  the  Prophets 
and  Gospel,  because  the  saints  of  both 
Testaments  have  spoken  under  the  inspira- 
tion of  the  Holy  Ghost ;  she  accepts  and 
venerates  their  books"  (Deer,  in  Jacobit). 
The  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  iv.  Deer,  de 
canon.  Script.)  made  use  of  the  same  words 
and  the  Vactican  Council  (Const.  Dei 
Filius,  cap.  2)  has  confirmed  this  teaching 
in  the  following  manner:  "The  Church 
holds  as  sacred  and  canonical,  the  books 
of  both  the  Old  and  New  Testaments, 
not  only  because  they  contain  the  reve- 
lation without  error,  but  because  writ- 
ten under  the  inspiration  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  they  have  God  for  their  author  and 
have  been  delivered  as  such  to  the  Church 
itself."  Further  on,  to  point  out  the  im- 
portance which  the  Church  attaches  to 
this  dogma,  the  same  Council  strikes  with 
anathema  whoever  rejects  the  divine  in- 
spiration of  the  Scriptures. 

This  dogma  is  founded  upon  both  Holy 
Scripture  itself  and  tradition,  and  is  con- 
firmed by  reason,  r.  Upon  Holy  Scripture. 
— St.  Paul  teaches  us  that  every  Scripture  of 
the  Old  Testament  was  written  by  inspira- 
tion :  *'  Omnis  Scriptura  divinitus  inspir- 
ata"  (II.Tim.  iii.  16).  St.  Peter  says  about 
the  same  thing  (Cf.  II.  Pet.  i.  21).  In  the 
Acts  (i.  16),  St.  Peter  quotes  the  Scripture 
which  the  Holy  Ghost  spoke  by  the  mouth 
of  David.  In  Hebrews  (iv.  3-9),  God  is 
repeatedly  treated  as  speaking  by  the 
Scriptures;  and  in  Galatians  (iii.  8),  the 
gift  of  foresight  is  ascribed  to  the  Scrip- 
tures ;  surely  not  to  the  material  Book, 
but  to  its  Author,  the  all-foreseeing  God. 
2.  Upon  Tradition, — Among  a  multitude  of 


Installation 


363 


Intelligence 


Patristic  passages,  we  maybe  content  with 
two  :  one  derived  from  the  East,  the  other 
from  the  West.  St.  Chrysostom  (Horn.  2, 
in  Gen.  n.  2)  says  that  God  wishing  to  put 
an  end  to  a  temporary  estrangement,  has 
sent  letters  to  His  absent  friends ;  letters 
written  by  God  and  brought  us  by  Moses. 
And  St.  Augustine  sets  forth  God's  au- 
thorship and  the  subordinate  part  played 
by  the  human  writer  in  the  following 
forcible  manner :  »'  All  that  God  wishes 
us  to  know  concerning  his  doings  and  say- 
ings, He  bade  be  written  by  man,  as  by 
His  own  hands  "  (Z><?  Consens.  Evangel. 
I,  c.  35,  n.  54).  There  is  no  need  to  mul- 
tiply citations,  for  the  point  is  not  dis- 
puted. 

Reason  Confirms  This  Dogma.  —  The 
truth  of  the  facts  reported  in  Scripture  be- 
ing acknowledged,  the  inspiration  of 
Scripture  becomes  itself  such  an  incon- 
testable fact  as  all  the  others.  Indeed,  the 
law  given  by  God  Himself  upon  Mount 
Sinai,  is  a  fact  identical  with  the  inspira- 
tion of  that  part  of  Holy  Scripture.  The 
mission  of  Moses,  proved  by  his  works, 
the  latter  themselves  proved  by  so  many 
testimonies ;  the  promise  which  God  gives 
to  him  to  put  His  -word  upon  his  lips,  to 
teach  him  -what  to  say,  are  facts  identical 
with  the  inspiration  of  Moses.  Each 
book  of  the  Old  Testament  would  offer 
similar  proofs  of  its  inspiration,  or  we 
would  find  it  attested  to  in  another  book 
whose  inspiration  would  be  proven  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  inspiration  of  the 
Pentateuch.  The  descent  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  upon  the  Apostles  and  first  disciples 
of  Jesus  Christ,  the  gift  of  tongues  they 
received,  are  facts  identical  with  the  in- 
spiration of  the  New  Testament;  for  the 
inspiration  of  the  author  of  a  book  proves 
the  inspiration  of  the  book,  or  rather  is 
one  and  the  same  thing. 

Our  doctrine  is  opposed  to  that  which 
goes  by  the  name  of  "  Verbal  Inspiration," 
according  to  which  every  word  of  Scrip- 
ture was  as  it  was  dictated  by  the  Holy 
Ghost  to  the  Prophets  and  Apostles,  so 
that  they  acted  as  mere  machines.  The 
doctrine  of  verbal  inspiration  preserves 
the  divine  authorship  to  the  full ;  to  a 
greater  extent,  in  fact,  than  is  needed.  It 
is,  therefore,  unproved,  and  it  is  open  to 
the  grave  objection  that  it  fails  to  account 
for  the  varieties  of  style.  In  regard  to 
style,  the  Books  of  Scripture  exhibit  the 
same  variety  as  might  be  expected  in  purely 
human  books;  but  if  each  word  was  dic- 


tated by  the  Holy  Ghost,  there  is  no  way 
of  accounting  for  these  varieties,  they 
would  seem  to  have  been  introduced  for 
no  other  purpose  than  that  of  misleading 
the  reader.  There  are  cases  where  there 
may  be  room  for  doubt  whether  a  particu- 
lar turn  of  phrase  was  "  intended  "  by  the 
Holy  Spirit  —  so  far  as  this  word  can  be 
used  of  God,  to  Whom  all  the  results  of 
His  acts  are  known;  in  these  cases  it  is 
the  business  of  the  critic  to  determine 
what  teaching  is  contained  in  the  passage ; 
the  question  is  often  very  subtle,  and 
should  not  be  approached  except  by  those 
who  feel  themselves  to  be  well  equipped 
with  the  full  array  of  necessary  qualifica- 
tions ;  among  which  we  put  in  the  front 
rank,  thorough  grounding  in  the  theology 
of  the  Church,  long  familiarity  with  the 
sacred  text,  and  the  disposition  to  be 
ready  to  accept  the  truth  from  another 
rather  than  devise  a  novel  view.  In  some 
cases  the  author  himself  has  pointed  out 
that  a  true  meaning  is  conveyed  by  what 
might  otherwise  have  been  judged  to  be  a 
casual  omission,  a  notable  instance  of 
which  we  find  in  Hebrews  (vii.  3),  where 
we  read  why  it  is  that  in  Genesis  (xiv.  18), 
when  Melchisedech  is  mentioned,  the 
names  of  his  parents  are  not  made  known. 
See  Interpretation. 

Installation,  in  Church  law,  means  the 
ceremonial  act  or  process  by  which  a  per- 
son presented  and  legally  confirmed  in  a 
benefice  is  formally  put  into  possession  of 
his  office,  and  by  which  he  is  fully  em- 
powered, not  alone  to  exercise  its  func- 
tions, but  to  enjoy  its  honors  and  emolu- 
ments. 

Intelligence.  —  Intellectual  faculty.  If  a 
man  understands  what  is  told  to  him,  re- 
tains what  he  has  understood,  and  makes 
use  of  the  knowledge  he  has  retained,  we 
say  that  this  man  is  intelligent.  Therefore, 
we  can  say  that  intelligence,  this  faculty  of 
the  soul,  is  a  complex  power,  comprising 
three  groups  of  powers  :  power  of  acquisi- 
tion, power  of  preservation,  power  of 
elaboration  and  of  transformation.  These 
three  powers  are  so  many  manifestations  of 
the  soul,  a  study  of  the  intelligence  is  only 
their  study,  i.  Power  of  Acquisition. — 
We  know  ourselves  through  conscience,  to 
which  we  owe  a  number  of  ideas,  and  even 
the  most  important  ones  (see  Conscience, 
Inneity).  As  to  the  inner  things,  we 
know  them  through  the  perception  of  the 
different  sensations.     Conscience  and  an- 


Interdict 


364 


Interpretation 


terior  perception  are  our  only  means  of 
acquisition.  2.  Po-wer  of  Preservation. — 
In  order  that  we  may  be  really  able  to  say 
that  we  have  acquired  a  knowledge,  we 
must  have  preserved  this  knowledge,  we 
must  have  been  able  to  retain  it,  even  re- 
cover it  and  this  we  can  do  through  mem- 
ory. Is  memory  our  only  means  of  preser- 
vation ?  Let  us  remark  that  a  fact  of  the 
memory  never  presents  itself  in  an  isolate 
manner;  one  remembrance  reminds  of  an- 
other; between  our  remembrances  there 
exists  a  connection.  According  to  what  law 
is  this  connection,  this  association,  formed  ? 
Behold  a  question  inseparable  from  the 
study  of  the  memory.  3.  Power  of  Elabora- 
tion. —  Man  has  a  tendency  to  form  general 
ideas.  Science,  we  know,  is  only  an  ensem- 
ble of  these  ideas,  and  man  is  capable  of 
science.  Man  arrives  at  general  ideas, 
either  by  induction  or  by  deduction,  and 
this  through  reasoning.  To  induct  and  to 
deduct,  man  is  in  need  of  language,  which 
serves  to  put  him  in  relation  with  his 
fellow- men  and  which  thus  is  a  means  of 
acquisition  and  elaboration.  Finally,  man 
acquiring  knowledge,  preserving  and  elab- 
orating it,  can,  in  making  use  of  all  the 
resources  at  his  disposal,  create  a  diflPerent 
world  from  the  real  world ;  he  can  imag- 
ine and  the  imagination  is  only  a  power 
of  elaboration  or  of  transformation.  From 
this  explanation  we  must  not  conclude 
that  intelligence  is  a  threefold  faculty 
composed  of  separate  powers.  The  intel- 
ligence is,  on  the  contrary,  essentially  one. 

Interdict.  —  An  ecclesiastical  sentence 
which  forbids  the  right  of  Christian  burial, 
the  use  of  the  sacraments,  and  the  enjoy- 
ment of  public  worship,  or  the  exercise  of 
ecclesiastical  functions.  Interdicts  may  be 
general,  as  applied  to  a  country  or  city ;  or 
f  articular,  as  applied  to  a  Church  or  other 
locality ;  they  may  be  local,  as  applied  to 
places ;  personal,  as  applied  to  a  person  or 
some  class  of  persons ;  or  mixed,  as  directed 
against  both  places  and  persons.  General 
and  local  interdicts  have  rarely  been  pro- 
nounced since  the  Middle  Ages. 

Interim. — A  provisional  arrangement  for 
the  settlement  of  religious  differences  be- 
tween Protestants  and  Catholics  in  Ger- 
many during  the  Reformation  epoch, 
pending  a  definite  settlement  by  a  Church 
council.  There  were  three  interims:  the 
Ratisbon  Interim,  promulgated  by  the 
Emperor  Charles  V.  in  i54i,but  ineffective ; 
the  Augsburg  Interim,  proclaimed  also  by 


Charles  V.  in  1548,  but  not  carried  out  by 
many  Protestants ;  and  the  Leipsic  Interim, 
carried  through  the  Diet  of  Saxony  in 
1548 ;  it  met  with  strenuous  opposition. 

Interpretation  and  Some  Causes  of  the 
Difficulties  Found  in  the  Bible.  —  The 
Church  teaches  that  Holy  Scripture  is  a 
book  inspired  by  God,  that  is,  composed 
under  the  influence  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  in 
such  a  manner  that  it  emancipated  from 
all  error  the  one  He  thus  empowered  to 
be  His  interpreter  to  man.  God  did  not 
dictate  to  the  prophet  the  exact  language 
which  he  should  employ  in  the  process  of 
his  general  teaching,  but  left  him  the  free 
use  of  his  natural  faculties,  so  that  the  pe- 
culiar character  of  each  writer,  his  style, and 
manner,  reveals  itself  in  his  work.  Holy 
Scripture  contains  nothing  but  truth  re- 
vealed for  us.  But  the  Holy  Ghost  did  not 
impart  in  a  supernatural  manner  to  the 
human  instruments  of  which  He  made  use 
what  they  already  knew  through  natural 
means,  either  by  their  personal  experience 
or  by  the  testimony  of  other  men.  He 
taught  them  by  miraculous  means  only 
what  they  could  not  know  by  themselves, 
as,  for  instance,  the  secrets  of  the  future. 
Moreover,  it  does  not  matter  whether  such 
or  such  a  part  of  the  Sacred  Books  has 
been  directly  revealed  to  its  author  or 
simply  inspired.  All  that  they  contain  is 
equally  true  and  certain,  for,  as  Catholic 
theologians  teach,  the  divine  inspiration 
guarded  the  sacred  writer  against  all 
error,  —  not  only  against  all  dogmatic  and 
moral  —  but  also  against  all  historical  or 
scientific  error. 

The  Bible,  therefore,  has  gone  forth 
from  the  hands  of  God  pure  and  spotless, 
worthy  of  its  Author,  and  obliging  human 
veneration  and  belief.  However,  Provi- 
dence did  not  judge  it  proper  to  fully  pro- 
tect itagainst  the  lesser  and  inconsequential 
injuries  of  time,  and  has  subjected  it,  in  a 
limited  measure,  totheconditionsof  human 
things.  Providence  has  watched  over  the 
Sacred  Book  to  preserve  it  intact  as  to  its 
foundation,  and  that  the  sacred  depositary 
of  revelation  may  be  transmitted  without 
grave  alterations  to  the  remotest  genera- 
tions, but  has  not  deemed  it  necessary  to 
perform  continual  miracles  to  shelter  it 
from  those  slight  errors  and  insignificant 
changes  which  insensibly  enter  into  all  the 
works  of  men.  The  rust  of  centuries  has 
thus  deposited  its  imprint  upon  some  of 
the  pages  of  our  Sacred  Scriptures,  and  we 


Interpretation 


365 


Interpretation 


have  no  longer  a  text  absolutely  comform- 
able  to  the  autographs  of  the  sacred 
writers.  Passing  under  the  pen  of  thou- 
sands of  transcribers,  in  an  interval  of  time 
extending  over  from  eighteen  hundred  to 
thirty-four  hundred  years,  proper  names 
have  been  disfigured,  figures  changed, 
words  omitted,  rarious  passages  shifted, 
obscured,  or  slightly  altered.  A  compari- 
son with  the  most  ancient  texts  and 
versions  furnishes  a  clear  proof  of  this. 
The  actual  Hebrew  text,  for  instance,  at- 
tributes to  Lamech,  father  of  Noe,  777 
years  (Gen.  v.  31) ;  the  Samaritan  text, 
653;  the  Greek  version  of  the  Septuagint, 
753.  It  is  evident  that  two  of  these  texts, 
if  not  all  three  of  them,  have  been  changed 
by  the  copyists.  We  read  in  the  Paralipom- 
ena  (II.  Par.  xvi.  i)  that  Baasa,  king  of 
Israel  made  war  on  Juda  in  the  36th  year 
of  the  reign  of  Asa.  Baasa  reigned  only 
to  the  26th  year  of  Asa  (III.  Ki.  xvi.  8). 
The  Septuagint  aggregates  the  difficulty 
by  placing  the  war  in  the  year  38  of  Asa's 
reign.  Not  only  is  there  a  contradiction 
between  the  Greek  and  the  Hebrew,  but 
there  is  an  evident  fault  in  one  of  the  two 
passages  of  the  Hebrew  text.  Probably  we 
ought  to  read  26  instead  of  36  or  38.  Our 
actual  text  (II.  Ki.  xxi.  8),  attributes  five 
children  to  Michol,  daughter  of  Saul,  and, 
nevertheless,  we  are  formally  told  in  an- 
other passage  of  the  Second  Book  of  Kings 
(vi  23),  that  Michol  never  had  any  chil- 
dren. Here  we  should  read,  no  doubt, 
instead  of  her  name,  that  of  another  daugh- 
ter of  Saul,  Merob,  as  is  conveyed  by  the 
word  heri  in  the  version  corrected  by  the 
Massorets,  and  as  appears  from  what  is 
said  in  the  First  Book  of  Kings  (xviii.  19). 
In  the  time  of  St.  Jerome  there  existed  so 
many  variances  in  the  copies  which  circu- 
lated among  the  Faithful,  that  this  Father 
wrote  to  Pope  St.  Damasus  :  "  There  are 
almost  as  many  divergent  copies  as  there 
are  manuscripts." 

It  is  hard  for  those  who  have  never  had 
any  experience  in  dealing  with  the  manu- 
scripts of  books  to  understand  how  diffi- 
cult, nay,  almost  impossible,  it  was  in 
former  times  to  preserve  the  text  from  all 
change.  The  books  published  in  modern 
times  are  intrusted  to  the  printer,  the 
proof  sheets  are  carefully  revised  by  the 
author,  and  allowed  to  be  printed  only 
when  the  latter  is  satisfied  with  the  correc- 
tions which  he  has  indicated  therein.  The 
work  is  then  issued,  and  no  matter  how 
multitudinous  the   number  of  copies,  as  a 


product  of  mechanical  labor,  they  are  all 
alike ;  they  vary  neither  by  a  word,  nor  by 
a  letter,  nor  by  a  comma.  And  indeed 
this  multitude  of  copies  are  as  exactly 
alike  as  though  they  were  the  first  original 
work  of  the  author's  pen. 

For  the  ancients,  on  the  contrary,  there 
were  as  many  varying  copies  as  there  were 
reproductions  of  the  same  work.  The 
author  read  his  work  to  the  copyists,  — 
each  copyist  produced  a  codex;  but,  with 
different  readings,  errors  necessarily  una- 
voidable, were  incorporated  into  the 
transcription  of  a  large  work.  All  writers 
of  books  know  how  often  the  printers,  by 
some  remissness  in  their  manual  occupa- 
tion, alter  the  meaning  by  mistaking  one 
word  for  another,  by  omissions,  additions, 
and  other  inaccuracies  resulting  from  lack 
of  attention.  The  librarii  of  ancient 
times  were  not  more  perfect  than  the 
typographical  artisan  of  our  day;  but 
their  shortcomings  entailed  more  grievous 
consequences,  because  the  authors  could 
not  correct  all  the  copies  which  were 
made  of  their  books.  They  apprehended 
the  grave  results  of  this  technical  inac- 
curacy, which  they  could  foresee  only  too 
plainly,  and  they  abjured  the  scribes, 
with  the  most  earnest  solicitations,  not  to 
neglect  to  compare  their  copy  with  the 
original  manuscript.  "  I  conjure  thee," 
wrote  St.  Irenseus,  at  the  end  of  his  book 
against  the  Valentinians,  "  I  conjure  thee, 
whoever  thou  mayest  be  that  transcribest 
this  book,  by  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  and 
by  His  glorious  coming,  when  He  will 
come  to  judge  the  living  and  the  dead,  to 
realize  what  thou  hast  written,  and  care- 
fully correct  it  after  the  copy  from  which 
thou  hast  transcribed  it.  I  pray  thee  also 
to  transcribe  this  conjuration  and  put  it  at 
the  end  of  thy  copy  "  (See  Eusebius, 
Church  History,  vol.  XX.) 

Hence  we  need  not  be  astonished  that, 
from  the  first  centuries,  both  the  Greek 
and  Latin  Fathers  complained  so  often 
about  the  corruption  of  the  manuscripts  of 
the  Bible. 

This  is,  however,  not  the  only  source  of 
embarrassment  for  the  defender  of  the 
Bible.  Even  had  the  text  been  preserved 
to  us  in  its  original  integrity,  and  entirely 
free  from  any  technical  changes,  it  would 
still  present  other  and  graver  difficulties, 
as,  for  instance,  those  of  interpretation 
God,  in  communicating  with  man,  had  to 
make  use  of  the  language  of  man.  Now, 
all  human  language  is  imperfect.      It  is 


Interpretation 


366 


Interpretation 


composed  of  words,  and  these  words  are 
signs,  the  invariably  incomplete  pictures 
of  the  realities  and  ideas  they  attempt  to 
portray.  Words  show  us  only  one  side  of 
the  realities ;  they  can  never  succeed  in 
giving  us  the  complete  description  of  the 
object  or  idea  in  all  its  phases.  In  this  re- 
spect, also,  the  Semitic  languages  are  still 
more  imperfect  than  the  Arian  languages. 
They  have  not  been  developed,  elaborated, 
polished,  modified,  and  brought  to  the  de- 
gree of  perfection  which  the  idioms  of  the 
son  of  Japhet  have  attained.  The  Hebrew 
vocabulary  is  very  limited.  Very  often 
there  is  only  a  single  word  to  express  many 
diverse  ideas.  Thus  the  Israelite  was  often 
obliged  to  have  recourse  to  the  periphrase, 
and,  as  a  result  of  this  circumlocution,  it 
was  frequently  impossible  for  him  to  ex- 
press his  thought  with  a  rigorous  exacti- 
tude. 

In  keeping  with  the  vocabulary,  the  He- 
brew syntax  is  also  of  a  primitive  simplic- 
ity. The  particles  which  conjoin  the 
grammatical  sections  of  the  discourse  are 
very  rare.  The  phrases  join  themselves 
without  any  articulation  and  co-ordination 
of  the  various  parts.  There  is  no  punc- 
tuation. The  thoughts  are  marked  out 
and  dissected,  and  the  phrases  used  in  ex- 
pressing them  juxtaposed  rather  than  joined 
and  united. 

What  still  further  increases  the  obscu- 
rity, is  that  the  Old  Testament  was  written 
in  a  language  which  ceased  to  be  spoken 
many  centuries  ago.  It  is  only  too  true, 
Hebrew  is  for  us  a  "  dead  language." 
Languages  are,  so  to  speak,  illustrations 
and  representations  of  the  peoples  who 
used  them.  They  abound  in  allusions  to 
their  customs;  habits,  modes  of  thought, 
and  manner  of  living.  If,  therefore,  in- 
quiry be  directed  toward  a  nation  which 
has  disappeared  from  the  arena  of  the 
world  for  an  extended  period  of  time,  and 
whose  customs  were  different  from  those 
with  which  we  are  familiar  by  our  personal 
experience  or  practice,  it  is  a  matter  of 
great  difficulty  for  us  to  form  an  exact  idea 
of  them.  If  we  are  hindered  at  every  step, 
even  when  reading  the  ancient  authors  of 
the  same  race  as  ourselves,  although  they 
composed  their  works  in  a  language  from 
which  our  own  is  derived,  and  although 
they  lived  on  the  same  soil,  possessed  in- 
stitutions and  customs  analogous  to  those 
with  which  we  are  familiar  and  which  we 
have  in  great  part  inherited,  how  much 
greater  must  be  the  difficulty  encountered. 


if  the  ancient  writers  whose  works  we 
would  peruse  not  only  wrote  in  a  language 
whose  genus  is  difTerent  from  ours,  but 
who  had  also  a  totally  difTerent  method  of 
mental  conception  and  habits  of  thought ; 
who  led  a  life  so  far  removed  trom  ours, 
both  in  point  of  time  and  conditions  of  ex- 
istence, and  who  must  have  employed  their 
words  and  expressions  in  a  sense  very  dis- 
similar from  what  is  familiar  to  us  in  their 
present  usage.  A  judge  in  Israel  had  noth- 
ing in  common  with  the  judges  of  our  civil 
or  criminal  courts,  and  the  Temple  of  Jeru- 
salem did  not  resemble  our  Christian  tem- 
ples. How  many  readers  of  the  Bible  are 
there,  however,  that  take  into  account  these 
essential  differences ! 

Besides  the  words  of  an  equivocal  or 
ambiguous  meaning,  there  are  those  of  an 
unknown  meaning.  We  might  say  that 
the  term  "  dead  "  applies  with  even  greater 
descriptive  force  to  the  Hebrew  language 
than  to  the  so-called  classic  languages,  for 
we  have  a  far  more  limited  number  of  mon- 
uments of  the  Hebrew  language  than  of 
the  Greek  and  Latin,  and,  consequently, 
less  means  of  understanding  it.  All  that 
has  survived  of  Hebrew  literature  is  con- 
tained in  one  small  volume.  In  this  vol- 
ume a  great  number  of  expressions  occur 
but  once,  and,  consequently,  their  meaning 
is  uncertain.  This  is  the  case,  sometimes 
in  the  most  important  passages.  Particu- 
larly in  the  prophecies  do  we  meet  with 
those  rare  and  unique  words,  whose  mean- 
ing is  only  partly  made  known  to  us  by  the 
ancient  versions  or  through  comparison 
with  other  Semitic  idioms.  But  these  ver- 
sions do  not  always  agree  one  with  the 
other,  and  the  congeneric  idioms  do  not 
elucidate  all  the  obscurities.  Therefore,  a 
vast  field  remains  open  for  hypotheses,  un- 
certainties, discussions,  and  the  arbitrary 
assumptions  of  infidels  and  skeptics. 

These    are    some   of   the    many   causes 
which    make   it   hard   to    understand   the 
books  written  by  the  Hebrews.     The  man- 
ner  of   Oriental  composition  also  aggra- 
vates the  difficulty.     No  Hebrew  Aristotle 
schooled    these   writers    in    the    rules   of 
poetry,  nor  had  they  a  Cicero  to  crystal- 
lize the  laws  of  rhetoric.     Their  literary 
art,  if  such  it  may  be   called,  is  obscure 
and  bears  no  resemblance  to  ours.     They 
follow  paths  that  are  unknown  to  us  and 
I  wherein  the  Occidental  reader  oftentimes 
becomes  bewildered.     Devoid  of  a  philo- 
I   sophic  tongue,  restricted  to  the  resources 
)   of  a  meager  vocabulary,  little  accustomed 


Interpretation 


367 


Interpretation 


to  analysis  and  synthesis,  they  express 
their  thought  exactly  as  the  thought  pre- 
sents itself  to  their  minds.  They  relate 
their  facts  as  they  remember  them.  They 
take  small  pains  about  the  logic  of  events, 
nor  do  they  seek  to  be  particularly  clear, 
placing  each  fact  in  its  proper  place  and 
sequence,  and  diligently  omitting  nothing 
useful.  This  volume  is  a  rich  treasure 
house,  filled  with  pearls  and  precious 
stones,  but  sadly  lacking  in  precise  order 
and  methodical  arrangement. 

To  all  these  causes  for  obscurity  and 
difficulty  is  added  yet  another  one  for  the 
majority  of  Bible  readers,  namely:  they 
are  unacquainted  with  the  original  text, 
and  can  only  derive  their  knowledge  of  it 
through  a  translation.  Now,  no  matter 
how  excellent  any  translation  may  be,  it 
can  never  render  the  true  meaning  of  the 
original  work  in  its  perfection.  All  the 
critics  acknowledge  the  eminent  merit  of 
the  version  of  the  Septuagint,  and  espe- 
cially of  our  Vulgate;  but  all  are  also 
obliged  to  acknowledge  that,  in  these  ver- 
sions, certain  passages  are  not  rendered 
in  an  irreproachable  manner.  There  is  a 
considerable  number  of  these  faulty  pas- 
sages in  the  Septuagint,  but  a  smaller 
number  in  our  Vulgate ;  nevertheless,  the 
latter  is  not  free  from  these  faulty  renditions 
which  often  convey  an  opposite  meaning 
from  that  which  was;  intended  by  the  origi- 
nal. Fortunately,  the  original  text  provides 
the  correction  for  the  errors  of  transla- 
tions. But  the  original  text  for  all  the 
books  of  the  Bible  is  not  now  extant;  and 
where  it  is  wanting,  as  for  Tobias,  Judith, 
and  some  others,  it  is  sometimes  impossi- 
ble to  restore  with  any  degree  of  certainty 
the  primitive  reading,  and,  consequently, 
to  solve  the  difficulty. 

Independently  of  the  difficulties  of  lan- 
guage and  alterations  of  the  text,  there  is 
another  cause  which  besets  with  impedi- 
ments and  obscurity  the  work  of  the  Bible 
student,  namely,  our  ignorance  of  an- 
tiquity. The  events  of  Sacred  History 
transpired  in  very  remote  epochs,  in  times 
and  places  little  known  to  us.  When  the 
objects  of  our  investigation  are  at  a  great 
distance  from  us,  they  appear  to  us  as 
though  enveloped  in  a  fog,  and  become 
confused  and  indistinct.  We  cannot  ab- 
ruptly seize  the  surroundings  and  distin- 
guish certain  characteristics.  Not  only 
are  we  oblivious  of  many  facts  that  are 
indispensable  to  an  exact  knowledge  of 
persons  and  things,  and  the  proper  appre- 


ciation of  their  actions,  but  our  political, 
social,  and  even  religious  organizations, 
our  wants,  relations,  manner  of  living, 
and  surroundings,  in  a  word,  our  status  as 
human  beings,  are  so  different  that,  in 
spite  of  all  the  efforts  of  our  imagination, 
we  are  unable  to  reanimate  those  ancient 
societies,  and  see  them  as  they  were  in 
reality.  The  lapse  of  thousands  of  years 
has  transported  us  into  a  different  atmos- 
phere. How  many  obscure,  unintelligible 
points,  which  we  judge  too  easily  as  in- 
credible, were  natural  and  clear  as  day- 
light for  the  contemporaries  of  those  past 
ages ! 

Finally,  a  last  and  often  most  serious 
source  of  difficulty  in  properly  under- 
standing the  Bible,  are  the  explanations 
which  exegetists  themselves  have  given 
thereof,  and  which  have  changed  the 
meaning.  The  commentaries  which  these 
latter  have  written  on  Sacred  Scripture  are 
so  numerous  that  they  could  well  fill  sev- 
eral large  libraries.  In  this  mass  of  books, 
in  spite  of  the  uprightness  of  the  intentions 
of  their  authors,  in  spite  of  their  perspi- 
cacity and  their  science,  there  is  many  an 
error  and  many  a  falsehood.  Neverthe- 
less, through  a  convergence  of  dissimilar 
circumstances,  we  accept  certain  interpre- 
tations as  well  founded,  and  impute  crime 
to  the  Bible  when  it  is  only  the  commen- 
tators who  are  at  fault.  Thus  we  reproach 
the  Scripture  with  teaching,  contrarily  to 
astronomy,  that  the  earth  is  immovable 
and  that  the  sun  turns  round  the  earth. 
This  is  wrong;  the  sacred  text  does  not 
teach  this  error.  The  ancient  interpreters, 
it  is  true,  thus  understood  the  words  of 
Josue  to  the  sun :  "  Move  not,  O  sun " 
(Jos.  x.  12),  but  they  were  deceived.  They 
mistook  a  popular  expression  for  the  ex- 
pression of  a  scientific  dogma,  and  we  can 
apply  to  them  the  words  of  St.  Augustine  : 
'■'■  Interpres  erravtt"  {Contra  Faustum, 
xi.  5). 

Thus,  ignorance  of  facts  and  surround- 
ings ;  the  unavoidable  imperfection  of  trans- 
lations ;  loss  of  the  original  text  of  several 
of  the  Sacred  Books;  peculiar  character- 
istics of  the  Hebrew  tongue;  inherent  im- 
potency  of  human  language  in  general  to 
render  all  the  shades  of  thought  and  mean- 
ing and  to  reproduce  a  complete  represen- 
tation of  the  facts ;  the  errors  of  the 
copyists, —  result  of  their  false  reading,  of 
their  negligence  or  distractions,  —  and, 
finally,  the  errors  of  interpreters  and  com- 
mentators concur  in  producing  the  majority 


INTROIT 


368 


Ireland 


of  the  apparent  or  real  difficulties  in  the 
study  of  Holy  Scripture,  and  which  give 
rise  to  numerous  objections  on  the  part  of 
its  enemies.     See  Faith  {Rule  of). 

Introit. — Words  said  in  the  Mass,  when 
the  priest  begins  the  celebration  of  the 
holy  sacrifice.  As  a  rule  it  consists  of  an 
antiphon,  a  verse  or  verses,  of  a  Psalm,  and 
the  Gloria  Patri.  Some  Introits,  called 
irregular,  are  taken  from  other  parts  of 
Scripture.  This  is  the  case  with  thirty-five 
of  the  one  hundred  and  fifty-nine  Introits 
in  the  Plan  Missal,  whilst  seven  others  are 
by  inspired  writers.  The  introduction  of 
the  Introits  is  attributed  by  some,  to  Pope 
St.  C destine,  by  others  to  St.  Gregory  the 
Great. 

Investiture  in  feudal  and  ecclesiastical 
history,  means  the  act  of  giving  corporal 
possession  of  a  manor,  office,  or  benefice, 
accompanied  by  a  certain  ceremonial,  such 
as  the  delivery  of  a  branch,  a  banner,  or  an 
instrument  of  office,  more  or  less  designed 
to  signify  the  power  or  authority  which  it 
is  supposed  to  convey.  As  to  the  contest 
about  ecclesiastical  investiture  see  Greg- 
ory VII. 

Ireland  {Christianity  in).  See  Pat- 
rick St. 

Ireland  {Protestantism  in). — Christian- 
ity was  introduced  into  Ireland  especially 
by  St.  Patrick  (see  Art.  Patrick).  Ire- 
land, at  first  independent,  came  gradually 
under  the  rule  of  England.  The  Protestant 
kings  sought  to  subjugate  and  proselytize 
the  whole  island.  The  first  seeds  of  the 
new  heresy  were  planted  by  Henry  VIII., 
who  was  declared  by  the  so-called  Irish 
parliament,  the  members  of  which  were 
selected  from  the  English  colonists,  sole 
and  supreme  ruler  of  the  Irish  Church. 
But  the  Irish  as  a  nation  oflFered  a  vigorous 
resistance  to  the  introduction  of  Protes- 
tantism. During  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  a 
systematic  and  atrocious  persecution  was 
carried  on  against  the  Catholics  in  Ireland. 
Among  those  who  suffered  martyrdom 
were  several  bishops  and  archbishops. 
Every  manner  of  violence  was  practiced 
under  the  form  of  law.  In  order  utterly  to 
destroy  the  Catholic  faith,  seminaries  and 
colleges  were  closed  by  the  government. 
Those  who  desired  a  liberal  education  were 
obliged  to  give  up  their  faith  or  cross  over 
to  the  Continent  where  seats  of  learning 
were  founded  for  the  Irish  Church.  Lqgs 
of  property,  exile,  and  slavery  became  the 


lot  of  Catholics.  A  wholesale  robbery  of 
property  was  inaugurated.  Under  Eliza- 
beth, 600,000  acres  of  land  were  confiscated ; 
under  James  I.,  950,000;  under  Charles  I., 
1,200,000;  under  Cromwell,  5,000,000; 
under  William  III.,  1,060,792.  The  Irish 
were  barely  permitted  to  remain  on  their 
former  possessions  as  laborers  and  servants 
of  their  oppressors.  But  despite  the  con- 
fiscation, rack,  and  scaffold,  priests  and 
people  remained  loyal  to  the  ancient  faith. 
During  the  reign  of  James  I.,  the  Irish 
people  hoped  to  obtain  some  degree  of 
religious  freedom,  but  their  hope  was 
frustrated,  when  the  king  in  an  act  of  in- 
demnity which  he  granted,  excluded  from 
its  benefits  "Papists  and  assassins."  In 
1605,  Catholic  services  were  prohibited  and 
all  priests  ordered  to  leave  the  country 
under  pain  of  death. 

These  persecutions  were  continued  with 
increased  violence  under  Charles  I.  (1625- 
1649).  This  prince,  though  married  to  a 
Catholic  queen,  listened  to  his  evil  advisers 
and  continued  the  oppression  of  the  Catho- 
lics. At  last  (1641)  a  formidable  uprising 
took  place  throughout  the  whole  island. 
Priests  and  people  united  in  the  defense  of 
their  religion.  The  conflict  was  maintained 
with  great  bitterness  until  1643  when  an 
armistice  known  as  "  The  Cessation,"  was 
concluded,  by  the  terms  of  which  Catholics 
were  promised  the  free  exercise  of  their 
religion.  Through  fear  of  the  Puritans, 
Charles  I.  did  not  dare  grant  the  just  de- 
mands of  the  Irish.  Yet  at  the  moment 
when  the  king  was  in  dispute  with  the 
English  parliament  and  threatened  by  his 
Scotch  subjects,  the  Irish  came  generously 
for\^'ard  to  relieve  his  necessities.  But 
justice  to  Ireland  was  no  part  of  the  policy 
of  the  English  government.  After  the 
death  of  Charles  I.,  Cromwell  landed  in 
Ireland  and  immediately  entered  upon  a 
career  of  the  most  violent  persecution. 
Priests,  citizens,  soldiers,  women,  and 
children  were  put  to  the  sword.  Nearly 
all  the  lands  belonging  to  Catholics  were 
confiscated  and  divided  among  his  soldiers. 
"  To  Hell  or  Connaught  "  was  Cromwell's 
reply  to  the  just  demands  of  the  Irish  peo- 
ple. Twenty  thousand  persons  were  trans- 
ported to  the  West  Indies  and  many 
thousand  more  to  the  American  colonies. 
A  prize  of  five  poimds  was  set  upon  the 
head  of  a  priest.  But  even  this  atrocious 
persecution  could  not  suppress  the  religion 
of  Ireland.  The  sufferings  of  the  people 
continued   under   Charles   II.     James  II., 


Ireland 


369 


IRENAEUS 


an  avowed  Catholic,  having  ascended  the 
throne  of  England  (1685),  granted  freedom 
of  worship  as  well  as  civil  and  political 
rights  to  the  Catholics.  But  this  happy 
change  was  of  short  duration,  for  James 
was  driven  from  the  throne  by  William, 
Prince  of  Orange,  who,  by  the  capitulation 
of  Limerick  (1690),  became  supreme  ruler 
of  the  entire  island.  Catholics  were  prom- 
ised freedom  of  conscience  and  peaceful 
enjoyment  of  their  possessions,  but  these 
conditions  of  the  treaty  were  soon  violated. 
William  of  Orange  began  a  persecution 
which  is  absolutely  without  a  parallel  in 
the  history  of  civilized  nations.  The  fol- 
lowing penal  laws  were  enacted  by  the 
Irish  parliament:  i.  No  Papist  shall  have 
the  power  to  bequeath  his  property.  If  a 
son  of  a  Catholic  family  turns  Protestant, 
he  shall  become  possessed  of  the  whole 
property  of  his  parents.  2.  No  Catholic 
shall  be  permitted  to  purchase  landed 
property,  he  shall  not  hold  in  fee  any 
property  purchased  or  inherited.  3.  Leases 
shall  not  be  held  for  longer  than  thirty 
years  and  the  tenant  shall  leave  two-thirds 
of  his  income  to  the  owner.  4.  No  Papist 
shall  own  a  horse  worth  more  than  five 
pounds.  Catholic  education  was  proscribed 
under  penalty  of  high  treason.  5.  The 
property  of  a  child  brought  up  in  the 
Catholic  religion  on  the  Continent,  shall 
be  confiscated.  6.  Papists  shall  be  excluded 
from  parliament  and  all  offices  of  State. 
7.  Attendance  at  Catholic  service  was  pro- 
hibited under  pain  of  banishment.  Priests 
were  forbidden,  under  penalty  of  death,  to 
solemnize  marriages  between  Catholics  and 
Protestants;  a  Protestant  heiress  who 
married  a  Catholic  was  punished  by  loss 
of  her  property;  a  woman  who  turned 
Protestant  might  separate  herself  from 
her  husband.  In  1697,  an  act  was  passed 
requiring  all  bishops  to  leave  the  country 
before  May,  1698;  their  return  rendered 
them  liable  to  capital  punishment;  the 
priests  were  allowed  to  remain,  but  under 
the  most  oppressive  supervision. 

During  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne  (1702- 
1714),  a  new  species  of  persecution  was 
inaugurated,  which  reminds  one  of  the 
Roman  persecutions  of  the  early  Chris- 
tians. Parliament  enacted  a  legislation 
that  could  not  be  equaled  in  cruelty.  Sev- 
eral acts  were  passed  utterly  to  root  out 
the  Catholic  faith  in  Ireland.  One  of  the 
acts  declared  guilty  of  high  treason  and 
subject  to  its  penalty,  any  one  who  should 
"harbor,  relieve,  conceal,  or  entertain 
24 


Catholic  priests  "  ;  another  act  was  passed 
entitled,  "A  bill  to  prevent  the  further 
growth  of  Papacy,"  etc.  These  laws  were 
directed  against  a  people  whose  only 
crime  was  loyalty  to  the  Catholic  faith. 
The  Irish  were  overburdened  with  taxes. 
They  were  compelled  to  pay  tithes  to  the 
bishops  and  pastors  of  the  Protestant  High 
Church,  and  in  addition  contribute  from 
their  indigence  to  the  support  of  their  own 
priests  who,  at  the  peril  of  their  lives, 
remained  in  their  midst.  Famine  and 
starvation  added  to  the  horrors  of  the  per- 
secution. To  be  a  Catholic  was  a  shame 
and  a  crime.  The  disgraceful  laws  re- 
mained in  force  until  the  war  of  Inde- 
pendence broke  out  in  America  (1775). 
Moved  by  fear,  the  English  government 
granted  some  concessions.  By  an  act  of 
parliament  of  1778,  the  Catholics  were  des- 
ignated "  Roman  Catholics  " ;  heretofore 
they  had  been  styled  "Papists"  or  "The 
common  enemy  "  ;  but  it  was  only  by  the 
Bill  of  Emancipation  (1829),  that  the  penal 
laws  were  abolished. 

Ireland  {^The  Church  in),  in  1898.  See 
next  page. 

Ireland  (John).  —  An  American  Catholic 
prelate;  born  in  Kilkenny,  Ireland,  Sept. 
nth,  1838;  emigrated  to  the  United  States 
when  a  child,  and  settled  in  Minnesota. 
On  Dec.  21st,  1861,  he  was  ordained  at  St. 
Paul,  Minnesota.  After  serving  as  an  army 
chaplain  he  became  rector  of  the  cathedral 
at  St.  Paul,  and  in  1875  was  made  coadju- 
tor bishop.  He  was  a  prominent  member 
of  the  Vatican  Council  of  1870;  engaged 
in  the  work  of  establishing  colonies  of 
Catholics  in  Minnesota  and  the  Northwest; 
and  was  made  archbishop  of  St.  Paul  in 
1888. 

Irenaeus  (St.).  —  Irenaeus,  born  between 
130-140  at  Smyrna,  in  Asia  Minor,  had, 
from  his  earliest  youth,  the  happiness  of 
being  instructed  by  St.  Polycarp  and  other 
apostolic  men.  His  deep  attachment  to  the 
Christian  doctrine  did  not  prevent  him 
from  studying  the  Greek  poets  and  philos- 
ophers, especially  Homer  and  Plato.  With 
a  view  to  missionary  work,  he  journeyed  to 
Gaul,  where  he  was  ordained  priest  by 
Photinus,  Bishop  of  Lyons,  who  suffered 
martyrdom  in  the.  persecution  of  Marcus 
Aurelius  (178).  Irenaeus  was  nominated  to 
succeed  him  as  bishop  by  Pope  Eleutherius, 
to  whom  he  had  been  sent  on  an  ecclesias- 
tical mission.     In  this  office  he  showed  un- 


Irene 


370 


Irregularity 


THE    CHURCH    IN    IRELAXD    IN    It 


-GENERAL    SUMMARY 


DIOCESES 


ARMAGH 

Ardagh 

Clogher 

Derry 

Down  and  Connor 

Dromore 

Kilmore 

Meath 

Raphoe  

DUBLIN 

Ferns  

Kildare  and  Leighlin 

Ossory 

CASHEL  and  Emly 

Cloyne 

Cork 

Kerry 

Killaloe 

Limerick 

Ross 

Waterford  and  Lismore.  . .  . 

TUAM 

Achonry 

Clonfert 

Elphin 

Galway,  Kilmacduagh  and 

Kilfenora 

Killala 


Total 


25 


53 
3« 
38 
37 
51 
17 
40 
64 

23 
63 

39 
46 

33 
44 
45 
33 
49 
54 
46 

9 
36 

44 
20 

17 
33 

29 
20 


1,020 


91 
53 
66 
70 
87 
33 
61 
78 

45 
216 
78 
84 
73 
63 
92 

"5 
67 

88 

75 
18 
81 
75 
30 
25 
67 

19 

15 


1,865 


38 
3 


15 


254 
18 

25 


42 

7 
16 
40 


47 

2 


566 


182 

94 
104 
107 
142 

54 

lOI 

157 
68 

532 
135 
155 
116 
118 

137 
190 
123 
158 
161 
27 
164 

131 
50 
52 

103 

65 

35 


3.451 


55 
41 
40 

38 
53 
18 
42 
66 
26 
65 
41 
49 
40 
46 
47 
35 
50 
57 
48 
II 

39 
52 
22 
24 
34 

30 

22 


1,091 


155 
79 
87 
78 

no 
42 
90 

144 
53 

185 
92 

164 
96 

84 

103 

70 

99 

H3 

94 

22 

76 

"5 

41 

46 

98 

53 
39 


2458 


164,383 
112,523 
1 16,429 

132,731 
146,319 

47,190 

125,197 
148,418 
102,609 
384,566 
106,650 
142,193 
92,399 
122,727 

147,381 
178,972 
190,017 

153,513 
119,994 
52,622 
128,459 
212,977 

89,545 

45,526 

139,338 

76,328 
68,302 


3,547,207 


tiring  zeal  and  energy  for  the  good  of  the 
Churches  in  Gaul.  Moreover,  by  means  of 
his  writings,  in  defense  of  the  unity  and 
purity  of  the  faith,  which  was  endangered 
by  the  Gnostics,  he  made  his  influence  felt 
far  beyond  the  limits  of  Gaul.  Finally,  he 
proved  himself  worthy  of  his  name  {Eiren- 
aios,  the  Peaceful)  by  effecting  a  happy 
compromise  between  the  East  and  the  West 
in  the  dispute  concerning  Easter,  which 
had  gone  so  far  as  to  cause  an  open  rupture 
between  the  two  sections  of  the  Church. 
In  the  great  persecution  under  Septimius 
Severus,  the  shepherd  suffered  martyrdom 
with  many  of  his  flock  (June  28th,  202). 
Of  his  writings,  only  fragments  remain, 
with  the  exception  of  the  work  Against 
Heresies  (Adversus  Hcereses)  in  five  books, 
which  he  wrote  principally  to  refute  the 
Gnostic  heresies.  The  existing  Latin  ver- 
sion is  very  ancient  and  accurate  and  was 


used  even  by  TertuUian.  In  this  work  the 
author  discusses  nearly  all  the  Catholic 
dogmas;  among  others,  Tradition,  the 
Primacy  of  the  Roman  See,  the  Incarna- 
tion, the  Holy  Eucharist,  the  Sacrifice  of 
the  Mass,  and  the  Resurrection.  F.  June 
28th. 

Irene  (752-803).  —  Empress  of  Con- 
stantinople, born  at  Athens.  She  married 
in  769  the  imperial  prince  Leo,  son  of 
Constantine  V.  Copronymus,  who  suc- 
ceeded to  his  father  in  775.  Regent  at  the 
death  of  her  husband,  she  stopped  the 
Iconoclast  persecution,  then  assembled,  in 
787,  a  Council  at  Nice,  which  restored  the 
veneration  of  images. 

Irregularity  in  the  Church,  is  an  infrac- 
tion of  the  rules  governing  admission  to 
the  clerical  office  and  discharge  of  its 
functions ;  a  canonical  impediment  to  re- 


IRVINGITES 


371 


Isidore  Mercator 


ception  of  orders,  exercise  of  clerical 
functions,  or  advancement  in  the  Church. 
Irregularities  are  classed  as  (i)  Ex  de- 
fectu,  from  defect  of  mind,  body,  birth, 
age,  liberty,  the  sacrament  (that  is,  of 
marriage,  including  previous  bigamy, 
etc.),  lenity  (involved  in  previous  military 
service,  homicide,  etc.),  and  reputation 
(from  notorious  crime,  judicial  sentence, 
etc.) ;  and  (2)  Ex  delicto,  from  reception 
of  heretical  baptism  or  ordination,  heresy, 
murder,  etc. 

Irvingites.  —  Members  of  a  Protestant 
sect  deriving  its  name  from  Edward  Ir- 
ving (1792-1834),  a  minister  of  the  Church 
of  Scotland,  who  was  settled  in  London  in 
1822,  promulgated  mystical  doctrines,  and 
was  excommunicated  in  1833.  Irving  was 
not  the  founder  of  the  sect  popularly 
called  after  him,  but  accepted  and  pro- 
moted the  spread  of  the  principles  upon 
which,  after  his  death,  the  sect  was 
formed.  Its  proper  name  is  the  "  Catholic 
Apostolic  Church,"  and  it  has  an  elabo- 
rate organization  derived  from  its  twelve 
"  apostles,"  the  first  body  of  whom  was 
organized  in  1835.  It  recognizes  the  or- 
ders of  apostles,  prophets,  evangelists, 
pastors  or  "angels,"  elders,  deacons,  etc. 
It  lays  especial  stress  on  the  early  creeds, 
the  Eucharist,  prophecies,  and  gift  of 
tongues.  It  has  an  extremely  ritualistic 
service  and  an  elaborate  liturgy.  The 
adherents  are  not  numerous,  and  are 
found  chiefly  in  Great  Britain.  There  are 
some  on  the  continent  of  Europe  and  in 
the  United  States. 

Isaac.  —  A  Hebrew  patriarch  and  pas- 
toral chief ;  was  the  son  of  Abraham  and 
Sara,  and  half-brother  of  Ismael.  His 
birth  happened  when  both  his  parents 
were  advanced  in  age.  The  incidents  of 
his  life,  as  recorded  in  Genesis  (xxi ;  xxiv- 
xxviii ;  xxxv,  27),  are  well  known.  He  died 
at  Hebron,  aged  180  years,  leaving  two 
sons,  Esau  and  Jacob. 

Isaac  of  Antioch. — Abbot  of  a  monas- 
tery near  Antioch;  flourished  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  fifth  century.  He  has  written 
many  works  in  Syriac:  treatises  against 
the  Nestorians  and  Eutychians,  and  poems 
on  the  sack  of  Rome  by  Alaric  (410),  on 
the  overthrow  of  Antioch  by  an  earth- 
quake (459),  etc. 

Isaac  the  Parthian.  —  Patriarch  of  Ar- 
menia, from  390  to  440,  son  of  Nerses  the 
Great,  born  at  Constantinople.     He  trans- 


lated the  Bible  into  the  Armenian  language 
and  composed  hymns  which  are  still  sung 
in  the  Armenian  Church. 

Isaias  {Wehx.  salvation  of  Jehovah). — 
The  first  of  the  four  great  Jewish  prophets. 
Died  in  the  year  700  b.  c.  We  have  few 
details  about  his  life.  He  must  have  been 
of  the  kingdom  of  Juda,  because,  in  his 
prophecies,  he  has  in  view  only  this  king- 
dom, and  Jerusalem  appears  to  have  been 
the  theatre  of  his  prophetic  activity.  The 
Book  of  Isaias  may  be  divided  into  two 
parts.  The  first  occupies  itself  especially 
with  the  present  and  a  near  future,  al- 
though sometimes  the  prophet  casts  a 
glance  into  the  most  remote  future  and 
foresees  the  time  of  the  Messias.  The 
second  part  occupies  itself  entirely  with 
the  Captivity  of  the  Jews,  the  deliverance 
of  the  people,  the  restoration  and  glorifica- 
tion of  the  theocracy  by  the  Messias ;  these 
prophecies  have  as  much  importance  for 
the  future  races  as  for  his  contemporaries. 

Isboseth.  —  Son  and  successor  of  Saul, 
reigned  during  seven  years  (1056-1049 
B.  c,  while  David  reigned  at  Hebron), 
over  the  sole  tribe  of  Juda,  and  perished, 
assassinated  by  two  Benjamites. 

Isidore  (St.)  (570-636).  —  Theologian 
and  chronicler;  was  born  at  Carthagena  in 
Spain,  of  which  city  his  father  Severianus 
was  prefect.  He  was  a  brother  of  Ful- 
gentius  of  Carthagena  and  of  St.  Leander  of 
Seville,  succeeding  the  later  as  bishop 
(600).  He  presided  at  the  synods  of  Se- 
ville and  Toledo,  in  619  and  633.  He  was 
declared  a  Doctor  of  the  Church  in  1828. 
Isidore  was  undoubtedly  the  greatest  man 
and  most  erudite  scholar  of  his  time.  His 
most  important  work  entitled  Originum 
sive  Ethymologiarum  Libri  XX,  is  a  kind 
of  encyclopaedia  of  the  arts  and  sciences 
then  known.  His  other  works  deserving 
mention  are  Chronicon,  or  history  of  the 
world,  from  the  Creation  to  the  year  626; 
a  Chronicon,  or  history  of  the  Visigoths, 
from  A.  D.  172  to  628;  and  a  Book  of  Ec- 
clesiastical Writers,  a  continuation  of  a 
similar  work  composed  by  St.  Jerome  and 
Gennadius,  to  which  he  added  the  names 
of  thirty-three  other  authors.  The  collec- 
tion of  canons,  formerly  ascribed  to  him, 
is  not  his  work.  With  St.  Isidore  closes 
the  line  of  the  Latin  Fathers  of  the  Church. 
F.  April  4th. 

Isidore  Mercator  or  Peccator.  —  Com- 
piler of  the  ninth  century,  whose  real  name 


Isidore  of  Alexandria 


372 


Itinerary 


is  unknown  and  to  whom  was  attributed,for 
a  long  time,  a  collection  of  canons  and 
decretals,  which  contains  a  great  number 
of  apocryphal  pieces. 

Isidore  (St.)  of  Alexandria  (318-404) 
Surnamed  the  "Hospitaller." — Born  in 
Egypt,  died  at  Constantinople.  Monk  of 
the  Thebaid,  to  whom  St.  Athanasius, 
after  having  ordained  him  priest,  intrusted 
the  care  of  the  poor  and  strangers  in  the 
city  of  Alexandria ;  was  a  target  for  the 
persecution  of  the  Arians.     F.  Jan.  15th. 

Isidore  of  Pelusium  (St.).— Abbott,  was 
born  at  Alexandria  about  370.  He  appears 
to  have  been  a  lawyer  before  he  conse- 
crated himself  to  the  monastic  life  and  the 
study  of  Holy  Scripture.  His  profound 
knowledge  and  love  of  dogma,  as  well  as 
his  method  of  interpretation,  together 
with  other  circumstances,  would  point  to 
the  fact  that  he  was  probably  taught, 
among  others,  by  St.  John  Chrysostom.  In 
consideration  of  his  excellent  qualities,  he 
was  elected  abbot  of  the  monks  who  dwelt 
on  a  mountain  near  Pelusium,  and  whom 
he  guided  by  word  and  example  in  the 
way  of  perfection.  His  strict  asceticism, 
refined  education,  and  profound  erudition, 
earned  for  him  a  wide-spread  reputation, 
not  only  among  the  clergy,  but  also  among 
all  classes  of  the  laity.  He  used  his  great 
influence  for  the  good  of  the  Church, 
everywhere  upholding  the  orthodox  faith 
and  giving  salutary  counsels.  He  admon- 
ished the  Emperor  Theodosius  II.  to  main- 
tain order  at  the  Council  of  Ephesus, 
warned  Cyril  of  Alexandria  against  the 
proceedings  of  his  crafty  uncle,  Theophi- 
lus,  and  addressed  earnest  remonstrances 
even  to  bishops,  a  proceeding  by  which  he 
naturally  made  some  enemies.  At  the 
Council  of  Ephesus,  he  occupied  the  posi- 
tion of  a  mediator  between  the  two  extreme 
parties.  Having  labored  and  suffered 
much  for  the  faith,  he  died  in  440,  in  the 
odor  of  sanctity.      F.  Feb.  4th. 

Of  St.  Isidore's  writings  there  are  ex- 
tant 2,012  epistles,  in  five  books,  generally 
brief,  but  written  with  grace,  spirit,  and 
unction,  and  containing  excellent  counsels 
and  principles,  grave  admonitions,  and 
rebukes,  as  well  as  information  on  dog- 
matical and  exegetical  subjects. 

Ismael. — The  son  of  Abraham  by  Ha- 
gar,  and  the  ancestor  of  the  Ismaelites 
(1056-1049  B.  c),  from  whom  are  descended 
the  modern  Arabs  of  the  desert,  or  Bed- 


ouins.    His  history   is  contained  in  Gen- 
esis (xvL  and  xvii.). 

Islam.     See  Mohammedanism. 

Israel  (Kingdom  of).  — One  of  the  two 
kingdoms  formed  in  Palestine  in  the  time 
of  Roboam,  when  this  prince  refused  to 
lower  the  taxes  imposed  by  his  father.  It 
comprised  ten  tribes  :  Aser,  Dan,  Ephraim, 
Gad,  Issachar,  Manasses,  Nephtali,  Ruben, 
Simeon,  and  Zabulon.  TTiey  placed  at 
their  head  Jeroboam,  who  made  Samaria 
his  capital.  In  718,  Salmanasar,  king  of 
Assyria,  took  Samaria,  and  reduced  its  in- 
habitants into  bondage.  Thus  ended  the 
kingdom  of  Israel :  it  had  lasted  244  years. 
For  the  kings  of  Israel,  see  Chronology. 

Issachar.  — Fifth  son  of  Jacob  and  Lia. 
The  tribe  of  Issachar,  whose  father  he  be- 
came, settled  between  the  tribe  of  Zabulon 
in  the  North,  the  half-tribe  of  Manasses  in 
the  West  and  South,  and  the  Jordan  in  the 
East. 

Itala.  —  The  name  of  the  oldest  Latin 
translation  of  the  Bible.     See  Bible. 

Italy  (  Worship  in).  —  Almost  the  entire 
peninsula  belongs  to  the  Catholic  worship : 
some  valleys  of  the  Alps,  on  the  side  of 
Pignerol  (22,000  inhabitants),  are  Walden- 
ses  and  have  a  Church  at  Turin.  Some 
Albanians  of  the  United  Greek  rite  live  on 
the  southern  shores  of  the  Adriatic;  the 
number  of  Israelites  is  hardly  38,000  and 
that  of  Protestants  42,000.  The  Cath- 
olics number  29,843,407.  The  American 
Methodists  have,  since  1874,  t^^o  Churches 
in  Rome.  The  Catholic  worship  counts 
64  archbishops,  204  bishops,  120,000  mem- 
bers of  the  clergy,  and  20,000  parishes. 
The  Catholic  religion  is  acknowledged  as 
the  religion  of  the  State ;  the  other  forms 
of  religious  worship  are  merely  tolerated. 

Ite  Missa  Est.  —  Latin  words  which  sig- 
nify. Go,  leave  is  given  to  depart,  and 
which  the  priest  says  at  the  end  of  Mass. 

Ithacius. — Bishop  of  Ossonoba,  in  Spain ; 
showed  great  zeal  against  the  Priscillian- 
ists;  but  having  abused  his  influence  with 
the  Emperor  Maximus,  who  caused  them 
to  be  condemned  to  death,  he  was  blamed 
and  several  bishops  separated  themselves 
from  his  communion. 

Itinerary. —  A  form  of  prayer  intended 
for  the  use  of  clerics  when  setting  out  on 
a  journey. 


ITURAEA 


373 


Jamblichus 


Ituraea. —  In  ancient  geography,  a  dis- 
trict lying  northeast  of  Palestine.  Its  loca- 
tion has  not  been  precisely  determined, 
but  it  was  probably  southwest  of  Damascus 
and  southeast  of  Mount  Hermon. 

Ivo  (St.)  (1040-1116). — Bishop  of  Chart- 
res  in  1091.  King  Philip  I.  imprisoned 
him,  because  the  saint  punished  him  on 


account  of  his  adulterous  relations  with 
Bertrade.  When  Philip  was  excommuni- 
cated, Ivo  effected  his  absolution.  In  the 
Contest  of  Investitures,  he  sided  with 
Rome,  but  courageously  reproached  the 
faults  of  the  papal  legates.  His  works, 
among  which  his  Letters  are  of  great  in- 
terest, are  found  in  Migne's  Pat.  Lat. 
CLVII-CLXI. 


Jabbok. —  In  Bible  geography,  a  moun- 
tain stream  of  Galaad,  Palestine,  joining 
the  Jordan  about  25  miles  north  of  the 
Dead  Sea. 

Jabes-Galaad. —  In  Bible  geography,  an 
important  town  in  Galaad,  Palestine.  Its 
situation  has  not  been  identified.  Here 
Saul  won  a  victory  over  the  Ammonites. 

Jabin. —  1.  A  king  of  Asor  in  Palestine; 
defeated  by  Josue,  at  the  waters  of  Merom 
(Jos.  xi.  1-3).  2.  A  king  of  Asor,  whose 
general,  Sisara,  was  defeated  by  Barac 
(Jud.  iv.).  The  accounts  of  these  two 
kings  and  of  their  overthrow  are  very  much 
alike,  and  probably  relate  to  the  same  per- 
son and  event. 

Jachin. —  i.  The  fourth  son  of  Simeon 
(Gen.  xlvi.  10).  2.  A  priest,  head  of  the 
2ist  course,  in  the  time  of  David.  3.  A  col- 
umn set  up  in  the  court  of  Solomon's 
temple.     Its  companion  was  named  Boaz. 

Jacob  (Hebr.  suf planter,  heel-holder). — 
Hebrew  patriarch.  Son  of  Isaac  and  Re- 
becca, and  twin  brother  of  Esau.  Jacob, 
having  taken  advantage  of  his  brother's 
weakness,  and  of  his  father's  infirmity,  to 
obtain  his  brother's  birthright  and  the  bless- 
ing of  primogeniture,  was  compelled  to  flee 
into  Mesopotamia,  to  avoid  the  consequences 
of  his  brother's  wrath.  During  his  journey 
the  Lord  appeared  to  him  in  a  dream,  prom- 
ised him  His  protection,  and  declared  His 
purpose  relative  to  his  descendants  pos- 
sessing the  land  of  Chanaan,  and  the  de- 
scent of  the  Messias  through  him.  His 
subsequent  history  and  death,  after  resid- 
ing for  many  years  in  Egypt,  is  given  in 
Genesis  (xxix.).  The  date  of  Jacob's  im- 
migration into  Egypt  is  given  by  Brugsch 
as  about  the  year  1730  b.  c. 


Jacobins.  —  Name  sometimes  given  to 
the  black  or  Dominican  friars ;  so  called 
from  the  Church  of  St.  Jacque  (Jacobus), 
in  which  they  were  first  established  in 
Paris. 

Jacobites.  —  Members  of  a  Christian 
sect  in  Syria,  Mesopotamia,  etc.,  originally 
an  offshoot  of  the  Monophysites.  The  sect 
takes  its  name  from  Jacobus  Bardanseus,  a 
Syrian,  consecrated  bishop  of  Edessa 
about  the  year  541.  The  head  of  the 
Church  is  called  Patriarch  of  Antioch.  In 
1442  the  Jacobites  of  Syria  were  received 
into  Catholic  communion. 

Jacob's  Well. — A  well,  near  Sichem, 
where  Jesus  conversed  with  the  Samaritan 
woman.  It  seems  to  be  identical  with  the 
Bir  Yakub,  still  existing  near  Nablus.  An 
uninterrupted  tradition,  admitted  by  the 
Christians,  Jews,  Samaritans  and  Moham- 
medans, makes  its  origin  go  back  to  the 
patriarch  whose  name  it  has  preserved, 
and  which  he  dug  near  his  dwelling-place, 
before  his  sons  had  slain  the  Sichemites. 
It  is  also  called  "  Samaritan  Well,"  because, 
on  its  curb  which  surrounded  it,  our 
Saviour  was  sitting,  when  He  held,  with 
the  Samaritan  woman,  that  wonderful  con- 
versation related  in  St.  John  (iv.  5-12). 
Over  this  well  they  had  formerly  erected 
a  church  in  the  form  of  a  cross ;  to-day  it 
is  inclosed  in  a  small  vaulted  crypt,  an 
ancient  chapel. 

Jahel.  —  A  Jewess  who  killed  Sisara, 
general  of  King  Jabin,  of  Asor,  by  driving 
a  nail  into  his  head,  while  he  was  asleep. 

Jamblichus.  —  A  Neoplatonic  philoso- 
pher, died  about  333  a.  d.  Disciple  of 
Porphyrins;  like  his  master,  he  applied 
the  Neoplatonic  philosophy  in  the  support 


James  the  Elder 


374 


Jansenius 


of  paganism.     Among   his   disciples   was 
the  Emperor  Julian  the  Apostate. 

James  the  Elder.  —  One  of  the  twelve 
Apostles,  born  at  Bethsaida  in  Galilee. 
Brother  of  John  the  Evangelist,  and  son  of 
Zebedee  and  Salome.  James  and  John 
were  originally  fishermen,  with  Zebedee 
their  father.  They  were  witnesses  of  our 
Lord's  transfiguration,  and  when  certain 
Samaritans  refused  to  receive  Him,  James 
-  and  John  wished  for  fire  from  heaven  to 
consume  them.  For  this  reason,  it  is 
thought,  the  name  of  Boanerges  (sons  o/ 
thunder),  was  afterwards  given  to  them. 
After  the  ascension  of  our  Lord,  at  which 
James  was  present,  he  appears  to  have  re- 
mained at  Jerusalem,  and  was  put  to  death 
by  Herod,  about  A.  d.  42  or  44. 

James  the  Less.  —  One  of  the  twelve 
Apostles,  born  at  Cana.  Cousin  of  our 
Lord  and  son  of  Alpheus  and  Mary,  the 
sister  of  the  Blessed  Virgin.  He  was  left 
alone  to  direct  the  Christian  communities 
in  Palestine,  and  particularly  the  Church 
of  Jerusalem,  which  city  he  probably  never 
left.  On  account  of  his  eminent  sanctity 
and  austerity  of  life,  he  was  called  the 
"Just"  and  was  held  in  universal  esteem 
both  by  Jews  and  Christians.  According 
to  Josephus  Flavius,  James,  with  some 
other  Christians,  was  stoned,  by  order  of 
the  high-priest  Ananus,  in  62  or  63;  while 
Hegesippus  tells  us,  that  he  was  cast  down 
from  the  pinnacle  of  the  temple  and  struck 
dead  with  a  fuller's  club  about  the  year  69. 
The  Epistle  of  St.  James,  written  about 
the  year  59,  principally  combats  the  error 
of  those  who  taught  that  faith  without  good 
works  was  sufficient,  and  vigorously  pro- 
tests against  the  love  of  riches. 

Jansenius  (Cornelius)  and  Jansenism. 
—  Jansenius  was  born  at  Acquoy,  Holland, 
^"  1585  ;  died  in  1638.  Professor  at  Louvain, 
then  bishop  of  Ypres.  Being  averse  to 
the  theological  views  of  the  Jesuits,  he 
concerted  with  his  friend  Hauranne,  Abbot 
of  St.  Cyran,  a  new  system  of  doctrine 
concerning  the  working  of  divine  grace. 
He  published  his  system  in  a  book  which, 
from  St.  Augustine,  of  whose  doctrine,  the 
work  as  he  professed,  attempted  to  give  a 
faithful  statement,  is  entitled  Augustinus. 
The  book  is  in  three  parts :  the  first  con- 
tains a  history  of  the  Pelagian  heresy;  the 
second  and  third  treat  of  grace,  fallen 
nature,  and  the  Semi-Pelagian  errors. 
Pope   Urban   VIIL,   in    1624,    condemned 


the  work  as  reviving  the  errors  of  Baius ; 
and  Innocent   X.,  in   1653,  denounced,  as 
heretical,  five  propositions,  to  which  the 
errors   of   Jansenius  were  reduced.      The 
Jansenists  were  willing  to  admit  that  the 
five   condemned   propositions   were   false, 
but  they  denied  that  the  book  of  Jansenius 
contained  them  in  the  sense  condemned, — 
a  question  of  fact,  on  which,  as  they  main- 
tained, the  Church  might  err.     Alexander 
Vn.,  however,  in   1656,  declared  that  the 
five  propositions  were  contained  in  Augus- 
tinus, and  were  condemned  in  the  sense  in 
which  the  author  used  them.      The  per- 
nicious contest  was  now  laid  to  rest  for  a 
long  time ;  till  in  the  year  1702,  "  the  Case  of 
Conscience"    invented    by   the   Jansenists 
was  brought  forward.     A  new  act  of  the 
Jansenistic  drama  began  with  the  censure 
of   the    Moral   Reflections    of   the    orato- 
rian  Pasquier  Quesnel,  who,  under  a  very 
artful  disguise,  sought  to  disseminate  the 
Galilean  errors  and  those  of  the  Jansenists. 
Pope  Clement  XL  was  not  slow  in  adopt- 
ing repressive  measures  against  the  daring 
sectaries.    In  the  celebrated  Bull  Unigeni- 
tus,  of  1713,  he  condemed  loi  propositions 
from  Quesnel's  work  as  false,  impious,  and 
even  heretical.     The  hearty  acceptance  of 
the  last  Bull  was  long  the  badge  of  a  faith- 
ful son  of  the  Church ;  and  at  the  present 
day,  after  the  Vatican  decree  on  Papal  In- 
fallibility, no   one   can   fail   to   receive  it 
without  obviously  forfeiting  the  name  of 
Catholic.     The  propositions  of  Jansenius, 
condemned   by   Pope    Innocent  X.   were: 
"  Man,  created  innocent  and  pure,  like  the 
angels,  had  then  the  original,  natural,  and 
essential  grace ;  sin  troubled  and  ravaged 
his  nature;  but  Christ  came  to  restore  him 
by  a  new  grace  {gratia  medicina/is) ,  which 
has  drawn  him  out  of  bondage.  This  grace 
which    is    efficacious,    irresistible,    always 
victorious,  is,  however,  not  given  to  all, 
for  it  is  gratuitous,  and  those  who  have  it 
not,   fall    under  the  stroke  of   perdition ; 
man    is,   therefore,    dragged    toward    the 
good  or  evil  by  a  force  superior  to  his  will. 
Many  French  Jansenists  having  fled  to 
Holland,  with  the  assistance  of  the  Vicar 
Apostolic  Peter  Kodde.  and  Dominic  Var- 
let,  titular  Bishop  of  Babylon,  they  formed 
an  independent  Church,  with  Utrecht  as  a 
center.     The  Jansenist  Church  of  Holland 
continues  to  the  present  day.     It  numbers 
less  than  five  thousand  souls  and  is  ruled 
by  one  archbishop  and   two  bishops.      In 
point  of  doctrine  and  discipline  the  Dutch 
Jansenists  remain  just  where  they  were  at 


Janssen 


375 


Jechonias 


the  time  of  their  separation  from  the 
Catholic  Church.  They  protested,  how- 
ever, against  the  definition  of  the  Immacu- 
late Conception  and  Papal  Infallibility. 

Janssen  (John).  —  Catholic  historian, 
born  at  Xanten  (Westphalia)  in  1846;  died 
in  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  Dec.  21st,  1891. 
Doctor  of  philosophy  in  the  University  of 
Bonn  (1851) ;  professor  of  history  in  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main ;  ordained  priest  in  i860. 
He  became  widely  known  by  his  GescJiichfe 
des  Deutschen  Volkes  Seit  dem  Ausgang 
des  Mittelalters  (1876-88),  a  history  of  the 
German  people  from  the  close  of  the 
Middle  Ages  to  the  beginning  of  the  Thirty 
Years'  War.  This  work  is  unquestionably 
one  of  the  most  important  historical  mon- 
uments of  our  time. 

Januarius  (St.). — Patron  of  Naples,  born 
in  that  city,  died  in  305.  Bishop  of  Bene- 
vento,  was  martyred  under  Diocletian. 
His  remains  were  brought  to  Naples,  where 
the  cathedral  was  dedicated  to  him.  When- 
ever Naples  is  threatened  by  some  ca- 
lamity, his  relics  are  carried  in  solemn 
procession ;  they  repeatedly  stopped  the 
ravages  of  Vesuvius.  In  the  same  church 
is  kept  the  head  of  this  saint,  as  also  a  part 
of  his  blood  contained  in  two  very  ancient 
phials.  The  blood  is  congealed,  but  when  it 
is  brought  near  the  martyr's  head  it  melts 
and  flows  like  the  blood  of  a  living  man. 
F.  Sept.  19th. 

Japan  {Christianity  in). — Francis  Xav- 
ier  went  to  preach  the  Gospel  in  Japan. 
In  1582  the  number  of  Christians  already 
reached  200,000  and  200  churches  were 
enumerated.  In  1587  the  missionaries 
were  expelled,  the  converts  were  perse- 
cuted, and  Japan  closed  to  foreigners. 
However,  in  spite  of  all  persecutions, 
twenty-five  years  later,  the  Christians 
numbered  750,000.  In  1639,  all  Europeans, 
except  the  Dutch,  were  forbidden  to  enter 
Japan,  even  for  trade,  and  then,  only  on 
condition  of  their  trampling  upon  the 
Cross,  to  which  the  heretical  Hollanders 
had  readily  acquiesced.  Thousands  of 
Japanese  converts  were  put  to  death.  In 
1838,  4,000  Christians  were  drowned  in 
the  sea,  and  many  others  were  subjected 
to  the  most  horrible  torments.  The  fright- 
ful persecutions  of  Christians  in  Japan 
rests  chiefly  with  the  Dutch  Calvinists, 
who,  out  of  commercial  jealousy  and  ha- 
tred of  the  Catholic  religion,  accused  the 
Catholic  missionaries  of  a  conspiracy  with 


the  Portuguese  and  Spaniards  against  the 
Japanese  government.  It  was  the  Dutch, 
who  in  1638,  at  the  request  of  the  Japanese 
government,  bombarded  Simabara,  where 
37,000  Christians  who,  to  save  themselves 
had  taken  refuge  within  its  walls.  Thus 
the  intrigues  and  crimes  of  the  Dutch 
Protestants  assisted  in  ruining  a  once 
flourishing  Church,  and  in  securing  the 
triumph  of  paganism.  When  Japan  was 
opened  to  Europeans  some  years  ago,  the 
astounding  fact  was  announced  that,  after 
more  than  two  centuries  of  utter  abandon- 
ment. Catholic  Christians  were  still  to  be 
found  in  the  interior  of  the  empire,  who, 
instructed  by  catechists  only,  had  pre- 
served their  faith  under  the  most  trying 
circumstances.  To-day,  there  are  two 
Vicariates  Apostolic  in  Japan. 

Japhet. —  Eldest  son  of  Noe,  brother  of 
Sem  and  Cham,  and  father  of  the  people 
of  the  North,  that  is,  of  the  north  of  Asia 
and  most  of  Europe  (in  general,  of  the  so- 
called  Indo-European  race). 

Jason. — I.  High-priest  of  theJews,brother 
of  Onias,  whom  he  robbed  of  the  high- 
priesthood,  by  buying  this  dignity  (175  B.  c.) 
from  King  Antiochus  Epiphanes;  was  sup- 
planted in  the  same  manner  two  years  later 
by  his  brother  Menelaus.  2.  yason  of  Cy- 
rene.  —  Jewish  historian  of  the  second 
century  B.  c.  Wrote:  History  of  the  Per- 
secutions of  the  Kings  of  Syria  against 
the  fe-ws,  a  lost  work,  but  the  Second  Book 
of  the  Machabees  is  an  extant  abridgment 
of  Jason's  work.  3.  fason  of  Thessalonica. 
—  Bishop  of  Tarsus  in  Cilicia,  in  the  first 
century  of  the  Christian  era.  Relative  of 
St.  Paul;  saved  the  Apostle's  life  during  an 
insurrection  raised  against  St.  Paul  at 
Thessalonica.  The  Greeks  celebrate  his 
feast,  April  28th. 

Javan.  —  Fourth  son  of  Japhet  and  father 
of  the  lonians  or  Greeks.  He  had  four 
sons  :  Elisa,  Tharsis,  Cethim,  and  Dodanim 
or  Rhodanim,  who  peopled  Elida,  Cilicia, 
Macedonia,  and  the  countries  of  Rhodes. 

Jebusites.  —  A  Chanaanite  nation  which 
long  withstood  the  Israelites.  The  strong- 
hold of  the  Jebusites  was  Jebus  on  Mount 
Zion,  a  part  of  the  site  of  Jerusalem,  of 
which  they  were  dispossessed  by  David. 

Jechonias.  —  King  of  Juda,  nephew  of 
Josias  and  son  of  Joakim,  king  of  Juda, 
who  associated  him  to  the  throne  at  the 
age  of  eight  years.     After  the  death  of  his 


Jehovah 


376 


Jericho 


father  (599)  he  reigned  alone  only  three 
months  and  ten  days :  Nabuchodonosor, 
having  taken  Jerusalem,  led  him  away  cap- 
tive to  Babylon.  Jeremias  says  that  he  in- 
curred the  indignation  of  the  Lord  through 
his  crimes,  and  called  him  Barren,  because 
none  of  his  children  reigned  over  Jeru- 
salem. 

Jehovah  (Hebr./fl»»  Wkoam)(F,x.  iii.  14- 
16). — The  correct  pronunciation  is  prob- 
ably Jat'eh,  whence  the  abbreviation  Jah. 
Its  meaning  is  that  God  is  the  One  Who  is, 
purely  and  simply;  Whose  being  is  de- 
pendent on  no  earthly  cause ;  Who,  there- 
fore, can  neither  be  limited  nor  changed 
by  anything,  and  Who,  by  reason  of  this 
mode  of  existence,  is  distinguished  from 
all  other  beings,  real  or  possible,  especially 
from  all  pretended  divinities.  Hence  it  is 
in  the  strictest  sense  of  the  word  a  proper 
name,  such  as  Moses  asked  for  in  order  to 
make  known  to  the  people  the  character- 
istic name  of  the  God  (Elokim)  of  their 
fathers.  As  the  name  Jehovah  was  in  xise 
before  the  time  of  Moses,  the  question  arises 
as  to  the  sense  in  which  God  said  to  Moses 
(Ex.  vi.  3)  that  he  appeared  to  Abraham,^ 
Isaac,  and  Jacob  by  the  name  of  God  Al- 
mighty {El  Schadai).  and  did  not  reveal  to 
them  His  name  Jehovah.  The  best  solution 
of  the  difficulty  is,  perhaps,  that  Jehovah 
was  His  most  appropriate  name,  and  that  it 
was,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  adopted  by  Him 
to  serve  as  a  symbol  and  watchword  of  the 
public  worship  of  the  one  God,  whereas 
El  Schadai  expresses  more  accurately  the 
relation  of  God  to  the  families  of  the  Patri- 
archs as  their  powerful  protector. 

Jehu. — I.  King  bf  Israel  from  884  to  856 
B.C.  At  first,  officer  in  the  army  of  Joram  ; 
anointed  king  by  order  of  the  prophet 
Eliseus ;  destroyed  the  whole  family  of 
the  impious  Achab.  He,  having  allowed 
himself  to  be  dragged  into  idolatry,  was 
conquered  by  Hazael,  king  of  Syria.  He 
had  for  successor  his  son  Joachaz.  2. 
Jehu. —  Son  of  Hanani.  A  prophet  of  Juda, 
in  the  time  of  Josaphat  (877-853  B.C.). 

Jephte. — A  chieftain  and  judge  of  Israel, 
whose  history  is  given  in  Judges  (xi.-xii.). 
When  he  went  to  battle  against  the  Am- 
monites, he  vowed  that  whosoever  should 
come  forth  first  from  his  home  to  meet  him 
on  his  return  "  in  peace  from  the  children  of 
Ammon  "  should  be  oflFered  as  a  burnt  of- 
fering. The  Ammonites  were  routed,  and 
as  Jephte  returned,  the  first  to  come  out  to 


meet  him,  was  his  daughter  and  only  child, 
whom  he  immolated.  However,  accord- 
ing to  the  most  probable  opinion,  he  only 
consecrated  her  to  the  Lord. 

Jeremias  (650-590  b.  c). — One  of  the 
four  grreat  Prophets  of  the  Old  Testament, 
born  in  the  city  of  Anathoth,  in  the  tribe 
of  Benjamin.  He  commenced  his  predic- 
tions in  the  thirteenth  year  of  the  reign  of 
Josias,  king  of  Juda,  and  continued  them 
luitil  the  commencement  of  the  Babylon- 
ian capti^■ity.  His  threatening  voice  arose, 
in  the  name  of  the  Lord,  Who  inspired 
him,  against  impiety,  idolatry,  corruption, 
and  the  iniquity  of  his  race.  His  fatidical 
voice  became  importune;  he  was  perse- 
cuted and  repeatedly  imprisoned;  he  dic- 
tated his  prophecies  to  his  disciple  Baruch, 
charged  him  to  read  them  to  the  people 
and  to  the  great ;  the  commotion  was  such 
that  Joakim  ordered  the  book  to  be 
burned,  but  Jeremias  dictated  it  a  second 
time,  and  Baruch  reproduced  the  text 
which  they  wished  to  destroy.  Then  took 
place  all  the  misfortunes  which  the 
Prophet  had  foretold :  the  invasion  of  the 
kingdom  by  Nabuchodonosor  and  its  con- 
sequences. Jeremias,  who  had  been  thrown 
into  a  den,  is  drawn  forth  from  it  by  Mel- 
chias  and,  at  the  taking  of  the  city,  set  at 
liberty  by  Nabuchodonosor,  who  leaves  to 
him  the  choice  either  to  remain  at  Jerusa- 
lem or  to  go  to  Babylon.  He  prefers  to  re- 
main in  the  midst  of  the  ruins  of  his  na- 
tion ;  but  after  the  murder  of  Godolias, 
governor  of  Jerusalem,  he  was  dragged 
into  Egypt  with  his  disciple  Baruch.  It  is 
believed  that  he  was  stoned  at  Taphnis. 
Jeremias  composed  Prophecies  and  Lam- 
entations. The  Book  of  Prophecies,  di- 
\Tded  into  52  chapters,  is  interesting 
history  from  the  political,  religious,  and 
moral  point  of  view;  it  is  a  faithful  pic- 
ture of  the  unfortunate  times  in  which  he 
lived.  The  Lamentations,  four  in  num- 
ber, are  followed  by  a  prayer  which  forms 
the  fifth.  The  Church  sings  these  Lam- 
entations during  Holy  Week,  applying 
them  to  the  dolorous  scenes  of  the  Pas- 
sion. 

Jericho.  —  In  the  Old  Testament  his- 
tory, a  city  of  Palestine,  situated  west  of 
the  Jordan  and  fourteen  miles  east-north- 
east of  Jerusalem.  It  was  destroyed  by 
Josue  and  rebuilt  by  Achab;  was  the  resi- 
dence of  Herod  the  Great;  was  destroyed 
by  Vespasian,  rebuilt  by  Hadrian,  and 
again  destroyed  by  the  Crusaders. 


Jeroboam 


377 


Jerusalem 


Jeroboam  (name  of  two  kings). — i.  Jer- 
oboam I. — King  of  Israel  (953-927  b.  c). 
Minister  of  Solomon  and  disgraced  by  this 
prince,  he  organized  a  revolt  of  the  ten 
northern  tribes  against  Roboam,  and 
founded  the  kingdom  of  Israel  (III.Ki.  xi.- 
XV.;  II.  Par.  ix.-xiv.).  i.Jeroboam  II. — 
King  of  Israel  (790-749  B.C.).  Son  and 
successor  of  Joas.  He  was  the  most 
prosperous  of  the  kings  of  Israel  (iv. 
Ki.  xii.). 

Jerome  (St.)  (Lat.  Hieronymus). —  Born 
at  Stridon  in  Dalmatia,  in  340.  St.  Jerome 
is  regarded  as  the  most  learned  of  the  Latin 
Fathers.  His  youth  was  passed  in  Rome, 
whither  he  was  sent  to  complete  his  studies 
under  ^lius  Donatus,  a  celebrated  gram- 
marian. His  thirst  for  knowledge  caused 
him  to  visit  foreign  cities,  among  others 
Treves,  where  he  transcribed,  for  his  friend 
Rufinus,  a  commentary  on  the  Psalms,  and 
a  treatise  on  Synods  by  St.  Hilary.  In  com- 
pany with  several  friends,  Jerome,  in  372, 
set  out  for  the  East,  traveling  through 
Asia  Minor  to  Antioch.  Here,  he  at- 
tended the  Biblical  lectures  of  ApoUinaris, 
the  future  heresiarch.  He  afterwards 
withdrew  into  the  Syrian  desert  of  Chal- 
cis,  where,  for  four  years,  he  led  a  sol- 
itary life,  learning  at  the  same  time  from  a 
converted  Jew  the  rudiments  of  the  He- 
brew language.  While  living  in  the  des- 
ert, he  wrote  the  life  of  St.  Paul,  the  first 
hermit,  and  his  dialogue  against  the  Luci- 
ferian  Schismatics.  The  Meletian  schism 
caused  him  to  return  to  Antioch,  where  he 
was  ordained  priest,  in  379.  In  381,  Je- 
rome went  to  Constantinople,  to  study  the 
Holy  Scriptures  under  St.  Gregory  Nazian- 
zen,  and  thence  returned  to  Rome.  He 
was  the  intimate  friend  of  Pope  Damasus 
who  appointed  him  his  secretary.  At  the 
Pope's  request,  Jerome  began  his  revision 
of  the  Old  Latin,  or  Italic  Version  of  the 
Bible.  After  the  death  of  Damasus,  he  set 
out  again  for  Palestine,  where  he  founded 
and  superintended  several  monasteries 
until  his  death,  which  occurred  at  Bethle- 
hem, in  420.  He  was  buried  amid  the 
ruins  of  one  of  his  monasteries,  which  had 
been  destroyed  by  the  partisans  of  Pela- 
gius.  St.  Jerome,  who  is  called  by  the 
Church  "  the  greatest  Doctor  raised  up  by 
the  divine  hand  to  interpret  the  Sacred 
Scriptures,"  was  the  author  of  the  Latin 
translation  of  the  Bible,  known  as  the  Vul- 
gate. Of  all  his  writings,  this  is  the  most 
useful  and  the   most  widely  known.     His 


other  works  are  found  in  Migne,  Pat.  Lat. 
XXII-XXX. 

Jerome  of  Prague.     See  Hussites. 

Jeronymites.     See  Hikronimites. 

Jerusalem. — The  celebrated  metropolis 
of  Palestine,  called  by  the  Turks  Koudsem- 
barich  or  Koudsderif,  and  by  the  Arabs  El 
Khods  (the  Holy).  It  is  situated  near  the 
center  of  the  country,  among  the  moun- 
tains, about  37  miles  from  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  about  23  miles  from  the 
Jordan.  It  was  on  the  border  of  the  tribes 
of  Benjamin  and  Juda,  mostly  within  the 
limits  of  the  former,  but  reckoned  as  be- 
longing to  the  latter,  because  conquered 
by  it.  The  most  ancient  name  of  the  city 
was  Salem  (Gen.  xiv.  18;  Ps.  Ixxvi.  2)  and 
it  afterwards  was  called  Jebus,  as  belong- 
ing to  the  Jebusites  (Jud.  xix.  10,  11).  Be- 
ing a  very  strong  position,  it  resisted  many 
attempts  of  the  Israelites  to  subdue  it.  The 
city  was  reduced  by  David  (II.  Ki.  v.  6-9) 
after  which  it  received  its  present  name, 
and  was  also  called  the  "  city  of  David." 
Jerusalem,  after  its  destruction  by  the 
Chaldeans,  was  rebuilt  by  the  Jews  on  their 
return  from  captivity,  about  the  year  536 
B.  c.  They  exerted  themselves  much  in 
order  to  restore  it  to  its  former  splendor, 
and  Herod  the  Great  afterwards  expended 
vast  sums  in  its  embellishment.  It  was  at 
last  taken  by  Titus  and  totally  destroyed, 
A.  D.  72.  Still,  as  the  Jews  continued  to 
return  thither,  and  manifested  a  rebellious 
spirit,  the  emperor  Hadrian  planted  a 
Roman  colony  there  in  134,  and  banished 
the  Jews,  prohibiting  their  return  on  pain 
of  death.  He  changed  the  name  of  the 
city  to  ^lia  Capitolina,  and  consecrated  it 
to  heathen  deities,  in  order  to  defile  it  as 
much  as  possible ;  and  used  his  utmost  ef- 
forts in  order  to  obliterate  all  traces  both 
of  Judaism  and  Christianity.  From  this 
period  the  name  ^lia  became  so  common, 
that  the  name  Jerusalem,  was  preserved 
only  among  the  Jews  and  better  informed 
Christians.  In  the  time  of  Constantine, 
however,  it  resumed  its  ancient  name, 
which  it  has  retained  to  the  present  day. 
St.  Helena,  the  mother  of  Constantine, 
built  many  churches  in  Judea  and  in  Jeru- 
salem, about  A.  D.  326;  and  Julian  the 
Apostate,  who,  after  his  father  succeeded  to 
the  empire  of  his  uncle  Constantine,  en- 
deavored to  rebuild  the  temple ;  but  his 
design  —  and  that  of  the  Jews,  whom  he 
patronized — was  frustrated  in  363.    Jeru- 


Jerusalem 


378 


Jesuits 


salem  to-day  is  under  the  Turkish  do- 
minion "  trodden  down  by  the  Gentiles." 
Population  estimated  at  about  40,000. 

Jerusalem  (Council  of). — A  counsel  of 
the  Apostles  convened  at  Jerusalem  in  the. 
year  50  or  51,  for  the  settlement  of  dis- 
putes that  had  arisen  regarding  the  recog- 
nition of  the  Gentile  Christians  and  the 
obligation  of  their  obser\'ance  of  the  Jew- 
ish ceremonial  law.  Its  decrees  are  given 
in  Acts  (rv.  23-29). 

Jerusalem  (Church  of  the  New).     See 

SWEDENBORGIANS. 

Jesuats.  —  Members  of  a  religious 
community,  so  called  from  their  custom 
of  continually  crying  through  the  streets, 
"  Praised  be  Jesus  Christ !  "  Were  founded 
by  John  Colombino,  a  native  of  Siena,  in 
the  fourteenth  century.  He  was  so  fasci- 
nated by  the  lives  of  the  saints,  particu- 
larly, that  of  St.  Mary  of  Egypt,  that  he 
resigned  the  highest  civil  preferment  the 
State  could  offer,  to  give  himself  wholh* 
to  the  service  of  the  poor  and  the  sick.  Pope 
Urban  V.,  in  1367,  approved  the  new  con- 
gregation as  a  community  of  lay  brothers, 
classed  among  the  Mendicant  Orders,  and 
ordered  them  to  adopt  the  Rule  of  St. 
Augustine.  In  the  beginning  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  permission  was  given  to 
the  Jesuats  to  take  priests'  orders ;  but 
the  congregation  was  suppressed  shortly 
after  by  Clement  IX.,  because  some  of  the 
houses  of  the  wealthy  ^^Padri  delV  acqua 
vite,"  as  they  were  called,  engaged  in  the 
business  of  distilling  liquors  and  practic- 
ing pharmacy  (1668). 

Jesuits. — Name  given  to  the  members 
of  the  religious  order  known  as  the  "  Soci- 
ety of  Jesus."  At  the  very  time  when  Lu- 
ther and  the  other  reformers  bade  defiance 
to  the  Holy  See,  divine  Providence  raised 
up  an  order  which  should  support  the 
Chair  of  St.  Peter  against  the  new  heretics; 
and  by  example,  preaching,  and  education, 
champion  the  cause  of  Catholic  truth,  and 
carry  the  light  of  the  Gospel  to  the  heathen 
of  distant  countries.  This  order  was  the 
noble  and  famous  "  Society  of  Jesus."  St. 
Ignatius  of  Loyola,  its  founder,  was  born  in 
1491,  of  a  noble  Spanish  family,  and  trained 
to  the  profession  of  arms.  But,  touched 
by  divine  grace,  he  gave  up  that  profession 
to  devote  his  life  to  the  service  of  the 
Church.  In  instituting  his  order,  the 
foundation  of  which  was  laid  on  the  Feast 
of  the  Assumption  (1534),  Ignatius  desired 


to  create  a  spiritual  militia  which  should 
be  completely  subject  to  the  orders  of  the 
Vicar  of  Christ,  and  whose  serv-ices  should 
be  ever  ready  to  be  employed  by  the  Pope 
in  whatever  manner  and  whatever  part  of 
the  world  he  should  judge  best.  The  rules 
laid  down  for  the  government  of  the  so- 
ciety all  tend  to  this  end.  A  fourth  vow, 
that  of  undertaking,  at  the  bidding  of  the 
Pope,  any  mission  in  any  part  of  the  world, 
is  added  to  the  other  three  vows  of  pov- 
erty, chastity,  and  obedience,  which  latter 
they  declare  to  be  the  duty  of  every  mem- 
ber of  the  society.  The  "  Society  of  Jesus  " 
became  the  vanguard  of  the  Church  in  her 
conflict  with  Protestantism.  The  progress 
of  heresy  in  Germany  was  checked,  and 
thousands  were  converted  from  their  er- 
rors by  the  labors  of  the  Jesuits.  Austria, 
Bavaria,  and  Poland,  where  heresy  had 
reached  alarming  dimensions,  were  con- 
firmed in  the  Catholic  faith,  and,  in  the 
main,  remained  true  to  the  Church.  The 
Jesuits  being  everywhere  the  support  and 
bulwark  of  the  Church,  we  cannot  be  sur- 
prised that  they  won  the  deadly  hatred  of 
the  enemies  of  the  faith.  The  advice  given 
by  Calvin  that  "  the  Jesuits,  who  most  op- 
pose us,  should  either  be  killed,  or  if  this 
cannot  well  be  done,  driven  away;  and  at 
any  rate  put  down  by  lies  and  slander;" 
remains  to  this  day  the  common  watch- 
word of  heretics  and  infidels.  "  Use  your 
best  endeavors,"  the  Geneva  Reformer 
writes,  "  to  rid  the  country  of  these  scoun- 
drels. .  .  .  Such  monsters  should  be 
dealt  with  as  was  done  here  in  the  execu- 
tion of  Michael  Servetus,  the  Spaniard." 
The  common  calumny  of  the  Protestants, 
that  the  Catholic  Church  was  hostile  to 
learning,  has  been  practically  refuted  by 
the  numerous  Jesuit  colleges,  founded  in 
almost  every  kingdom  of  Europe,  in  which 
the  humanities,  philosophy,  and  the 
sciences  are  taught  with  great  skill  and 
success.  The  "  Society  of  Jesus"  increased 
rapidly.  When  St.  Ignatius  died,  in  1556, 
it  was  firmly  established  in  many  countries 
of  Europe  and  engaged  in  successful  mis- 
sions in  Asia,  Africa,  and  America.  It 
possessed  upwards  of  a  hundred  houses 
and  colleges,  and  numbered  more  than  a 
thousand  members  divided  among  twelve 
provinces.  Many  Jesuits  became  martyrs 
of  charity,  others  suffered  actual  martyr- 
dom in  China,  India,  Japan,  and  North 
and  South  America.  Even  European 
countries,  where  heresy  prevailed,  were 
watered    with    their    blood.     In  England, 


JESUITS 


379 


Jesuits 


where  the  first  Jesuits  arrived  in  1580,  they 
were  hunted  down  like  wild  beasts.  From 
a  rough  calculation  it  would  appear  that, 
from  1540  to  1773,  21,000  Jesuits  were  em- 
ployed in  foreign  missionary  work.  During 
this  period,  500  Jesuits  were  recorded  to 
have  won  the  martyr's  crown ;  some  at  the 
hands  of  the  heathen,  others  through  the 
persecutors  of  Northern  Europe.  Of  these 
martyrs,  three  have  been  canonized,  75 
beatified,  and  27  declared  venerable. 

Jesuits  and  Their  Suppression.  —  The 
Order  of  the  Jesuits  was  suppressed  by 
Pope  Clement  XIV.  The  Brief  of  Sup- 
pression of  the  "  Society  of  Jesus  "  was  is- 
sued July  2ist,  1773,  although  it  had  been 
prepared  long  before.  To  understand  fully 
this  Pontifical  act  of  administration,  which 
was  indeed  a  purely  administrative  act,  in 
all  its  bearings,  we  must  go  back  to  the 
Pontificate  of  Clement  XIII.  (1758-1769) 
and  the  Conclave  which  elected  Clement 
XIV.  (Feb.  nth,  to  May  19th,  1769).  Al- 
ready toward  the  close  of  the  reign  of 
Benedict  XIV.,  the  idea,  or  resolve  of  sup- 
pressing the  order  was  mooted.  To  the 
everlasting  honor  of  the  Jesuits  be  it  said, 
this  resolve  did  not  originate  with  the 
Church  authorities  but  with  its  enemies. 
The  philosophers  and  Jansenists  were  ex- 
tremely jealous  of  the  learning  and  great 
influence  which  the  Jesuits  enjoyed.  In 
order  to  better  effect  the  destruction  of  the 
society,  the  aid  of  the  royal  family  of  Bour- 
bon was  successfully  invoked.  Through 
the  machinations  of  Pombal,  minister  of 
Joseph  I.,  king  of  Portugal,  an  ambitious 
and  wicked  man,  the  Jesuits  were  expelled 
from  the  kingdom  of  Portugal.  This  led 
to  a  serious  rupture  between  Portugal  and 
Rome,  which  lasted  for  ten  years  (1759- 
1769).  This  act  of  Portugal  found  favor  at 
several  European  courts,  especially  at  that 
of  Versailles,  where  the  Duke  de  Choiseul 
declared  himself  in  favor  of  the  suppres- 
sion. Both  Portugal  and  Spain,  the  latter 
being  then  governed  by  Charles  III.,  de- 
manded from  Clement  XIII.,  the  absolute 
suppression  of  the  entire  society.  But 
Clement  nobly  resisted  this  action,  and 
even  turned  a  deaf  ear  to  the  united  re- 
quest of  the  courts,  made  Jan.  i8th,  1769. 
But  pitiful,  indeed,  was  the  situation  of  the 
Church  on  the  death  of  Clement  XIII. 
The  courts  of  Southern  Europe  were  in 
rupture  with  the  Holy  See,  and  those  of 
the  North  were  indifferent  to  its  misfor- 
tunes.    In  this  lamentable  situation  of  af- 


fairs, the  cardinals  of  the  Conclave  were 
divided.  Some  were  disposed  to  make  con- 
cessions ;  others  would  not  make  any  com- 
promise. The  first,  owing  to  the  pressure 
of  the  courts,  were  victorious,  electing  their 
candidate  Ganganelli,  who  took  the  name 
of  Clement  XIV.  His  election  was  hailed 
with  joy  by  the  enemies  of  the  Jesuits,  who 
now  believed  that  their  project  of  suppres- 
sion would  be  effected.  Four  years  after- 
wards the  Pope  came  to  a  decision  in  the 
matter,  although  it  would  seem  he  had 
made  up  his  mind  much  earlier.  Yet  he 
hesitated  long,  and  tried  to  gain  time  by 
writing  half  promises  to  Louis  XIV. 
of  France  (Sept.  39th,  1769),  and  to 
the  kings  of  Spain  and  Portugal  (Sept. 
30th,  1769).  The  courts  complaining  of 
his  tardiness,  he  again  gave  assurance  to 
Monino,  ambassador  of  Charles  III.  (Nov. 
15th,  1772).  Meanwhile  the  Pope  took 
some  steps  which  presaged  an  unfavorable 
procedure  toward  the  order.  He  ap- 
pointed visitors  to  their  colleges,  houses 
of  retreat,  and  seminaries,  situated  in  the 
State  of  the  Church.  To  make  matters 
worse,  many  friends  of  the  Jesuits  often 
acted  imprudently.  On  June  27th,  1773, 
the  Pope  retired  to  the  privacy  of  retreat, 
refusing  to  see  or  hold  council  with  any- 
one. He  remained  in  this  seclusion  till 
August  22d,  to  show  that  his  final  action 
was  influenced  by  no  one.  He  meanwhile 
drew  up  the  Bull  of  Suppression,  subscrib- 
ing to  it  on  July  21st.  On  August  6th,  he 
appointed  the  congregation  "  De  rebus  ex- 
tinctce  Societatis  yesu,"  and  imposed  upon 
it  the  obligation  of  strict  secrecy.  On  the 
17th  of  July  the  Brief  was  solemnly  and 
officially  made  known  to  the  Jesuits  at 
Rome.  The  courts  received  it  after  the 
bishops,  and  the  ambassadors  after  the 
courts.  The  Jesuits  were  treated,  in  spite 
of  some  rigorous  measures,  rather  as  vic- 
tims than  as  men  condemned.  The  Pope, 
in  fact,  in  the  Brief  of  Suppression  {Dom- 
inus  ac  Redemftor),  after  having  called  to 
mind  on  the  one  hand  the  examples  of 
those  of  his  predecessors,  who,  since  the 
time  of  Clement  V.  had,  when  it  seemed 
advisable,  abolished  religious  orders,  and 
on  the  other,  the  many  complaints  made 
against  the  Jesuits,  since  the  time  of  Paul 
IV.,  declared  that  he  only  sought  and  de- 
sired the  peace  and  tranquillity  of  Church 
and  State.  He  did  not  accuse  the  order  of 
any  crimes,  but  declared  that  he  yielded  as 
a  choice  of  greater  evil,  to  the  demands 
made  on  him  by  many  powerful  courts,  in 


Jesus 


380 


Jesus  Christ 


order  to  assure,  as  they  said,  the  perpetual 
tranquillity  of  their  subjects  and  the  wel- 
fare of  Jesus  Christ.  Naturally,  the  courts 
of  Southern  Europe  received  the  Bull  of 
Suppression  with  joy;  they  obtained  what 
they  had  long  desired.  The  courts  of  the 
North  did  not  exhibit  the  same  gladness. 
The  Empress  Maria  Theresa  put  it  into 
execution ;  but  in  the  other  parts  of  the 
vast  empire  of  Germany,  it  met  with  op- 
position. Prussia  and  Russia  retained  and 
sheltered  the  members  of  the  order.  As 
to  the  bishops,  those  of  Spain,  Portugal, 
and  Poland  published  it  without  delay. 
In  France,  parliament  refused  to  confirm 
the  Bull  as  it  was  not  severe  enough. 
Thev  were  dissatisfied  because  it  did  not 
condemn  the  doctrines,  morals,  and  disci- 
pline of  the  order  which  had  been,  they 
declared,  only  suppressed  to  obtain  peace. 
Unfortunately,  this  concession,  like  most 
concessions  did  not  attain  its  desired  end 
—  the  peace  of  the  Church.  Historians, 
philosophers,  canonists,  and  even  non- 
Christians  are  divided  in  their  opinion, 
concerning  the  wisdom  and  opportune- 
ness of  the  Bull  of  Suppression.  Father 
Theiner  is  the  only  Catholic  historian, 
who,  in  our  day,  has  attempted  to  justify 
the  Brief  of  Suppression  and  the  action  of 
Clement  XIV.  Pope  Pius  VII.  restored 
the  "  Society  of  Jesus  "  in  1814. 

Jesus.  —  Son  of  Sirach,  Jewish  writer  of 
the  second  or  third  century  b.  c.  He  com- 
posed in  Hebrew  the  Book  of  Ecclesias- 
iicus,  which  the  Church  has  rapked  among 
the  canonical  books. 

Jesus  Christ.  —  Name  of  the  divine 
founder  of  Christianity.  Jesus  signifies  Sa- 
viour, and  Christ  means  Holy  or  anointed, 
equivalent  in  Greek  of  the  Hebrew  word 
Afessias,  i.  e.  king.  When  the  '*  fullness  of 
the  time  "  had  come,  the  eternal  Father 
sent  into  the  world  His  only-begotten 
substantial  Son,  ^'ho  assumed  human  na- 
ture from  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  was  bom 
in  Bethlehem,  as  the  Prophets  of  the  Old 
Testament  had  foretold.  Apart  from  the 
flight  into  Egypt  and  a  transitory  sojourn 
at  Jerusalem,  Jesus  Christ,  at  whose  crib  the 
representatives  of  Judaism  and  paganism 
had  both  bowed  down  in  adoration,  passed 
his  life,  up  to  his  thirtieth  year,  in  seclu- 
sion at  Nazareth;  after  which,  having  been 
annoimced  by  John  the  Baptist  as  the 
promised  Messias,  He  entered  on  the  du- 
ties of  His  public  mission,  the  scene  of 
which   "was    laid    throughout    the    Trhole 


country  of  the  Jews,  and  which  lasted 
three  years.  During  His  journeyings  in 
Galilee,  Samaria,  and  Judea,  Jesus,  who 
had  acquired  His  all  surpassing  wisdom 
neither  from  the  sages  of  Egypt  nor  from 
the  Essenes,  nor  in  the  Rabbinical  schools, 
proved  Himself,  not  only  the  absolute 
sinless  idea  of  manhood,  the  Son  of  man, 
but  also  the  true  Son  of  God,  by  the 
purity  of  His  life  and  doctrine.  The  di- 
vinity of  the  Saviour,  Who  on  the  most 
solemn  occasion  proclaimed  Himself  to  be 
the  Son  of  God  in  the  proper  sense  of  the 
word,  which  demands  divine  honor  to  be 
paid  to  Him,  is  prominently  brought 
under  our  notice  by  His  doctrine,  which 
bears  the  stamp  of  the  divine  impress ;  by 
His  power  over  nature,  which  was  princi- 
pally shown  in  the  miracles  He  performed ; 
by  His  surpassing  wisdom,  which  enabled 
Him  to  read  the  innermost  thoughts  of 
man  and  to  fortell  future  events;  and, 
finally,  by  His  absolute  perfection  and 
sanctity.  As  the  object  of  His  appearance 
on  earth,  Jesus  Christ  Himself  announces 
it  to  be  the  redemption  of  mankind  and 
the  foundation  of  the  kingdom  of  the  new 
and  eternal  covenant,  which  would  break 
through  the  hmits  of  the  land  of  Judea, 
embrace  every  nation  upon  earth,  and  en- 
dure to  the  end  of  the  world.  In  order  to 
found  and  extend  this  kingdom,  Christ, 
the  Supreme  Teacher,  King,  and  High- 
Priest,  chose  twelve  Apostles,  whom  He 
sent  forth  endowed  \\nth  the  specific 
powers  and  intrusted  with  the  same  com- 
mission which  He  Himself  had  received 
from  the  Father.  More  especially  did  He 
delegate  to  them  the  full  power  to  preach 
His  doctrine  \s*ith  divine  authority,  to  ad- 
minister the  sacraments  to  the  people  and 
to  rule  the  Church.  Among  these  Apos- 
tles, Jesus  Christ  bestowed  on  St.  Peter  a 
peculiarly  special  dignity  and  pow^er.  He 
selected  him  for  the  fundamental  rock, 
that  is,  to  be  the  center  of  unity  in  His 
Church ;  to  him  He  delivered  the  keys  of 
the  kingdom  of  Heaven,  with  the  sublime 
power  of  binding  and  loosing;  he  ap- 
pointed him  supreme  ruler  over  the  entire 
Church, —  the  shepherd,  in  fact,  of  the 
whole  flock.  It  was  in  this  manner,  that, 
according  to  the  ordinance  of  Christ,  who 
came,  not  to  destroy  the  Law  and  the 
Prophets,  but  to  fulfill,  the  Church  was  to 
supersede  the  Synagogue,  and  the  seat  of 
Moses,  was  to  become  the  seat  of  Peter. 

This  coming  of  Jesus,  who  went  about 
the  whole  land  of  Judea  "  doing  good  and 


Jews 


381 


Jews 


healing  such  as  were  possessed  "  created  a 
great  sensation  among  the  people.  One 
part  of  them,  particularly  in  Galilee,  ac- 
knowledged Him  as  the  Messias;  on  the 
other  hand,  the  Pharisees  and  clerks  of  the 
people,  that  is  the  high-priests,  declared 
Him  to  be  a  blasphemer.  Their  aversion 
to  him  was  increased  by  the  resurrection 
of  Lazarus,  which  worked  up  their  hatred 
to  the  point  of  outbreak.  At  the  instance 
of  Caiphas,  the  Sanhedrin  was  incited  to  the 
resolve  of  delivering  Jesus  up  to  death ; 
after  which  they  cautiously  awaited  a  favor- 
able opportunity  for  accomplishing  this  de- 
sign. And  wiien  at  length  His  hour  was 
come,  Jesus,  who  had  made  known  to  the 
Apostles  the  secret  designs  of  His  enemies, 
celebrated,  shortly  before  the  feast  of  the 
Passover,  His  triumphal  entry  into  Jerusa- 
lem, that  He  might  deliver  Himself  up  into 
the  hands  of  sinners.  A  short  time  previ- 
ously He  had  shown  Himself,  transfigured 
in  glory  upon  Mount  Thabor,  to  His  favorite 
disciples.  Saluted  now  by  the  people  as 
the  Messias,  Jesus  taught  and  healed  in 
the  Temple,  and  solemnized  on  the  day 
before  the  Easter  festival  —  the  feast  of 
the  Passover  —  with  His  disciples,  and 
in  the  place  of  the  Paschal  lamb  sub- 
stituted the  unbloody  sacrifice  of  the  New 
Covenant,  as  a  continual  remembrance 
of  the  bloody  sacrifice  which  He  was 
about  to  offer  on  the  day  following  for 
the  salvation  of  the  world.  He  then  be- 
took himself  to  the  Mount  of  Olives. 
Headed  by  Judas  the  betrayer,  a  troop  of 
constables  and  soldiers  of  the  high-priests 
presently  made  their  appearance.  These 
were  first  made  to  feel  the  power  of  the 
Saviour,  after  which  He  permitted  Him- 
self, of  His  own  free  will,  to  be  shackled 
and  taken  prisoner,  thence  to  be  dragged 
before  the  Council.  Here  Jesus,  being  ad- 
jured by  Caiphas,  the  high-priest,  testified 
once  again  in  the  plainest  and  most  solemn 
manner  to  His  being  the  Messias  and  to 
His  own  divine  nature;  upon  which  the 
Sanhedrin  adjudged  Him  to  death  as  a 
blasphemer.  But  in  order,  on  the  one 
hand  to  insure  the  execution  of  this,  their 
sentence  of  death,  and  on  the  other,  to  sub- 
ject the  object  of  their  hate  to  the  most 
shameful  kind  of  death,  the  enemies  of 
Jesus  dragged  him  before  the  Roman  pro- 
curator, Pontius  Pilate,  where  they  accused 
Him  of  rebellion  and  high  treason  against 
Caesar.  Pilate,  however,  was  soon  con- 
vinced of  the  groundlessness  of  these 
charges.     Even   Herod,  before  whom  He 


was  subsequently  brought,  found  no  fault 
in  Him ;  on  which  account  the  high-priests 
resumed  their  former  accusation  of  blas- 
phemy before  Pilate,  when  Jesus  again 
affirmed  that  he  was  the  Son  of  God.  Then 
at  length,  from  cowardice,  the  procurator 
weakly  yielded  to  the  clamors  of  the 
scribes  and  of  the  misled  populace,  and 
actually  sentenced  the  Saviour, —  to  whom 
the  Jews  had  preferred  Barabbas, —  to  the 
most  shameful  death  on  the  Cross.  But  it 
was  precisely  by  this  very  death  on  Gol- 
gotha that  Jesus  destroyed  the  dominion 
of  death  and  of  Satan,  and  completed  the 
work  of  redemption,  the  seal  of  which  was 
placed  on  it  by  the  greatest  of  all  miracles, 
that  of  the  glorious  resurrection  which  fol- 
lowed, as  the  Saviour  had  prophesied. 
After  His  resurrection,  Jesus  repeatedly 
appeared  to  His  Apostles  and  disciples, 
and  gave  special  instructions  and  precepts 
respecting  the  Church.  Then  from  the 
Mount  of  Olives,  on  which  those  Apostles 
and  friends  had  assembled  around  Him, 
having  once  more  imparted  His  blessing, 
He  ascended  into  heaven  before  their  eyes, 
whence  He  had  promised  to  send  down  the 
Holy  Ghost,  the  Comforter,  the  Spirit  of 
all  Truth. 

Jews  (History  of  the). — The  name  Jew 
correctly  designates  the  Hebrew  nation 
only  from  the  time  of  the  Babylonian  Cap- 
tivity. The  Jews  were  God's  people,  chosen 
by  Him  to  be  His  depositary  of  the  laws 
given  to  Moses  on  Mount  Sinai.  The  Jew- 
ish legislator  had  received  the  promise  that 
from  the  bosom  of  His  people  would  arise 
the  Messias,  the  Redeemer,  who  was  to 
come  to  save  the  world.  Hence  the  chief 
importance  which  attaches  itself  to  the  his- 
tory of  this  people,  insignificant  in  appear- 
ance, and  confined  to  the  narrow  spot  of 
Palestine,  but  great  by  reason  of  its  desti- 
nies, is  that  the  moral  and  religious  truths, 
deposited  in  its  unique  book,  the  Bible,  be- 
came the  basis  of  Christian  teaching. 

Abraham  was  the  father  of  the  Jewish 
nation.  He  departed  from  the  city  of  Ur, 
in  Chaldea,  with  his  father  Thare,  and  set- 
tled in  the  country  of  Chanaan,  which  was 
promised  to  his  posterity.  With  Abraham 
began  the  period  of  the  Patriarchs,  con- 
tinued by  his  son  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  his 
grandson.  Jacob  was  the  father  of  twelve 
sons,  ten  of  whom,  with  the  two  sons  of 
Joseph,  were  destined  to  be  the  chiefs  of 
the  twelve  tribes  which  founded  the  Jewish 
nation.     Joseph,  having  become   the  first 


Jews 


382 


Jews 


minister  of  the  Pharaohs  of  Egypt,  calls  to 
him  his  father  Jacob  and  his  family  to  the 
number  of  seventy  persons,  and  established 
them  in  the  land  of  Gessen.  There  they 
increased  in  numbers  to  such  an  extent 
that  the  Pharaohs,  becoming  uneasy,  sub- 
jected them  to  serfdom  and  to  the  most 
arduous  labors.  Then  they  ordered  the 
death  of  all  the  male  children,  in  order  to 
retard  the  increase  of  the  race.  Moses  be- 
ing preserved  from  the  general  slaughter 
of  the  infants,  afterwards  saved  his  people 
from  bondage,  led  them  to  the  Red  Sea, 
and  by  a  miracle  which  opened  the  waters 
to  allow  their  passage,  they  passed  dry- 
footed  to  the  other  side.  The  army  of 
Pharaoh,  in  pursuit,  also  attempted  the  pas- 
sage, but  the  waters  regaining  their  usual 
level,  the  whole  Egyptian  army  was  de- 
stroyed, while  the  Israelites  entered  the 
Arabian  desert.  Here  they  journeyed  for 
forty  years  amidst  sufferings  and  vicissi- 
tudes which  their  sins  and  infidelity  drew 
upon  them.  God  gave  to  Moses,  on  the 
top  of  Mount  Sinai,  His  law,  embraced  in 
the  Ten  Commandments,  which  were  en- 
graved upon  tables  of  stone.  Moses  died 
about  1605  B.  c,  upon  Mount  Moria,  with- 
out being  permitted  to  enter  the  Promised 
Land.  Josue  succeeded  him,  and  lead  the 
people  into  Chanaan,  conquering  the  idola- 
trous nations  that  dwelt  there.  The  twelve 
tribes  divided  the  land  and  founded  their 
nation  (1580  B.  c).  After  Josue,  the  govern- 
ment was  intrusted  to  Caleb  and  the 
Ancients.  God  afterwards  raised  Judges, 
whom  He  selected  to  govern  these  disobe- 
dient and  often  unfaithful  tribes,  and  to 
fight  against  the  neighboring  nations,  al- 
ways hostile  to  the  invaders.  The  reign 
and  authority  of  the  Judges  embraces  four 
centuries,  from  1554  to  1080  b.  c.  During 
this  period  the  Israelites  had  to  struggle 
against  the  Chanaanites,  Madianites,  Am- 
alekites,  and  Philistines.  The  chosen  peo- 
ple experienced  reverses  and  successes, 
according  as  they  were  faithful  or  unfaith- 
ful to  the  Lord.  Finally,  the  Hebrews  be- 
came tired  of  the  intermittent  domination 
of  the  Judges  and  clamored  for  a  king. 
Saul  was  chosen  and  anointed,  by  the  com- 
mand of  God,  their  first  king;  but  after 
successes  against  the  Ammonites,  he  devi- 
ated from  the  path  of  right  and  \nrtue,  and 
was  rejected.  David,  chosen  in  his  place, 
enlarged  his  kingdom  through  brilliant 
victories.  Solomon,  his  son,  extended  the 
limits  of  his  kingdom  to  the  Euphrates,  on 
the  East,  and  the  Red  Sea,  on  the  South. 


He  constructed  at  great  cost  the  Temple  of 
Jerusalem.  In  spite  of  his  wisdom,  he  com- 
mitted great  faults  and  was  punished  by 
the  division  of  his  kingdom  after  his  death. 
His  son  Roboam  was  only  able  to  preserve 
the  tribes  of  Juda  and  Benjamin,  the  other 
ten  passed  under  the  power  of  Jeroboam ; 
thus  Juda  and  Israel  formed  tw-o  distinct 
States.  This  lamentable  separation  was  a 
cause  of  weakness  for  the  Jewish  nation, 
and  continued  wars  between  the  two  king- 
doms paved  the  way  for  their  common 
destruction.  Notwithstanding  the  threats 
and  admonitions  of  the  Prophets  whom 
God  sent,  the  people  repeatedly  fell  into 
impiety  and  idolatry.  The  kings  of  Juda 
numbered  20,  from  Roboam  (952)  to  Sed- 
ecias  (562  b.  c.  ).  Those  of  Israel  numbered 
19,  from  Jeroboam  (962)  to  Osee  (718  b.  c). 
See  Kingdom  of  Israel  and  of  Juda. 

Osee  the  last  king  of  Israel  fell  under  the 
blows  of  Salmanasar,  king  of  Assyria,  who 
captured  Samaria,  Israel's  capital,  and  led 
its  inhabitants  captive  to  Ninive.  The 
kingdom  of  Juda  lasted  a  century  longer; 
it  was  invaded  by  Nabuchodonosor,  king 
of  Assj-ria,  who  twice  captured  Jerusalem 
under  the  reigns  of  Joakim  and  Sedecias. 
The  city,  with  the  temple  was  destroyed, 
and  a  great  part  of  the  people  were  led 
away  captive  into  Babylon  and  there  re- 
mained for  a  period  of  70  years  (606-536 
B.  c).  Cyrus  restored  liberty  to  the  Jews, 
permitting  them,  under  Zorobabel,  Esdras, 
and  Nehemias  to  rebuild  the  Temple,  prac- 
tice their  religion  and  re-establish  their 
nationality-.  Divided  into  four  provinces, 
the  new  State  became  a  theocratic  republic, 
under  the  direction  of  the  high-priest  as- 
sociated with  the  Sanhedrin.  Alexander 
the  Great  extended  his  conquest  to  Jerusa- 
lem, where  he  was  shown  the  prophecy  of 
Daniel  concerning  him,  by  Jaddeus,  the 
high-priest.  After  Alexander's  death, 
Judea  passed  under  the  dominion  of  Lao- 
medon,  who  was  deposed  by  Ptolemy 
Lagus  {320) ;  it  was  then  occupied  by 
Seleucus  Nicator.  Soon  afterwards  it  be- 
came subject  to  the  power  of  Egypt.  The 
Seleucides  recaptured  it  in  203  b.  c,  and 
one  of  their  kings,  Antiochus  Epiphanes 
began  a  violent  persecution  of  the  Jews, 
profaned  the  temple  and  pillaged  the  coun- 
try. Mathathias  called  his  countrymen  to 
arms  to  throw  off  the  hateful  yoke;  his 
sons  Judas  Machabeus,  Jonathas,  and  Simon 
completed  the  work  of  deliverance  and  im- 
posed peace  upon  the  kings  of  Syria.  Their 
success  assured  the  power  in  their  family, 


Jews 


383 


Jews 


and  one  of  them,  Aristobolus,  took  the 
title  of  king,  in  107  b.c.  A  rivalry  which 
arose  between  Hircanus  II.  and  Aristobo- 
lus II.,  brought  on  the  interference  of  the 
Romans,  and  Pompey  (63  b.  c),  reduced 
Judea  to  a  Roman  province.  Antigonus, 
son  of  Aristobolus  II.,  surnamed  the  As- 
monean,  was  the  last  king  of  his  race ;  he 
was  dethroned  by  command  of  Antoninus 
and  put  to  death  in  37  b.  c.  The  Romans 
gave  the  throne  to  Herod,  the  Idumean, 
under  whom  occurred  the  birth  of  Christ. 
Then  the  kingdom  was  divided  into  four 
tetrarchs:  Judea,  Galilee,  Iturea,  and 
Batanea,  the  governors  of  which  were  sub- 
ject to  the  orders  of  Rome.  Pontius,  one 
of  these  governors,  took  part  with  Herod 
Antipas,  in  the  judgment  which  condemned 
the  Saviour  to  death.  The  Jews  repeatedly 
rebelled  against  the  oppressive  domination 
of  the  Romans.  In  65  a.  d.,  Vespasian  be- 
gan the  siege  of  Jerusalem,  which  was  con- 
tinued by  his  son  Titus.  After  an  obstinate 
resistance,  the  city  was  taken,  the  Temple 
destroyed  and  most  of  the  inhabitants  sold 
as  slaves.  A  last  revolt  in  the  reign  of 
Hadrian,  135  a.d.  resulted  in  the  complete 
destruction  of  Jerusalem.  More  than  500,- 
000  Jews  were  massacred  and  those  who 
were  spared  were  dispersed  throughout  the 
whole  Roman  empire.  The  Deicides 
naturally  made  their  homes  where  they 
could.  This  indestructible  race,  passing 
through  many  and  varied  vicissitudes,  no 
longer  forming  a  nation,  always  consti- 
tuted a  caste  or  separate  body  in  the  midst 
of  other  nations.  After  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem,  a  portion  of  the  Jews  passed 
into  Asia;  the  others  passed  into  the  East, 
and  their  lot,  in  general,  was  most  miser- 
able. Despised  by  the  Romans,  hated  by 
the  Christians,  the  Jews  were  oppressed 
under  Constantine,  persecuted  under  Jus- 
tinian and  Heraclius.  The  Visigoths  pro- 
scribed and  outlawed  them  in  Spain ;  but 
in  the  Mahommedan  countries  they  were 
treated  less  severely ;  they  could  devote 
themselves  to  commerce  in  the  Caliphate 
of  Bagdad,  Cairo,  and  Cordova.  Under 
the  subjection  of  Spain,  they  distinguished 
themselves  in  arts  and  sciences.  Animated 
by  an  implacable  hatred  against  the  Chris- 
tian name,  accused  and  convicted  of 
murder  of  Christian  children,  insolent, 
avaricious,  the  Jews  became  an  object  of 
public  contempt,  and  were  so  cruelly 
treated  that  several  Popes  interfered  in 
their  behalf.  Despite  the  persecutions 
waged   against   them,   the   Jews,   through 


industry,  commerce,  and  usury,  accumu- 
lated vast  riches,  which  added  an  incentive 
to  the  attacks  of  their  enemies.  In  Eng- 
land, in  1255,  they  were  compelled  to  pay 
a  contribution  of  5,000  marks  of  silver,  and 
in  1290  were  expelled  from  the  land.  In 
Germany,  their  persons  were  the  property 
of  the  kings  and  princes,  who  could  sell 
or  give  them  as  a  pledge.  Mathias  Corvin 
banished  them  from  Vienna.  At  Frank- 
fort they  were  isolated  in  a  separate  quar- 
ter —  the  Judengasse,  which  had  its 
counterpart  in  the  Ghetto  of  Rome.  In 
Spain,  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  considered 
them  a  menace  to  the  throne,  and  decreed 
that  they  must  adopt  Christianity  or  leave 
the  kingdom.  Poland  in  the  eleventh 
century  was  thronged  with  a  vast  multi- 
tude of  Jews.  Here  they  obtained  privi- 
leges and  prospered  by  monopolizing  both 
commerce  and  industry,  but  in  the  fifteenth 
century  restrictive  laws  were  passed 
against  them  and  they  were  forced  to  en- 
gage in  menial  occupations.  Admitted 
into  Russia  under  Peter  the  Great,  driven 
out  under  Elizabeth,  recalled  by  Cathar- 
ine II.,  they  remained  in  great  numbers  in 
the  frontier  provinces  touching  Germany 
and  Austria,  where  they  have  devoted 
themselves,  some  to  legitimate  trade, 
others  to  smuggling  and  beggary.  All 
efforts  to  interest  them  in  agricultural 
pursuits  were  in  vain.  In  France,  where 
they  were  tolerated  for  a  long  time,  public 
opinion  caused  them  to  be  banished  in 
1306  and  again  in  1396.  They  returned 
later,  and  were  permitted  to  settle  in  Bor- 
deaux and  Bayonne.  The  French  Revo- 
lution emancipated  them,  and  the  consti- 
tutional assembly  in  1791,  granted  to  them 
civil  and  political  rights.  Rising  in  time 
from  their  moral  degradation,  they  became 
fitted  to  occupy  official  positions  and  en- 
tered into  all  the  branches  of  public  life. 
England,  like  France,  made  them  eligible 
to  parliament,  but  they  have  become  famed 
as  financiers  rather  than  statesmen. 
Everywhere  they  exert  a  great  influence  in 
the  affairs  of  the  financial  world;  they 
have  acquired  immense  riches,  and  the 
banking  houses  of  the  Rothschilds,  to 
which  more  than  one  great  power  is  enor- 
mously indebted,  is  the  richest  private 
institution  in  the  world,  as  the  Rothschilds 
are  the  richest  individuals.  The  enormous 
wealth  of  the  Jews  threatens  to  become  a 
great  public  danger,  and  therefore  it  is 
said  that  the  ancient  hostility  against  the 
Jews  has  not  entirely  disappeared.    On  the 


JETHRO 


384 


Joan 


contrary,  it  seems  to  revive;  there  is  an 
anti-Semitic  movement  going  on  to-day  in 
most  of  the  European  countries.  France, 
that  wealthy  nation,  whose  credit  is  only 
upheld  by  Jewish  money-kings,  becomes 
more  and  more  a  prey  to  the  rapacious 
Semitic  spirit,  and  undoubtedly,  the  time 
will  come  when  public  opinion  will  bring 
the  Jewish  oppression  in  that  country  to 
an  end,  or  to  banishment  of  the  Jews  from 
French  territory. 

Jethro.  —  A  priest  or  chief  of  the  Ma- 
dianites  who  inhabited  the  southern  point 
of  Sinai,  the  father  of  seven  daughters, 
one  of  whom,  Sephora^  was  married  to 
Moses.  In  Ex.  ii.  18;  Num.  x.  29,  the 
name  is  given  as  Raguel.  Perhaps  the 
latter  was  his  personal  name,  and  Jethro 
an  honorary  title,  or  the  discrepancy  of 
the  names  may  be  due  to  separate  and  in- 
dependent narratives.  By  the  advice  of 
Jethro,  Moses  appointed  deputies  to  judge 
the  people  and  to  share  the  burden  of  gov- 
ernment with  him  (Ex.  xviii.). 

Jezabel.  —  The  wife  of  Achab,  king  of 
Israel,  whom  he  married  before  his  acces- 
sion, and  by  whom  she  became  the  mother 
of  Athalia,  queen  of  Juda,  and  of  Achaz 
and  Joram,  kings  of  Israel.  She  was  a 
Phoenician  princess,  daughter  of  Ethbaal, 
king  of  the  Sidonians,  and  established  the 
Phoenician  worship  at  the  court  of  Achab. 
She  was  put  to  death  by  order  of  Jehu,  who 
caused  her  to  be  thrown  from  a  window; 
her  remains  were  trampled  under  foot  by 
horses  and  devoured  by  dogs,  according  to 
the  prophecy  of  Elias. 

Jezrael.  —  In  Bible  geography,  a  city  in 
the  plain  of  Jezrael,  Palestine,  situated 
near  Mount  Gelboe,  53  miles  north  of  Jeru- 
salem. It  was  the  capital  of  Israel  under 
the  dynasty  of  Achab.  Famous  by  the 
punishment  which  God  inflicted  on  Achab, 
because  he  had  taken  a  vineyard  from  Na- 
both. 

Joab.  —  General  and  nephew  of  David. 
He  commanded  in  the  war  against  Isbo- 
seth,  the  son  of  Saul,  as  well  as  against  the 
Gentiles.  He  treacherously  slew  Abner, 
Saul's  former  captain,  after  he  had  become 
reconciled  with  David,  and  dispatched 
David's  rebellious  son  Absalom.  He  was 
killed  by  order  of  Solomon  for  conspiring 
with  Adonias. 

Joachaz.  —  i.  King  of  Israel  from  856  to 
839  B.  c,  son  and  successor  of  Jehu,  sacri- 


ficed to  the  idols  in  Samaria,  was  conquered 
by  Hazael,  king  of  Syria,  in  punishment  for 
his  impiety,  humbled  himself  before  the 
Lord  and,  through  his  penance,  saved  the 
kingdom  froln  ruin.  2.  Joachaz.  —  King 
of  Juda,  son  of  Jonas.  He  was,  after  a 
reign  of  three  months  and  ten  days,  car- 
ried into  the  Babylonian  captivity,  with 
10,000  of  his  subjects,  by  Nabuchodonosor. 

Joachim  (St.). — Husband  of  St.  Anne 
and  father  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  of  the 
tribe  of  Juda  and  the  family  of  David. 
They  still  show  his  tomb  in  the  Church  of 
the  Holy  Sepulchre  of  Notre  Dame.  A 
portion  of  his  body  is  preserved  at  Co- 
logne.    F.  March  20th. 

Joachimites.     See  Joachim  of  Fiore. 

Joakim  or  Eliakim.  —  King  of  Juda 
from  609  to  598  B.  c,  eldest  son  of  Josias, 
dethroned  by  his  brother  Joachaz,  restored 
on  the  throne  by  Nechao;  he  delivered 
himself  to  impiety,  persecuted  Jeremias, 
was  conquered  and  put  to  death  by  Na- 
buchodonosor II.  With  his  reign  the 
captivity  of  the  Jews  at  Babylon  begins. 

Joachim  of  Fiore  (i  130-1202). — Writer 
and  religious  of  the  Order  of  Citeaux. 
Born  at  Celico,  near  Cosenza.  Abbot  of 
Fiore,  Calabria.  Composed  prophecies. 
His  disciples,  called  "  Joachimites,"  were 
condemned  as  heretics.  The  most  impor- 
tant feature  of  the  doctrines  of  Joachim 
was  the  belief  that  the  history  of  man  will 
be  covered  by  three  reigns :  the  first,  that 
of  the  Father,  from  the  creation  till  the 
birth  of  Christ;  the  second,  that  of  the 
Son,  from  the  birth  of  Christ  till  1260; 
and  the  third,  that  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
from  1260  onward.  This  last  view  was  de- 
veloped by  his  adherents  into  the  belief 
that  a  new  gospel  would  supersede  the 
revelation  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments. 
These  views  had  many  supporters  in  the 
thirteenth  century. 

Joan  (  Fable  of  the  Pofess).  —  The  story 
that  between  the  Pontificates  of  Leo  IV. 
and  Benedict  III.,  the  papal  throne  was 
occupied  for  more  than  two  years  by  a 
woman  Popess  Joan,  is  now  universally  ad- 
mitted to  be  a  fable  by  even  Protestant 
writers.  i.  The  interval,  between  the 
death  of  Leo  IV.,  which  took  place  July 
17th,  855,  and  the  accession  of  Benedict 
III.,  who  was  elected  in  the  same  month 
and  consecrated  September  29th  of  the 
same  year,  leaves  no  room  for  the  imag- 


Joan  of  Arc 


385 


Job 


inary  reign  of  a  popess,  for  which  two 
years  and  a  half  are  claimed.  2.  Hincmar 
of  Rheims,  in  a  letter  to  Pope  Nicholas  I., 
observes  that  the  messenger  which  he  had 
sent  to  Leo  IV.,  learned,  on  the  way,  the 
news  of  that  Pontiff's  death,  and  on  his  ar- 
rival at  Rome  found  Benedict  III.  on  the 
throne.  3.  The  story  is  not  mentioned  by 
any  of  the  Latin  or  Greek  writers  from 
the  ninth  to  the  thirteenth  century.  It 
made  its  first  appearance  about  the  year 
1240  or  1250  —  nearly  400  years  after  its 
supposed  date  —  being  first  mentioned  in 
the  Chronicle  of  Martinus  Polonus  and  by 
Stephen  of  Bourbon,  who  died,  the  former 
in  1278,  and  the  latter  in  1261.  4.  Photius, 
who  searched  for  whatever  might  cast 
odium  upon  the  Roman  Church  and  the 
Popes,  does  not  mention  the  fable.  5.  As 
regards  the  statement  of  Anastasius  the 
Librarian  of  the  ninth  century,  and  Mari- 
anus  Scotus  of  the  eleventh  century,  it  is 
established  beyond  a  doubt  that  the  story 
was  interpolated  into  their  works,  since 
some  manuscripts  and  earlier  copies  of 
their  writings  do  not  contain  it. 

Joan  of  Arc  (  1412-1431  )  (  Fr.  Jeanne 
d'Arc),  called  "The  Maid  of  Orleans," 
was  born  at  Dom-Remy.  The  French  na- 
tional heroine.  She  was  the  illiterate 
daughter  of  a  peasant  inn  proprietor  at 
Dom-Remy.  At  the  time  of  her  appear- 
ance in  history,  the  English  were  masters 
of  the  whole  of  France,  north  of  the 
Loire,  and  the  queen  mother,  Isabella, 
supported  the  pretensions  of  her  grand- 
son Henry  VI.  of  England  to  the  throne  of 
France,  in  opposition  to  her  son  Charles 
VII.  of  France.  According  to  a  version 
of  a  prophecy  by  Merlin,  which  was  cur- 
rent in  her  native  province  and  with  which 
she  was  undoubtedly  familiar,  France  was 
to  be  overwhelmed  with  calamities,  but 
was  to  be  delivered  by  a  virgin  out  of  the 
forest  of  Dom-Remy.  She  imagined  that 
she  heard  supernatural  voices  commanding 
her  to  liberate  France,  and  eventually 
gained  access  to  the  court  of  Charles  VII., 
who  intrusted  her  with  the  command  of 
an  army.  She  raised  the  siege,  which  the 
English  were  maintaining  at  Orleans, 
May  8th,  1429,  and  gained  the  great  vic- 
tory of  Patay,  June  i8th,  1429,  with  the  re- 
sult that  Charles  VII.  was  enabled,  July 
17th,  1429,  to  receive  the  consecrated  oil 
at  Rheims,  where  the  kings  of  France 
were  anciently  accustomed  to  hold  the 
coronation  ceremonies.     She  was  captured 

25 


May  24th,  1430,  while  defending  Com- 
pi^gne  against  the  Duke  of  Burgundy ; 
was  sold  by  the  duke  to  his  allies,  the 
English  ;  and  was  burned  at  the  stake  as  a 
heretic  at  Rouen,  May  31st,  1431.  In  our 
day  the  Church  has  taken  steps  to  canonize 
Joan  of  Arc. 

Joas.  —  King  of  Juda  837-797  b.  c.  Son 
of  Ochozias.  He  was  the  only  prince  of 
the  royal  house  who  escaped  massacre  on 
the  usurpation  of  the  throne  by  Athalia. 
He  was  proclaimed  king  by  the  high- 
priest  Joiada,  who  overthrew  Athalia,  in 
837.  He  put  to  death  Zacharias,  the  son 
of  Joiada,  in  anger  at  being  rebuked  for 
restoring  the  worship  of  Baal,  and  was 
murdered  by  his  own  servants  during  an 
invasion  of  the  Syrians.  Joas.  —  King 
of  Israel  (798-790  b.c).  Son  and  suc- 
cessor of  Joachaz.  He  expelled  the  Syri- 
ans from  his  kingdom,  and  defeated  and 
captured  Amasias,  king  of  Juda,  and  plun- 
dered the  temple  of  Jerusalem. 

Joatham  or  Joathan.  —  King  of  Juda, 
748-742  B.C.  Son  and  successor  of  Ozias, 
defeated  the  Ammonites  and  fortified 
Jerusalem. 

Job.  —  Biblical  personage  of  whom  we 
know  very  little.  He  was  an  Arabian,  re- 
markable for  a  holy  life.  The  fact  of  his 
riches,  consisting  in  flocks  and  pasturage, 
and  his  acting  as  priest  in  his  own  family, 
places  him,  certainly,  in  the  patriarchal 
times,  though  there  are  some  who  think 
he  was  a  contemporary  of  Moses  about 
1520  B.C.  God  allow-ed  Satan  to  afflict 
this  devout  man  in  order  to  test  his  virtue. 
This  was  begun  by  the  destruction  of  every 
beast  on  Job's  extensive  plains,  and  the 
murder  of  the  herdsmen,  except  two,  who 
escaped  to  tell  the  sad  tale  to  the  unhappy 
owner.  Soon  after  this  calamity,  Job  was 
informed  that  his  seven  sons  and  three 
daughters,  while  together  in  a  brother's 
house,  were  crushed  to  death  by  the  falling 
in  of  the  roof.  But,  though  these  misfor- 
tunes came  rapidly  upon  him.  Job  did  not 
complain  (Job.  i.  21).  But  the  last  suffer- 
ing sent  to  him  by  God  was  excruciating, 
for  his  whole  body  became  a  mass  of  fes- 
tering sores,  so  loathsome  that  his  wife  bade 
him  "bless  God  and  die"  (ii.  9).  Still 
he  meekly  observed  :  "  If  we  have  received 
good  things  at  the  hand  of  God  why  should 
we  not  receive  evil.?  "  (ii.  10.)  In  this  state 
he  was  visited  by  some  friends  who  sat  at 
his  feet  for  seven  days  without  uttering  a 


JOCQUES 


386 


John 


single  word  of  sympathy.  At  last  they 
broke  this  silence  with  bitter  remarks,  to 
the  effect  that  sinners  only  are  afflicted 
by  such  painful  diseases.  Job  replied  that 
God,  no  doubt,  being  infinitely  good,  dis- 
poses all  things  justly  and  wisely;  but  He 
sometimes  allows  the  wicked  in  this  life  to 
prosper,  and  the  good  to  be  sorely  tried 
for  an  end  known  to  Himself.  Notwith- 
standing this  glorious  profession  of  faith, 
Job  ventured  rashly  to  sound  the  divine 
secrets  in  connection  with  his  oAvn  case. 
God,  from  a  whirlwind,  reprehended  his 
temerity.  Job,  seeing  his  error,  humbled 
himself  in  dust  and  ashes,  when  God,  after 
defending  him  from  the  cruel  taunts  of 
false  friends,  rewarded  his  patience  and 
repentance,  by  restoring  to  him  his  former 
prosperous  condition  and  raising  up  a  new 
family  to  him.  Job  prophesied  the  coming 
of  the  Messias  and  the  resurrection  of  the 
body  (xix.  25,  26).  The  author  of  this 
book  is  supposed  to  be  Job  himself. 

Jocques  (Isaac). — A  French  Jesuit  mis- 
sionary to  Canada;  born  at  Orleans,  Jan. 
loth,  1607;  joined  the  Order  of  Jesuits  in 
1624;  became  a  priest  and  was  sent  to  the 
New  World  as  missionary  to  the  Hurons 
in  1636.  He  sailed  up  the  St.  Lawrence 
and  Ottawa  rivers  into  the  Huron  country, 
east  of  Lake  Superior.  After  five  years' 
missionary  work  he  started  to  return  to 
Quebec,  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Mo- 
hawk Indians  and  tortured,  but  finally 
escaped  to  Albany,  and  returned  to  France 
by  way  of  New  York.  He  soon  returned 
to  Canada,  negotiated  a  treaty  between  the 
French  and  Mohawks  in  1646,  and  began  a 
mission  among  the  latter,  but  was  killed 
as  a  sorcerer  by  them,  Oct.  i8th,  1646,  in  a 
part  of  the  country  which  is  now  Mont- 
gomery county.  New  York.  In  1884  a 
chapel  was  built  on  the  spot,  and  steps 
have  been  taken  toward  his  canonization. 
His  Life  was  published  by  Felix  Martin, 
in  1873. 

Joel. — The  twelfth  of  the  twelve  minor 
Prophets.  He  lived  under  the  reigns  of 
Ezechias  and  Manasses.  His  prophecies 
compose  three  chapters  in  which  he  fore- 
tells the  Babylonian  capti\aty,  the  coming 
of  the  Messias  and  the  Last  Judgment. 

John  (name  of  twenty-three  Popes). — 
yohn  I. — Pope  from  523  to  526.  At  the  re- 
quest of  King  Theodoric,  he  undertook  a 
mission  to  Constantinople  to  obtain  from 
the  Emperor  Justin  I.  religious  liberty  for 


the  Arians  and  the  restoration  of  their 
churches.  Theodoric,  displeased  with  the 
issue  of  the  embassy,  had  the  Pope  cast 
into  prison,  where  he  died  May  27th,  526. 
John  II.  —  Pope  from  532  to  535.  He 
obtained  from  Alaric,  king  of  the  Goths, 
an  edict  which  annulled  all  the  Simonia- 
cal  gifts  and  promises  that  might  be 
made  on  the  occasion  of  the  election 
of  the  sovereign  Pontiffs.  yohn  III.  — 
Pope  from  560  to  573.  John  IV. — 
Pope  from  640  to  642.  He  condemned  the 
Monothelitic  formula  of  faith  prepared  by 
Sergius  at  the  instance  of  the  Emperor 
Heraclius.  yohn  V.  —  Pope  from  685  to 
686.  He  was  a  native  of  Antioch  in  Syria. 
jfolm  VI.  —  Pope  from  701  to  705.  Scarcely 
had  he  ascended  the  Papal  throne,  when 
the  usurper  Tiberius  HI.  sent  the  Exarch 
Theophylactus  to  Rome  to  compel  the 
ratification  of  some  unjust  measures.  But 
the  indignant  people  and  military  ral- 
lied together  and  would  have  laid  vio- 
lent hands  upon  the  exarch,  had  not  the 
Pope  interposed.  John  VII.  —  Pope 
from  705  to  707.  Like  his  predecessor, 
John  VI.,  he  refused,  when  asked  by  the 
emperor,  to  approve  the  TruUan  Council. 
John  VIII.— "Pope  from  872  to  882.  A 
vigorous  and  indefatigable  Pontiff,  but  his 
position  was  embarrassing  in  the  extreme. 
During  his  whole  pontificate,  Rome  was 
continually  in  danger  of  falling  into  the 
hands  of  the  Saracens.  Yet  even  more 
formidable  to  the  Holy  See  than  the  Sara- 
cens were  the  petty  Christian  princes  of 
Italy.  He  appealed  for  aid,  first  to  Charles 
the  Bald,  king  of  France,  and  after  the 
latter's  death  in  877,  to  his  son,  Louis  of 
France.  But  the  Carlovingian  princes 
were  unable  or  unwilling  to  grant  the  help 
and  protection  solicited  by  the  Pope,  who 
was  obliged  to  purchase  the  safety  of  Rome 
by  the  payment  of  an  annual  tribute  to  the 
Saracens,  yohn  IX.  -r-  Pope  from  S98  to 
900.  Was  an  active  and  energetic  Pope, 
who  labored  most  zealously  to  heal  the 
evils  of  his  time.  A  Roman  council  held 
under  him  annulled  the  unprecedented 
judgment  passed  on  Pope  Formosus,  and 
solemnly  restored  his  memory.  The  orders 
which  he  had  bestowed  were  confirmed, 
and  reordination  condemned.  John  X. — 
Pope  from  914  to  928,  He  was  a  near  rela- 
tive, according  to  some,  the  nephew  of  the 
elder  Theodora,  a  Roman  lady,  famous  on 
account  of  her  beauty,  disorders  and 
crimes.  Upon  this  fact  the  h'ing  Luit- 
prand   built   up   his  grievous   accusations 


John 


387 


John  Climacus 


against  that  Pontiff,  whom  he  charges 
with  gross  licentiousness.  The  conflicting 
statements  of  Luitprand  are  a  sufficient 
proof  of  the  falsehood  of  his  allegations. 
By  other  contemporary  writers,  John  X. 
is  represented  as  a  Pontiff  of  unimpeach- 
able conduct,  whose  reign  was  eminently 
useful  to  the  Church.  Pope  John  X.  dis- 
played great  activity  and  energy  for  the 
liberation  of  Italy  from  the  Saracens, 
whom  he  utterly  routed  and  freed  the 
country  from  their  power,  in  916.  He 
manifested  a  disposition  to  break  the 
power  of  the  Tuscan  tyrants,  and  free  the 
Papacy  from  its  degrading  dependency. 
But  his  noble  endeavors  were  antici- 
pated by  the  party  of  Marozia.  He 
was  surprised  in  the  Lateran  palace 
by  this  daring  woman ;  his  brother  Peter 
was  killed  before  his  face,  and  the  Pope 
himself  thrown  into  prison,  where  shortly 
after  he  died,  it  is  said,  by  violence.  John 
XI.  —  Pope  from  931  to  936.  Son  of  Mar- 
ozia, who  caused  him  to  be  elected,  he 
being  only  twenty-five  years  old.  The 
youthful  pontiff  was  wholly  dependent 
upon  his  mother,  and,  after  her  banishment 
from  Rome,  on  his  still  younger  step- 
brother, Alberic  II.,  who,  with  the  title  of 
"  Princeps  Romse,"  reigned  as  absolute 
sovereign  over  Rome,  and  kept  the  Pope, 
his  brother,  in  strict  captivity  during  his 
lifetime.  John  XII.  —  Pope  from  955  to 
964.  Was  only  eighteen  years  old  when  he 
assumed  the  Pontificate.  This  youthful 
Pontiff,  whose  training  and  conduct  in  no 
wise  befitted  him  for  his  exalted  office,  was 
an  unworthy  occupant  of  the  Papal  Chair, 
upon  which  he  brought  disgrace  by  his 
dissolute  life.  But  the  Church,  then  in  a 
most  humiliating  state  of  bondage,  cannot 
be  held  responsible  for  the  outrageous  con- 
duct of  this  young  profligate,  who  was  not 
her  choice,  but  who  had  intruded  himself 
into  the  Pontificate  by  means  of  the  tem- 
poral power  which  he  inherited  from  his 
father,  Alberic  II.  yohn  XIII. — Pope 
from  965  to  972.  The  severity  with  which 
he  maintained  his  sovereign  rights  against 
the  nobility  caused  an  insurrection  against 
him ;  he  was  seized  and  held  in  prison  for 
ten  months.  Otho  I.  delivered  him.  The 
Pope  crowned  Otho  II.  emperor,  yohn 
XIV.  — Pope  from  983  to  984.  Cardinal 
Franco,  antipope,  with  the  aid  of  the 
Crescentians,  dethroned  the  Pope,  con- 
fined him  in  the  Castle  of  St.  Angelo,  and 
there  left  him  to  die  of  hunger.  John  X  V. 
—  Pope  from  985  to  996.     Governed  with 


great  prudence  and  success,  notwithstand- 
ing the  many  difficulties  of  his  position. 
The  tyranny  of  Crescentius  II.  obliged  the 
Pope  to  leave  Rome  and  to  invite  the  young 
emperor-elect,  Otho  III.,  to  his  aid  in  996. 
John  X  VI.  —  Antipope  from  997  to  998. 
He  was  elevated  to  the  Papacy  by  Crescen- 
tius, on  the  expulsion  of  Gregory  V.  in  997, 
but  was  imprisoned  and  blinded  by  the  em- 
peror Otho  III.,  in  998.  John  XVII.  — 
Pope  from  June  9th  to  October  31st,  1003. 
John  X  VIII.  —  Pope  from  1003  to  1009. 
John  XIX.  —  Pope  from  1024  to  1033. 
His  reign  of  eight  years  was  a  laudable 
administration.  In  1027  he  conferred  the 
imperial  crown  upon  Conrad  II.,  of  Ger- 
many, with  whom  the  Franconian  dynasty 
ascended  the  German  throne.  John  A'X. 
—  Pope  from  1276  to  1277.  John  XXI. 
(or  XXII.). — Pope  from  1316  to  1334.  He 
made  Avignon  his  residence,  and  was 
wholly  subservient  to  the  interests  of  the 
French  court.  He  opposed  the  emperor 
Louis  the  Bavarian,  whose  imperial  dig- 
nity he  offered  to  Charles  the  Fair,  of 
France.  Louis,  however,  installed  Nicho- 
las V.  as  antipope  at  Rome  in  1328,  but,  on 
retiring  from  Italy,  was  unable  to  prevent 
Nicholas  from  falling  into  the  hands  of 
John.  John  XXIII.  {Baltassare  Cossa). — 
Pope  from  1410  to  1415.  He  served  as  a 
Corsair  in  his  youth ;  afterwards  studied 
at  the  University  of  Bologna ;  was  created 
cardinal  in  1402;  and  in  1410  succeeded 
Alexander  V.  He  was  opposed  by  the 
antipopes  Benedict  XIII.  and  Gregory 
XII.,  along  with  whom  he  was  deposed  by 
the  Council  of  Constance,  in  1415. 

John  {Knights  of  St.).      See  Knights. 

John  Capistran  (St.).  (1385-1456). — 
Franciscan,  disciple  of  St.  Bernardin  of 
Siena,  born  at  Capistrano,  Italy.  He 
showed  great  zeal  and  power  in  preach- 
ing; he  traversed  Italy,  Austria,  Moravia, 
Bohemia,  Hungary,  Poland,  and  part  of 
Germany,  everywhere  preaching  with 
wonderful  success.  He  received  the  ab- 
juration of  11,000  Hussites.  To  his  zeal 
and  eloquence,  principally,  is  ascribed  the 
great  victory,  which,  in  1456,  the  Chris- 
tians, under  the  gallant  Hanniades,  gained 
at  Belgrade,  over  Mohammed  II.  F.  Oct. 
23d. 

John  Chrysostom   (St.).     See  Chrys- 

OSTOM. 

John  Climacus.  —  John,  who  from  his 
most  celebrated  work  (A'/Z/wax-Ladder)  is 


John  Gualbert 


388 


John  of  Nepomucene 


surnamed  "  Climacus,"  but  whose  time  and 
place  of  birth  are  unknown,  was  evidently 
endowed  with  splendid  talents,  by  the 
careful  use  of  which  he  soon  began  to 
acquire  a  rich  store  of  knowledge.  At  the 
age  of  sixteen  he  renounced  the  honors  of 
the  world  and  entered  the  monastery 
of  Mount  Sinai.  After  the  death  of  his 
teacher,  Martyrius,  he  lived  for  forty 
years  as  an  anchorite  in  a  lonely  cave  at 
the  foot  of  the  mountain,  spending  his  time 
in  rigid  penance,  prayer,  contemplation, 
the  study  of  Holy  Scripture,  and  the  writ- 
ings of  the  Fathers.  Having  ever  edified 
his  brethren  by  willing  submission  to 
others,  they  made  him,  at  the  age  of  70, 
their  abbot,  and  venerated  him  almost  as  a 
second  Moses.  But  after  a  few  years,  he 
resigned  his  dignity  and  chose  as  successor 
his  brother  George,  a  man  of  great  ex- 
perience in  the  ways  of  spiritual  life.  He 
then  returned  to  his  solitary  cell,  in  which 
he  ended  a  long  and  holy  life  about  the 
year  600.  His  works  can  be  found  in 
Migne,  Pat.  gr.  LXXXVIH,  579-1248. 

John  Gualbert.     See  Vallombrosa. 

John  of  Antioch  (surnamed  the  "Scho- 
lastic").—  Patriarch  of  Constantinople 
from  564  to  578,  author  of  a  collection  of 
ecclesiastical  laws,  which  became  the  basis 
of  Canon  Law  among  the  Greeks,  and  of  the 
JVotnocanon,  a  collection  of  constitutions  in 
regard  to  the  Church,  promulgated  before 
and  under  Justinian. 

John  of  Damascus  (St.). — "  The  last  of 
the  Fathers  of  the  Church,"  was  born  in 
the  decline  of  the  seventh  century  at  Da- 
mascus, from  which  city  he  received  the 
surname  "Damascene."  By  the  Saracens 
he  was  called  "  Mansur,"  and  on  account 
of  his  eloquence  was  surnamed  "  Chrys- 
sorrhoas  "  (Goid-sf reaming).  He  received 
his  education  from  a  pious  and  learned 
monk  named  Cosmas,  who  was  taken  pris- 
oner and  brought  to  Damascus.  Like  his 
father,  he  held  a  high  office  under  the  Ca- 
liphs. His  zeal  in  defending  the  sacred 
images  against  the  Iconoclasts,  exposed 
him  to  the  resentment  and  persecution  of 
the  Greek  Emperor.  On  the  suspicion  of 
a  treasonable  correspondence,  he  was  de- 
prived of  his  right  hand,  which,  however, 
was  miraculously  restored  by  the  Mother 
of  God.  He  resigned  his  office,  distrib- 
uted his  wealth  among  the  poor,  and  re- 
tired into  the  Laura  of  St.  Sabas,  where. 


after  some  time,  he  was  ordained  priest. 
He  died  about  the  year  754.  John  Damas- 
cene has  left  many  works  which,  on 
account  of  their  solid  learning  and  great 
literary  merit,  have  been  held  in  high 
esteem  in  both  the  Latin  and  the  Greek 
Churches.  His  collected  works  were 
edited  by  Le  Quien,  Paris  (1712,  2  vols, 
fol.). 

John  of  God  and  Brothers  of  Charity.  — 
The  Brothers  of  Charity  were  founded  in 
1540  at  Seville,  in  Spain,  by  the  Portuguese, 
John  of  God.  Born  in  1495,  John  led  a 
roving  life  until  his  forty-fifth  year,  when 
he  was  converted  at  Grenada  by  an  impres- 
sive sermon  of  John  Avila,  and  from 
thenceforth  (1540)  gave  himself  entirely 
to  the  service  of  the  sick  in  the  hospitals. 
The  Archbishop  of  Grenada  and  the  Bishop 
of  Tuy,  admiring  his  efforts  to  copy  the 
broad  charity  and  tender  mercy  of  our 
Saviour,  entered  warmly  into  his  plans, 
surnaming  him  "John  of  God."  He  died 
in  1550,  poor  in  the  wealth  of  this  world, 
but  rich  in  good  works.  His  companions, 
who  continued  to  carry  on  his  work,  bound 
themselves  still  more  closely  to  each  other 
by  taking  upon  them  the  three  monastic 
vows,  with  the  additional  obligation  of 
gratuitously  serving  the  sick  in  the  hospi- 
tals. They  received  recognition  as  an  c3r- 
der,  under  the  name  of  the  **  Brethren  of 
St.  John  of  God,"  in  1617,  from  Pope  Paul 
v.,  and  have  since  continued  to  render  im- 
portant services  within  their  sphere  in 
every  Catholic  country.  In  the  hospitals, 
to  each  of  which  only  one  priest  was  at- 
tached, they  were  as  ready  to  serve  non- 
Catholics  as  those  of  their  own  faith,  their 
constitution  obliging  them  to  make  no  dis- 
tinction of  faith,  rank,  or  nation.  Their 
founder  was  beatified  in  1630,  by  Urban 
VIII.,  and  canonized  by  Alexander  VIII., 
in  1690.     F.  March  8th. 

John  of  Matha.     See  Trinitarians. 

John  of  Nepomucene  (St.)  (born  between 
1340-50).  —  Patron  of  Bohemia,  born  at 
Nepomuk,  Bohemia.  Having  become  priest, 
he  refused  three  bishoprics  and  accepted 
only  a  canonicate  of  Prague.  Refusing  to 
reveal  to  King  Wenceslaus  the  secret  of 
confession  of  the  Queen  Joane,  his  wife, 
whose  fidelity  the  king  suspected,  he  was 
thrown  into  prison,  then  drowned  in  the 
Moldau,  March  20th,  1393.  He  was  canon- 
ized by  Pope  Benedict  XIII.  in  1729.  F. 
May  i6th. 


John  of  the  Cross 


389 


JONATHAS 


John  of  the  Cross  (St.)  (1542-1591). — 
Spanish  Carmelite,  born  at  Fontibera 
(Ancient  Castile).  He  associated  himself 
with  St.  Theresa  for  the  reform  of  the 
Carmelites,  founded  at  Manresa  the  first 
convent  of  the  so-called  Discalced  Carmel- 
ites (1568),  an  institute  approved  by  Pope 
Pius  V.  and  confirmed  by  Gregory  XIII.  in 
1580.  Imprisoned  at  the  instigation  of 
the  ancient  Carmelites,  he  regained  his 
liberty  through  St.  Theresa.  Died  in  the 
monastery  of  Ubeda,  and  was  canonized 
in  1726,  by  Benedict  XIII.  F.  Nov. 
24th. 

John  the  Almoner  (St.)  (556-619).  — Pa- 
triarch of  Alexandria  (608),  born  at  Ama- 
thonte,  on  the  island  of  Cyprus,  surnamed 
"  The  Almoner,"  on  account  of  his  inex- 
haustible charity ;  from  him  the  Order  of 
St.  John  of  Jerusalem  draws  its  name.  F. 
Jan.  23d. 

John  the  Baptist  (St.). —  Precursor  of 
the  Messias,  born  six  months  before  Jesus 
Christ,  son  of  Zacharias  and  Elizabeth. 
Thirty  years  had  elapsed  from  the  birth  of 
our  Lord,  when  he  appeared  on  the  banks 
of  the  Jordan,  preaching  the  baptism  of 
penance  for  the  remission  of  sins.  He 
was  the  last  representative  of  the  Prophets 
of  the  old  covenant;  his  work  was  to  an- 
nounce the  way  for,  and  to  prepare  the 
advent  of  the  promised  Messias.  Such 
was  the  fame  and  authority  of  John,  whom 
the  Lord  Himself  declared  the  "greatest 
of  those  born  of  women,"  that  it  led  men 
to  suspect  that  he  himself  might  be  the 
Messias.  But  John  openly  confessed  that 
he  was  not  the  Christ,  and  announced  the 
approach  of  "  one  mightier  than  himself, 
who  would  baptize  with  the  Holy  Ghost 
and  with  fire,  and  the  latchet  of  whose 
shoes  he  was  not  worthy  to  loose  "  (Luke 
iii.  16).  It  was  by  the  testimony  of  John 
that  the  divine  mission  of  Jesus  was  authen- 
ticated, as,  at  the  baptism  of  Jesus,  the 
holy  precursor  received  the  miraculous 
token  that  Jesus  was,  indeed,  the  "  anointed 
of  God."  John  was  at  length  put  to  death 
by  order  of  Herod,  at  the  instigation  of 
Herodias,  whose  licentiousness  he  had  the 
boldness  to  reprove.  Feast  of  the  Nativ- 
ity of  St.  John,  June  24th ;  of  his  Decolla- 
tion, August  29th. 

John  the  Evangelist  (St.)  (5-101  or  102). 
—  Apostle  and  Evangelist.  The  youngest 
of  the  Apostles,  son  of  Zebedee  and  Salome, 
and  brother  of  James  the  Elder,  labored 


first  in  Judea  and  Samaria.  Shortly  after 
the  feast  of  Pentecost,  we  find  him  in  the 
temple  with  Peter  curing  the  lame  man ; 
and  later  on  in  Samaria,  imposing  hands 
on  the  new  converts.  He  seems  to  have 
remained  in  Palestine,  probably,  until  the 
death  of  the  Blessed  Virgin.  He  assisted 
at  the  Council  of  Jerusalem,  after  which 
he  is  reported  to  have  preached  the  Chris- 
tain  faith  to  the  Parthians.  About  the 
year  58,  he  went  to  Asia  Minor  to  assume 
the  government  of  the  churches  founded 
in  that  country  by  St.  Paul.  He  lived  in 
Ephesus,  where  he  made  many  disciples, 
among  whom  were  Papias,  Ignatius  Mar- 
tyr and  Polycarp.  According  to  a  widely 
spread  tradition,  the  apostle  St.  John  was 
brought  to  Rome  under  Domitian  in  the 
year  95,  and  cast  into  a  caldron  of  boiling 
oil,  whence  he  came  forth  unhurt.  He  wAs 
subsequently  banished  to  the  island  of 
Patmos,  in  the  Grecian  archipelago,  where, 
about  the  year  96,  he  wrote  the  Apocalypse. 
Returning  to  Ephesus,  he  wrote,  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  Asiatic  bishops,  his  Gospel,  to 
oppose  the  errors  of  Cerinthus  and  Ebion, 
about  the  year  97.  His  three  Epistles  were 
written  at  a  later  period.  John,  who  sur- 
vived all  the  other  Apostles,  died  at  a  very 
advanced  age.     F.  Dec.  27th. 

Jonas.  —  One  of  the  twelve  minor  proph- 
ets. He  appeared  under  the  reigns  of  Joas 
and  of  Jeroboam  II.,  kings  of  Israel,  and, 
under  the  reigns  of  Ozias  and  Azarias, 
kings  of  Juda,  and,  consequently,  more 
than  800  years  before  Christ.  The  Lord 
ordered  him  to  foretell  to  the  Ninivites  the 
destruction  of  their  city :  but  Jonas,  being 
afraid  of  the  dangers  of  such  a  mission, 
embarked  for  Tarsus,  just  in  the  opposite 
direction.  Being  overtaken  by  a  storm,  he 
was  thrown  overboard,  but  was  miracu- 
lously preserved  by  being  swallowed  by  a 
large  fish.  The  fish  afterwards  cast  him  out 
upon  the  land.  The  word  of  the  Lord  a 
second  time  directed  him  to  visit  Ninive. 
He  went  thither  and  accomplished  his  mis- 
sion. The  Ninivites,  having  done  penance, 
God  pardoned  them. 

Jonathas  or  Jonathan.  — Jewish  warrior, 
son  of  Saul,  died  in  1055  b.  c.  Friend  of 
David,  whom  he  protected  against  his 
father;  twice  conqueror  over  the  Philis- 
tines, he  incurred  the  punishment  of  death, 
because,  in  pursuing  the  enemy,  he  had 
eaten  before  sunset,  contrary  to  the  order 
of  Saul,  but  was  saved  by  the  people. 


JOPPE 


390 


Joseph 


Joppe  or  Jaffa.  —  A  seaport  of  Palestine, 
situated  on  the  Mediterranean.  It  is  often 
mentioned  in  Biblical  history.  It  was  fre- 
quently taken  and  retaken  by  the  Cru- 
saders ;  was  stormed  by  the  French  under 
Napoleon  in  1799;  was  taken  by  Mehemet 
All  in  1832 ;  and  was  retaken  by  the  Turks 
m  1840.  It  is  the  terminus  of  the  Jaffa- 
Jerusalem  Railway  Population,  about  23,- 
000. 

Joram.  —  i.  King  of  Israel,  896-S84  b.c. 
Son  of  Achab,  brother  and  successor  of 
Ochozias,  conqueror  of  the  Moabites  and 
01  Benhadad,  king  of  Syria,  thanks  to  the 
intercession  of  the  prophet  Eliseus  ;  sacri- 
ficed, nevertheless,  to  the  idols,  and  was 
put  to  death  by  Jehu,  who  succeeded  him. 
2.  Joram.  —  King  of  Juda,  893-886  B.C. 
Son  and  successor  of  Josaphat,  spouse  of 
Athalia,  inaugurated  his  reign  by  murder- 
ing his  brothers  and  the  chief  men  of  the 
State,  beheld  his  kingdom  ravaged  by  the 
Arabs  and  Philistines,  and  died  of  a  fright- 
ful disease. 

Jordan. —  The  chief  river  of  Palestine. 
It  rises  in  Anti-Libanus,  traverses  Lake 
Merom  and  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  and  flows 
into  the  Dead  Sea  19  miles  east  of  Jerusa- 
lem.    Its  length  is  about  120  miles. 

Josaphat. —  King  of  Juda,  904-889  b.c. 
Son  of  Asa.  A  pious,  wise,  and  enlightened 
prince,  enlarged  and  fortified  several  cities 
of  his  kingdom ;  won  brilliant  victories 
over  the  Ammonites,  Moabites,  and  Arabs. 

Josaphat  ( Valley  of)  (Hebr.  Judg- 
ment  of  God).  —  Famous  valley  of  Pales- 
tine situated  between  Jerusalem  and  the 
Mount  of  Olives,  through  which  the  Cedron 
flows.  According  to  a  prophecy  of  Joel 
(iii.  2)  the  last  judgment  will  take  place 
in  this  Biblical  valley. 

Joseph. — The  favorite  son  of  Jacob  and 
Rachel,  and  distinguished  by  the  wonder- 
ful Providence  of  God,  by  which  he  was 
raised  from  prison  to  be  a  grand  vizier  of 
Egypt.  His  history  is  one  of  the  most 
pathetic  and  interesting  in  the  whole  Bible, 
and  is  contained  in  Genesis  (xxx.  22 ;  xxxvii. 
and  xxxix.).  When  the  Israelites  left  Egypt, 
they  took  with  them  the  bones  of  Joseph 
and  buried  them  in  Sichem. 

Joseph  (St.). —  Spouse  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin  Mary,  foster  father  of  Jesus  Christ, 
of  the  tribe  of  Juda  and  of  the  family  of 
David ;  a  simple  artisan,  perhaps  carpen- 
ter, was  instructed  by  an  angel  concerning 


the  mystery  of  the  Incarnation.  He  ap- 
pears for  the  last  time  in  the  Gospel 
when  he  goes  to  seek  with  Mary  the  child 
Jesus  in  the  midst  of  the  doctors,  at  Jeru- 
salem. Very  probably  he  was  dead  when 
Christ  began  to  preach  the  Gospel.  Pope 
Pius  IX.  established  St.  Joseph  as  patron 
saint  of  the  universal  Church.  F.  March 
19th. 

Joseph  (Congregations  of  St.). — There 
are  several  of  these  congregations:  i. 
Priests  of  St.  Joseph.  —  Congregation  of 
secular  priests,  founded  at  Rome,  in  1620, 
by  Father  Paul  Motta.  It  was  approved 
by  Pope  Innocent  X.,  in  1649.  2.  Mis- 
sionaries of  the  Congregation  of  St. 
Joseph. — Congregation  founded  at  Lyons, 
in  the  seventeenth  century,  by  Cretenet,  a 
physician,  with  the  view  of  evangelizing 
the  neighboring  countries  of  Lyons;  they 
are  sometimes  called  •'  Cretenists."  3. 
Daughters  of  St.  Joseph.  —  Religious 
community  founded  at  Bordeaux,  in  1638, 
by  Marie  Delpech,  known  under  the  name 
of  Mile,  de  I'Estang,  or  Letan.  The  ob- 
ject of  this  congregation  was  to  take  care 
of  orphans.  4.  Religious  Hospitalers 
of  St.  Joseph.  —  Religious  congregation 
founded  at  La  Fl^che,  in  1612,  by  Mile,  de 
La  Ferre.  Its  members  served  in  hos- 
pitals in  a  great  number  of  cities  of 
France.  5.  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph. —  Con- 
gregation founded  in  the  city  of  Puy  in 
Velay,  in  1650,  by  Henri  de  Maupas, 
bishop  of  this  city,  with  the  view  of  taking 
care  of  poor  girls  and  widows.  Its  mem- 
bers had  also  charge  of  hospitals,  houses 
of  refuge,  and  orphan  asylums.  Later  on 
they  also  served  in  the  capacity  of  teachers 
in  schools.  An  oflFshoot  of  the  Sisters  of 
St.  Joseph  was,  in  1836,  introduced  into 
the  Diocese  of  St.  Louis  by  Bishop  Rosati, 
These  sisters  have  since  been  introduced 
into  many  other  dioceses  of  the  United 
States  as  well  as  Canada.  6.  Sisters  of 
Charity  of  St.  Joseph.  —  The  original 
name  of  the  community  of  sisters  estab- 
lished by  Mrs.  Seton  at  Emmittsburg, 
Maryland,  in  1809.  In  1850,  with  its  de- 
pendencies, it  assumed  the  habit  and  the 
vows  of  the  French  Sisters  of  Charity  of 
St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  of  which  the  Em- 
mittsburg house  and  its  dependencies  now 
form  a  province.  But  the  sisters  of  this 
order  in  the  Diocese  of  New  York,  whose 
mother-house  is  at  Mount  St.  Vincent  on 
the  Hudson,  were,  in  1846,  made  independ- 
ent of  Emmittsburg. 


JOSEPHINUM 


391 


JOSUE 


Josephinum.  —  Papal  College  at  Colum- 
bus, Ohio,  U.  S.  It  is  a  free  institute  of 
learning,  in  which  poor  German-American 
youths  are  received  as  students  without 
any  expense  on  their  part,  if  they  have 
talents  and  vocations  fitting  them  to  be- 
come secular  priests.  The  Josephinum  was 
founded  in  1888  by  Rev.  Joseph  Jessing(died 
1899)  ^nd  has  been  made  a  gift  to  the  Holy 
See.  Pope  Leo  XIII.  raised  the  Josephinum 
to  a  Papal  College  in  the  year  1892.  In  the 
year  1896,  the  Josephinum  had  125  students. 
Those  priests  who  go  forth  from  the 
Josephinum,  understand  both  the  German 
and  English  languages,  and  are  destined 
to  labor  within  the  United  States  for  the 
salvation  of  souls  and  for  the  exaltation 
and  propogation  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  The  Josephinum  receives  its 
support  from  three  sources:  i.  From  a 
weekly  journal,  "Der  Ohio  Weisenfreund." 

2.  From  endowments  for  poor  students. 
For  such  an  endowment  a  capital  of  $S,ooo 
is  required,  and  the  interest  of  this  capital 
permits  a  student  to  study,  gratis,  for  all 
future  time.  At  present  the  Josephinum 
possesses  more  than  50  such  endowments. 

3.  From  other  voluntary  alms. 

Josephism.  —  Gallicanism  in  France 
aimed  at  the  restriction  of  the  rights  of 
the  Church  and  sought  to  transfer  them  to 
the  civil  power.  Febronianism  and  Joseph- 
ism pursued  a  similar  course  in  Germany. 
See  Gallicanism  and  Febronianism. 
Joseph  II.  of  Austria,  misled  by  impious 
advisers,  especially  by  the  arrogant  minis- 
ter Kaunitz,  began  a  career  of  anti-ecclesi- 
astical innovations.  He  suppressed  600 
monasteries,  containing  30,000  members 
and  destroyed  magnificent  works  of  science 
and  art.  The  monarch  issued  ordinances 
regarding  the  celebration  of  divine  wor- 
ship, prescribed  the  number  of  candles  to 
be  used  at  service,  commanded  the  use  of 
the  German  language  in  liturgy ;  prohibited 
the  celebration  of  more  than  one  Mass  at 
the  same  time,  and  a  promulgation  of  in- 
dulgences without  his  permission  ;  he  also 
placed  heavy  penalties  on  the  devotion  to 
the  Sacred  Heart  and  the  Way  of  the  Cross. 
On  this  account  he  was  ridiculed  by  Fred- 
erick II.  of  Prussia  as  the  "  Brother  Sac- 
ristan." The  would-be  reformer  abolished 
several  ecclesiastical  impediments  to  mat- 
rimony, introduced  freedom  of  the  press, 
thereby  causing,  in  Austria,  an  overflow  of 
the  obscene  literature  of  foreign  countries ; 
he  suppressed  the  diocesan  seminaries  and 


replaced  them  by  "  General  Seminaries," 
in  which  "  enlightened  "  professors  taught 
gross  infidelity  to  the  students  of  theology. 
The  emperor's  aim  was  to  completely  sepa- 
rate the  Austrian  Church  from  Rome. 
Unfortunately,  many  bishops  lacked  the 
courage  and  energy  to  resist  these  anti- 
ecclesiastical  measures.  Pope  Pius  VI. 
went  in  person  to  Vienna,  but  was  coldly 
received  by  Joseph  (1782).  The  deluded 
emperor  lived  long  enough  to  see  the  fail- 
ure of  his  so-called  reforms ;  he  died  re- 
pentant. 

Joseph  of  Arimathea.  —  A  member  of 
the  Jewish  Sanhedrin  or  senate,  who  was 
secretly  a  disciple  of  Christ,  and  who,  with 
Nicodemus,  embalmed  the  body  of  Jesus 
after  his  crucifixion,  and  laid  it  in  his  own 
new  sepulchre.  It  is  claimed  that  he 
preached  the  Gospel  in  Great  Britain. 

Josephus  Flavius. — Born  37  a.  d.,  died 
about  95.  A  celebrated  Jewish  historian. 
He  was  of  an  illustrious  priestly  descent, 
and  related  to  the  Machabean  house.  He 
gives  the  following  testimony  concerning 
Christ:  "There  was  at  one  time  a  wise 
man  whose  name  was  Jesus,  if,  indeed,  he 
may  be  properly  called  a  man,  for  he 
wrought  wonderful  works,  taught  the 
truth  to  those  who  were  willing  to  hear 
Him,  and  had  among  His  followers  a  great 
number  of  Jews  and  Gentiles.  This  was 
the  Christ.  When,  at  the  suggestion  of 
our  leading  men,  Pilate  condemned  Him 
to  death  on  the  Cross,  those  who  loved 
Him  from  the  beginning  did  not  forsake 
Him  and  He  appeared  alive  to  them  on 
the  third  day.  All  this,  and  much  more, 
the  Prophets  foretold  concerning  Him ; 
and  the  Christians,  who  are  named  after 
Him,  exist  at  this  day."  Antiquities  of 
the  Je-ws,  xviii.  3,  3. 

Josias.  —  King  of  Juda,  641-610  b.  c. 
Son  of  Amon.  He  was  defeated  and 
slain  by  Pharao  Nechao  at  the  battle  of 
Mageddo  in  the  valley  of  Esdrslon  (IV. 
Ki.  xxii.-xxiii.  30;  II.  Par.  xxxiv.-xxxv.). 
He  brought  about  important  reforms,  de- 
stroying all  forms  of  idolatrous  worship. 
It  was  under  his  reign  that  the  high-priest 
Helcias  found  the  Book  of  the  Law. 

Josue  (Hebr.  -whose  help  is  Tahveh). — 
The  successor  of  Moses  as  leader  of  the 
Israelites.  He  was  the  son  of  Nun,  of  the 
tribe  of  Ephraim,  and  was  one  of  the  two 
spies    who    favorably   reported   Chanaan. 


Journalism 


392 


Journalism 


He  was  an  attendant  of  Moses,  who  deGig- 
nated  him,  his  successor.  He  led  the  nation 
into  the  Land  of  Promise,  and  was  their 
captain  in  the  wars  that  resulted   in  their 


peaceful  occupation  of  it.  The  book  that 
bears  his  name  consists,  mainly,  of  an  ac- 
count of  the  settlement  of  the  Israelites  in 
Chanaan. 


Journalism  (Catholic)  in  the  United  States. 
(Hoffmann^ s    Catholic  Directory  of  1899.) 


Banning^. : 

San  Francisco 

I4OS  Angeles.. 

Denver 

Hartford 

New  Haven.. 

Wilmington... 

Washington. . 

Chicago 

Quincy 

Wetang 

CoUegeville . . 

Notre  Dame... 
Ev'ansville 

Ft.  Wayne 

Indianapolis  . 

Notre  Dame . . 
St.  Meinrad ! '. 

Cascade 

Davenport. . . . 
Dnbnque 

Sioux  City 


California 

The  Mission  Indian 

The  Monitor 

The  Angelus  

The  Nation 

Western  Witness 

California  Volksfreund 

Catholic  Tidings 

Colorado 
Colorado  Catholic 

Connectieat 

Connecticut  Catholic 

CathoUc  Standard 

Delaware 

St,  Joseph's  League 

District  of  Coltitnbia 

Georgetown  College  Journal 

Church  News 

Bulletin  of  Catholic  University 

Illinois 

The  New  World 

Western  Catholic  News 

Homeless  Boy 

The  Catholic  Religious  Youth 

Newsboy's  Protector 

Katolisches  Wochenblatt 

Katolisches  Sonntagsblatt 

St.  Aloysins  Banner 

Katoliscber  Jugendf reund 

I,e  Courrier  de  I'lllinois 

Gazet  Katolicka 

Przyjaciel  Dzied  (for  children) 

Wiarai  Ojizj'zna 

Pritel  Ditek  (for  children) 

Katolik 

Narod  

The  Western  Catholic 

Die  Legende 

Indiana 

Der  Botschafter  des  Geislichen  Wohltha- 
itgkeits-Vereins 

The  Young  Crusader 

Notre  Dame  Scholastic 

Official  Messenger  of  the  Knights  of  St. 
John 

C.  K.  of  A.  Bulletin 

Glocke 

Catholic  Record 

Ave  Maria 

Scholastic  (college  paper) 

Annals  of  Our  Lady  01  Lourdes 

Paradiesesfriichte  (Eucharistic) 

Iowa 

Katolischer  Waechter 

Iowa  Catholic  Messenger 

Katolischer  Westen 

Luxemburger  Gazette 

The  CathoUc  Tribune 

Northwestern  Catholic 




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English 
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English 


Journalism 


393 


Journalism 


Atchison 

St.  Mary's 

Covington 

I<ouisviUe 

St.  Mary's 

New  Orleans. . . 

Augusta 

Biddeford 

I,ewiston 

Portland 

Baltimore 

Bmmittsburg  .. 
Boston 

Cheisea 

Fall  River 

Haverhill 

Holyoke 

Lawrence 

Lowell 

New  Bedford. . . 

North  Adams. . . 
Springfield 

Worcester 

Bay  City 

Detroit 

Harbor  Springs 
Kalamazoo 

CoUegeville 

Minneapolis 

St.  Cloud....".'.'." 


Kansas 

Abbey  Student  (college  paper) 

The  Dial  (college  paper) 

Kentucky 

Emmanuel 

New  Cathedral  Chimes 

The  Teacher  aud  Organist 

Central  Catholic  Advocate 

.  The  Review  and  Record 

Katolischer  Glaubensbote 

The  Midland  Review 

The  Sentinel 

I^ouisiana 

Morning  Star  and  Catholic  Messenger 

The  Salve  Regina  (college  paper) 

Observateur  Louisianais 

Maine 

The  Celtic  Mirror 

L'Ouvrier  Catholique 

Le  Mes.sager  

The  Columbian 

Maryland 

Catholic  Mirror 

The  Chimes 

Mt.  St.  Joseph  Collegian 

Agnetian  Monthly 

The  Month 

The  Tablet 

The  Messenger  from  St.  James's  Home  for 

boys 

Colored  Harvest 

The  Mission  Helper  of  the  Sacred  Heart. . . 

Katolische  Volkszeitung 

The  Mountaineer  (college  paper) 

Massachusetts 

Donahoe's  Magazine 

The  Working  Boy 

Pilot 

Republic 

S.  H.  Review  

Weekly  Bouquet 

L'Ami  de  I'Orphelin 

Catholic  Citizen 

Catholic  Advocate 

L'Independant 

Index 

Le  Defenseur 

Sunday  Register 

L'EJtoile 

Catholic  Union 

L'Echo  du  Soir 

L'Independant 

Messenger 

Springfield  Tribune 

Messenger 

The  Purple 

lyC  R6veil 

L'Opinion  Publique 

The  Worcester  Recorder 

The  Holy  Cross  Purple  (college  magazine) 

Michigan 

Le  Patriote 

Michigan  Catholic 

The  Angelus 

The  Angelus  Bell 

American  Catholic  Tribune 

Sodalist 

Stimme  der  Wahrheit 

Anishinabe  Enamtad 

Kalamazoo  Augustinian 

Minnesota 

St  John's  University  Record 

L'Echo  de  I'Ouest 

Irish  Standard 

Wordstern 


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Journalism 


394 


Journalism 


St.  Paul . 


Tower . 

White  Earth. 


Kansas  City. 


St.  Joseph. 
St.  lyouis. . . 


Omaha 

Westpoint . 


Manchester. 


Arlington 

Long  Branch 

Morristown 

Newark 

New  Brunswick. 


Las  Vegas. 


Brooklyn . 
Buffalo . . . 


Cohoes 

Goshen. . . . 
New  York. 


Niagara  University.. 
Rochester 


Syracuse 

Troy . 

WatertowTi . . 
Westchester. 
West  Seneca. 


Yonkers. 


Minnesota —  Continued 


Northwestern  Chronicle. 

Wanderer 

Amerikanski   Sloveuec.. 
The  Progress 


Missouri 


Kansas  City  Catholic 

K.  F.  M.  Journal 

Die  Kansas  City  Zeitung 

Catholic  Tribune 

Church  Progress  and  Catholic  World. 

Western  Watchman 

Review 

Catholic  Knights  of  American  News. 

Herold  des  Glaubens 

Amerika 

Pastoralblatt 

Hlas 


Nebraska 


Western  Chronicle 

Messenger  of  St.  Vincent's  Union. 

Central  Chronik 

Omaha  Waisenvater 


Ne'w  Hampshire 

Sta,ndard   

L'fitoile  de  Manchester 

L' Avenir  National 


New  Jersey 

Sacred  Heart  Union 

Good  Tidings 

The  Sentinel  and  Bagley  School  Messenger 

The  Catholic  Ledger 

St.  Mary's  Messenger 


New  Mexico 
Revista  Catolica 


New  York 

Record  of  the  Catholic  Benevolent  Legion 

Catholic  Union  and  Times 

Le  Couteulx  Leader 

Aurora 

Christliche  Woche 

Volksfreund 

L'Index)endant 

The  Visitor 

The  Missionary  (Paulist  Fathers) 

Supplement  of  Messenger  of  Sacred  Heart 

The  Xavier  (college  paper) 

Catholic  American 

Catholic  News 

Catholic  Re^■^ew 

Freeman's  Journal 

The  Catholic  Herald 

Irish  World 

Weekly  Union  and  Catholic  Times 

Catholic  World 

Messenger  of  the  Sacred  Heart 

The  iHlgrim  of  Our  Lady  of  Martyrs 

The  Catholic  Reading  Circle  Review 

American  Ecclesiastical  Review 

Fordham  Monthly  (college  paper) 

The  Rosar3' " 

The  Young  Catholic    

Katoli.sches  Volk.sblatt 

Die  Christliche  Muther 

Index  (college  paper) 

Catholic  Journal 

The  Catholic  Quarterly  Review 

Catholic  Sun 

The  Calendar 

The  Annals  of  Our  Lady  of  the  Sacred  Heart 

St.  Joseph  of  the  Oaks'(  school  pai)er) 

The  Association  of  Our  Blessed  Lady  of 

Victory 

Home  Journal  and  News 


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Journalism 


395 


Journalism 


Raleigh , 

Canton 

Cincinnati 

Cleveland 

Columbus , 

Dayton 

Toledo 

Sacred  Heart  Mission. 

Mt.  Angel 

Portland , 

Beatty 

Erie 

Philadelphia 

Pittsburgh 

Meadville 

Scranton 

Villanova 

Wilkesbarre 

Central  Falls 

Pawtucket 

Providence 

Woonsocket 

Memphis 

Nashville 

Austin 

Hallettsville. ...... '. . . 

Independence 


Korth  Carolina     - 

Truth 

Ohio 

Catholic  Magazine 

The  Angelus  Magazine 

Emmanuel  (official  of  the  P.  E.  I/.) 

Catholic  Telegraph 

Wahrheitsfreund    

Sendbote  des  gottlichen  Herzens  Jesu 

The  Teacher  and  Organist 

The  Sodalist 

St.  Anthony's  Messenger 

Der  Franciscus  Bote 

Catholic  Universe 

Jednota  Universe 

Magyarorszagi    Szent    Erzibet    Amerikai 

Himoke 

Stimme  der  Wahrheit 

Catholic  Columbian 

Ohio  Waisenfreund 

Young  Catholic  Messenger 

St.  Joseph's  Post 

Czas 

Ameryka 

Toledo  World 

Oklahoma  Territory 

Indian  Advocate 

Oregon 

St.  Joseph's  Blatt 

Der  Armen  Seelen  Freund 

The  Banner  (college  paper) 

Catholic  Sentinel 

Pennsylvania 

St.  Vincent's  Journal  (college  paper) 

St.  Xavicr's  Monthly 

I<ake  Shore  Visitor 

Catholic  Standard  and  Times 

American  Catholic  Historical  Researches. . 

Catholic  T.  A.  News 

American  Catholic  Quarterly  Review 

Records  of  the  American  Catholic  Histor- 
ical Society 

Griffin's  Journal 

Philadelphia  Volksblatt 

Nord-Anierika 

Annals  of  the  Perpetual  Adoration  and 
Work  for  Poor  Churches 

Catholic 

Katolisches  Familienblatt 

Beobachter 

Holy  Ghost  College  Bulletin 

Annals  of  the  Holy  Childhood 

Annalen  der  Kindheit  Jesu 

The  Meadville  Monitor 

The  Index 

Diocesan  Record 

Our  Lady  of  Good  Counsel 

The  Emerald 

Der  Leuchtthurm 

Rhode  Island 

1,'Esperance 

I,e  Jean  Baptiste 

Providence  Visitor 

La  Tribune 

Tennessee 

Catholic  Journal 

Catholic  News 

St.  Cecilia's  Phonograph 

Texas 

The  College  Echo  (college  paper) 

The  Catholic  Journal 

Novy  Domov 

Polish  Paper 

Colored  Orphan  Boy 


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JOVINIAN 


396 


Judaea 


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Norfolk 

Richmond 

Chippewa  Falls 
De  Pere 

I<a  Crosse 

Milwaukee 

St.  Francis 

Sinsinawa , 

Watertown 

Wheeling , 

TaconuL 


Texas  —  Continued 

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La  Fe  Catolica 

Katolische  Rundschau 

Virginia 

Emerald  Vindicator 

Catholic  Visitor 

'Wisconsin 

Catholic  Sentinel 

Volksstem 

Onze  Standaard 

Annals  of  St.  Joseph 

Patriot 

Vlastenec 

Catholic  Citizen 

Our  Young  People 

Excelsior 

Columbia 

Katolik 

Caecdlia 

The  Stamp  Collector 

Young  Eagle 

The  Sacred  Heart  Collegian. . 

West  Virginia 

The  Mount 

Church  Calendar 

Washington 

Washingfton  Catholic 


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Jovinian.  —  Heretical  monk  of  the 
fourth  century.  He  left  Milan  and  the 
cloister  to  preach  in  Rome  the  doctrine  to 
%vhich  he  has  left  his  name.  He  denied 
the  merit  of  fasting  and  good  works  in 
general,  the  distinction  between  mortal 
and  venial  sins,  and  maintained  that  a  per- 
son baptized  cannot  lose  sanctifying  grace, 
and  that  there  is  but  one  grade  of  re- 
ward and  one  of  punishment  in  the  future 
world.  He  also  opposed  celibacy,  main- 
taining that  virginal  life  is  no  better  than 
the  married  state  in  the  sight  of  God,  and 
denied  that  Mary  remained  a  virgin,  after 
she  had  given  birth  to  Christ.  Jovinian 
was  excommunicated  as  a  heretic  by  St. 
Ambrose  and  Pope  Siricius,  in  390. 

Jubilee  {The  Tear  of).  —  A  peculiar 
institution  among  the  Jews  (Lev.  xxv.),by 
which,  every  fiftieth  year,  the  land  that  in 
the  interval  had  passed  out  of  the  posses- 
sion of  those  to  whom  it  originally  be- 
longed was  restored  to  them,  and  all  who 
had  been  reduced  to  poverty,  and  obliged 
to  hire  themselves  out  as  servants,  were 
released  from  their  bondage;  no  less  were 
all  debts  remitted. 

Jubilee  or  Jubilee  Year.  —  An  institu- 
tion of  the  Catholic  Church,     See  Indul- 

GKNCBS. 

Juda.  —  One  of  the  twelve  tribes  of  an- 
cient Palestine,  formed  from  the  country 


of  the  Jebusites  and  Hetheans.  It  was  the 
most  powerful  tribe  of  all.  Its  territory 
was  bounded  by  Dan  and  Benjamin  on  the 
north,  the  Dead  Sea  and  Idumsea  on  the 
east,  Idumaea  and  Simeon  on  the  south, 
and  the  Mediterranean  (nominally)  on  the 
west.  It  was  subdivided  into  the  districts 
of  the  mountain  or  hill  country,  the  wil- 
derness, the  south,  and  the  lowland. 

Juda  {Kingdom  of).— One.  of  the  two 
Jewish  States,  formed  after  the  schism  of 
Jeroboam  (962  B.C.);  capital,  Jerusalem. 
Comprising  only  the  two  tribes  of  Juda 
and  Benjamin  and  only  about  the  sixth 
part  of  Judea,  it  was  more  powerful  and 
more  peopled  than  the  kingdom  of  Israel. 
For  the  kings  of  Judea,  see  Chronology. 

Judaea  or  Judea. — The  name  Judaea  was 
applied  in  different  ages  either  to  the 
whole  or  a  part  of  Palestine.  In  the  time 
of  David,  the  name  Juda  denoted  that  por- 
tion of  the  country  which  belonged  to  the 
tribes  of  Juda  and  Benjamin.  After  the 
secession  of  the  ten  tribes,  the  territory  of 
the  kingdom  of  Juda  was  called  Judea,  in- 
cluding the  tracts  belonging  to  Juda  and 
Benjamin,  and  also  part  of  that  which  ap- 
pertained to  the  tribes  of  Dan  and  Simeon. 
Hence  it  became  a  general  name  for  the 
southern  part  of  Palestine,  while  the  north- 
ern part  was  called  Galilee,  and  the  mid- 
dle Samaria.     After  the  Captivity,  as  most 


JUDAIZERS 


397 


Judgment 


of  those  who  returned  were  of  the  king- 
dom of  Juda,  the  name  Juda  or  Judea  was 
applied,  generally,  to  the  whole  of  Pales- 
tine. When  the  whole  country  fell  into 
the  power  of  the  Romans,  the  former  divi- 
sion into  Galilee,  Samaria,  and  Judea, 
seems  to  have  again  become  current. 

Judaizers. —  Members  of  a  class  of  per- 
sons in  the  early  Church,  who,  though 
converted  from  Judaism  to  Christianity, 
still  insisted  on  obedience  to  the  Mosaic 
law. 

Judas  (the  name  of  several  persons  in 
the  Bible).  —  i.  yudas,  surnamed  *' Is- 
cariot,"  from  the  place  of  his  birth,  a  city 
of  Juda  or  Benjamin.  Being  one  of  the 
twelve  Apostles  of  our  Lord,  he  meanly 
and  wickedly  betrayed  the  Saviour  into 
the  hands  of  the  Pharisees,  for  the  paltry 
bribe  of  thirty  pieces  of  silver,  or  about 
fifteen  dollars.  His  remorse  was  after- 
wards so  great  that  he  went  and  hanged 
himself  in  the  field,  Hacceldama.  2. 
yudas. —  A  Christian  teacher,  called  also 
"  Barsabas,"  sent  from  Jerusalem  to  Antioch 
with  Paul  and  Barnabas  (Acts  xv.  22 ; 
xxvii.  32).  3.  yudas,  surnamed  the 
"  Galilean,"  also  called  Josephus  the  Gaul- 
ont'te.  He  was  born  at  Gamala,  a  city  of 
Lower  Gauloni ,  lying  near  the  southeastern 
shore  of  the  Lake  of  Tiberiades.  In  com- 
pany with  one  Sadoc,  or  Sadducus,  he  at- 
tempted to  excite  a  sedition  among  the 
Jews,  but  was  killed  by  Quirinus,  or 
Cyrenius,  at  that  time  governor  of  Syria 
and  Judea. 

Jude  (St.).  —  One  of  the  twelve  Apos- 
tles. Also  called  "Thaddeus."  Was  the 
brother  of  James  the  Less  and  one  of  the 
"  Brethren,"  or  cousins  of  Jesus.  His  name 
occurs  only  once  in  the  Gospel  of  St.  John 
(xiv.  22).  Nothing  certain  is  known  of  the 
later  history  of  this  Apostle.  Nicephorus 
tells  us  that  after  preaching  in  Judea,  Gali- 
lee, Samaria,  and  Idumsea,  Jude  labored  in 
Arabia,  Syria,  Mesopotamia,  and  Persia. 
According  to  the  Bollandists,  he  also 
preached  the  Gospel  in  Greater  Armenia. 
The  Armenians,  at  least,  claim  him  and 
St.  Bartholomew  as  their  first  Apostles. 
He  is  said  to  have  suffered  martyrdom  in 
Phoenicia,  either  at  Beyruth  or  Arad. 
General  tradition  regards  this  Apostle  as 
the  author  of  the  Catholic  Epistle  of  St. 
Jude  in  the  New  Testament. 

Judgment  (  The  Last).  —  It  is  the  faith  of 
the  Church,  declared  in  the  Creeds,  that 


in  the  last  day,  Christ  will  come  again  on 
earth  to  judge  the  whole  race  of  mankind ; 
and  some  extend  this  judgment  also  to  the 
angels,  good  and  bad.  The  scene  is  de- 
scribed by  Christ  Himself  (Matt.  xxv.  31- 
46),  and  the  account  raises  no  difficulty, 
except  in  connection  with  the  Particular 
Judgment  (which  see).  It  has  been  thought 
that  a  new  judgment  is  needless,  when 
sentence  has  already  been  passed  on  each, 
and  in  part  executed.  It  may  be  enough  to 
reply  that  our  insight  is  not  keen  enough 
to  see  the  wisdom  of  all  that  God  does ; 
but  if  speculation  be  permitted,  we  may 
say  that  there  is  a  fitness  in  this  solemn  act 
which  marks  the  close  of  the  time  of  proba- 
tion for  the  race,  just  as  the  Particular 
Judgment  closes  the  probation  of  each 
man.  Men  form  a  society,  and  as  a  society 
they  should  be  judged,  and  it  is  well  that 
all  should  be  assembled  to  see  and  acknowl- 
edge the  justice  of  God  in  His  dealings, 
and  the  fullness  with  which  He  avenges 
those  who  have  suffered  tribulation  for  His 
sake.  It  is  right,  too,  that  the  Sacred  Hu- 
manity of  Christ  should  receive  due  honor 
from  all. 

Judgment  {The  Particular). —  It  is  the 
ordinary  belief  of  Catholics,  expressed  in 
the  Roman  and  other  Catechisms,  that 
each  human  soul  is  judged  by  God  imme- 
diately after  its  separation  from  the  body, 
and  this  judgment  is  called  particular,  to 
distinguish  it  from  the  general  judgment 
of  all  men,  which  will  take  place  at  the 
end  of  the  world.  The  conviction  of 
Catholics  on  this  subject  is  so  constant  as 
to  make  the  truth  certain,  although  no  ex- 
press definition  has  been  put  forward  by 
the  Church.  The  essential  point  in  the 
doctrine  of  the  Particular  Judgment  is  that 
the  separated  soul,  immediately  after  death, 
becomes  aware  whether  God's  grace  is 
with  it  or  whether  it  is  in  enmity  with 
Him ;  and  that  this  is  so,  follows  from  the 
assured  truth  that  the  entry  of  the  soul  on 
its  final  state  of  reward  or  punishment  is 
not  delayed.  In  the  light  of  this  truth  we 
are  able  to  understand  certain  texts  of 
Scripture  which,  taken  by  themselves, 
might  admit  of  other  explanations.  Thus, 
it  is  easy  before  God  in  the  day  of  death  to 
reward  every  one  according  to  his  works 
(Ecclus.  xi.  28) ;  and  it  is  appointed  unto 
men  once  to  die,  and  after  this  the  judg- 
ment (Hebr.  ix.  27);  to  understand  this 
text  of  the  Particular  Judgment  is  far  more 
natural  than  to  interpolate  an  indefinitely 


Judges 


398 


Julius 


long  time  of  unconsciousness  or  of  inactive 
expectation.  The  Good  Thief  was  with 
Christ  in  Paradise  on  the  day  of  his  death 
(Luke  xxiii.  43) ;  and  Judas  was  in  his  own 
place  while  St.  Peter  was  speaking  (Acts 
i.  25) ;  and  these  facts  imply  judgment 
to  have  been  passed  upon  them. 

Judges  {Book  of). — This  Book,  which 
the  Church  acknowledges  as  authentic  and 
canonical,  is  attributed  to  Phinees,  Esdras, 
Ezechias,  Samuel,  or  even  to  all  the  Judges, 
each  of  whom  would  have  written  the  his- 
tory of  his  own  judicature.  However,  the 
Book  of  Judges  appears  to  be  the  work  of 
one  author,  who  lived  after  the  Judges,  and 
comprises  the  time  between  Josue  and 
Samuel.  It  is  not  a  consecutive  chronicle. 
Moses  had  foretold  the  people  that  they 
would  be  happy  in  the  Promised  Land  if 
they  would  be  faithful  to  God  and  His 
law,  but  that  they  would  become  the  slaves 
of  foreign  nations  if  they  would  allow 
themselves  to  be  dragged  into  idolatry. 
Josue  had  renewed  to  them  this  prediction. 
The  author  of  the  Book  of  Judges  intended 
to  show  to  the  Hebrews,  by  their  own 
history,  that  this  prophecy  constantly  ful- 
filled itself,  and  that  they  must  not  look 
anywhere  else  for  their  successes  or  re- 
verses. The  Book  ends  with  two  episodes, 
attached  to  it  so  to  speak.  Namely,  the 
history  of  the  idol  of  Michas  (Judges 
xvii.-xviii.),  and  that  of  the  Levite  whose 
wife  was  outraged  by  the  Benjamites. 

Judges  of  Israel  (Hebr.  Shophetim)  were 
the  rulers,  chiefs,  leaders  of  Israel,  from 
Josue  to  Saul.  The  office  of  the  Hebrew 
Judge  was  for  life,  but  the  succession  was 
not  always  constant.  There  were  anarchies, 
or  intervals,  during  which  the  common- 
wealth was  without  rulers.  There  were 
likewise  long  intervals  of  ser%'itude  and 
oppression,  under  which  the  Hebrews 
groaned,  and  were  without  either  Judges 
or  governors.  Although  God  alone  regu- 
larly appointed  the  Judges,  yet  the  people, 
on  some  occasions,  chose  that  individual 
who  appeared  to  them  most  proper  to  de- 
liver them  from  oppression  ;  and  as  it  often 
happened  that  the  oppressions  which  oc- 
casioned recourse  to  the  election  of  a  Judge 
were  not  felt  all  over  Israel,  the  power  of 
such  Judge  extended  only  over  that  pro- 
vince which  he  had  delivered.  The  author- 
ity of  the  Judges  was  not  inferior  to  that 
of  kings;  it  extended  to  peace  and  war; 
they  decided  causes  with  absolute  author- 
ity, but  had  no  power  to  make  new  laws 


or  to  impose  new  burdens  on  the  people. 
They  were  protectors  of  the  laws,  defenders 
of  religion,  and  avengers  of  crimes,  par- 
ticularly of  idolatry;  they  were  without 
pomp  or  splendor;  and  without  guards, 
train  or  equipage,  unless  their  own 
wealth  might  enable  them  to  appear  in  the 
state  corresponding  to  their  dignity.  The 
Book  of  Judges  contains  the  annals  of  the 
times  in  which  Israel  was  ruled  by  Judges. 
It  is  often  referred  to  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment and  other  parts  of  the  Bible. 

Judicatutn.     See  Chapters  ( Three) . 

Julian  (surnamed  the  "Apostate"). — 
Son  of  Julius  Constantius  and  nephew  of 
Constantine  the  Great;  was  born  in  331. 
He  believed  himself  destined  to  reanimate 
dying  paganisnr  and  restore  it  to  its  former 
power  and  glory.  He  was  educated  at 
Athens.  In  his  early  youth  his  mind  had 
been  corrupted  by  the  artful  flatteries  of 
pagan  philosophers.  Never  ha%nng  been 
thoroughly  familiar  with  the  spirit  of 
Christianity,  he  was  uncertain  in  his  belief. 
At  one  time,  to  please  his  cousin  Constan- 
tine, he  favored  the  Christian  religion,  at 
another  the  tenets  of  paganism.  As  su- 
preme ruler  of  the  empire  (361-363)  he  did 
all  in  his  power  to  restore  the  ancient  idola- 
try, and  openly  declared  himself  an  advo- 
cate of  paganism.  The  Christians  were 
treated  with  contempt  and  ridicule.  They 
were  forbidden  to  have  schools  of  their 
own.  Yet  paganism  was  on  the  decline. 
Julian  having  ordered  the  rebuilding  of 
the  temple  of  Jerusalem,  the  work  was  in- 
terrupted by  divine  intervention.  Miracles 
by  which  the  work  was  prevented  are  at- 
tested by  the  pagan  historian,  Arminianus 
Marcellinus  (xxiii.  1-3).  He  was  enraged 
by  his  failures.  He  died  in  a  battle  with 
the  Persians  at  the  age  of  thirty-two,  cry- 
ing out  when  dying:  "Thou  hast  con- 
quered, O  Galilean!  " 

Julianists.  —  A  sect  of  Monophysites 
which  held  the  body  of  Christ  to  be  incor- 
ruptible :  so  called  from  Julian,  Bishop  of 
Halicarnassus,  early  in  the  sixth  century. 

Julius  (name  of  three  Popes).  —  yulius 
I.  —  Pope  from  337  to  352.  Successor  of 
Marcus.  During  the  violent  struggle  with 
Arianism,  Julius  was  the  strenuous  cham- 
pion of  the  Nicene  faith,  and  the  constant 
defender  of  St.  Athanasius  and  other 
orthodox  bishops  oppressed  by  the  here- 
tics. The  bishops,  whom  the  Eusebians 
had  unjustly  deposed,  were   reinstated  by 


Julius  Africanus 


399 


Jurisdiction 


Julius,  by  virtue  of  the  prerogative  of  the 
Roman  See.  With  the  concurrence  of  the 
two  emperors,  Constans  and  Constantius, 
he,  in  343,  summoned  the  great  Council  of 
Sardica.  Jtilius  II.  —  Pope  from  1503  to 
1513.  Was  an  energetic  and  valiant  Pope. 
An  enemy  to  nepotism,  a  liberal  patron  of 
arts  and  letters,  and  in  heart  and  action  a 
brave  and  valiant  Christian  soldier,  such 
as  the  Roman  See  then  needed.  His  high- 
est aim  being  the  restoration  of  the  Papal 
States,  and  the  re-establishment  of  Italian 
unity,  he  directed  all  his  efforts  towards 
subduing  the  petty  Italian  tyrants,  and 
freeing  the  Peninsula  from  foreign  domi- 
nation. One  of  his  first  acts  on  coming 
to  the  Papal  throne  was  to  reduce  the  re- 
fractory nobility  to  submission,  and  eject 
Caesar  Borgia  from  the  Papal  dominions. 
In  1508,  he  formed  the  League  of  Cam- 
brai  against  the  Venetians,  who  held  dif- 
ferent territories  of  the  Church.  Then  he 
resolved  to  free  Italy  from  the  French 
rule.  For  this  purpose  he  formed  the 
Holy  League  against  France,  in  1511. 
The  result  was  the  expulsion  of  the  French 
from  Italy.  Hereupon,  Louis  XII.  of 
France,  at  the  instance  of  his  prel- 
ates and  several  discontented  cardinals, 
presumed  to  assemble  a  general  council 
against  the  Pope.  To  crush  the  schism  in 
its  beginning.  Pope  Julius  laid  France  un- 
der interdict,  excommunicated  the  prel- 
ates that  had  taken  part  in  the  council, 
and  convoked,  at  Rome,  the  Eighteenth 
General,  and  Fifth  Lateran,  Council,  in 
1512,  The  Council  defined  the  '*  Au- 
thority of  the  Pope  over  all  Councils," 
and  condemned  the  opinion  holding  that 
the  intellectual  soul  is  mortal,  or  only  one 
in  all  men,  or  that  these  propositions  were 
true,  at  least  philosophically.  Julius 
III.  —  Pope  from  1550  to  1555.  Succes- 
sor of  Paul  III.  This  Pope  reopened  the 
Council  of  Trent  on  May  ist,  155 1.  The 
war  which  had  broken  out  between 
the  Protestant  princes  and  the  emperor 
caused  the  Pope,  in  April,  1552,  to  sus- 
pend the  Council  for  two  years. 

Julius  Africanus. —  Ecclesiastical  writer 
of  about  the  middle  of  the  third  centtiry. 
Died  about  the  year  232.  Was  the  author 
of  a  Chronography  in  five  books,  contain- 
ing a  history  of  the  world  from  the  creation 
to  the  year  221 ;  only  disjointed  parts  of  it 
are  extant.  We  have  from  him  also  two 
letters,  the  one  to  Origea  questioning  the 
scriptural  authority  of  the  story  of  Susanna, 


and  the  other  to  Aristides  on  the  genealo- 
gies of  Matthew  and  Luke. 

Jurisdiction. —  By  virtue  of  the  Primacy 
with  which  the  Bishop  of  Rome  is  invested, 
a  Primacy  of  divine  institution,  he,  the  Pope, 
the  Bishop  of  Rome,  is  supreme  chief,  mas- 
ter and  sovereign  of  all  bishops  and  of  the 
Faithful  at  large.  He  promulgates  laws 
which  the  entire  Church  must  obey,  insti- 
tutes bishoprics  and  permits  bishops  to  be 
consecrated,  assigns  to  them  their  respec- 
tive divisions  of  the  Lord's  flock  and  gov- 
erns with  full  authority  both  pastor  and 
people.  He  convokes  general  councils, 
presides  over  them  either  directly  or  by 
Iws  legates,  confirms  their  decrees,  and, 
finally,  is  supreme  judge  in  matters  of  faith 
and  morals.  These  various  prerogatives 
and  many  others  attached  to  the  See  of 
Rome  may  be  reduced  to  two :  Jurisdiction 
and  Infallibility. 

By  jurisdiction  we  understand  the  power 
which  the  Pope  possesses  to  promulgate 
laws  concerning  the  divine  worship  and 
the  morals  of  the  people.  There  are  two 
kinds  of  jurisdiction:  the  spiritual  and 
the  temporal.  We  treat  here  of  the  spirit- 
ual jurisdiction  only.  This  jurisdiction  is 
nothing  less  than  the  power  to  make  laws 
and  pronounce  judgments  concerning  reli- 
gion and  morals,  which  judgments  all  the 
Faithful  are  bound  to  obey.  Now,  this 
power  belongs  to  the  Pope,  in  conse- 
quence of  his  Primacy.  To  convince  our- 
selves of  this,  it  is  suflScient  to  consider  the 
passages  of  Holy  Scripture  where  Peter  is 
invested  with  this  Primacy  (Matt.  xvi.  16, 
17).  Peter  is  clothed  with  a  universal 
jurisdiction,  through  the  keys  committed 
to  him.  The  keys  are  given  to  him  alone, 
hence  Peter  is  in  future,  the  only  source 
of  all  jurisdiction ;  and  as  all  authority 
emanates  from  his  power,  no  one  has  juris- 
diction, if  not  delegated  by  him.  All  the 
Fathers  and  councils  have  been  of  one 
voice  in  this  regard. 

Peter  has  attached  his  universal  jurisdic- 
tion, which  he  received  from  God  Himself, 
to  the  See  of  Rome.  Hence  no  man  can 
give  this  jurisdiction  to  the  Pope;  he  can 
receive  it  only  from  God  by  the  fact  of  his 
elevation  to  the  See  of  Rome.  For  we 
must  be  careful  not  to  confound  the  succes- 
sion of  the  Roman  Pontiffs  in  the  episco- 
pacy of  Peter  with  the  succession  in  the 
Primacy  of  Peter.  The  first  is  of  ecclesi- 
astical law,  the  second  of  divine  law. 
Hence  it  follows,  the  choice  of  this  or  that 


Jus  Primae  Noctis 


400 


Justification 


person  as  bishop  of  Rome,  depends  on  the 
Church,  but  the  Church  in  placing  this  or 
that  person  in  the  See  of  Rome,  does  not 
communicate  to  him  the  Primacy ;  she  can- 
not make  this  proceed  from  her  bosom. 
She  presents  only  to  God  a  subject  upon 
whom  He  bestows  the  Primacy  of  Peter, 
according  to  His  promise.  Hence,  as  soon 
as  the  Pope  is  canonically  elected,  that  is 
according  to  the  established  rules,  and  as 
soon  as  he  has  given  his  consent  to  his 
election,  he  has,  without  any  other  con- 
firmation, obtained  authority  over  the  uni- 
versal Church,  even  if  he  had  previously 
been  neither  bishop,  priest,  deacon,  nor 
subdeacon,  but  only  a  simple  layman. 
From  the  time  of  his  election  he  is  em- 
powered with  all  the  prerogatives  of 
jurisdiction,  as,  for  instance,  to  grant  dis- 
pensations, canonize,  promulgate  censures, 
grant  indulgences,  institute  bishops,  create 
cardinals,  and  decide  controversies  in  re- 
gard to  faith  and  morals.  See  Popk  and 
Infallibility. 

Jus  Primae  Noctis.  —  Latin  term  signi- 
fying, right  of  the  first  night.  A  pre- 
tended right  of  the  landlords  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  who  claimed  the  right  of 
sleeping  with  one  of  their  female  serfs  on 
her  nuptial  night.  Such  a  right  in  no 
place  nor  in  no  period  of  the  Middle  Ages 
ever  existed.  It  is  nothing  more  than  a 
pure  invention,  born  of  misunderstanding 
and  malice.  According  to  the  German 
law  the  manors  of  the  serf  could  be  divided ; 
they  inherited  from  both  father  and  son. 
When  the  child  of  a  serf  had  married  in 
another  place  and  thus  acquired  another 
domicile,  or  had  moved  into  a  city,  then  such 
a  child  lost  all  his  rights  on  the  landlord's 
possession,  in  case  the  latter  died  without 
children,  or  in  the  event  of  the  entire  fam- 
ily becoming  extinct.  The  manors  had 
become  possessions  of  great  value ;  and  the 
serfs,  by  feudal  law,  obtained  the  right, 
that  if  the  second  marrying  brother  or 
sister  passed  the  first  nuptial  night  in  their 
own  father's  house,  their  firstborn  child 
obtained  the  right  to  be  an  heir  of  the 
manor,  consequently  the  heir  of  the  uncle 
in  case  of  death.  This  was  the  "  right  of 
the  first  night,"  because  the  married  couple 
declared  thereby  that  their  descendants 
should  be  looked  upon  as  serfs  of  the 
manor.  "It  is  a  sad  thing,"  says  Moeser, 
"that  scoffers  contorted  one  of  the  most 
noble  and  most  expressive  symbols  into  an 
immoral  action  so  bestial." 


Just.  —  This  word,  taken  in  the  theolog- 
ical sense,  signifies  not  only  a  person  who 
fulfills  the  duties  of  justice  in  regard  to 
his  neighbor  and  renders  to  each  one  what 
is  due  to  him,  but  one  who  entirely  satis- 
fies the  law  of  God  and  fulfills  all  his  obli- 
gations, in  regard  to  God,  his  neighbor, 
or  himself.  This  is  what  we  call  saintli- 
ness.  But  this  justice  is  more  or  less  sus- 
ceptible of  degrees,  and  nobody  possesses 
it  in  its  full  perfection.  Theologians  also 
call  just  the  one  who  passes  from  a  state 
of  sin  into  a  state  of  grace. 

Justice.  —  Justice,  in  its  general  accep- 
tation consists,  in  the  terms  of  Holy 
Scripture,  in  the  fulfillment  of  the  duties 
incumbent  on  us  toward  our  Creator  and 
our  neighbor.  Under  this  aspect  it  com- 
prises :  I.  The  virtue  of  religion,  by  which 
we  render  to  God  the.  worship  that  is  due 
to  Him.  2.  The  filial  piety,  which  im- 
poses on  us  the  obligation  to  respect  and 
love  in  a  particular  manner  our  parents,  to 
whom  after  God,  we  owe  all  that  we  are. 
3.  The  obedience,  which  makes  us  respect 
the  authority  of  our  masters,  superiors, 
and  those  whom  Divine  Providence  has 
placed  over  us,  either  in  the  spiritual  or 
temporal  order.  4.  The  obligation  to  re- 
spect the  persons,  the  reputation  and  the 
goods  of  others.  Justice,  properly  speak- 
ing, is  a  moral  virtue  which  moves  us  to 
render  to  each  one  what  belongs  to  him. 
If,  as  it  happens  quite  frequently,  the 
legal  and  distributive  justice  imposes  the 
obligation  of  restitution,  one  cannot  vio- 
late this  obligation  without  violating  at 
the  same  time  commutative  justice  with 
which  it  is  united,  in  virtue  of  the  implicit 
compact  which  exists  among  all  those  who 
form  a  part  of  society.  Thus,  for  exam- 
ple, the  one  who  sins  against  legal  justice 
by"  refusing  to  pay  the  taxes  necessary  to 
support  the  State,  sins  thereby  also  against 
commutative  justice ;  he  violates  the  com- 
pact by  which  every  one  desiring  to  form 
part  of  a  society,  engages  himself  im- 
plicitly to  support  its  charges  and  ex- 
penses proportionately  to  the  advantages 
which  he  derives  from  it.  So  also  those 
who  are  appointed  by  the  government  to 
regulate  the  distribution  of  the  public 
charges,  violates  both  distributive  justice 
and  commutative  justice,  in  imposing 
taxes  beyond  the  power  of  the  people. 

Justification.  —  Justification  is  a  super- 
natural gift  which  makes  man  pass  from 
the  state  of  sin  into  the  state  of  grace,  and 


Justin 


401 


JUVENCUS 


renders  him  agreeable  to  God.  There  is 
question  here  only  of  adults.  Now,  accord- 
ing to  the  Council  of  Trent,  the  required 
dispositions,  in  order  to  obtain  the  grace 
of  justificSition,  are:  Faith,  by  which  man 
believes  all  that  has  been  revealed,  and  in 
particular,  that  the  sinner  is  justified  by 
the  grace  and  the  merits  of  Jesus  Christ; 
the  fear  of  the  divine  justice;  hope  in  the 
mercy  of  God;  a  more  or  less  explicit  act 
by  which  we  commence  to  love  God  as  the 
source  of  all  justice;  hatred  and  detesta- 
tion of  sin,  with  the  desire  to  receive  the 
sacrament  of  baptism  or  penance,  to  lead 
a  new  life,  and  to  obey  the  Commandments 
of  God.  Justification  has  for  its  final  ob- 
ject the  glory  of  God  and  of  Jesus  Christ, 
and  eternal  life.  Its  efficient  cause  is  God 
Himself,  in  as  far  as  He  is  merciful.  The 
meritorious  cause  is  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ, 
God's  only  and  well-beloved  Son,  who, 
when  we  were  His  enemies,  by  an  effect  of 
the  extreme  love  with  which  He  has  loved 
us,  has  merited  for  us  justification,  and  has 
made  satisfaction  for  us  to  God  the  Father, 
through  His  most  sacred  Passion  and  death 
on  the  Cross.  The  instrumental  cause  is 
the  sacrament  of  baptism,  which  is  the 
sacrament  of  faith,  without  which  no  one 
can  ever  obtain  justification. 

Finally,  its  unique  formal  cause  is  the 
justice  of  God,  not  the  justice  by  which  He 
is  just  Himself,  but  that  by  which  He  jus- 
tifies us  in  renewing  us  in  the  interior  of 
our  soul. 

And  not  only  are  we  then  represented  as 
just,  but  truly  we  are  called  just;  and  we 
are  this  indeed  when  we  receive  the  justice 
which  the  Holy  Ghost  distributes  in  the 
measure  He  desires  to  each,  and  according 
to  the  proper  disposition  and  co-operation 
of  each. 

Justification  consists  in  the  habitual  or 
sanctifying  grace,  which  is  a  gift  inherent 
in  our  soul  and  permanent  in  its  nature. 
It  is  of  faith,  that  neither  the  sole  imputa- 
tion of  the  justice  of  Jesus  Christ,  nor  the 
sole  remission  of  sins,  to  the  exclusion  of 
grace  and  charity  inherent  in  the  soul,  is 
sufficient  for  justification.  Justice  and  the 
state  of  grace  are  not  inadmissible;  the 
just  one  does  not  always  persevere.  It  is 
of  faith  that  the  one  who  is  justified  can 
lose  grace,  as  it  is  also  of  faith  that  justice 
or  holiness  is  susceptible  of  increase.  This 
is  in  perfect  accord  with  the  words  of  St. 
John:  "Let  the  one  who  is  just,  justify 
himself  more;  let  the  one  who  is  holy, 
sanctify  himself  more."     Nobody,  without 

26 


a  special  revelation,  can  be  absolutely  cer- 
tain of  possessing  sanctifying  grace  and  of 
being  of  the  number  of  the  predestined. 

Justin  (St.)  (100-167).  —  Apologist, 
philosopher,and  martyr,  born  of  Greek  par- 
ents at  Flavia,  Neapolis  (ancient  Sichem, 
now  Nablus),  in  Samaria.  He  was  brought 
up  in  paganism  and  studied  successively 
under  a  Stoic,  Peripatetic,  and  Pythago- 
rean, when  he  finally  embraced  the  Pla- 
tonic philosophy,  in  which  he  fiattered 
himself  he  would  find  true  wisdom.  The 
objections  raised  by  an  aged  Christian,  or, 
as  some  say,  by  an  angel  under  the  appear- 
ance of  an  old  man,  regarding  all  pagan 
philosophy,  led  him  to  read  the  books  of 
the  Old  Testament,  especially  the  Prophets. 
This,  as  well  as  the  heroism  of  the  Chris- 
tian martyrs,  induced  him  to  embrace 
Christianity  between  133  and  137.  He 
continued  to  wear  the  philosopher's  mantle 
after  his  conversion,  and  henceforth  de- 
voted himself  by  word  and  writing  to  the 
defense  of  Christianity  against  the  pagans, 
Jews,  and  heretics.  His  boldness  in  plead- 
ing the  Christian  cause,  and  especially  his 
zeal  in  unmasking  the  hypocrisy  of  the 
cynic  philosopher  Crescens,  is  said  by 
Eusebius  to  have  caused  his  imprisonment 
and  death.  With  six  other  Christians, 
Justin  was  beheaded  at  Rome  in  the  year 
167  under  the  prefect  Rusticus.  In  his 
first  Apology,  which  he  addressed  to  An- 
toninus Pius  in  139,  Justin  boldly  advocated 
the  cause  of  the  basely  misrepresented 
Christians,  entreating  the  emperor  to  judge 
them  not  by  their  name,  but  by  their  ac- 
tions. His  second  Apology  he  addressed, 
about  the  year  162,  to  the  Emperor  Marcus 
Aurelius,  on  account  of  one  Ptolemy  and 
two  other  Christians,  whom  the  prefect 
Rusticus  had  put  to  death.  The  writer 
undertakes  to  prove  the  injustice  of  perse- 
cuting the  Christians  merely  for  their 
faith,  predicting,  at  the  same  time,  his  own 
death  as  the  recompense  of  his  bold  plea 
in  support  of  Christianity.  About  150, 
Justin  published  his  famous  Dialogue  -with 
Tryphon,  a  learned  Jew  of  Ephesus,  or, 
according  to  some,  of  Corinth.  The  saint 
showed  that,  according  to  the  Prophets, 
the  Old  Law  was  local  and  temporary,  and 
was  to  be  abrogated  by  the  New,  and  that 
Jesus  was  the  true  Messias  and  the  true 
God.     F.  June  6th. 

Juvencus.  —  Christian  poet,  whose  full 
name  in  the  older  books  is  Gaius  Vettius 
Aquilinus  Juvencus,  was  descended  from 


Kaaba 


402 


Kenrick 


an  illustrious  Spanish  family.  Of  his  life 
and  education  we  only  know  that  he  be- 
came a  priest  and  was  a  contemporary  of 
Hosius  of  Cordova,  and  that  during  the 
reign  of  Constantine  (325-337), he  devoted 


his  poetical  talent  to  the  cause  of  the  Chris- 
tain  faith.  In  order  to  make  the  Christian 
doctrines  more  attractive  to  the  intellectual 
class  of  pagans,  he  clothed  them  in  the 
poetical  garb  of  Virgil. 


Kaaba.     See  Mohammedanism. 

Kabala.     See  Cabala. 

Kant  (Immanuel)  (1724-1804).  —  Ger- 
man philosopher,  born  at  Konigsberg.  Was 
educated  at  the  Collegium  Fredericianum 
and  the  University  of  Konigsberg ;  became 
professor  of  logic  and  metaphysics  in  the 
latter  in  1770,  and  was  made  its  rector  in  1786. 
His  great  work  is  Criticism  of  Pure  Reason 
(1770),  in  which  all  knowledge  is  based  on 
experience,  with  the  admission  that  ex- 
perience must  inevitably  conform  itself  to 
the  subjective  laws  of  the  mind.  His  sec- 
ond work  Criticism  of  Practical  Reason 
appeared  in  1788.  This  treats  of  morals; 
according  to  it,  the  ideas  of  God,  human 
liberty,  and  immortality  are  postulates  of 
practical  reason.  Finally,  the  third  Crit- 
icism of  the  PoTver  of  Judgment,  appeared 
in  1790.  Kant  destroyed  the  faith  in  the 
heart  of  many  of  his  disciples. 

Karaites.  — A  sect  among  the  Jews  which 
rejects  the  traditional  law  as  it  is  fixed  in 
the  Talmud,  and  recognizes  only  the  Penta- 
teuch or  the  five  books  of  Moses  as  bind- 
ing. The  name  is  derived  from  the  Hebrew 
quara  (to  read) — i.  e.,  adherents  of  the  law 
that  was  written  and  read  in  opposition  to 
the  traditional  law  which,  originally,  was 
oral.  The  origin  of  the  sect  is  ascribed  to 
a  certain  Anan-ben- David,  of  Babylonia, 
in  the  eighth  century  A.  d.,  who  became 
leader  of  the  anti-Talmudic  movement  from 
resentment  at  not  being  chosen  exiliarch 
or  head  of  the  Jewish  community.  The 
controversy  between  the  Karaites  and  Tal- 
mudists  has  been  productive  of  an  accurate 
and  rational  study  of  the  Bible  on  both 
sides.  The  sect  never  made  great  headway. 
Small  communities  of  it  linger  in  Turkey, 
Syria,  Egypt,  Galicia  (Austria),  Lithuania, 
and  the  Crimea  (Russia). 

Keane  (John  Joskph).  —  An  American 
prelate;  born  in  Ballyshannon,  County 
Donegal,  Ireland,  Sept.  12th,  1839.     The 


family  removed  to  the  United  States  in 
1846.  He  was  educated  for  the  priesthood 
in  Baltimore,  at  St.  Mary's  Seminary.  After 
his  ordination  in  1866  he  was  assigned 
to  St.  Patrick's  Church,  Washington,  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia,  as  assistant;  in  1878  was 
appointed  bishop  of  Richmond,  and  in  1886 
rector  of  the  Catholic  University  of  Amer- 
ica, at  Washington.  He  was  made  arch- 
bishop of  Ajasso,  a  titular  see,  in  1888,  and 
from  that  time  until  October,  1896,  when 
he  was  removed  by  a  Papal  decree,  devoted 
himself  to  the  upholding  of  the  university. 
He  was  offered  the  choice  of  his  field  of 
labor,  but  preferred  to  retire  to  Rome, 
where  he  is  one  of  the  canons  of  St.  John 
Lateran. 

Kempis  (Thomas  a).     See  A  Kempis. 

Kenrick  (Francis  Patrick)  (1796- 
1863).  —  American  prelate;  was  born  in 
Dublin, Ireland,  received  a  sound  and  pious 
education,  and  completed  his  studies  at  the 
College  of  the  Propaganda  at  Rome, 
where  he  spent  seven  years.  As  professor 
of  St.  Thomas's  Seminary,  Bardstown, 
Kentucky,  he  trained  many  excellent 
priests,  and,  untiring  in  his  labors,  acted 
as  professor  in  the  college  and  discharged 
parochial  duties.  Bishop  of  Philadelphia 
in  1830,  where  he  broke  the  power  of  the 
trustees,  permitting  only  the  exercise  of 
functions  recognized  by  the  Church.  He 
founded  the  theological  seminary  of  St. 
Charles  Borromeo,  which  has  given  Penn- 
sylvania so    many    excellent   priests.     In 

1851,  Bishop  Keprick  was  promoted  to  the 
see  of  Baltimore,  and  was  soon  after 
appointed  apostolic  delegate  to  pre- 
side   at    the     Plenary   Council,     held    in 

1852.  The  last  work  of  this  studious  prel- 
ate was  a  revision  of  the  Catholic  Version 
of  the  Bible,  which  had  been  revised  by 
Bishop  Challoner,  and  had  undergone  so 
many  changes  at  the  hands  of  others  as  to 
be  no  longer  creditable  to  the  Catholic 
body  or  safe  as  a  translation.  He  also 
wrote  several  controversial  works,  and  in 


Kentigren 


403 


Knights 


Latin    Theologia    Moralis,   Philadelphia, 
(1841-43,  3  vols.). 

Kentigren  (St.).  —  Apostle  of  Strath- 
clyde  ;  born  at  Edinburgh  ;  died  in  603.  He 
was  a  disciple  of  St.  Severianus ;  evangel- 
ized Cumbria — the  district  between  the 
Wall  of  Severus  and  the  river  Forth  — 
and  founded  the  see  of  Glasgow,  where 
he  died. 

Kilian  (St.).  —  Irish  bishop,  martyred  at 
Wiirzburg.  He  was  the  first  to  preach  the 
Gospel  in  the  north  of  Bavaria,  the  coun- 
try now  known  as  Franconia.  With  two 
companions,  Coloman  a  priest,  and  Totnan 
a  deacon,  Kilian  left  Ireland,  his  native 
country,  in  686,  and  with  the  sanction  of 
Pope  Conon,  established  a  mission  at 
Wiirzburg.  Duke  Gozbert  received  him 
kindly  and  was  converted,  and  his  example 
was  followed  by  a  great  number  of  his  sub- 
jects. But  St.  Kilian  fell  a  victim  to  the 
hatred  of  Geilana,  whose  marriage  with 
Gozbert,  brother  of  her  former  husband, 
he  declared  to  be  contrary  to  the  law  of 
God.  He  and  his  companions,  in  the  ab- 
sence of  the  duke,  were  cruelly  murdered, 
in  689.     F.  July  8th. 

Kings  {Books  of).  —  The  four  Books  of 
Kings  of  the  Old  Testament  bear  this  name 
because  they  comprise  the  actions  of  sev- 
eral kings  of  the  Jews  and  the  details  of 
their  reigns,  from  Heli  and  Samuel,  to  the 
destruction  of  the  kingdom  of  Juda.  In 
the  Hebrew  text,  these  four  books  were 
formerly  only  two,  of  which  the  first  bore 
the  name  of  Samuel,  and  the  second  that 
of  Kings  or  Reigns.  The  Septuagint  gave 
to  all  the  four  books  the  title  of  Books  of 
Kings,  and  in  this  they  were  followed  by 
the  author  of  the  Vulgate.  The  first  Book, 
to  the  twenty-fifth  chapter,  is  attributed  to 
Samuel,  and  it  is  believed  that  the  rest,  to 
the  end  of  the  second  chapter,  is  the  work 
of  the  prophets  Gad  and  Nathan.  Written 
during  the  Babylonian  captivity,  or  shortly 
before,  according  to  the  annals  of  several 
contemporary  authors,  the  Books  of  Kings 
contain  some  details  about  the  population 
left  in  Palestine. 

Kings  and  Emperors  ( Chronological  Ta- 
ble of).     See  Emperors. 

Kissing  the  Altar.  —  The  priest,  when 
saying  Mass,  kisses  the  altar,  out  of  re- 
spect and  affection  toward  that  spot  on 
which  Jesus  Christ  is  daily  offered.  He 
is  directed  to  kiss  that  part  of  the  altar 
under  which  are  deposited  relics  of  some 


martyr  or  other  saint.  In  the  earliest 
ages  of  the  Church,  the  holy  sacrifice  of  the 
Mass  used  to  be  offered  on  the  tombs  of 
martyrs ;  hence  arose  the  custom  of  in- 
closing a  portion  of  their  relics  beneath  the 
table  of  the  altar. 

Kiss  of  Peace.— St.  Peter  (I.  Peter  v.  14) 
and  St.  Paul  (Rom.  xvi.  16,  etc.)  instruct  the 
Faithful  to  "salute  one  another  with  a 
holy  kiss."  In  solemn  high  Mass,  the  Kiss 
of  Peace,  with  the  words  "  Pax  tecum," 
is  given  by  the  officiating  priest  to  the  dea- 
con, who  answers,  "  Et  cum  spiritu  tuo"  \ 
and  in  the  same  manner  it  is  passed  from 
deacon  to  subdeacon,  and  successively  to 
the  rest  of  the  clergy,  as  a  sign  of  the 
charity  that  should  unite  the  hearts  of  all 
Christians  in  communion  with  each  other. 
In  Masses  for  the  dead,  this  Kiss  of  Peace 
is  omitted. 

Knights.  —  The  order  of  knighthood 
owes  its  origin  to  the  warfare  with  un- 
believers. Its  constitution  combined  the 
essential  elements  of  the  military  and 
monastic  life  and  prescribed  as  a  fourth 
vow,  warfare  against  unbelievers.  The 
members  of  the  order  were  divided  into 
three  classes :  priests,  for  the  care  of  the 
souls ;  knights,for  contest  and  defense  of  pil- 
grims ;  serving-brothers,  for  the  care  of  the 
sick  pilgrims.  The  knights  were  governed 
by  a  grand  master:  i.  The  Knights  of  St. 
John  the  Baptist,  or  Hospitalers,  were 
founded  in  1048,  for  the  care  of  the  sick. 
They  became  a  military  order  in  11 18,  and 
wore  a  black  mantle  ornamented  with  a 
white  cross.  On  the  conquest  of  Palestine, 
by  the  Saracens,  they  were  assigned  a  resi- 
dence in  Rhodes  (1310),  and  later  in  the 
island  of  Malta  (1530).  From  this  circum- 
stance they  received  the  name  of  Knights  of 
Malta.  2.  The  Soldiers  of  the  Temple,  or 
Templars,  so  called  from  their  residence  on 
the  site  of  the  Temple  of  Solomon,  were 
founded  by  the  French  about  the  year  11 18. 
Their  habit  was  a  white  mantle  ornamented 
by  a  red  cross.  This  order  was  abolished  in 
1312,  at  the  instigation  of  King  Philip  IV. 
of  France.  The  charges  against  the  Order 
of  Templars  as  such,  were  certainly  un- 
founded;  most  of  the  Templars  were 
proven  innocent.  The  true  cause  of  their 
suppression  was  Philip's  hatred,  increased 
by  the  fact,  that  in  his  contest  with  Pope 
Boniface  VIII.,  they  had  sided  with  the 
Pope  against  him.  Another  motive  was, 
his  greed  to  seize  the  vast  possessions  of 
the    knights   in   France,   contrary   to   the 


Know-Nothingism 


404 


Kyrie  Eleison 


promise  he  had  made,  to  hand  the  property 
over  to  the  Knights  of  St.  John.  The  grand 
master,  John  of  Molay,  and  54  knights, 
were  burned  alive  in  Paris  (1314),  protest- 
ing their  innocence.  3.  The  order  of  the 
Teutonic  Knights  was  established  by  the 
Germans  during  the  siege  of  Acre  (1190). 
Their  habit  was  a  black  mantle  orna- 
mented with  a  white  cross.  In  1226  these 
knights  were  assigned  the  duty  of  pro- 
tecting the  Christians  against  the  heathen 
Prussians,  and  by  their  zealous  efforts  they 
contributed  largely  to  the  conversion  of 
this  barbarous  tribe.  As  to  the  influence 
of  knighthood,  the  military  orders  inspired 
the  nobility  with  sentiments  of  faith  and 
honor.  The  conferring  of  arms  on  a 
knight  was  accompanied  by  religious  cere- 
monies. What  the  Olympic  and  Isthmian 
games  were  to  Greece  of  old,  chivalry  be- 
came to  the  Middle  Ages.  In  the  twelfth 
century  the  knights  were  animated  by  a 
spirit  of  religion.  But  later  on,  with 
wealth  and  luxury,  corruption  crept  in,  and 
religious  ardor  was  superseded  by  rude- 
ness, brute  force,  and  predatory  combats. 

Know-Nothingism.— Name  given,  in  the 
United   States,    to   a    "Native   American 
Party,"  founded  about  1842.     During  the 
fifty     years     following     the     Revolution, 
Catholics  in  the  United  States  were  gen- 
erally left  unmolested  in  the  practice  of 
their  religion.     About  this  time,  however, 
a  violent  agitation,  amounting  to  persecu- 
tion, was  commenced  against  the  Church 
and  its  institutions.     The  "No  Popery" 
cry   resounded   from  the  pulpits  and  the 
press   throughout    the    land.      Protestant 
associations  were  formed  in  every  city  of 
the  Union,  with  the  avowed  object  of  pro- 
tecting the  liberties  of  the  country  against 
alleged  "  machinations  of  the  Jesuits  and 
plots  of  the  Pope."     Maria  Monk's  Dis- 
closures,  as    the    foul    utterances    of     an 
abandoned  woman  were  called,  and  other 
vile  volumes,  containing  the  most  errant 
fictions  that  were  ever  palmed  off   upon 
society,  were   concocted  by   unscrupulous 
Protestant  ministers  to  deceive  and  arouse 
the  public  against  Catholicity  and  its  pro- 
fessors.    In  1844,  the  "  Native  American" 
party  provoked  a  fearful  riot  in  Philadel- 
phia, which   lasted   three  days.      Several 
Catholic  churches,  or   houses  of  the  Sis- 
ters of  Charity,  and  a  number  of  private 
dwellings  belonging  to  Catholics  were  de- 
stroyed,   besides     many    Catholics     were 
killed.     In  1854,  Know-Nothing  mobs  de- 


stroyed Catholic  churches  at  Manchester 
and  Dorchester,  New  Hampshire ;  at  Bath, 
Maine;  and  at  Newark,  New  Jersey;  and, 
besides  burning  a  number  of  houses, 
killed  a  large  number  of  Irish  and  German 
Catholics,  at  Louisville. 

Knox  (John).     See  Scotland. 

Koran.     See  Mohammedanism. 

Kultur-Kampf,  is  the  name  given  to  a 
contest   against   the   Catholic   Church    in 
Prussia,  inaugurated  by  Prince  Bismarck, 
chancellor  of  Germany.     The  word  itself 
signifies    ivar   of  culture,  or  struggle  for 
civilization,  enlightenment.     Dr.  Falk,  the 
minister  of  worship,  was  a  special  tool  in 
Bismarck's  hands  to  carry  out  the  Kultur- 
Kampf.     On  July  8th,  1871,  the  Catholic 
department    of    ministry   was    abolished. 
Then  followed  the  changing  of  those  con- 
stitutional paragraphs  which  were  favora- 
ble to  the  Church  and  the  enactment  of 
the  so-called  "May  Laws"  (1873),  which 
in  many  respects  violated  the  rights  of  the 
Church.     Within  the  next  three  years  fol- 
lowing, the  May  Laws  were  rendered  more 
stringent.       Heavy     fines,    imprisonment, 
exile,  and  deposition  were  used  to  enforce 
the  observance  of  those  laws  among  the 
clergy.     For  a  time  more  than  1,000  par- 
ishes were  thus  orphaned.     The  Faithfml 
were  without  service  and  without  the  eccle- 
siastical  means   of   grace.     This   state   of 
affairs  lasted  for  about  fifteen  years,  when 
Bismarck,  the  chancellor,  realized  that  his 
plan  could  not  be  carried  out,  and   thus 
entered,   in    1887,   into   negotiations   with 
Pope  Leo  XIII.     The  most  obnoxious  of 
the  May  Laws,  with  the  help  of  the  Center 
Party,  was  gradually  removed,  but  several 
of  them  are  still  in  existence. 

Kyrie  Eleison,  Christe  Eleison,  etc. 
{Lord  have  mercy  on  us,  Christ  have 
mercy  on  us) ,  words  used  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  Mass,  Litany,  etc.  The  formu- 
lary is  always  said  in  the  Greek  wording, 
but  the  intermediate  Christe  Eleison  is 
unknown  to  the  Eastern  Church.  By  this 
petition  we  supplicate  the  mercies  of 
Heaven  in  cries  like  those  of  the  blind 
man  of  Jericho  (Matt.  xx.  30),  with  the 
perseverance  of  the  Chanaanean  mother 
(Ibid.  XV.  22-27),  and  as  humbly  as  the  ten 
lepers  (Luke  xvii.  13).  K'yrie  Eleison,  is 
said  thrice,  in  honor  of  God  the  Father; 
Christe  Eleison  thrice  in  honor  of  God 
the  Son;  and  Kyrie  Eleison  thrice,  in 
honor  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 


Labadie 


405 


Lactantius 


Labadie  (John)  (1610-1674). — Heretic, 
born  at  Bourg,  near  Bordeaux.  At  first 
Jesuit  and  preacher,  he  permitted  himself 
to  be  led  astray  through  foolish  and  mys- 
terious ideas  and  embraced  Calvinism ; 
pastor  of  a  Protestant  church  at  Montauban 
during  eight  years.  Expelled  for  preaching 
suspicious  doctrines  and  leading  a  licentious 
life,  he  fled  to  Geneva  and  finally  to  Middle- 
burg.  Condemned  by  the  Synod  of  Dord- 
recht as  a  heretic,  he  retired  with  a  small 
circle  of  friends  or  followers  to  Altona.  The 
doctrine  of  Labadie  was  a  mixture  of  the 
principles  of  the  Anabaptists,  Calvinists, 
Pietists,  and  Hermites.  The  sect  disap- 
peared about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century. 

Laban.  —  Biblical  Patriarch,  son  of  Ba- 
thuel,  lived  at  Haran,  Mesopotamia,  in  the 
eighteenth  century  b.  c.  He  gave  succes- 
sively two  daughters,  Lia  and  Rachel,  in 
marriage  to  his  nephew  Jacob,  under  con- 
dition to  serve  him  during  fourteen  years. 

Labarum.  —  A  Roman  military  standard 
upon  which  Constantine  the  Great  caused 
to  be  put  a  cross  and  the  monogram  of 
Christ.  By  the  later  Roman  emperors  the 
Labarum  was  adopted  as  the  imperial  stand- 
ard. The  biographer  of  Constantine  the 
Great  has  left  an  accurate  description  of 
the  celebrated  standard  called  the  Labarum. 
Eusebius  tells  us  that  this  imperial  banner 
was  fashioned  in  the  following  manner : 
Near  the  top  of  the  shaft  of  a  lance  sheathed 
in  plates  of  gold  was  affixed  a  small  trans- 
verse rod  forming  the  figure  of  a  cross. 
From  this  crossbar  was  suspended  a  small 
square  of  purple  stuff  of  the  finest  texture, 
embroidered  with  gold  thread  and  pre- 
cious stones.  Above  this  banner  arose  the 
sacred  monogram  of  Christ,  composed  of 
two  letters,  the  Greek  X  or  chi  intersecting 
P  or  ro,  and  encircled  with  a  wreath  or 
chaplet  of  gold  profusely  gemmed  with 
precious  stones.  Just  below  the  monogram 
of  Christ  it  became  the  custom,  a  little 
later,  to  insert  the  effigy  of  the  reigning 
emperor,  and  of  his  son  and  consort.  Fifty 
men,  the  most  conspicuous  among  the  im- 
perial guards  for  their  valor  and  their  piety, 
were  selected  and  embodied  into  a  partic- 
ular band,  to  whom  was  confided  the  dis- 
tinguished ofiice  of  carrying  and  defending 
the  Labarum,  which  was  borne  by  them 


singly  in  turns  before  the  emperor  when- 
ever they  went  to  battle.  Banners  partially 
resembling  the  imperial  model,  but  of 
somewhat  smaller  dimensions,  and  wrought 
of  less  costly  materials,  were  distributed 
through  the  whole  army  to  be  the  future 
ensigns  of  the  Roman  cohorts.  Figures  of 
those  standards  frequently  occurred  upon 
the  coins  of  the  empire  in  the  time  of 
Constantine  and  his  immediate  successors. 

Labre  (Benedict  Joseph,  St.)  (sur- 
named  the  "Beggar";  1748-1783). —  He 
was  born  at  Amettes,  France;  died  in 
Rome.  He  was  a  brilliant  light,  by  his 
evangelical  poverty,  which  he  practised  in 
the  highest  degree,  living  wretchedly 
from  alms.  As  a  pilgrim  he  visited  the 
most  celebrated  sanctuaries,  and  was  beat- 
ified by  Pope  Pius  IX.  in  i860,  and  canon- 
ized by  Leo  XIII.  in  1898.     F.  April  i6th. 

Lachis.  —  One  of  the  capitals  of  the 
Chanaanites,  conquered  by  Josue,  situated 
on  an  elevation  between  Gaza  and  Eleu- 
theropolis.  It  seems  to  have  J)een  an  im- 
portant frontier  fortress  in  the  direction 
of  Egypt.  It  was  conquered  by  Sennach- 
erib during  his  invasion  of  Juda  in  701 
B.  c.  It  was  again  taken,  after  a  long  re- 
sistance, by  Nabuchodonosor.  After  the 
return  from  the  captivity  it  was  restored. 
It  is  now  represented  by  the  stone  heaps  of 
Tel-el-Hesy. 

Lacordaire  (Jean  Baptiste  Henri) 
(1802-1862).  —  Famous  French  pulpit  ora- 
tor, educated  in  the  Lyceum  of  Dijon; 
abandoned  the  bar  for  the  Church ;  was  or- 
dained priest,  1827;  became  joint  editor 
with  Lamennais  of  "L'Avenir,"  but,  on  its 
condemnation  by  the  Pope,  in  1832,  sub- 
mitted to  the  Church ;  was  preacher  at 
Notre  Dame  in  Paris  and  attained  a  great 
reputation.  In  1840,  he  joined  the  Do- 
minican order  and  in  i860,  he  was  elected 
to  the  French  Academy.  A  complete  edi- 
tion of  Lacordaire's  works  was  published 
in  six  volumes,  in  1858. 

Lactantius.  —  Christian  writer.  He  was 
born,  probably  in  Italy,  of  heathen  parents, 
about  the  middle  of  the  third  century.  He 
attained  to  great  eminence  as  a  teacher  of 
rhetoric.  Having  in  the  meantime  em- 
braced   Christianity,    Constantine    called 


Lacticinia 


400 


Lamentations 


him  to  become  the  preceptor  of  his  eldest 
son  Crispus.  Lactantius  has  been  held  in 
high  esteem  as  well  for  the  subject-matter 
of  his  writings,  as  especially  for  the  ele- 
gance and  purity  of  his  style,  which  pro- 
cured for  him  the  title  of  the  "Christian 
Cicero."  He  died  about  the  year  330. 
His  chief  works  were  his  Institutiones 
Divince  in  seven  books,  written  in  defense 
of  Christianity,  and  De  Mortibus  Persecu- 
toruvi.  The  latter  work  is  a  history  of  the 
persecutors  of  the  Church  from  the  time 
of  Nero  down  to  his  own  day,  in  which  the 
author  dwells  with  special  emphasis  on  the 
exemplary  punishments  with  which  all  the 
emperors,  who  persecuted  the  Christians, 
were  visited  by  an  avenging  Providence. 

Lacticinia.  —  Dishes  prepared  from  milk 
and  eggs,  which,  in  early  times  were  for- 
bidden; later,  in  the  Latin  Church,  to 
some  extent  permitted  as  food  on  fast  days. 
Recent  papal  dispensations  have  made  its 
use  in  the  Church  lawful,  in  some  coun- 
tries, on  fast  days. 

Lstare  Sunday.  —  The  fourth  Sunday 
in  Lent ;  so  called  from  the  first  word  in 
the  antiphon  of  the  Introit :  "Rejoice,  O 
Jerusalem,  and  gather  together  all  ye  who 
love  her,"  etc. 

Lainez  (James)  (1512-1565).  —  Second 
general  of  the  "  Society  of  Jesus" ;  born  at 
Almancaris,  Castile;  died  in  Rome.  As- 
sisted St.  Ignatius  in  drawing  up  the  stat- 
utes of  the  famous  association  and  suc- 
ceeded him  as  general  in  1558.  He  assisted 
at  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  defended  there 
the  authority  and  prerogatives  of  the  Ro- 
man Pontiff. 

Laity.     See  Clergy. 

Lamaism. —  A  corrupted  form  of  Budd- 
hism prevailing  in  Tibet  and  Mongolia, 
which  combines  the  ethical  and  metaphys- 
ical ideas  of  Buddhism  with  an  organized 
hierarchy  under  two  semi-political  sov- 
ereign pontiffs,  an  elaborate  ritual,  and 
the  worship  of  a  host  of  deities  and  saints. 

Lamech.  —  i.  Descendant  of  Cain.  He 
took  unto  him  two  wives,  Ada,  who  bore  to 
him  Jabel  and  Jubal ;  and  Sella,  by  whom 
he  had  Tubalcain  and  Noema.  2.  Son  of 
Mathusala  and  father  of  Noe.  He  lived 
from  4090  to  3313  B.  c. 

Lamennais  (Hughes-F^licite Robert 
de)  (1782-1854).  —  French  philosopher  and 
political  writer,  born  at  St.   Malo;    died 


at  Paris.  Was  ordained  priest  in  1816, 
and,  in  order  to  defend  the  Catholic 
religion  against  the  oppressions  of  the 
government  and  the  attacks  of  modern  un- 
belief, the  Abbd  Lamennias,  Gerbet,  La- 
cordaire,  and  Count  Montalembert  came 
forward  and  founded  the  periodical  called 
"  L'Avenir  "  (  The  Future)  and  the  motto 
"  God  and  Freedom,"  in  1830.  An  ardent 
advocate  of  the  complete  independence  of 
the  Church,  and  a  determined  enemy  of 
all  State  interference  in  spiritual  affairs, 
he  pushed  his  principles  to  their  last  con- 
sequences, maintaining  that  the  clergy 
should  decline  to  accept  any  salary  from 
the  government,  and  that  the  Church, 
once  more  reduced  to  her  condition  of 
poverty  in  the  primitive  ages,  would  no 
longer  place  her  trust  in  anything  save 
in  the  power  of  Him,  who  alone  is  her 
true  Head.  To  these  questions  of  disci- 
pline he  soon  joined  others  of  a  strictly 
devotional  character,  concerning  which  he 
held  wholly  erroneous  views,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, that  the  subjective  ground  and 
reality  of  certitude  are  not  in  the  individ- 
ual reason  and  general  acceptance  {scnsus 
communis)  of  mankind.  The  views  of  de 
Lamennais  on  the  complete  severance  of 
Church  and  State  and  on  the  sensiis  com- 
munis were  condemned  by  Gregory  XVI. 
in  an  encyclical  letter  of  August  15th, 
1832.  All  the  bishops  of  France  prohib- 
ited the  reading  of  "  L'Avenir  "  in  their 
dioceses,  and  the  publication  of  the  jour- 
nal was  in  consequence  suspended.  M. 
de  Lamennais  retracted,  but  the  Pope  sus- 
pected his  sincerity,  and  his  fears  were 
justified  when,  some  time  later,  Les  Pa- 
roles d^un  Croyant  and  Le  Livre  du  Peu- 
ple,  both  written  with  fervid  eloquence 
and  extraordinary  brilliancy,  made  their 
appearance.  With  a  strange  confusion  of 
the  most  elementary  ideas,  the  author  ad- 
vocated the  murder  of  kings,  the  assump- 
tion of  the  clergy  of  the  leadership  in 
popular  insurrections,  and  the  adoption  of 
the  Cross  as  the  universal  standard  of  na- 
tions in  revolt,  and  appealed  to  the  Gospel 
as  a  sanction  for  his  wild  vagaries.  Being 
no  longer  able  to  simulate  the  character  of 
a  priest,  the  Abb^  de  Lamennais  at  length 
threw  off  all  disguise,  and  was  regarded 
by  all  as  a  democrat  and  Jacobin  of  the 
most  extreme  school.  Abb^  de  Lamen- 
nais never  became  again  reconciled  with 
the  Church. 

Lamentations.     See  Jeremias. 


Lance 


407 


Language 


Lance  {The  Sacred).  —  The  lance  with 
■which  they  opened  the  side  of  our  Saviour 
while  hanging  on  the  Cross.  Its  point  is 
broken  off.  Andrew  of  Crete  assures  us 
that  it  was  buried  with  the  Cross.  The 
fear  of  the  Christians  before  the  Saracens, 
caused  them  to  bring  it  to  Antioch,  where 
it  was  secretly  buried.  In  109S,  they  re- 
covered the  same,  and  several  miracles 
took  place  on  this  occasion.  It  was  re- 
turned to  Jerusalem  and  from  there, 
shortly  afterwards  was  taken  to  Constanti- 
nople. The  Emperor  Bauduin  II.  sent  its 
point  to  the  republic  of  Venice,  in  pay- 
ment of  a  sum  of  money  the  Venetians  had 
loaned  him.  St.  Louis,  king  of  France, 
obtained  the  relic  by  paying  to  the  Vene- 
tians the  debt  of  Bauduin  and  he  deposited 
it  in  the  Sainte  Chapelle  of  Paris.  The  rest 
of  the  lance  remained  at  Constantinople, 
and,  in  1492,  the  Sultan  Bajazet  sent  it  to 
Pope  Innocent  VIII.,  in  a  very  costly  cas- 
ket, telling  him  that  the  point  of  the  lance 
was  in  possession  of  the  king  of  France. 

Lando.  —  Pope.  Roman  by  origin, 
elected  on  Dec.  4th,  914,  died  April  24th, 
915- 

Lanfranc  (1005-10S9). — Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  born  at  Pavia.  Entered  the 
Order  of  St.  Dominic  at  the  Abbey  of 
Bee.  After  three  j^ears  of  retirement 
there,  the  knowledge  of  his  place  of  re- 
treat spread  abroad,  and  he  was  soon  sur- 
rounded by  a  multitude  of  scholars,  among 
whom  were  Anselm,  his  successor  (1093), 
the  famous  theologian,  and  another 
Anselm,  who  became  Pope  Alexander  II. 
(1061).  He  was  made  abbot  of  Caen,  in 
Normandy,  in  1062.  On  the  deposition  of 
Stigand,  Lanfranc  was,  by  command  of 
both  the  Pope  and  the  king  (William  I.), 
compelled  to  accept  the  now  vacant  see  of 
Canterbury  (1070).  Soon  after  he  went  to 
Rome  for  the  pallium.  Pope  Alexander 
II.,  his  former  pupil,  received  the  re- 
nowned master  with  the  greatest  honors. 
Returning,  Lanfranc  worked  energetically 
to  remedy  the  evils  which  then  afflicted 
the  Church  of  England,  and  King  William 
ably  seconded  the  noble  exertions  of  the 
primate.  He  had  obtained  the  full  confi- 
dence of  William,  who  left  to  him  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  kingdom  during  his 
voyage  into  Normandy ;  at  the  moment  of 
his  death,  he  charged  him  to  crown  his 
son  William  II.  called  the  Red,  or  Rufus. 
The  name  of  Lanfranc  is  found  in  several 
martyrologies   with    the   title  of  Saint  or 


Blessed.     He  had  upheld  the  Eucharistic 
dogma  against  the  heresy  of  Berengarius. 

Langton  (Stephen). —  Cardinal,  states- 
man, and  poet,  born  at  Slindon,  Sussex, 
died  in  1228.  Cardinal  in  1206,  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  in  1207.  Was  elected 
archbishop  of  Canterbury  (as  a  compro- 
mise between  the  superior  Reginald, 
chosen  by  the  monks,  and  John  de  Grey, 
supported  by  the  king),  and  consecrated 
by  the  Pope,  June  17th,  1207,  but  pre- 
vented by  the  king  (in  a  long  struggle 
with  the  Pope)  from  admission  to  his  see 
until  1213.  On  April  17th,  1222,  he  opened 
a  Church  council  at  Osney,  the  decrees  of 
which  (the  Constitutions  of  Stephen  Lavtr- 
ton)  are  the  earliest  provincial  canons  itill 
recognized  as  binding  in  the  English  eccle- 
siastical courts.  He  was  a  voluminous 
writer,  and  from  among  his  works  we 
quote  a  Hexcemeron  and  a  commentary  on 
parts  of  the  Old  Testament. 

Language  (employment  which  man 
makes  of  sounds  and  articulations  of  the 
voice,  to  express  his  thoughts  and  senti- 
ments).—  God  having  created  man,  in  the 
state  of  perfect  man,  in  a  natural  order, 
created  him  with  all  the  faculties  essen- 
tially connected  with  this  order.  We  may 
ask :  Was  artificial  language,  particularly 
formed  by  the  word,  revealed  by  God,  or 
was  it  invented  by  man?  Some  claim  that 
language  was  revealed.  "  Man,"  they  say, 
"  thinks  of  his  word  before  formulating  his 
thought."  The  thought  and  the  word  are 
two  simultaneous  facts  which  react  one 
upon  another.  Others  maintain  that  lan- 
guage is  the  work  of  man :  the  first  mani- 
festation of  reason,  in  man,  was  naturally 
the  language  by  imitation,  by  onomatopoeia, 
and  by  analogy,  he  first  imitated  nature  in 
making  use  of  his  organs.  Later  on,  turn- 
ing his  thoughts  inwardly,  man  distin- 
guished himself  from  his  surroundings  and 
gave  to  the  faculties  and  operations  of  the 
mind  denominations  analogous  to  those 
which  he  had  already  given  to  exterior  ob- 
jects which  first  struck  the  sense  of  hear- 
ing and  sight.  Founding  ourselves  upon 
the  authority  of  Holy  Scripture,  we  see 
that  God  spoke  to  man  in  the  Garden  of 
Eden.  God,  says  Ecclesiastes,  has  given 
to  man  intelligence  and  language.  St. 
Augustine  says  that  God  did  reveal  to  man 
not  only  the  faculty  of  language,  but  also 
its  use.  The  ancient  philosophers  did  not 
even  question  this.  They  had  the  idea 
that  language  was  the  most  beautiful  of 


Laodicea 


408 


Lateran 


God's  presents.  This  was  the  opinion  of 
Plato,  Euripides,  and  of  Cicero.  The 
Greek  philosophers  made  use  of  the  same 
word  logos  to  express  both  reason  and 
language;  for  the  brute,  thev  reserved  the 
word  alogos,  that  is,  a  being  without  lan- 
guage and  without  reason.  Man  has,  there- 
fore, been  created  speaking  as  he  has  been 
created  thinking.  We  can  say  this  espe- 
cially of  man  elevated  to  a  supernatural  or- 
der. We  could  also  appeal,  in  favor  of  this 
opinion,  to  the  argument  that  languages 
are  more  perfect  the  farther  back  we  go  to 
their  origin.  Could  man,  assisted  by  his 
sole  natural  forces,  invent  language.? 
Again,  here  some  are  affirmative,  others 
negative.  Some  admit  the  possibility  of 
this  invention.  In  order  to  reconcile  the 
two  opinions,  might  we  not  attribute  a 
part  of  man's  language  to  the  divine  action 
and  a  part  to  man's  labor.?  These  two 
causes,  indeed,  must  have  contributed  to 
the  formation  of  language.  Undoubtedly, 
man  has  been  created  with  his  intellectual 
faculties  and  also  to  communicate  his 
thoughts  to  his  equals,  and,  consequently, 
God  provided  him  with  the  means  of  at- 
taining this  end  ;  but  a  language  has  value 
only  by  the  use  which  we  make  thereof 
with  conscience  and  full  liberty.  The  part 
of  man's  reason  in  the  formation  of  lan- 
guage is  not  only  to  perfect  it,  but  consists 
especially  in  appropriating  it,  to  make  it 
his  own.  It  is  asserted  that  the  thought 
does  not  exist  without  the  word  ;  it  would 
be  truer  to  say  that,  without  the  thought, 
the  word  would  be  an  idle  sound.  Primi- 
tively, thanks  to  the  divine  gift,  man  thinks 
and  speaks:  "  He  thinks  his  word  and  ex- 
presses his  thought."  By  his  thought  he 
appropriates  the  word,  the  logos  of  the 
Greeks,  the  verbuni  of  the  Latins.  He 
only  needs  to  make  use  of  this  wonderful 
instrument,  to  perfect  it  either  in  modify- 
ing it,  according  to  the  circumstances  of 
time,  place,  or  climate.  It  is  thus  that  we 
can  reconcile  the  opposed  theories. 

Laodicea.  — An  ancient  city  in  Phrygia, 
Asia  Minor,  in  the  valley  of  Lycus,  an 
auxiliary  river  of  the  Maeander,  50  miles 
north  of  Aradus.  It  was  one  of  the  most 
northern  of  the  Phoenician  cities  and  its 
original  name  was  Ramantha.  In  the 
Apocalypse,  it  is  one  of  the  Churches  to 
which  an  epistle  is  addressed.  A  Church 
Council  was  held  in  Laodicea  (393),  which 
condemned  the  celebration  of  the  Agapae, 
or  Love-feasts. 


Lapsi.  — In  the  early  Church,  those  who, 
having  professed  Christianity,  denied  the 
faith  in  times  of  persecution  or  fell  into 
some  other  kind  of  sin,  such  as  offering 
sacrifice  or  incense  to  idols,  etc.  On  pro- 
fession of  contrition  they  were  allowed  to 
hope  for  restoration  to  the  Church,  but, 
before  being  again  admitted  to  communion, 
had  to  pass  a  long  probation,  and  submit 
to  special  penances,  sometimes  lasting  till 
the  approach  of  death. 

La  Salle  (Jean  Baptiste  ).  See 
Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools. 

Las  Casas  (  Bartholomew  )  ( 1474- 
1566).  —  Famous  prelate,  born  at  Seville. 
A  member  of  the  Dominican  order,  who 
proved  himself  the  warmest  friend  of  the 
oppressed  Indian  and  the  champion  of  his 
liberty.  Las  Casas  accompanied  Colum- 
bus on  his  third  voyage  in  1498 ;  he  is  said 
to  have  been  the  first  priest  ordained  in  the 
New  World.  "  The  whole  of  his  future 
life,"  says  Irving,  "  a  space  exceeding  sixty 
years,  was  devoted  to  vindicating  the  cause 
and  endeavoring  to  meliorate  the  suffer- 
ings of  the  natives.  As  a  missionary  he 
traversed  the  wilderness  of  the  New  World 
in  various  directions,  seeking  to  convert 
and  civilize  them ;  as  a  protector  and 
champion  he  made  several  voyages  to 
Spain,  vindicated  their  wrongs  before 
courts  and  monarchs,  wrote  volumes  in 
their  behalf,  and  exhibited  a  zeal  and  con- 
stancy, and  integrity  worthy  of  an  apostle." 
Las  Casas  was  made  bishop  of  Chiapa  in 
Mexico.  Seeing  all  his  efforts  in  behalf  of 
the  distressed  Indians  thwarted  by  the 
avarice  and  malice  of  men,  he  retired  to 
his  monastery  at  Madrid,  where  he  died  at 
the  great  age  of  ninety-two. 

Lateran  (7'//^).^A palace  in  the  eastern 
part  of  Rome.  The  present  edifice  dates 
from  the  sixteenth  to  the  eighteenth  centur- 
ies. The  palace  was  originally  named  Later- 
anus,  from  the  Roman  family  Lateranus  to 
which,  until  the  time  of  Nero,  it  belonged. 
Nero  put  the  last  owner,  Plautius  Latera- 
nus, to  death,  and  appropriated  the  palace. 
It  was  given  by  Constantine  (who  also 
built  a  church  in  its  precincts)  to  the 
Bishop  of  Rome,  Pope  Melchiades,  and 
was  inhabited  by  his  successors  until  1308, 
— the  period  when  the  Popes  removed  to 
Avignon.  Eleven  Church  councils  were 
held  in  the  Lateran  Palace  (649,  864,  1105, 
1112,  1116,  1123,  1139,  1167,  1179,  1215,  and 
1515).     Those  of  1123,  1139,  1179,  and  1215, 


Latimer 


409 


Latin  Language 


were  the  ninth,  tenth,  eleventh,  and  twelfth 
Ecumenical  Councils. 

Latimer  (Hughes)  (1472-1555). — Rene- 
gate  prelate  ;  one  of  the  first  Protestants  of 
the  Anglican  Church,  born  atThurcaston, 
Leicester  county,  England.  At  first  a 
very  zealous  Catholic  priest,  he  combated 
by  his  writings  Lutheranism ;  then  en- 
snared by  the  preaching  of  his  friend 
Thomas  Ridley  and  by  the  reading  of  the 
works  of  Luther,  he  became  a  fanatical 
Protestant.  He  nevertheless  kept  posses- 
sion of  the  bishopric  of  Worcester,  which 
had  been  bestowed  upon  him  on  account  of 
his  zeal  in  defending  the  Apostolic  and 
Roman  Faith.  Having  refused  to  accept 
the  bill  of  the  "  Six  Articles,"  and  accused 
of  having  used  offensive  language  against 
Henry  VHT.,  he  was  confined  in  the 
Tower  (1541).  The  ascension  of  Edward 
VL  to  the  throne  delivered  him  from 
prison  (1547),  but  under  Mary  Tudor  he 
wasagain  arrested,  judged  and  condemned, 
together  with  his  friend  Ridley,  to  be 
burned  alive  (April,  1554).  He  was  exe- 
cuted at  Oxford,  Oct.  i6th,  1555.  His  Ser- 
mons, which  the  Anglicans  esteem  very 
highly,  were  published  in  1570  and  often 
reprinted,  especially  at  London  (1815,  2 
vols.  in-8). 

Latin  Language  {Use  of  the). — Though 
the  Church  has  never  pretended  that  it 
was  necessary  to  celebrate  the  Liturgy  in 
a  language  not  understood  by  the  people, 
she  has  never  considered  it  as  imperatively 
requisite  that  her  service  should  be  per- 
formed in  a  vulgar  tongue,  or  that  the 
language  which  she  speaks  in  her  public 
service  should  follow  the  changes  and 
variations  incidental  to  the  vernacular 
idioms  of  those  several  nations  which  com- 
pose her  household.  In  this  respect  the 
spouse  of  Christ  has  imitated  the  example 
furnished  to  her  by  the  Synagogue.  From 
the  commencement  of  the  Jewish  dispensa- 
tion, up  to  the  conquest  of  Jerusalem  by 
Nabuchodonosor,  genuine  Hebrew  was  the 
only  tongue  familiar  to  the  Israelites. 
Holy  Scripture  was  recited  and  the  service 
of  the  Temple  was  performed  in  the  lan- 
guage common  to  the  people.  Even  after 
their  seventy  years  of  captivity,  when  the 
Jews  had  forgotten  their  ancient  Hebrew, 
and  adopted  the  Syriac,  or  Chaldaic,  as 
their  ordinary  language,  on  their  return  to 
Jerusalem,  no  change  was  made  in  the 
language  of  the  sanctuary,  a  practice  scru- 
pulously   observed    to    the     present    day 


among  the  Jews.  Had  there  been  any 
blame  attached  to  the  custom  of  praying 
in  a  strange  or  unknown  tongue,  Christ 
would  have  undoubtedly  enumerated  it 
among  the  other  accusations  which  He  so 
unhesitatingly  advanced  against  the  Scribes 
and  Pharisees.  He,  Himself,  prayed  in  a 
language  which  they  did  not  understand  : 
"JS//,  Eli,  Lama  sabacthani,"  He  ejacu- 
lated, as  he  yielded  up  the  spirit;  and  the 
people  mistaking  the  pure  Hebrew  word 
Eli,  for  the  name  of  one  of  the  Prophets, 
said:  "This  man  calleth  Elias"  (Matt, 
xxvii.  46-47). 

The  Catholic  Church  has  been  induced 
by  several  powerful  reasons  to  celebrate 
the  holy  sacrifice  of  the  Mass  in  the  Latin 
language  throughout  almost  all  the  nations 
of  Europe.  From  the  time  of  the  Apostles, 
Latin  has  been  invariably  employed  at  the 
altar  throughout  the  western  parts  of 
Christendom,  though  their  inhabitants 
very  frequently  did  not  understand  that 
language.  Hence  the  Catholic  Church, 
through  an  aversion  to  innovations,  care- 
fully continues  to  celebrate  her  Liturgy  in 
that  same  tongue  which  apostolic  men  and 
saints  have  used  for  a  similar  purpose  dur- 
ing more  than  eighteen  centuries.  A  uni- 
formity in  public  worship  is  thus  more 
securely  preserved,  since  a  Christian,  in 
whatever  country  he  may  chance  to  be, 
will  encounter  no  inconvenience  with  re- 
gard to  his  attendance  at  Church;  for  he 
still  beholds  the  service  performed  in  every 
place  according  to  the  selfsame  rite,  and 
in  precisely  the  same  language,  to  which 
he  has  been  accustomed  from  his  early 
childhood.  The  Church  could  not  cele- 
brate her  Liturgy  in  each  of  the  several 
languages  common  to  those  respective  na- 
tions that  dwell  within  her  widely  extended 
pale.  The  Englishman,  for  instance, 
would  find  himself  a  stranger  at  the  cele- 
bration of  the  Church's  offices  in  more 
than  one  spot  even  within  the  United 
States.  Finally,  the  Church  adheres  to 
the  Latin  language  in  her  divine  services, 
in  order  to  avoid  those  changes  to  which 
all  living  languages  are  perpetually  ex- 
posed ;  for  she  perceives  the  danger  of 
altering  the  expressions  of  her  Liturgy  at 
every  change  and  variation  in  language. 

But  while  using  the  Latin  language 
does  not  this  prevent  the  people  from  fol- 
lowing the  service  intelligently,  and  indeed 
from  knowing  what  is  going  on?  Not  at 
all.  For  those  who  are  able  to  read  can 
easily  find  the  same  meaning  of  the  words 


Latitudinarians 


410 


Law 


the  priest  is  saying,  by  means  of  the  trans- 
lations put  in  the  common  prayer  books; 
and  those  who  cannot  read  may  have  the 
translations  read  to  them. 

From  the  days  of  the  Apostles,  the  Lit- 
urgy of  the  Mass  has  been  celebrated  in 
Greek  and  in  Latin,  in  Syriac  and  in  Cop- 
tic. Since  the  fourth  century  it  has  also 
been  solemnized  in  Ethiopic  and  Armenian. 
The  language  of  these  Liturgies  was  never 
changed,  although  the  people  for  whom 
they  were  originally  drawn  up,  and  among 
whom  they  still  continue  to  be  celebrated, 
have  entirely  transformed  their  ancient 
language,  and  are  perfectly  incapable  of 
understanding  it  at  the  present  time  in  its 
original  form.  Hence,  it  follows,  as  a 
consequence,  that  the  Latin  Church  acts, 
only,  in  the  spirit  of  all  the  ancient 
Churches  from  the  days  of  the  Apostles, 
since,  like  them,  she  refuses  to  exchange 
her  ancient  for  a  modern  language. 

Latitudinarians.  —  In  Church  history,  a 
name  applied  by  contemporaries  to  a 
school  of  theologians  within  the  English 
Church  in  the  latter  half  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  analogous  to  what  is  known  to- 
day as  the  Broad  Church  party.  They 
strove  to  unite  the  dissenters  with  the 
Church  by  insisting  only  on  those  doc- 
trines which  were  held  by  both  and  requir- 
ing merely  submission  to,  not  acceptance 
of,  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  of  the  Church. 

Latria.     See  Worship. 

Latrocinium.     See  Ephesus. 

Lauds.     See  Breviary. 

Laura.  —  An  alley,  lane,  later  a  cloister, 
hermitage,  monastery.  In  early  monach- 
ism,  an  aggregation  of  separate  cells  under 
the  control  of  a  superior,  the  inmates 
meeting  on  Saturday  and  Sunday  of  each 
week  for  a  common  meal  in  the  refectory, 
and  for  common  worship  in  the  chapel,  on 
other  days  dwelling  apart  from  one  another, 
every  one  in  his  cell  engaged  in  some  light 
manual  occupation. 

Lavabo  is  that  part  of  the  Mass  where 
the  celebrant  washes  his  fingers  on  the 
Epistle  side,  while  reciting  several  verses 
of  the  Psalm,  I.avabo  inter  innocentes 
manus  meas.  In  the  Ambrosian  rite,  the 
priest  washed  his  hands  in  silence,  but 
the  Psalm  now  recited  accompanied  the 
washing  in  the  liturgies  of  St.  Chrysos- 
tom  and  St.  Basil. 


Lavigerie  (Charles  Martial  Alle- 
mand).  —  A  French  prelate;  born  Oct. 
31st,  1825,  at  Bayonne.  He  studied  theol- 
ogy at  the  Seminary  of  St.  Sulpice,  and 
was  ordained  priest  in  1849;  made  bishop 
of  Nancy,  in  1863 ;  in  1867,  archbishop  of 
Algiers,  where  he  came  into  conflict  with 
the  government  by  trying  to  establish 
charitable  institutions  among  the  Arabs. 
The  contest  went  so  far,  that  the  Emperor 
Napoleon  III.,  wrote  him  a  personal  letter, 
advising  him  to  leave  temporal  matters  to 
the  government  and  confine  his  attention 
to  the  spiritual  wants  of  his  flock.  The 
archbishop,  however,  continued  his  work. 
In  1882  he  was  made  cardinal,  and  two 
years  later  became  archbishop  of  Tunis 
and  primate  of  Africa.  Lavigerie  won 
particular  attention  by  his  vigorous  oppo- 
sition to  the  African  slave  trade.  He  died 
in  Algiers,  Nov.  26th,  1892. 

Law.  —  Laws  are  the  exterior  and  re- 
mote rule  of  human  actions.  A  law  is  a 
just  precept ;  an  unjust  law  is  no  lawat  all, it 
is  but  an  abuse  of  power,  an  act  of  tyranny. 
Human  laws  which  are  not  in  agreement 
with  natural  law  are  not  true  laws.  In 
case  of  doubt  whether  the  law  is  just  or 
not,  whether  the  thing  ordained  is  legiti- 
mate or  not,  the  law  is  to  be  observed,  as 
in  all  such  cases  the  presumption  is  in 
favor  of  the  power  which  commands.  We 
must  not  regard  as  unjust  the  laws  which 
seem  to  permit  certain  customs  little  com- 
formable,  or  even  contrary  to  rules  of 
Christian  morals.  To  tolerate  an  abuse 
is  not  to  uphold  it  or  approve  it.  The 
civil  laws  cannot  forbid  everything  which 
the  natural  law  forbids.  It  is  necessary 
that  a  law  should  be  stable  and  permanent ; 
that  is,  a  law  should  continue  as  long  as 
the  state  of  things,  which  has  given  occa- 
sion for  the  existence  of  the  law,  continues. 
All  laws  should  emanate  from  the  superior 
powers  or  persons  that  have  the  right  to 
govern  and  command.  This  power  and 
right,  as  well  in  the  temporal  order  as 
in  the  spiritual,  comes  from  God,  to  Whom 
belongs  all  absolute  power  and  dominion. 
To  those  in  such  authority  God  has  com- 
municated His  authority,  more  or  less,  ac- 
cording to  the  rank  which  they  occupy. 
In  order  that  a  law  should  have  binding 
force,  it  must  be  promulgated  publicly.  It 
is  a  matter  of  dispute  among  canonists 
and  other  authorities  whether  the  essence 
or  complete  matter  of  the  law  should  be 
published.     As  long  as  a  law  is  not  pub- 


Law 


411 


Law 


lished  it  has  no  more  force  than  a  matter 
merely  vinder  consideration. 

We  distinguish  between  divine  and  hu- 
man laws.  Divine  laws  are  either  natural 
or  positive  according  as  they  emanate  nec- 
essarily or  freely  from  the  Creator. 
Among  the  positive  laws  are  those  called 
Mosaic,  after  the  great  lawgiver,  Moses, 
who  received  them  from  God ;  the  others 
are  called  Christian  or  Evangelical  laws, 
being  given  and  promulgated  by  Jesus 
Christ.  Human  laws  are  either  ecclesias- 
tical or  civil ;  the  first  relate  to  the  spirit- 
ual, the  latter  to  the  temporal  order. 
*'  The  natural  law  is,"  as  St.  Thomas  says, 
"  only  an  impression  in  us  of  the  divine 
light,  a  partaking  of  the  eternal  in  a  rea- 
sonable being."  The  natural  law  is  en- 
graved in  the  hearts  of  all  men,  the 
characters  of  which  we  must  read ;  and  to 
do  this  rightly  is  not  always  an  easy  mat- 
ter on  account  of  human  passion,  preju- 
dice, and  the  force  of  inveterate  habits, 
which  tend  to  blur  the  divine  characters. 
It  is  possible,  therefore,  for  man  to  be  ig- 
norant of  some  points  of  the  natural  law. 

The  first  and  fundamental  truths  are 
within  the  comprehension  of  all  men,  they 
are  met  with  everywhere. 

As  to  the  remote  consequences,  these 
we  can  certainly  be  ignorant  of,  and  this 
ignorance,  when  invincible,  excuses  us 
from  sin.  The  natural  law  being  founded 
upon  the  inborn  constitution  of  man  can- 
not vary  more  than  can  human  nature. 
We  can,  therefore,  in  no  case  obtain  a  dis- 
pensation from  this  natural  law.  We 
must  distinguish  in  the  Mosaic  law,  the 
moral  part  from  the  ceremonial  part, 
which  regulated  all  that  concerned  the  di- 
vine worship,  and  the  civil  and  judicial 
part  which  related  to  the  policy  of  the 
Jews.  The  moral  part  was  the  natural, 
positive  law,  the  substance  of  which  is 
contained  in  the  Decalogue.  The  law  of 
Moses,  apart  from  the  Decalogue,  was 
only  expedient  for  the  time  being  and  was 
abrogated  by  the  Evangelical  law,  while 
the  natural  law  is  always  in  force,  not  be- 
cause of  its  solemn  promulgation  by 
Moses,  but  because  it  is  eternal,  and  was 
confirmed  by  Christ  in  the  New  Law,  or 
dispensation.  In  the  Christian  law  as  in 
the  Mosaic  law  we  must,  likewise,  distin- 
guish between  the  laws  of  positive  precept 
and  those  of  counsel,  between  the  laws 
concerning  dogma,  morals,  and  worship. 
We  have  in  the  New  Law  the  Evangelical 
counsels  of  poverty  and  celibacy  addressed 


to  those  whom  God  calls  to  a  higher  state 
of  perfection.  The  Mosaic  dispensation 
was  intended  for  the  Jewish  people  only 
and  only  for  a  determinate  period.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  Christian  dispensation 
or  law  is  for  all  time  and  for  all  peoples. 
It  should  make,  as  it  were,  of  all  nations 
one  people,  one  family.  This  is  why  our 
Saviour  established  neither  civil  nor  polit- 
ical laws.  Men  can  be  good  Christians 
and  at  the  same  time  good  citizens,  no 
matter  what  the  form  of  government  may 
be  under  which  they  live.  The  Christian 
law  has  become  obligatory  only  by  reason 
of  its  having  been  promulgated  by  the 
Apostles  and  their  successors.  As  long 
as  a  law  has  not  been  promulgated,  it  has 
no  binding  force.  Nobody  is  obliged  to 
believe  what  he  does  not  know;  nobody 
can  know  the  Gospel  or  its  laws  if  it  has 
not  been  announced  to  him.  Those  who 
have  never  heard  of  the  law  of  Christ  are 
precisely  in  the  same  condition  as  the 
Gentiles  were  before  the  coming  of  Christ. 
Their  rule  of  conduct  and  of  morals  is 
based  on  the  principles  of  the  natural  law, 
and  on  some  traditions,  more  or  less  ob- 
scure, which  have  been  preserved  among 
them  from  the  primitive  revelation. 

As  the  principles  of  the  natural  law  can- 
not be  dispensed  with,  neither  can  the 
positive  law  of  Christ,  which  depends  for 
its  force  on  the  will  of  God.  The  Church, 
under  the  guidance  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  has 
the  mission  of  interpreting  the  Command- 
ments of  her  divine  Founder,  but,  notwith- 
standing the  scope  and  extent  of  her 
prerogatives,  she  cannot  derogate  from 
them  in  any  point. 

Among  the  ecclesiastical  laws,  we  dis- 
tinguish between  the  written  laws  and  the 
laws  introduced  by  custom,  or  the  unwrit- 
ten laws ;  between  general  laws,  common 
to  the  whole  Church,  and  particular  laws, 
for  a  province  or  diocese.  It  is  of 
faith  that  the  Church  can  establish  laws, 
which  may  not  be  violated  without  sin. 
The  Pope,  being  Bishop  of  the  universal 
Church  may  promulgate  laws  obligatory 
on  all  Christians.  Bishops  may  make  laws 
for  their  respective  dioceses.  Yet  the 
power  of  all  bishops  is  in  this  matter  sub- 
ordinate to  the  Holy  See  from  which  they 
receive  their  jurisdiction.  Ecumenical 
councils,  convened  and  approved  by  the 
Pope,  acting  in  the  name  of  the  entire 
Church,  can  make  laws  which  bind  in 
conscience  all  Catholics  without  distinc- 
tion of  class.     When  the  councils  are  par- 


Lawrence 


412 


Lazarists 


ticular,  national,  or  provincial,  their  enact- 
ments or  laws  bind  only  those  under  their 
jurisdiction.  Again  these  decrees  must 
be  invested  with  the  approbation  of  the 
Holy  See,  or  approved  by  the  Sacred  Con- 
gregation of  Cardinals,  interpreters  of  the 
Council  of  Trent.  For  irrespective  of 
what  concerns  metropolitans,  bishops, 
either  of  themselves  or  individually  or 
gathered  in  assembly,  have  no  jurisdiction 
over  foreign  dioceses. 

Lawrence    or    Laurentius    Justinianus 

(St.)  (1380-1465). —  First  patriarch  of 
Venice,  born  in  that  city.  General  of  the 
Canons-Regular  of  the  Congregation  of 
St.  George,  Bishop  of  Venice  (1433),  patri- 
arch (.1451).  Built  at  Venice  ten  churches 
and  several  monasteries.     F,  Sept.  5th. 

Lawrence  (St.). — Deacon  and  martyr, 
born  near  Huesca,  Spain.  He  was  the 
chief  among  the  seven  deacons  of  the 
Roman  Church.  In  the  year  258  Pope 
Sixtus  was  led  out  to  die,  and  St.  Law- 
rence stood  by,  weeping  that  he  could  not 
share  his  fate.  The  holy  Pope  comforted 
him  with  the  words  :  "  Do  not  weep,  my 
son;  in  three  days  you  will  follow  me." 
This  prophecy  came  true.  The  prefect  of 
the  city  knew  the  rich  offerings  which  the 
Christians  put  into  the  hands  of  the  clergy, 
and  he  demanded  the  treasures  of  the  Ro- 
man Church  from  Lawrence  their  guardian. 
The  saint  promised,  at  the  end  of  three 
days,  to  show  him  riches  exceeding  all  the 
wealth  of  the  empire,  and  set  about  col- 
lecting the  poor,  the  infirm,  and  the  reli- 
gious who  lived  by  the  alms  of  the  Faithful. 
He  then  bade  the  prefect  "  see  the  treas- 
ures of  the  Church."  Christ,  whom 
Lawrence  had  served  in  his  poor,  gave 
him  strength  in  the  conflict  which  ensued. 
Roasted  over  a  slow  fire,  he  made  sport  of 
his  pains.  '*  I  am  done  enough,"  he  said, 
"  eat,  if  you  will."  His  remains  were 
buried  in  the  Catacombs  of  Campo  Verano. 
Constantine  built  over  his  tomb  a  basilica, 
which  is  one  of  the  five  patriarchal  churches 
and  one  of  the  seven  principal  stations, 
(St.  Lawrence  Extra  muros.)  F.  Aug. 
1 0th. 

Lawrence  (St.)  O'Toole  (1125-1180). — 
The  scion  of  a  princely  family,  Lawrence 
in  his  youth  had  been  held  in  captivity  as 
a  hostage,  by  Dermot  M'Murrough,  king 
of  Leinster.  At  the  age  of  twenty-five  he 
was  chosen  abbot  of  Glendaloch,  and  on 
the  death  of  Archbishop  Gregory,  in  1162, 


was  promoted  to  the  metropolitan  see  of 
Dublin.  He  was  consecrated  by  Gelasius, 
successor  of  St.  Malachy  in  the  primatial 
see  of  Armagh.  His  first  care  was  to  re- 
form the  manners  of  the  clergy  and  to 
furnish  his  Church  with  worthy  ministers. 
He  was  so  rigid  in  enforcing  ecclesias- 
tical discipline,  that,  though  he  had  the 
necessary  faculties  himself,  he  frequently 
obliged  grievous  sinners  to  journey  to 
Rome  for  absolution.  In  1179,  the  saint, 
with  some  other  Irish  prelates,  attended 
the  Third  General  Council  of  Lateran. 
On  his  return  to  Ireland,  he  at  once  com- 
menced to  discharge  his  legatine  power, 
by  making  wholesome  regulations  and 
introducing  much  needed  reforms.  After 
a  glorious  and  most  useful  episcopate  of 
eighteen  years,  St.  Lawrence  O'Toole,  who 
was  styled,  as  St.  Bernard  tells  us,  "  the 
Father  of  his  country,"  died  in  the  year 
1 180.  He  was  canonized  in  1225,  by 
Honorius  III.     F.  Nov.  14th. 

Lazarists  or  Priests  of  the  Mission.  — 
The  Lazarists  owe  their  foundation  to  St. 
Vincent  de  Paul.  He  was  born  of  humble 
but  pious  parents,  in  the  village  of  Pouy, 
at  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees,  in  1576.  In  his 
youth  he  tended  his  father's  flocks,  but  his 
parents,  judging  correctly,  that  one  of 
such  excellent  parts,  both  of  intellect  and 
heart,  was  fitted  by  nature  for  some  higher 
calling,  sent  him,  in  1588,  to  a  Franciscan 
convent  to  be  educated.  Here  he  felt  him- 
self called  to  the  priesthood ;  went  to  per- 
fect his  studies  at  the  University  of  Tou- 
louse, where  he  was  ordained  prieet  in 
1600.  In  the  course  of  a  voyage  from 
Marseilles  to  Narbonne,  in  1605,  he  and 
his  companions  fell  into  the  hands  of  some 
Barbary  corsairs,  who  sold  him  into  slavery 
at  Tunis.  Here  he  passed  successively  under 
the  proprietorship  of  three  masters,  the 
third  of  whom,  a  Savoyard  renegade,  he 
brought  back  to  the  Church,  and  having  re- 
turned to  France,  went  thence  to  Rome,  and 
prevailed  upon  his  former  master  to  join  the 
"  Brothers  of  Charity  "  in  that  city.  He  en- 
tered the  Oratory,  lately  established  by 
the  Abbe  de  Berulle,  on  whose  recom- 
mendation he  became  successively  cur^  of 
Clichy,  near  Paris,  and  tutor  of  the  family 
of  Count  de  Condi.  While  in  this  position, 
Vincent  conceived  the  design  of  starting 
what  are  known  as  the  '  Missions  of 
France."  Out  of  these  grew  forth  the 
foundation  of  the  "Daughters  of  Charity'' 
or  "  Grey  Sisters,"  to  whom  he  gave  a  rule 


Lazarus 


413 


Ledochowski 


of  life,  and  charged  them  with  the  care  of 
Hospitals  (1618).  But  the  project  which  he 
had  long  had  in  his  mind,  of  forming  a  soci- 
ety of  "  Priests  of  the  Mission,"  who,  with 
the  consent  of  the  bishop  of  the  diocese 
and  of  the  pastor  of  the  parish,  would 
preach  the  Gospel  to  the  peasants  of  the 
country,  was,  in  the  year  1624,  carried  into 
effect.  In  1632,  Pope  Urban  VIII.  ap- 
proved the  object  of  the  congregation,  and 
instructed  Vincent  to  draw  up  a  rule  for 
its  guidance.  The  society  of  "  Priests  of 
the  Mission,"  which  had  been  established 
at  the  so-called  Priory  of  St.  Lazarus  in 
Paris  (whence  the  name  Lazarists),  was 
soon  widely  extended.  Besides  their  mis- 
sion labors,  they  took  complete  charge,  in 
many  instances,  of  ecclesiastical  semina- 
ries. St.  Vincent  himself  continued  to 
give  missions,  was  constantly  engaged  in 
founding  hospitals,  religious  associations, 
and  held  conferences  in  the  houses  of  the 
missions.  He  died  Sept.  27th,  1660,  and 
was  canonized  by  Clement  XII.  in  1737. 
F.  July  19th. 

The  "Priests  of  the  Mission"  came  to 
the  United  States  in  1815,  and  have  now 
several  houses  in  this  country  and  Canada. 

Lazarus.  —  Brother  of  Martha  and  Mary, 
dwelt  with  his  sisters  at  Bethania,  near 
Jerusalem ;  and  our  Saviour  sometimes 
lodged  with  them,  when  He  visited  that 
city.  While  He  was  beyond  the  Jordan 
with  His  Apostles,  Lazarus  fell  sick  and 
died.  Jesus  came  to  Bethania  immediately, 
and  raised  him  to  life  again.  It  is  claimed 
that  afterwards  he  became  bishop  of  Mar- 
seilles and  suffered  martyrdom  after  an 
apostolate  of  thirty  years.  His  relics  are 
venerated  at  Autun,  France,  in  the  Church 
of  St.  Lazare.     F.  July  29th. 

League  {Holy).  —  When,  in  1535,  the 
Protestant  States  of  Germany  renewed 
their  alliance  against  the  Catholics  for  a 
period  of  ten  years,  known  as  the  "  League 
of  Smalkald,"  this  caused  the  Catholic 
princes,  in  1538,  to  unite  in  a  confedera- 
tion, known  as  the  "  Holy  League,"  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  Catholic  religion. 

Leander  (St.)  (540-600  or  601).  —  Arch- 
bishop of  Seville,  born  at  Carthagena. 
Brother  of  St.  Fulgentius,  of  St.  Isidore, 
and  of  St.  Florentina.  Monk  at  Seville, 
archbishop  of  this  city  in  597,  friend  of  Pope 
Gregory  the  Great,  who  dedicated  to  him 
his  Cotnmentaries  on  Job;  successfully 
combated  Arianism  and  presided  over  the 


third    National   Council  of   Toledo  (589). 
The  Mozambic  Liturgy  is  attributed  to  him. 

Lectionary.  —  One  of  the  service  books 
of  the  mediaeval  Church,  so  called  because 
it  contained  the  Epistles  and  Gospels  of 
the  Roman  missal,  and  sometimes,  all  the 
lessons  of  the  various  services  in  use  in  the 
Roman  Church,  in  which  case  it  was  called 
the  Plenarium.  Its  compilation  was  at- 
tributed to  St.  Jerome;  and  it  appears 
certain  that  it  belongs  in  substance,  al- 
though not  in  form  or  details,  to  that  age. 
The  collection  was  revised  and  remodeled 
in  the  eighth  century. 

Lector  {reader).  —  The  term  designates 
one  who  has  received  the  second  Minor 
Order.  The  following  words,  addressed 
to  the  candidate  by  the  bishop,  explain  the 
duties  attached  to  this  office :  "  It  is 
necessary  for  the  reader  to  read  for  him 
who  preaches,  to  sing  the  lessons,  to  bless 
the  bread  and  all  the  new  fruits.  Endeavor, 
therefore,  to  announce  distinctly  and 
clearly  the  words  of  God,  namely,  the  holy 
lessons,  etc."  In  presenting  to  the  candi- 
date the  book  from  which  he  is  to  read, 
which  he  touches  with  his  right  hand,  the 
bishop  says:  "  Receive  this  book,  and  be 
reader  of  the  word  of  God,  destined,  if  you 
faithfully  and  usefully  fulfill  your  office,  to 
have  part  with  those  who  from  the  begin- 
ning have  acquitted  themselves  well  in  the 
ministry  of  the  divine  word." 

Ledochovrski  (Mieczyslaw  Halka, 
Count  de).  —  A  Polish  cardinal;  was  born 
at  Gorki,  in  Russia,  Oct.  29,  1822.  He 
began  his  theological  studies  under  the 
Lazarists  in  the  College  of  St.  John,  War- 
saw, and  at  the  age  of  18  received  the 
ecclesiastical  tonsure  from  the  bishop  of 
Sandomir.  After  some  studies  at  Vienna 
he  proceeded  to  Rome,  where  he  joined 
the  "  Academia  Ecclesiastica"  ;  became 
domestic  prelate  and  prothonotary  apos- 
tolic; and  also  went  as  auditor  of  the 
nunciature  to  Lisbon,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  and 
Santiago  de  Chile.  He  was  named  arch- 
bishop of  Thebes,  in  partibus  infidelium, 
on  his  appointment  in  i86r  to  the  nunciature 
of  Brussels,  where  he  remained  four  years. 
In  January,  1866,  he  was  translated  to  the 
archbishopric  of  Gnesen  and  Posen,  with 
the  title  of  primate  of  Poland.  In  conse- 
quence of  his  resistance  to  the  so-called 
May  Laws  enacted  in  Prussia,  he  was,  in 
1874,  cast  into  prison,  and,  while  there, 
was  proclaimed  a  cardinal  by  the  Pope,  in 


Legate 


414 


Leibnitz 


a  secret  consistory  held  in  Rome  in  1875. 
He  was  released  from  captivity  in  1876, 
and  went  to  Rome.  Here  he  was  made 
Prefect  of  the  Propaganda  in  1892,  which 
office  he  continues  to  hold  to  the  present 
day. 

Legate.  —  The  name  of  the  ambassador 
or  representative,  whether  temporary  or 
permanent,  sent  by  the  Pope  to  a  particu- 
lar Church.  Three  classes  of  legates  are 
distinguished :  first,  Legati  a  latere  {le- 
gates dispatched  from  the  side)  of  the  Pon- 
tiff, who  are  commonly  cardinals ;  second, 
Legati  missi,  also  called  "apostolic  nun- 
cios," and  including  a  lower  grade  called 
"internuncios"  ;  third,  Legati  nati  {legates 
born),  whose  office  is  not  personal,  but  is 
attached  by  ancient  institution  or  usage  to 
the  see  or  ecclesiastical  dignity  w^hich 
they  hold. 

On  Jan.  24th,  1893,  the  American  Lega- 
tion was  established,  and  Monseigneur 
Satolli  being  appointed  delegate  apostolic, 
from  the  office  and  dignity  thus  received, 
acquired  ordinary  jurisdiction  over  the 
bishops,  clergy,  and  Catholic  p>eople  of  the 
United  States  in  all  spiritual  affairs. 

Legio  Fulminatrix  ( Thundering  Le- 
gion).—  In  the  Roman  army,  there  were  a 
great  many  Christian  soldiers.  When 
Emperor  Marcus  Aurelius  (161-180)  was 
waging  war  in  Pannonia  against  the  Quadi 
and  Marcomanni  (174),  his  army,  unable 
to  obtain  water  to  drink,  was  threatened 
with  imminent  death.  Then  the  Chris- 
tians went  down  on  their  knees,  and  ad- 
dressed fervent  prayers  to  God.  Suddenly 
the  sky  became  clouded,  and  a  plentiful 
rain  fell  on  the  side  of  the  Romans.  The 
Barbarians  thought  the  moment  favorable 
for  an  attack ;  but  the  heavens  taking  up 
arms  in  support  of  the  Romans,  sent  such 
a  fearful  volley  of  hail  and  thunder  upon 
them,  that  their  battalions  were  over- 
powered ;  this  prodigy  gave  the  victory  to 
the  Romans.  The  Christian  troops,  who 
had  obtained  this  favor  from  heaven,  were 
named  the  "Thundering  Legion";  because 
both  the  Romans  and  Barbarians  looked 
upon  this  event  as  miraculous.  The  em- 
peror himself  wrote  of  the  matter  to  the 
senate.  To  perpetuate  the  memory  of  this 
prodigy,  it  was  represented  in  bas-relief  on 
the  Antonine  column,  erected  in  the  center 
of  Rome  and  is  still  existing. 

Legion  (Theban). —  Thus  called  be- 
cause levied   in  the  Thebaid,  the  district 


around  Thebes,  Egypt ;  was  taken  to  Italy 
by  Maximian  (286-305),  to  be  used  against 
the  Bagandae,  who  had  risen  in  revolt. 
The  whole  army,  having  received  a  com- 
mand to  offer  sacrifice  to  the  gods  for  the 
success  of  their  expedition,  the  Thebean 
Legion,  composed  of  Christians,  refused 
to  take  part  in  such  a  sacrilegious  cere- 
mony. Enraged  at  this  re'sistance,  Max- 
imian commanded  the  Legion  to  be 
decimated.  The  soldiers,  on  whom  the  lot 
fell,  were  put  to  death.  The  rest  of  the 
Legion  continued  immovable.  The  first 
decimation  was  followed  by  a  second,  which 
produced  no  new  effect.  Then  Maximian 
surrounded  the  Legion  with  his  army  and 
caused  them  all  to  be  slaughtered.  The 
place  where  they  were  martyred  took  the 
name  of  St.  Maurice,  after  their  gallant 
leader,  and  the  Abbey  of  St.  Maurice,  to 
this  day,  bears  witness  to  the  constancy  of 
this  brave  band  of  martyrs. 

Leibnitz  (Gottfried  Wilhelm  von) 
Baron  (1646-1716).  —  Born  at  Leipsic  ; 
died  at  Hanover.  A  celebrated  German 
philosopher.  His  father  was  professor  of 
law  at  Leipsic.  He  entered  the  University 
there  in  1661 ;  devoting  himself  to  the 
study  of  jurisprudence  and  philosophy; 
studied  mathematics  at  Jena  in  1663;  re- 
turned to  Leipsic ;  and  in  1666  took  the 
degree  of  doctor  of  law  at  Altdorf.  To 
escape  the  scepticism  of  Locke,  Leibnitz 
tried  to  reconcile  all  the  philosophical  sys- 
tems; and,  from  their  fusion,  he  founded 
a  system  of  eclecticism.  His  whole  system 
of  doctrine  may  be  divided  into  three 
great  divisions:  Monadology;  Law  of 
Continuity  and  Pre-established  Harmony. 
We  may  add  his  Theodicy,  which  is  the 
crown  of  the  system.  His  method,  being 
based  upon  the  principle  of  the  mathe- 
matical infinite,  is  false,  because  it  is  too 
exclusive.  Its  principles  may  be  reduced 
to  two  :  the  principle  of  contradiction  and 
the  principle  of  sufficient  law.  The  first 
is  the  spring  of  mathematics  and  of  the 
essential:  the  second  is  the  basis  of  moral 
and  of  the  contingent.  In  wishing  to  ex- 
clude experience  as  the  means  of  certitude, 
he  falls  into  idealism;  in  fact,  he  who 
wishes  to  prove  too  much,  proves  nothing; 
the  first  principles  escape  demonstration. 
Monadology. — Every  being  is  a  simple  or 
composed  monad,  which  we  can  classify 
thus:  monads  without  perception  (inert 
bodies);  monads  with  perception  (soul); 
the  latter  class  may  be  divided  again  into 


Lent 


415 


Lent 


monads  with  obscure  conscience  (souls  of 
animals) ;  with  a  conscience  clear  through 
their  perceptions  (reasonable  souls  or 
spirits).  Pre-established  Harmony. —  In 
creating  both  body  and  soul,  God  estab- 
lished, in  the  constitution  of  these  two 
substances,  all  they  need  in  order  to 
develop  themselves;  both  of  these  sub- 
stances are  in  "accord"  or  correspondence  ; 
God  joined  both  body  and  soul,  which  had 
between  each  other  this  correspondence, 
this  pre-established  harmony  anterior  to 
their  union :  they  therefore  correspond 
just  like  two  clocks  regulated  according  to 
the  same  time.  But  what,  then,  becomes 
of  liberty?  This  system  makes  of  man  a 
pure  machine  and,  consequently,  leads  to 
fatalism.  In  fact  everything  being  certain 
and  determined  beforehand,  the  soul 
would  be  merely  a  spiritual  automaton. 
Theodicy. —  Here  also,  Leibnitz  shows 
himself  too  absolute.  He  exaggerates  the 
doctrine  of  St.  Augustine  and  of  St.  Thomas 
Aquinas  about  optimism.  According  to 
him,  God,  being  infinite  in  all  His  perfec- 
tions, had  to  create  the  best  world  pos- 
sible. As  his  days  were  drawing  to  a 
close,  Leibnitz  gave  a  sublime  and  almost 
Catholic  exposition  of  the  majestic  truths 
of  Christianity,  but  to  little  purpose,  as 
his  influence  on  Protestant  divines  was  in- 
appreciable. He  was  a  Catholic  after  his 
own  way ;  he  acknowledged  the  infallibility 
of  the  Catholic  Church  and  refused  to  ac- 
cept the  Council  of  Trent,  and  in  fact 
remained  Lutheran. 

Lent.  (Lent  derives  its  name  from  the 
Saxon  word  lenctcn — lengthening  days,  or 
springtime  —  for  it  was  the  spring  fast; 
just  as  we  are  indebted  to  the  Saxon  word 
faesten  —  to  restrain  —  for  the  word  '•  fast.") 
Anciently  in  the  Latin  Church,  Lent  lasted 
only  thirty-six  days,  and  commenced  only 
on  the  Sunday  of  the  sixth  week  before 
Easter,  which  they  called  Quadragesima 
Sunday.  In  the  eleventh  century,  to  more 
closely  imitate  the  fast  of  forty  days  which 
Jesus  Christ  suflfered  in  the  desert,  some 
added  four  days  before  Qiiadragesima  Sun- 
day, and  this  custom  was  followed  in  the 
West;  for,  by  deducting  the  six  Sundays 
which  are  no  fast  days,  there  remain  ex- 
actly forty  days  of  fast,  in  imitation  of  our 
Savior.  From  this  rule  we  have  to  except 
the  Church  of  Milan,  which  commences 
Lent  only  on  Quadragesima  Sunday. 

Lent  was  instituted  by  the  Apostles.  St. 
Jerome,  in  his  Epistle  to  Marcella,  and  to 


St.  Leo,  in  the  sixth  sermon  De  Quadra- 
gesima, expressly  mentions  it,  and  the 
Rule  of  St.  Augustine  (Ep.  118  ad  Janu- 
arium  et  Lib.  IV.  de  baft.  cap.  24)  has 
reference  to  this  subject.  All  that  we  find 
generally  established  in  the  entire  Church, 
without  seeing  its  institution  in  any  coun- 
cil, must  pass  as  an  establishment  made  by 
the  Apostles.  Now  such  is  the  case  with 
the  fast  of  Lent.  We  do  not  find  its  in- 
stitution in  any  council;  on  the  contrary, 
the  First  Council  of  Nice,  can.  5,  that  of 
Laodicea,  can.  14,  etc.,  the  Sixth  Ecumeni- 
cal Council,  can.  29,  and  in  the  West,  the 
First  Council  of  Orleans,  r««.  11,  the 
Fourth  of  the  same  city,  can.  2,  that  of 
Agde,  can.  8,  that  of  Auxerre,  can.  3,  the 
Eighth  of  Toledo,  can.  9,  the  Second  of 
Prague,  can.  9,  speak  of  Lent  as  of  a  gen- 
eral and  very  ancient  subject,  as  well  as  all 
the  Greek  and  Latin  Fathers.  Tertullian, 
who  lived  about  the  end  of  the  second  cen- 
tury and  at  the  beginning  of  the  third,  in 
his  book  De  jejuniis,  cap.  2  and  13,  seems 
to  indicate  that  there  was  not  only  a  law 
for  the  fast  before  Easter,  but  that  it  was 
regarded,  by  even  those  who  passed  as 
enemies  of  fasting,  as  an  apostolic  institu- 
tion, and,  moreover,  as  an  apostolic  in- 
stitution fcmnded  upon  the  Gospel  and 
upon  the  words  of  Jesus  Christ  in  St. 
Matthew,  ix.  15,  in  St.  Mark,  ii.  19,  in  St. 
Luke,^v.  34.  St.  Ignatius  clearly  speaks  of 
Lent  in  his  letter  Ad  Phi/ippenses.  Finally, 
it  appears,  by  the  Apostolic  Constitutions 
V,  c.  xviii,  that  the  Christians  since  the 
beginning  of  the  Church  have  fasted 
through  obligation  during  the  time  that 
preceded  Easter.  The  fast  lasted  until  the 
hour  of  Vespers,  that  is,  until  evening. 
Tertullian  also  speaks  of  this  in  his  Treatise 
on  Fast,  and  St.  Irenaeus  in  Eu^ebius,  T.ib. 
V,  c.  24,  St.  Basil,  Orat.  2,  de  Jejun.,  St. 
Ambrose,  Serm.  34,  Socrates,  Lib.  V,  c.  21, 
Cassian,  Collat.  21,  c.  27,  St.  Leo,  Serm. 
4  De  Quadragesima,  etc.  Socrates  and 
Sozomenus  tell  us,  the  first.  Lib.  V,  c.  22, 
the  other.  Lib.  VII,  c.  19,  that  the  fast  of 
Lent  lasted  six  weeks  before  Easter  in 
Illyria,  in  Greece,  at  Alexandria,  in  whole 
Egypt,  in  Africa  and  Palestine ;  but  that 
at  Constantinople,  and  in  all  its  neighbor- 
ing provinces,  until  Phoenicia,  they  com- 
menced Lent  seven  weeks  before  Easter, 
but  that  of  these  six  or  seven  weeks  some 
fasted  only  every  other  day,  or  only  five 
daj's  during  the  week. 

The   ancient    Latin    monks    kept    three 
Lents :  the  great  Lent  before  Easter,  the 


Leo 


416 


Leo 


other  before  Christmas,  which  they  called 
the  Fast  of  St.  Martin,  and  the  other  the 
Fast  of  St.  John  the  Baptist,  after  Pente- 
cost, all  three  of  forty  days.  The  Greeks 
observed  four  others  besides  that  of  Easter, 
namely:  that  of  the  Apostles,  of  the  As- 
sumption, of  Christmas,  and  of  the  Trans- 
figuration; but  they  reduced  them  to  seven 
days  each.  The  Jacobites  have  a  fifth  fast, 
which  they  call  the  Fast  of  the  Penance  of 
Ninive.  The  Chaldaics  and  Nestorians  do 
the  same.  The  Maronites  have  six,  by  ad- 
ding that  of  the  Exaltation  of  the  Cross. 
The  forty  days'  period,  as  commemorative 
of  our  Lord's  forty  days'  fast,  or  of  the 
similar  perfunctory  fasts  of  Moses  and 
Elias,  commences  with  Ash  Wednesday, 
between  which  day  and  Easter  Sunday 
(omitting  the  Sundays,  on  which  the  fast 
is  not  observed),  forty  clear  days  intervene. 
The  rigor  of  the  ancient  observance,  which 
excluded  all  flesh  and  even  the  so-called 
"  white  meats,"  is  now  much  relaxed;  but 
the  principle  of  permitting  but  one  meal, 
with  a  slight  refection  or  collation,  is 
widely  retained.  The  precept  of  fast  obliges 
all  those  who  have  their  twenty-first  year 
completed,  if  no  other  cause  dispenses  them 
from  fast.  In  Spain,  during  the  Crusades 
and  the  wars  with  the  Moors,  a  practice 
arose  of  permitting  in  certain  cases,  the 
substitution  of  a  contribution  to  the  holy 
war,  for  the  observance  of  Lenten  ab- 
stinence; and  although  the  object  has 
long  since  ceased,  the  composition  is  still 
permitted,  under  the  same  title  of  the 
"  Crusada." 

Leo  (name  of  thirteen  Popes). — Leo  I. 
(St.)  —  Pope  from  440  to  461.  On  account 
of  his  eminent  learning,  sanctity,  and  great 
achievements,  is  called  the  *'  Great."  It 
was  this  great  Pontiff  who,  by  his  con- 
fidence in  God  and  noble  and  courageous 
conduct,  in  452,  saved  Rome  from  being 
pillaged  by  the  Huns  under  Attila  "the 
Scourge  of  God,"  and  again,  in  455,  he 
saved  the  city  from  destruction  by  the 
awe  which  he  inspired  in  the  fierce  Gen- 
seric,  king  of  the  Vandals.  Rejecting  the 
false  Council  of  Ephesus  ("Robber  Synod"), 
Leo,  in  451,  summoned  the  General  Coun- 
cil of  Chalcedon,  over  which  he  presided 
by  his  legates  and  in  which  his  Dogmatic 
Epistle  was  accepted  as  the  expression  of 
true  Catholic  Faith.  He  strongly  main- 
tained Papal  supremacy  against  arrogant 
and  aspiring  bishops,  and  was  zealous 
everywhere  for  the  interests  of  the  faith  and 


Church  discipline.  Leo  II.  (St.) — Pope 
from  682  to  683.  Translated,  from  the 
Greek  into  Latin,  the  acts  of  the  Sixth 
General  Council,  in  which  the  heresy  of 
the  Monothelites  had  been  condemned. 
Leo  II.  established  a  second  metropolitan 
see  at  York,  Canterbury  still  holding  the 
chief  place  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  Church,  as 
in  the  days  of  St.  Augustine.  Leo  III .  (St.) 
—  Pope  from  795  to  816.  Immediately  after 
his  election  he  wrote  to  Charlemagne,  re- 
questing him  to  continue  his  protection 
over  the  Roman  See  and  State.  At  his  re- 
quest, Charlemagne,  in  the  year  800,  went 
to  Rome  to  quell  a  rebellion  in  which  the 
Pope  came  near  losing  his  life.  He  crowned 
Charlemagne  and  proclaimed  him  emperor, 
amid  the  joyful  acclamations  of  the  people, 
in  800.  Leo  IV.  (St.)  —  Pope  from  847 
to  855.  The  eight  years  of  his  Pontificate 
were  employed,  chiefly,  in  arming  and  de- 
fending the  Roman  State  against  the  Sar- 
acens, over  whom  he  gained  a  complete 
victory.  He  encompassed  the  Vatican  hill 
with  walls  and  towers,  and  founded  what 
has  been  called  after  him  the  "  Leonine 
City."  In  850,  he  crowned  Louis  II.,  son 
of  Lothaire,  emperor,  and  anointed  as  king 
the  young  Alfred  of  England,  afterwards 
surnamed  the  Great.  In  850  and  853,  he 
held  synods  at  Rome,  at  which  canons  were 
enacted  enforcing  ecclesiastical  discipline. 
Leo  V.  —  Pope  in  903.  Successor  of  Bene- 
dict IV.  Imprisoned  by  Christophorus; 
he  died  of  grief  two  months  after  his 
coronation.  Leo  VI.  —  Pope  from  928  to 
929.  Successor  of  John  VI.  Reigned  only 
six  or  seven  months  and  fifteen  days.  Leo 
VII.  —  Pope  from  936  to  939.  Successor 
of  John  XI.  He  reformed  the  monastic 
discipline.  Leo  VIII.  —  Pope  from  963  to 
965.  Elected,  after  the  deposition  of  John 
XII.,  by  the  authority  of  the  Emperor 
Otho.  Benedict  V.,  canonically  elected  to 
succeed  John  XII.  and  exiled  by  Otho  (964), 
acquiesced  to  his  own  deposition.  Leo  IX. 
(St.)  —  Pope  from  1048  to  1054.  With 
his  accession  to  the  Papal  throne,  began 
the  dawn  of  better  and  brighter  days  for 
the  Papacy.  He  resumed  and  carried  on, 
with  untiring  zeal,  the  great  work  of 
reformation  begun  by  Clement  II.  His  Pon- 
tificate was  one  continued  journey,  under- 
taken for  the  purpose  of  everywhere 
enforcing  ecclesiastical  reforms.  He  held 
numerous  councils  and  presided  over 
them  in  person.  Several  laws  were 
enacted  for  the  extirpation  of  the  then 
prevailing  vices  of  simony  and  clerical  in- 


Leo 


417 


Leo 


continence.  He  was  defeated  and  cap- 
tured by  the  Normans  at  Astagnum,  near 
Civitella,  June  i8th,  1053.  The  conquerors, 
beholding  in  their  captive  the  Vicar  of 
Christ,  knelt  before  him,  asked  his  blessing, 
and  then  set  him  at  liberty.  Leo  X. — 
Pope  from  1513  to  1521.  Born  at  Flor- 
ence, second  son  of  Lorenzo  de  Medici. 
An  ardent  admirer  of  classic  literature 
and  a  magnanimous  patron  of  the  arts  and 
sciences,  he  was  at  the  same  time  a  great 
Pontiff,  who  was  sincerely  devoted  to  the 
interests  of  the  Church.  His  Pontificate, 
one  of  the  most  brilliant  in  the  history  of 
the  Church,  was  greatly  embarrassed  by 
the  treachery  of  the  Italian  princes,  the  re- 
ligious revolution  in  Germany,  and  by  the 
rivalries  between  Charles  V.,  of  Spain, 
Francis  I.,  of  France,  and  Henry  VHL,  of 
England.  This  explains  why  the  charac- 
ter of  this  Pope  has  been  judged  with  so 
much  prejudice  and  inconsistency.  His 
reign  was  long  and  gratefully  remembered 
by  the  Romans,  as  an  era  of  happiness 
and  prosperity.  Leo  XL  —  Pope  in  1535. 
Died  twenty-six  days  after  his  coronation. 
Leo  XII.  —  Pope  from  1823  to  1829. 
Gave  his  chief  attention  to  restoring  re- 
ligion and  learning  in  Rome  and  to  avert- 
ing the  evils  by  which  the  Church  was 
then  more  particularly  threatened,  espe- 
cially by  religious  indiflferentism  and  se- 
cret societies,  particularly  Freemasonry. 
Ze<j  AV//.  (  Vincent  Joachim  Pecci) — 
Was  born  March  2d,  1810,  at  Carpineto,  a 
small  village  of  the  Diocese  of  Anagni, 
Italy,  on  the  outside  of  the  Apennines. 
His  father.  Count  Ludovico  Pecci,  be- 
longed to  a  noble  family,  originally  of  Si- 
ena; his  mother,  Anna  Prosperi,  was 
also  of  a  patrician  race.  The  nobility  of 
the  Peccis  is  an  ancient  one.  They  have, 
in  their  coat  of  arms,  a  comet  illuminating 
an  azure  field,  with  its  inflaming  sheaf. 
At  the  hour  when  the  future  Pope  was 
born.  Napoleon  I.  held  united  under  his 
scepter  Italy  and  France.  A  few  years 
later  the  young  Pecci  could  behold  the 
Papal  flag  floating  over  the  walls  of  Car- 
pineto and  salute  the  triumphant  re-entry 
of  Pius  VII.  into  the  eternal  city;  he  was 
a  witness  of  the  glorious  Pontificate  of 
Leo  XII.,  whose  name  he  was  destined  to 
adopt.  When  the  hour  arrived  to  enter 
upon  the  way  in  which  God  called 
him,  the  Pope  who  reigned  in  the  Vatican 
was  Gregory  XVI.  Joachim  Pecci  com- 
menced his  studies  in  the  College  of  Vi- 
terbo.     After  the  death  of  his  mother,  he 

27 


was  sent  to  the  Roman  College.  Here,  as 
at  Viterbo,  he  soon  became  the  admiration 
of  his  professors  and  fellow-students.  At 
the  age  of  twenty  years  he  received  the  ti- 
tle of  doctor.  Shortly  after  this  he  en- 
tered the  Academy  of  Ecclesiastical 
Nobles,  and  continued  there  his  brilliant 
course  of  studies  in  preparing  himself  for 
sacred  orders.  Distinguished  among  all 
by  Gregory  XVI.,  the  young  Pecci  was 
named,  at  the  age  of  26,  a  Referendary  to 
the  Signature.  On  Dec.  23d,  1837,  he 
was  ordained  priest,  and  shortly  after- 
wards the  Pope  intrusted  to  him  the  im- 
portant and  delicate  mission  as  delegate  of 
the  province  of  Benevent.  Mgr.  Pecci 
was  then  28  years  old.  The  young  prel- 
ate displayed  a  remarkable  skill  and  an 
unconquerable  energy  in  the  administra- 
tion of  the  province.  In  a  short  time  it 
was  cleared  of  the  robbers  who  infested  it 
and  perfect  order  was  restored.  Gregory 
XVI.  rewarded  Mgr.  Pecci  by  intrust- 
ing to  him,  successfully,  the  govern- 
ment of  the  most  important  provinces 
of  Spoleto  and  Perugia.  Such  was 
the  wisdom  and  prudence  of  the  Pon- 
tifical delegate,  that  in  the  last  named 
city,  whose  population  is  more  than  20,000, 
the  prisons  under  his  administration  re- 
mained empty.  Desirous  of  utilizing  the 
rare  talents  of  the  delegate  of  Perugia  in  a 
more  elevated  post,  Gregory  XVI.  recalled 
him  in  1843,  preconized  him  archbishop  of 
Damietta  in  partibus  injidelium,  and  sent 
him  as  nuncio  to  Brussels.  King  Leo- 
pold, who  knew  well  how  to  judge  men, 
did  not  delay  to  accord  to  the  young  apos- 
tolic nuncio  the  highest  and  most  sincere 
esteem.  The  Belgian  Catholics  equally 
appreciated  him,  and  have  preserved  the 
best  remembrance  of  the  three  years  of  his 
nunciature.  In  1846,  his  health  beginning 
to  fail,  he  had  to  ask  to  be  recalled.  Leo- 
pold, the  king  of  the  Belgians,  took  leave 
of  him  with  great  regret.  He  conferred 
on  him,  before  his  departure,  the  great 
cordon  of  his  order,  and  handed  to  him  a 
sealed  letter  recommending  him  for  the 
purple  to  Pope  Gregory  XVI.  On  the  re- 
quest of  a  deputation  of  Perugia,  the  Pope 
intrusted  to  him  the  government  of  this 
diocese  in  the  consistory  of  Jan.  19th,  1846, 
and  created  him  at  the  same  time  cardinal 
in  petto.  Unfortunately, Gregory  XVI.  died 
before  he  could  fulfill  his  desire  to  confer 
on  him  publicly  the  insignia  of  cardinal. 
It  was  only  seven  years  later,  on  Dec.  19th, 
1853,  that  Pius   IX.  caused   him    to   enter 


Leo 


418 


Leo 


the  Sacred  College.  Enthusiastically  ap- 
plauded by  the  Perugian  population, 
which  had  not  forgotten  the  wisdom  of 
his  political  administration,  Mgr.  Pecci, 
during  the  22  years  he  remained  at  Peru- 
gia, labored  without  relaxation  for  the 
well-being  of  his  diocese,  and  for  the  de- 
velopment of  the  higher  education  of  the 
clergy.  To  this  end  he  founded  and 
equipped  the  Theological  Academy  of  St. 
Thomas.  The  Pastoral  Letters  which  he 
published  during  his  episcopate  are  most 
remarkable,  those  especially  wherein  he 
treats  of  civilization,  and  which  were  the 
prelude  of  his  immortal  encyclical  letters 
in  which  the  entire  world  to-day  finds  light 
and  salvation.  In  the  Vatican  Council, 
Cardinal  Pecci  was  remarkable  for  the 
certainty  and  depth  of  theological  knowl- 
edge. But  it  was  only  after  the  death  of 
Cardinal  Antonelli,  whose  influence  had 
kept  him  away  from  Rome  for  such  a  long 
time,  that  Cardinal  Pecci  was  named  Cam- 
erlingo  of  the  Holy  Roman  Church,  re- 
placing Cardinal  De  Angelis  (Sept.  21st, 
1877).  The  dignity  of  Camerlingo  —  one 
of  the  first  of  the  Sacred  College  —  con- 
fers extensive  rights  and  powers  upon  the 
cardinal  who  is  invested  with  it,  at  the 
death  of  the  Pope,  during  the  vacancy  of 
the  Holy  See,  and  for  the  preparation  of 
the  Conclave. 

When  Pius  IX.  died,  Cardinal  Pecci 
knew  how  to  display  in  this  delicate  charge 
exceptional  qualities  of  prudence,  wisdom, 
energy,  and  experience.  The  unequivocal 
testimonies  and  approvals  which  Pius  IX. 
and  Gregory  XVI.  had  given  him,  seemed 
to  designate  him  beforehand,  as  the  choice 
among  his  venerable  colleagues.  Indeed, 
on  Feb.  20th,  1878,  after  36  hours  of  Con- 
clave, he  was  elected  Pope,  on  the  third 
ballot,  by  44  votes  out  of  61,  and  took  the 
name  of  Leo  XIII.  Saluted  since  then  as 
a  light  from  heaven,  *'  Lumen  in  Ccelo " 
the  august  Pontiff  has  spread  over  all  the 
world  the  illumination  of  Christian  doc- 
trine. Since  the  beginning  of  his  Pontifi- 
cate, he  denounced,  in  his  celebrated  en- 
cyclical of  Dec.  28th,  1878,  the  dangers  of 
Socialism,  which  is  the  enemy  of  human 
governments,  no  less  than  of  the  Church 
of  God,  and  points  out  in  Catholic  doctrine 
the  most  efficacious  remedy  against  the 
subversive  theories  of  the  Nihilists  and 
Socialists.  His  eye  continually  open  to 
all  the  wants  and  dangers  of  the  Church 
and  of  society,  his  care  extends  to  all, 
pointing  out  philosophical  errors  as  they 


arise  and  condemning  wicked  attempts 
against  the  family  and  civil  society.  Ac- 
cording to  him,  reason  has  entered  on  a 
false  direction,  and  modern  thought  is  de- 
caying. Behold  his  wonderful  encyclical 
on  the  restoration  of  philosophical  studies 
according  to  the  doctrine  of  St.  Thomas 
(Eterni  Patris,  Aug.  4th,  1879).  Domes- 
tic society  being  threatened  by  divorce,  he 
addresses  to  the  world  the  encyclical  on 
Christian  marriage,  wherein  he  explains 
and  expounds  the  real  doctrine  concerning 
this  great  sacrament  (Arcanum,  ¥eh.  loth, 
i88»).  Meanwhile,  he  treats  of  the  origin 
of  power  and  authority  and  of  the  great 
advantages  which  the  Catholic  Church 
offers  to  princes  and  peoples  (Diuturnum, 
June  29th,  1881).  Later  he  deals  a  terrible 
blow  to  that  enemy  of  Church  and  State, 
Freemasonry,  and  indicates  to  Catholics 
the  means  of  protecting  themselves  against 
this  sect  and  how  to  combat  it.  Finally, 
in  order  to  come  to  the  aid  of  civil  society, 
a  prey  to  revolutionary  evil,  he  publishes 
his  famous  encyclical  "  Immortali  Dei" 
(Nov.  ist,  18S5),  on  the  Christian  Consti- 
tution of  the  States — a  master- work  and  a 
magnificent  synthesis  of  Catholic  teaching 
on  this  important  matter.  Other  Pontif- 
ical documents,  too  numerous  to  mention 
here,  have  for  their  object  the  promotion 
of  the  veneration  of  the  saints  and  to 
recommend  to  the  piety  of  the  Faithful 
the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis,  and  es- 
pecially the  devotion  to  our  Lady  of  the 
Rosary.  We  can  truly  assert  that  the  great 
wisdom  of  Leo.  XIII.,  his  enlightened 
zeal,  and  the  providential  aim  of  his  glori- 
ous Pontificate  are  all  summed  up  in  his 
encyclical  letters,  imperishable  monuments 
of  the  solicitude  of  the  supreme  pastor  of 
Church. 

But  it  is  especially  by  diplomatic  means 
that  Leo  XIII.  seems  to  have  undertaken 
to  inaugurate  with  the  different  States  of 
Europe  a  policy  of  peace  and  reconcilia- 
tion. His  encyclical  against  Socialism  be- 
came the  starting  point  of  a  very  marked 
approachment  between  the  court  of  Rome 
and  the  governments  which  are  threatened 
by  the  attacks  of  Nihilists  and  other  revo- 
lutionary organizations.  After  having 
obtained,  in  the  congress  of  Berlin,  com- 
plete liberty  for  the  Catholic  religion  in 
the  East,  Leo  XIII.  made  proposals  to 
Prince  Bismarck,  with  the  object  of  se- 
curing the  religious  pacification  of  Ger- 
manj',  and,  after .  difficult  negotiations 
which  lasted  several  years,  had  the  conso- 


Leviticus 


419 


LiBANON 


lation  to  behold  his  efforts  crowned  with 
success  (1887).  The  meeting  in  the  Vati- 
can of  the  Pope  and  new  emperor  of  Ger- 
many, William  II.,  did  not  appear  to  have 
had  any  serious  result.  The  negotiations 
with  Russia,  without  removing  the  griev- 
ous differences  between  the  Czar  and  the 
Holy  See,  obtained,  however,  some  con- 
cessions regarding  the  exercise  of  religious 
worship  (1883).  These  negotiations  were 
resumed,  in  1S88,  through  the  intermedi- 
ary of  Mgr.  Galimberti  and  Prince  Lo- 
banoff,  ambassador  to  Vienna.  In  spite 
of  the  anti-Catholic  spirit  of  the  govern- 
ment of  France,  Leo  XIII.  has  always 
exhibited  toward  that  unfortunate  country 
great  interest  and  kindness.  In  Belgium 
he  exercised  his  wise  authority  and  in- 
fluence with  regard  to  the  question  of 
religious  education.  Chosen  as  umpire 
between  Spain  and  Germany,  concerning 
their  dispute  over  the  Carolines,  he  ren- 
dered a  judgment  satisfactory  to  both 
nations.  This  happy  result  greatly  tended 
to  enhance  the  authority  of  the  Pontifical 
prisoner  of  the  Vatican.  Even  Protestant 
England  felt  the  benign  influence  of  Leo 
XIII.,  and  semi-official  negotiations  took 
place  with  the  view  of  restoring  diplomatic 
relations  between  the  Vatican  and  the 
court  of  St.  James. 

In  regard  to  the  political  troubles  and 
sufferings  of  the  Irish  people,  Leo  has  ever 
shown  toward  this  unhappy  country  a 
father's  heart,  and  exercised  a  salutary  in- 
fluence and  wise  discretion  regarding  many 
delicate  questions  which  agitated  the 
minds  of  his  ever  faithful  Irish  children. 
The  Third  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore, 
the  happy  issue  of  the  discussion  of  the 
question  of  the  Knights  of  Labor,  the  abo- 
lition of  slavery  in  Brazil  (1888),  are  so 
many  facts  due  to  the  initiative  and  pru- 
dent hand  of  Leo  XIII.  Catholic  influence 
made  itself  known  and  felt  throughout  the 
extreme  East,  causing  successful  negotia- 
tions between  China  and  the  Vatican. 
Finally,  on  the  occasion  of  his  sacerdotal 
jubilee  (1888),  the  Holy  Father  beheld 
with  happiness  testimonies  of  respect- 
ful love  and  sympathy  shown  to  him  by  all 
foreign  courts,  and  a  countless  number  of 
Faithful  winding  their  way  toward  St. 
Peter's  to  assist  at  the  Jubilee  Mass  (Jan. 
1st,  1888).  At  the  same  time  magnificent 
presents,  objects  of  art,  Pontifical  orna- 
ments, sacred  vessels,  were  offered  to  him 
by  sovereigns,  princes,  countries,  and  by 
the  Catholics  of   every  diocese.     Special 


visits  of  embassies  and  numerous  pilgrim- 
ages completed  this  spontaneous  outburst 
of  the  nations  toward  the  one  who  is 
God's  representative  upon  earth.  This 
respect  and  love  toward  the  supreme  Pon- 
tiff continues  to  show  itself  until  the  pres- 
ent day. 

As  a  temporal  sovereign,  Leo  XIII.  has 
never  ceased  to  proclaim  the  rights  of  the 
Church  and  to  protest  against  the  spolia- 
tion of  the  patrimony  of  St.  Peter.  Up- 
held by  divine  protection,  encouraged  by 
the  unanimous  adhesion  of  the  Sacred  Col- 
lege, of  the  entire  episcopate,  of  the  whole 
Catholic  people,  the  great  Pontiff,  in  spite 
of  his  conciliatory  spirit,  rejects  all  com- 
binations toward  establishing  a  modus 
Vivendi  with  the  Italian  government,  as 
long  as  it  refuses  the  restoration  of  his 
sovereign  rights,  prerogatives,  and  com- 
plete independence. 

Leviticus. — This  name  of  the  third  book 
of  the  Pentateuch,  had  its  origin  in  the 
ordinances  relating  to  the  Levites,  to 
which  it  is  chiefly  devoted.  The  sacri- 
fices to  be  offered  were  either  bloody,  and 
were  figures  of  the  sacrifice  of  Christ  upon 
the  Cross,  or  unbloody,  and  were  a 
type  of  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass.  The 
religious  feasts  of  the  Jews  were  the 
Pasch,  in  memory  of  their  deliverance 
from  Egypt;  and  the  Pentecost,  seven 
weeks  after  the  Pasch,  to  celebrate  the 
promulgation  of  the  Law  on  Mount  Sinai. 
There  was  also  the  annual  feast  of  the 
Tabernacles,  to  commemorate  their  long 
wandering  in  the  desert,  and  the  feast  of 
Expiation,  when  the  priests  offered  sacri- 
fices for  their  own  sins,  and  the  sins  of  the 
people.  At  the  head  of  the  ministry, 
charged  with  this  public  worship  came  the 
high-priest, — Aaron  being  the  first  to  fill 
this  office.  His  sons  were  the  first  priests, 
and  the  Levites  took  care  of  the  taberna- 
cle as  well  as  of  the  sacred  vessels,  etc. 

Lia.  —  Eldest  daughter  of  Laban  and 
the  wife  of  Jacob,  mother  of  Ruben,  Sim- 
eon, Levi,  Juda,  Issachar,  Zabulon,  and 
Dina.  She  was  buried  with  Abraham, 
Isaac,  and  Sara  in  the  land  of  Chanaan. 

Libanon.  —  A  long  chain  of  limestone 
mountains,  on  the  northern  border  of  Pal- 
estine. It  consists  of  two  principal  ridges, 
the  easterly  ridge  being  called  Anti- 
Libanon  by  the  Greeks.  The  western 
ridge,  or  proper  Libanon,  runs  nearly  par- 
allel to   the   coast   of  the  Mediterranean; 


LiBELLATICI 


420 


LiBERIUS 


the  eastern,  or  Anti-Libanon,  runs  first 
east,  but  soon  inclines  in  like  manner  to 
the  north.  Between  these  two  ridges  is  a 
long  valley  called  Coele-Syria,  or  Hollow 
Syria,  the  valley  of  Libanon.  At  present, 
it  opens  toward  the  north.  The  eleva- 
tion of  Libanon  is  so  great,  that  it  is  cov- 
ered in  many  places  with  perpetual  snow; 
whence  in  all  probability  it  derives  its 
name.  It  is  composed  of  four  inclosures 
of  mountains,  which  rise  one  above  the 
other.  The  first  is  very  rich  in  grain  and 
fruits ;  the  second  is  barren,  abounding  in 
thorns,  rocks,  and  flint ;  the  third,  though 
higher  than  this,  enjoys  a  perpetual  spring, 
the  trees  being  always  green,  and  the 
orchards  filled  with  fruit.  It  is  so  agreea- 
ble and  fertile,  that  some  have  called  it  a 
terrestrial  paradise.  The  fourth  is  so  high 
that  it  is  always  covered  with  snow.  The 
Libanon  is  inhabited  by  Mohammedans, 
Druses,  and  Maronite  Christians. 

Libellatici.  —  Name  given  to  those  Chris- 
tians, who,  during  the  persecution,  escaped 
death  by  buying  testimonials  showing  that 
they  had  sacrificed  to  the  idols.  The 
Church  readmitted  these  cowardly  Chris- 
tians, but  only  after  long  penances. 

Liberius  (St.).  —  Pope,  born  at  Rome; 
successor  of  Julius  I.,  in  352.  Upheld 
Athanasius  against  the  Arians  and  was  ex- 
iled to  Berea  by  Constantius.  He  returned 
to  Rome  in  358.  It  has  been  asserted,  and 
for  a  long  time  admitted,  even  by  Catholic 
writers,  that  Pope  Liberius  obtained  his 
recall  from  exile  by  condemning  St.  Ath- 
anasius, and  subscribing  to  one  of  the  three 
creeds  of  Sirmium.  Now,  first  of  all,  it  is 
certain  that  Liberius  did  not  sign  the  first 
or  second  Sirmium  creed,  and  secondly,  it. 
is  highly  improbable  that  he  signed  the 
third.  For:  i.  Liberius  was  exiled  after 
the  Council  of  Milan,  /.  e.,  toward  the  close 
of  the  year  355.  After  an  exile  of  over  two 
years,  he  returned  to  Rome  in  the  year  358. 
Now,  contemporary  historians,  such  as  Sul- 
picius  Severus,  Socrates,  and  Theodoret, 
without  mentioning  any  condition  or  terms, 
ascribe  the  return  of  Liberius  simply  to 
the  urgent  entreaties  of  the  Roman  ladies, 
who  presented  themselves  in  a  body  to  Con- 
stantius on  his  visit  to  Rome,  and  to  the 
seditions  of  the  Romans,  which  forced  the 
emperor  to  recall  the  illustrious  exile. 
2.  Rufinus,  after  seeing  Bishop  Fortunatian 
of  Aquileja,  who  was  said  to  have  induced 
Liberius  to  sign  the  formula  in  question, 
writes:     "Liberius,  Bishop  of  Rome,  re- 


turned to  his  See  during  the  lifetime  of 
Constantius;  but  whether  his  permission 
was  given  him  because  he  consented  to 
subscribe  to  the  Arian  formula,  or  because 
the  emperor  thought  he  would  conciliate 
the  Roman  people  by  this  act  of  clemency, 
I  have  not  been  able  to  ascertain."  3.  The 
Roman  people  were  hostile  to  the  Arians 
and  would  not  endure  Felix  the  antipope, 
who,  though  professing  the  Nicene  Creed, 
communicated  with  the  sectaries ;  he  was 
on  that  account  deserted,  and  afterwards 
expelled  by  them  from  Rome.  But  on  the 
return  of  Liberius  the  Roman  people  went 
forth  to  meet  him  and  gave  him  a  triumphal 
entry  into  the  city.  Now,  the  Roman  peo- 
ple would  not  have  given  him  such  a  re- 
ception, had  he  fallen  in  faith.  4.  Nor 
could  Liberius,  had  he  fallen,  have  estab- 
lished himself  and  reassumed  his  attitude 
as  defender  of  the  Nicene  faith  without  a 
public  recantation.  Of  such  a  recantation, 
however,  nothing  is  known,  nor  that  Libe- 
rius afterwards  communicated  with  the 
Arians.  On  the  contrary,  he  condemned 
the  Arians  as  before,  repudiated  the  Coun- 
cil of  Rimini,  and,  when  fifty-nine  Semi- 
Arian  bishops  applied  (a.  d.  365)  to  be 
admitted  into  communion  with  the  Roman 
Church,  Liberius  received  them  on  condi- 
tion of  their  accepting  the  Nicene  symbol 
and  the  "  Homoosion  "  which,  in  his  letter 
to  them,  he  called  "  the  bulwark  of  the 
orthodox  faith  against  Arian  heresy." 

Of  the  writings  and  passages  in  which 
mention  is  made  of  the  alleged  fall  of 
Liberius,  some  are  evidently  not  genu- 
ine; others  are  interpolated,  i.  Thus,  the 
four  letters  which  are  ascribed  to  our  Pope 
bear  intrinsic  evidence  of  another  author- 
ship and  of  their  forgery.  That  the  Arians 
did  not  shrink  from  forging  documents,  is 
a  well-known  fact  in  the  history  of  Atha- 
nasius. 2.  The  two  passages  of  St.  Atha- 
nasius in  his  Apology  against  the  Arians 
and  History  of  the  A  rtans,  which  refer  to 
this  imputation,  are  manifestly  interpo- 
lated, since  the  two  works  were  written  at 
a  period  prior  the  supposed  fall  of  Liberius. 
3.  The  fragments  of  St.  Hilary  which  are 
cited  against  Liberius,  on  account  of  the 
intrinsic  contradictions  which  they  contain, 
are  evidently  spurious.  The  account  given 
of  the  charge  by  writers  who  were  almost 
contemporaries  of  Liberius,  leaves  no 
doubt  that  it  was  a  fiction  of  the  Arians, 
which  was  believed  also  on  popular  rumor 
by  St.  Jerome,  who  heard  the  calumny 
from   the    Arians   in    Palestine.     Besides, 


Liberties 


421       Lights  at  Divine  Service 


the  passages  of  St.  Jerome  referring  to  our 
question,  if  not  interpolated  as  they  seem 
to  be,  are  founded  on  the  forged  letters  of 
Liberius  and  the  spurious  fragments  of 
Hilary.  But,  be  this  as  it  may,  even  if  we 
admit  the  fall  of  Liberius,  no  argument 
can  be  derived  therefrom  against  Papal 
Infallibility.  His  yielding,  if  so,  to  open 
violence,  was  at  the  most  but  a  personal 
weakness  and  does  not  prove  that  the  Pope 
fell  by  heresy,  since  he  gave  no  doctrinal 
definition,  nor  imposed  a  heresy  upon  the 
Church.  One  admitted  requirement  for 
an  Ex  Cathedra  definition  was  wanting, 
i.e.,  freedom.  His  defense  of  orthodoxy, 
as  well  before  as  after  his  banishment,  is 
unquestionable. 

Liberties  {GalUcan).       See  Gallican- 

ISM. 

Libertines.  — A  sect  of  fanatical  Panthe- 
ists, that  sprang  up  in  the  Calvinistic 
establishment.  They  first  appeared  in 
Flanders,  in  1547,  and  thence  spread  into 
Holland,  France,  and  Switzerland,  where 
they  gave  Calvin  much  annoyance.  They 
taught  that  God  was  the  sole  operating 
cause  in  man,  the  immediate  author  of 
all  human  actions,  denied  the  distinction 
of  good  and  evil,  and  held  that  those  who 
have  once  received  the  Spirit  of  God,  are 
allowed  to  indulge,  without  restraint,  their 
appetites  and  passions,  and  that,  therefore, 
for  them,  even  adultery  was  no  sin. 

Life.     See  Animism. 

Lights  at  Divine  Service.  —  The  use  of 
lights  in  the  service  of  the  Jewish  Temple 
is  a  fact  too  well  authenticated  to  require 
any  proof .  (Cf.  Exod.  xxv.  31-40;  xxvii. 
20")  Among  the  vessels  which  Solomon 
made  for  the  house  of  the  Lord  were  "  the 
golden  candlesticks,  five  on  the  right  hand 
and  five  on  the  left"  (IH.  Ki.  vii.  49). 
But  without  referring  to  the  ceremonial  of 
the  Jewish  Temple,  we  have  an  authority 
for  the  employment  of  lights  in  the  func- 
tions of  religion  presented  to  us  in  the 
first  chapter  of  the  Apocalypse.  Here  St. 
John  particularly  mentions  the  golden  can- 
dlesticks which  he  beheld  in  his  prophetic 
vision.  By  commentators  on  the  Sacred 
Scripture  it  is  generally  supposed  that  the 
Evangelist  adopted  the  imagery  with 
which  he  represents  his  mystic  revelations 
from  the  ceremonial  observed  in  his  day 
by  the  Church  for  ofJering  up  the  Mass  or 
Eucharistic  sacrifice  of  the  Lamb  of  God, 
Christ  Jesus.     That  the  use  of  iights  was 


adopted  by  the  Church,  especially  at  the 
celebration  of  the  sacred  mysteries,  as 
early  as  the  time  of  the  Apostles,  may 
likewise,  with  much  probability,  be  in- 
ferred from  that  passage  in  their  Acts 
which  records  the  preaching  and  the  mir- 
acles of  St.  Paul  at  Troas  (Acts  xx.  7,  8). 
The  custom  of  employing  lights,  in  the 
earlier  ages  of  the  Church,  during  the  cel- 
ebration of  the  Eucharist  and  other  reli- 
gious offices,  is  authenticated  by  those 
venerable  records  of  primitive  discipline 
which  are  usually  denominated  Apostolic 
Canons.  In  several  of  these  ordinances 
mention  is  made  of  these  offerings  of  oil 
which  were  intended  for  nourishing  the 
lamps  employed  in  the  assemblies  of  the 
Faithful;  and  the  third  of  these  canons 
expressly  prohibits  that  anything  should 
be  offered  at  the  altar  during  the  holy  ob- 
lation, except  oil  for  the  lights  and  in- 
cense. Also,  some  of  the  Fathers  attest 
in  favor  of  the  use  of  lights  in  the  sanc- 
tuary. St.  Athanasius,  writing  in  341, 
complains  feelingly  against  the  Arians, 
whose  impiety  was  such  that  they  afiforded 
access  to  the  Church  to  the  heathen,  who 
pilfered  the  oil  and  burned  before  their 
idols  the  very  tapers  that  had  been  the  of- 
ferings of  the  Faithful  {Epist.  encyclical). 
St.  Augustine,  in  one  of  his  discourses 
{De  Tempore,  Sermo  215),  thus  exhorts 
his  auditors :  "  Let  those  who  are  able 
present  either  wax  tapers  or  oil  which 
may  supply  the  lamps."  Also  St.  Jerome 
defended  the  lights,  used  during  the  cele- 
bration of  the  Eucharist,  against  Vigilan- 
tius,  and  they  are  noticed  by  St.  Paulinus 
and  Prudentius  {De  S.  Felice  Natalitium 
carmen,  iii.).  That  lights  were  anciently, 
as  now,  employed  at  the  celebration  of  the 
sacred  mysteries  and  at  other  portions  of 
the  public  service  may  be  gathered,  not 
only  from  the  ritual  constitutions  of  the 
Church,  but  from  a  variety  of  incidental 
circumstances.  The  person  to  be  initiated 
into  the  Order  of  Acolyte  was  admonished, 
that  among  his  future  offices  would  be  to 
take  care  of  the  lights  of  the  church.  St. 
Isidore  says  that  the  acolytes  are  denomi- 
nated in  Latin  ceroferarii  {taper  bearers'), 
from  their  carrying  wax  lights,  not  only 
when  the  Gospel  is  read,  but  whenever 
sacrifice  is  to  be  offered  up  {Orig.  lib. 
VII.  c.  xii.).  The  use  of  lights  at  Mass 
is  not  peculiar  to  the  Latin  Church,  but  in 
all  Churches  of  the  East.  A  section  of  the 
Protestant  denomination  still  preserves 
this  ancient  rite  in  its  public  service,  for 


LiGUORI 


422 


Litany 


the  Lutherans,  like  the  Catholics,  have 
wax  tapers  burning  at  their  celebration  of 
the  Lord's  Supper;  the  same  is  done  by 
the  Episcopalians.  The  lights  at  Mass 
have  a  mystic  signification.  The  Church 
in  her  primitive  days,  to  manifest  her 
lively  faith  and  joyfulness,  adopted  this 
emblem  of  lights.  She  still  continues  to 
retain  their  use.  While  these  wax  tapers 
proclaim  our  exultation  for  the  actual 
presence  of  our  Blessed  Redeemer,  they 
typify  the  light  and  glory  of  the  Gospel 
diflFused  throughout  the  earth  by  that 
Orient  from  on  high,  Christ  Jesus. 

Liguori  (Maria  Alphonse  of,  St.) 
(  1696-  1787  ).  —  Prelate  and  theologian. 
Alphonse  was  born  at  Naples,  of  a  noble 
family,  and,  after  having  made  a  success- 
ful course  of  law  studies,  and  practiced  at 
the  bar  with  distinction,  threw  up  the  pro- 
fession in  disgust,  and  began  the  study  of 
theology,  was  ordained  priest  in  1722,  and 
two  years  later  entered  the  "Society  of  Mis- 
sionaries of  the  Propaganda  "  at  Naples. 
As  a  priest  he  devoted  himself  mainly  to 
preaching  and  the  direction  of  souls,  and 
in  the  course  of  a  mission,  given  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Amalfi,  in  which  he 
took  an  active  part,  was  pained  to  learn 
that  the  country  people  there  and  else- 
where had  their  spiritual  wants  but  indif- 
ferently cared  for.  Grieved  at  the  sight 
of  so  much  spiritual  poverty  among  peo- 
ple so  destitute  of  this  world's  goods,  he 
took  comfort  in  the  thought  that  he  would 
one  day  found  a  congregation  whose  mem- 
bers would  supply  them  with  religious  in- 
struction, and  give  themselves  up  wholly 
to  their  service.  Authorized  by  Pope 
Clement  XII.,  he  founded,  in  the  year 
1732,  the  Congregation  of  the  Most  Holy 
Redeemer,  composed  of  secular  priests, 
-who  were  willing  to  spend  their  lives  in 
instructing  the  people  and  training  the 
young.  Their  Rule  was  published  June 
2ist,  1742,  and  their  founder  intrusted 
with  the  supreme  direction  of  the  order, 
under  the  name  superior-general.  The 
order  was  approved  by  Benedict  XIV.  in 
1749.  In  the  year  1762,  while  engaged  in 
his  apostolic  labors,  Alphonse  of  Liguori 
was  appointed  bishop  of  Sant'Agata  dei 
Goti,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  where  he 
displayed  all  the  virtues  of  a  Pontiff 
wholly  devoted  to  the  welfare  of  his  flock. 
Though  a  laborious  and  model  bishop,  he 
never  ceased  to  take  the  liveliest  interest  in 
bis  congregation,  to  which  he  returned  in 


the  year  1775,  after  resigning  his  see,  from 
the  responsibilities  of  which  he  shrank. 
He  was  far  advanced  in  age  and  broken  in 
health,  and  after  spending  a  few  more 
years  among  his  spiritual  children,  he 
died  at  Nocera,  Aug.  ist,  1787.  His 
numerous  writings  have  been  a  guide  and 
comfort  to  many  souls  in  these  latter  days 
and  have  given  him  rank  among  the  great 
teachers  of  the  Church.  He  was  solemnly 
canonized  by  Gregory  XVI.,  on  the  feast 
of  Pentecost,  1839,  and  declared  a  Doctor 
of  the  Church  by  Pius  IX.,  March  23d, 
1871.     F.  Aug.  ist. 

Limbo.  —  From  the  Latin  limbus, 
{fringe)  the  outskirts  of  hell,  where  the 
just,  who  died  before  Christ,  were  de- 
tained till  our  Lord's  resurrection. 

Limbo  Puerorum.  —  A  place  where  those 
children  are  detained  who  die  without  bap- 
tism and  who  cannot  enter  heaven  on  ac- 
count of  original  sin.  It  is  of  faith  that 
these  children  are  deprived  of  the  beatific 
vision,  but  it  is  almost  generally  admitted 
by  theologians  that  they  enjoy  a  natural 
happiness  and  suffer  no  pain  of  the  senses. 

Litany.  —  A  word,  the  specific  meaning 
of  which  has  varied  considerably  at  differ- 
ent times,  but  which  means  in  general,  a 
solemn  act  of  supplication  addressed  with 
the  object  of  averting  the  divine  anger, 
and  especially  on  occasions  of  public 
calamity.  Through  all  the  varieties  of 
form  which  litanies  have  assumed,  one 
characteristic  has  always  been  maintained, 
viz.,  that  the  prayer  alternates  between  the 
priest  or  other  minister,  who  announces 
the  object  of  each  petition,  and  the  con- 
gregation, who  reply  in  a  common  suppli- 
catory form,  the  most  usual  of  which  were 
the  well-known  "  Kyrie  eleison,"  "  Ora 
fro  nobis."  In  public  offices,  use  can  be 
made  only  of  those  litanies  that  are  found 
in  the  liturgical  books.  To  introduce  or 
add  another  litany  thereto,  an  approbation 
of  the  Congregation  of  Rites  would  be  nec- 
essary. They  may,  however,  be  printed  in 
books  of  piety,  after  having  been  approved 
by  the  Ordinary.  We  call  the  Greater 
{litanice  majores)  the  procession  which 
takes  place  on  the  day  of  St.  Mark,  April 
25th,  and  Lesser  {litanice  minores)  those 
which  take  place  on  the  three  Rogation 
days.  The  first  were  instituted  by  Pope 
Leo  the  Great;  the  second  by  St.  Ma- 
mertus,  bishop  of  Vienne,  in  the  year  474. 


Liturgy 


423 


Llorente 


Liturgy  in  general,  signifies  a  form  of 
prayer  and  ceremonial  established  by 
ecclesiastical  authority,  to  be  used  in  the 
public  services  of  the  Church,  but  is  es- 
pecially applied  to  the  service  used  in  the 
celebration  and  administration  of  the 
Eucharist.  To  veil  the  sacred  mysteries 
from  the  gaze  of  vulgar  ignorance  and 
Gentile  profanations,  or  in  Scriptural 
language,  not  to  "cast  pearls  before  the 
swine,"  the  Discipline  of  the  Secret, 
which  is  of  Apostolic  origin,  enacted  that 
the  Faithful  in  general  should  conceal  the 
Creed,  the  Sacraments,  and  the  holy  sac- 
rifice of  the  Mass,  from  all  knowledge  of 
the  uninitiated ;  and  the  members  of  the 
priesthood  in  particular,  were  directed  to 
convey  the  substance  and  formularies  of 
the  Liturgy  by  word  of  mouth  to  one 
another;  and  though  required  to  learn  and 
retain  them  by  memory  with  the  most 
scrupulous  precision,  were  prohibited  from 
committing  them  to  writing.  During  the 
early  portion  of  the  fifth  century,  Nestorius 
attempted  to  engraft  upon  the  Liturgy  his 
errors  concerning  the  Incarnation.  To 
counteract  this  artifice,  and  to  preclude  the 
possibility  of  any  future  heresiarch  propa- 
gating his  novelties  by  disseminating  them 
through  the  prayers  and  invocations  of  the 
public  ritual,  and  for  other  weighty  rea- 
sons, the  Church  resolved  to  vary  from 
her  ancient  discipline  and  ordained  that  all 
the  liturgies  should  be  committed  to  writ- 
ing. Hence  it  was  that  St.  Basil  and  St. 
Chrysostom,  Popes  St.  Gelasius  and  St. 
Gregory  the  Great,  St.  Ambrose,  and 
other  learned  and  pious  prelates  of  the 
Greek  and  Latin  Churches,  adapted  the 
public  service  to  the  discipline  of  the 
period,  and  the  wants  of  such  portions  of 
the  fold  of  Christ  as  were  more  immedi- 
ately intrusted  to  their  spiritual  solicitude, 
in  some  passages  retrenched,  in  others 
augmented,  the  prayers  and  ceremonies  of 
the  liturgies;  and  without  adulterating  in 
the  slightest  manner  the  substance  or  the 
doctrine  of  those  Apostolic  monuments, 
gave  them  a  new,  and  in  many  instances,  a 
more  appropriate  form.  Hence  it  was  that 
those  liturgies,  which,  up  to  the  period  of 
their  renovation,  had  been  denominated 
by  the  names  of  those  Apostles  who  origi- 
nally framed  them,  exchanged  their  ancient 
for  a  modern  appellation,  and  were  called 
after  the  venerable  prelates  by  whom  they 
had  been  remodeled. 

The  Abbe  Renaudot  made  public,  in  the 
year  1716,  a  numerous  collection  of  Orien- 


tal Liturgies,  accompanied  by  notes,  and 
a  useful  introduction  —  the  whole  com- 
prised in  2  vols.  Anterior  to  the  learned 
Frenchman's  labors  in  studying  the  antiq- 
uities of  the  Eastern  Church,  that  pious 
and  highly  accomplished  scholar,  Cardinal 
Thomasius,  had  bestowed  a  similar  atten- 
tion on  several  liturgies  belonging  to  the 
West,  and  printed,  in  1680,  the  ancient  Sac- 
ramentaries  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  in 
that  metropolis  of  Christianity.  It  was 
from  this  work  of  the  Roman  cardinal  that 
Dom  Mabillon  extracted,  in  1685,  the  Gal- 
ilean Liturgy,  which  he  had  attentively 
collated  with  a  manuscript  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury, and  with  two  other  very  ancient  manu- 
scripts. In  1640,  Dom  Menard,  well  known 
through  his  pursuits  in  ecclesiastical  antiq- 
uites,  published  the  Sacramcntary  of  St. 
Gregory,  to  which  he  attached  some  lumi- 
nous annotations.  The  Mozarabic  Missal 
had  already  been  printed,  through  the  pious 
care  of  Cardinal  Ximenes,  in  1500.  Pere 
le  Brun  collected  all  those  liturgies,  to 
which  he  added  some  others,  which  his 
precursors  in  this  curious  investigation  had 
not  been  able  to  procure;  he  compared 
them  all  with  one  another,  and  with  those 
modern  ones  drawn  up  by  the  Protestants; 
so  that  at  present,  nothing  is  wanting  to 
assist  the  scholar  in  his  decisions  concern- 
ing these  venerable  and  most  ancient  monu- 
ments of  genuine  Christianity. 

The  principal  liturgical  books  are:  The 
Breviary,  the  Missal,  the  Ritual,  the  Pon- 
tifical, the  Ceremonial  of  the  Bishops,  and 
the  Martyrology.  The  bishops  have  the 
right  and  duty  to  watch  over  all  the  litur- 
gical books  printed  in  their  respective  dio- 
ceses.    See  Oriental  Rites. 

Livinus  (St.).  *See  Belgium. 

Llorente  (Don  Juan  Antonio)  (175&- 
1823).  —  A  Spanish  historian.  He  was  a 
priest,  and  from  1789  to  1801,  secretary  of 
the  Spanish  Inquisition.  But  he  was  sub- 
sequently deprived  of  his  office  and  sent  to 
do  penance  in  a  convent  for  breach  of  con- 
fidence; it  being  discovered  that  he  had 
divulged  to  some  philosophers  the  secrets 
which  he  was  sworn  to  keep.  On  the  in- 
vasion of  the  French,  he  attached  himself 
to  the  interests  of  Joseph  Bonaparte,  who 
placed  at  his  service  the  archives  of  the 
Inquisition,  many  of  which  he  burned  —  a 
fact  which  betrays  an  apprehension  that 
their  examination  would  expose  his  mis- 
statements. His  history  of  the  tribunal 
of   the   Inquisition,   although  confessedly 


LOGOTHETE 


424 


Louis  Bertrand 


composed  from  authentic  documents,  is  a 
most  malignant  misrepresentation  of  its 
spirit  and  proceedings.  It  betrays  a  deadly 
hatred  against  the  Catholic  Church,  the 
Pope,  the  religious  orders,  and  the  clergy 
generally,  and  a  deep  sympathy  with  the 
deistic  clubs.     His  works  are  on  the  Index. 

Logothete.  —  An  accountant.  Each  of 
the  officers  which  certain  bishops  had  ap- 
pointed to  keep  an  exact  account  of  the  ac- 
tions of  the  martyrs. 

Lollards.     See  Wycliffites. 

Lombard  (Peter).  —  Born  at  Novara, 
Italy,  about  iioo;  died  at  Paris  in  1164. 
Among  the  numerous  scholars  of  Ab^lard, 
Peter  Lombard  acquired  the  highest  dis- 
tinction in  the  theological  schools  of 
Europe.  He  lectured  at  Paris  with  much 
success  until  1159,  when  he  was  chosen 
bishop  of  that  city.  His  famous  Four 
Books  of  Sentences,  from  which  he  is  de- 
nominated the  "  Master  of  Sentences," 
became  the  favorite  manual  of  the  theo- 
logical schools  during  the  Middle  Ages, 
and  the  text  for  innumerable  commen- 
taries. The  first  book  treats  of  God  and 
the  Trinity;  the  second  of  the  Creation, 
and  rational  creatures ;  the  third  of  the 
redemption,  of  virtues  and  vices,  and  the 
gifts  of  the  Holy  Ghost;  the  fourth  of 
the  sacraments  and  of  the  last  things. 

Lord's  Prayer.  —  A  prayer  or  model  of 
prayer  given  by  our  Saviour  to  His  disci- 
ples (Matt.  vi.  9-1^).  See  Prayer  (The 
Lord's). 

Lord's  Supper  {The),  is  one  of  the  sac- 
raments of  the  Christian  religion.  It  is  so 
called  from  its  being  instituted  at  supper 
by  Jesus  Christ,  whom  His  disciples  styled 
the  Lord  or  Master.  It  is  also  called 
Eucharist  and  Communion. 

Loreto.  — A  city  of  the  province  of  An- 
cona,  in  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  containing 
about  5,300  inhabitants,  chiefly  noticeable 
as  the  site  of  the  celebrated  sanctuary  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  called  the  Santa 
Casa  {fioly  house).  The  Santa  Casa  is  re- 
ported to  be  the  house,  or  a  portion  of  the 
house,  in  which  the  Blessed  Virgin  lived  at 
Nazareth,  which  was  the  scene  of  the  An- 
nunciation of  the  Nativity,  and  the  resi- 
dence of  our  Lord  with  his  Blessed  mother 
and  St.  Joseph ;  and  which,  after  the  Holy 
Land  had  been  finally  abandoned  to  the 
infidels  on  the  failure  of  the  Crusades,  is 
believed  to  have  been  miraculously  trans- 


ported, first.  May  10,  1291,  to  Fiume  in 
Dalmatia,  and  thence,  Dec.  loth,  1294,  to 
Recanati,  whence  it  was  finally  transferred 
to  its  present  site.  Its  name  (Lat.  Domus 
Lauretana),  is  derived  from  Laureta,  the 
lady  to  whom  the  site  belonged.  Although 
numerous  pilgrims  resort  to  this  sanctuary, 
and  although  indulgencies  have  been  at- 
tached by  Popes  Julius  II.,  Sixtus  V.,  and 
Innocent  XII.,  to  the  pilgrimages,  and  to 
the  prayers  oflFered  at  the  shrine,  yet,  the 
truth  of  the  legend  is  no  part  of  Catholic 
belief,  and  Catholics  hold  themselves  free 
to  examine  critically  its  truth,  and  to  ad- 
mit or  to  reject  it  according  to  the  rules  of 
historical  evidence.  The  church  of  the 
Santa  Casa  stands  near  the  center  of  the 
town,  in  a  piazza  which  possesses  other 
architectural  attractions.  The  great  cen- 
tral door  of  the  church  is  surmounted  by  a 
splendid  bronze  statue  of  the  Madonna; 
and  in  the  interior  are  three  magnificent 
bronze  doors  filled  with  bas-reliefs,  repre- 
senting the  principal  events  of  Scriptural 
and  ecclesiastical  history.  The  celeljrated 
holy  house  stands  within.  It  is  a  small 
brick  house  Avith  one  door  and  one  window, 
originally  of  rude  material  and  construc- 
tion, but  now,  from  the  devotion  of  succes- 
sive generations,  a  marvel  of  art  and  cost- 
liness. It  is  entirely  incased  in  white 
marble,  exquisitely  sculptured  after  designs- 
of  the  most  eminent  artists.  The  holy 
house  having  been  at  all  times  an  object  of 
devout  veneration,  its  treasury  of  votive 
ofTerings  is  one  of  the  richest  in  the  west- 
ern world. 

Lot.  —  In  the  Old  Testament  history',, 
the  son  of  Aran,  and  nephew  of  Abraham, 
ancestor  of  Ammon  and  Moab.  Lot  fol- 
lowed his  uncle  Abraham  into  Chanaan, 
then  into  Egypt ;  separated  himself  from 
him  at  Bethel,  after  their  return  into  Judea, 
t»  settle  at  Sodom.  When  God  wished  to 
destroy  Sodom,  he  admonished  Lot  to 
move  away  with  his  family,  forbidding 
him  to  look  back,  and  to  stop  in  the 
neighboring  country.  They  fled  to  Segor. 
but  his  wife,  moved  by  curiosity,  in  spite 
of  the  warning,  looked  back,  and  was 
changed  into  a  pillar  of  salt. 

Louis  (St.  ).     See  Crusadks. 

Louis  Bertrand  (St.)  (1526- 1581). — 
Spanish  Dominican,  born  at  Valencia.  Mis- 
sionary in  America  and  in  Spain,  canonized 
by  Alexander  VIII.  (1690).  He  is  the  pa- 
tron saint  of  New  Granada.     F.  Oct.  loth. 


Louis  of  Gonzagua 


425 


LUCIANUS 


Louis  of  Gonzagua  (St.)  (1568-1591). — 
Jesuit,  born  at  Castiglione,  Lombardy, 
died  in  Rome.  Son  of  Ferdinand  of  Gon- 
zagua, Marquis  of  Castiglione,  prince  of 
the  Holy  Empire,  was  page  at  the  court  of 
Philip  II.  He  entered  the  novitiate  of  the 
Jesuits  (1587),  at  Rome;  died  of  a  slow 
fever,  contracted  in  taking  care  of  those 
fallen  by  the  pest.  He  was  canonized  by 
Benedict  XIII.,  in  1726.  He  is  the  patron 
saint  of  youth.  In  1858,  Pope  Pius  IX. 
made  a  present  to  the  "  Society  of  Jesus  " 
of  a  writing  of  St.  Louis  of  Gonzagua ; 
it  is  a  treatise  on  scholastic  theology. 
F.  June  2ist. 

Lourdes.  —  A  city  of  France,  in  the 
Upper  Pyrenees,  and  which  is  well  known 
as  a  famous  pilgrimage.  The  origin  of 
the  latter  is  as  follows:  On  Feb.  nth, 
1858,  Bernardette  Soubirous,  fourteen  years 
old,  accompanied  by  her  sister  Mary  and 
a  child  of  their  neighbor,  were  gathering 
dry  wood  on  the  left  shore  of  the  river 
Gave.  Having  come  to  the  rocks  of  Mas- 
sabielle,  Bernardette  perceived  the  grotto 
of  the  rock  shining  with  an  extraordinary 
brightness,  and,  in  the  grotto,  a  Lady  of 
ravishing  beauty,  dressed  in  white  with  a 
blue  cincture  around  her  waist,  barefoot, 
crowned  with  golden  roses,  and  with  a 
smile  on  her  lips,  stretched  forth  her 
hands  toward  the  child.  On  her  left  arm 
was  suspended  a  rosary  of  exceedingly 
white  pearls.  Bernardette  drawing  the  at- 
tention of  her  companions  to  the  appari- 
tion, they  declared  they  saw  nothing. 
After  this  first  apparition,  the  beautiful 
Lad}'  appeared  seventeen  times  in  broad 
daylight  and  before  large  crowds  of  people. 
Nobody,  except  Bernardette,  beheld  or 
heard  anything;  hut  the  transfiguration  of 
the  girl  clearly  proved  the  presence  of 
something  supernatural.  During  one  of 
the  apparitions  of  this  superhuman  being, 
Bernardette  was  urged  to  pray  for  the 
sinners  and  to  go  and  tell  her  parish  priest 
that  he  should  build  a  chapel  in  that  very 
place,  to  serve  as  a  place  of  pilgrimage  for 
the  whole  world.  The  apparition,  to  prove 
its  reality,  caused  a  spring  to  rise  on  the 
verj-  spot  where  it  stood.  Finally,  the  mys- 
terious being  revealed  itself,  saying  :  "  I  am 
the  Immaculate  Conception."  The  Bishop 
of  Tharbes.  Monseigneur  Lawrence,  after 
a  delay  of  six  months,  appointed  a  com- 
mission to  inquire  more  particularly 
into  the  alleged  facts  of  the  apparitions 
and  healings,  attributed  to  the   water  of 


the  grotto.  The  commission,  composed  of 
the  best  theologians  of  the  diocese,  and  as- 
sisted by  learned  physicians,  established  a 
dozen  cases  where  a  supernatural  healing 
had  certainly  taken  place.  After  more 
than  three  years  of  inquiries  and  prayers, 
Bishop  Lawrence,  Jan.  18th,  1862,  pro- 
claimed that  it  was  the  "Immaculate  Vir- 
gin Mary  that  had  appeared  eighteen  times 
in  the  grotto  of  Massabielle,"  authorized 
in  his  diocese  the  veneration  of  "  Our 
Lady  of  Lourdes,"  and  announced  the 
building  of  the  chapel  requested  by  the 
Mother  of  God. 

Lo'w  Sunday.  —  The  first  Sunday  after 
Easter,  so  called  because  it  emphasizes  the 
contract  between  the  great  Easter  solem- 
nity and  the  Sunday  which  ends  the  oc- 
tave. The  name  given  to  it  in  the  Missal 
is  "  Dominica  in  Albis,"  because  then  the 
newly  baptized  wore  their  white  robes  for 
the  last  time. 

Lucia  (St.).  —  Virgin  and  martyr,  born 
at  Syracuse,  Sicily,  where  she  was  be- 
headed in  the  year  303.  Of  a  noble  and 
Christian  family,  she  made  a  pilgrimage 
to  the  tomb  of  St.  Agatha  at  Catanea,  ob- 
tained the  healing  of  her  mother  Euty- 
chia,  consecrated  her  virginity  to  the 
Lord,  and,  accused  of  being  a  Christian, 
she  was  beheaded.     F.  Dec.  13th. 

Lucian.  —  Pagan  philosopher,  was  born 
at  Samosata  (120-180).  In  his  satire  he 
derides  alike  heathen  mythology  and 
Christianity.  His  mockery  of  the  gods 
and  of  everything  supernatural  procured 
for  him  the  name  of  "  Blasphemer."  His 
principal  work  against  the  Christians  en- 
titled, De  Morte  Pereffrini,  is  more  of  an 
overt  derision  than  an  attempted  refuta- 
tion of  Christian  practices  and  doctrines. 
He  represents  the  Christians  as  good 
natured,  but  silly,  and  ridicules  their  for- 
titude in  suffering,  their  great  charity 
toward  one  another,  their  contempt  for 
death  and  their  hope  in  a  future  reward ; 
thus  giving,  contrary  to  his  intention,  a 
glorious  testimony  of  the  grandeur  of  the 
Christian  religion,  the  heroism  and  charity 
of  its  followers. 

Lucianus  (St.).  —  Priest  and  martyr, 
born  at  Samosata  about  the  year  235,  put 
to  death  in  312.  Priest  and  professor  of 
theology  at  Antioch,  acquired  a  great 
reputation  on  account  of  his  knowledge 
and  eloquence,  and  suffered  martyrdom 
at  Nicomedia,  in  the  persecution  of  Gale- 


LUCIDUS 


426 


Lust 


rius  Maximinus.  We  owe  to  him  a  beau- 
tiful apology  in  favor  of  the  Christian 
religion,  called  the  Profession  of  Faith 
of  St.  Luciantis,  a  Greek  edition  of  the 
Bible,  which  St.  Jerome  praises  very 
highly.     F.  "^an.  7th. 

Lucidus  and  Gottschalk. —  Lucidus  was 
a  Gallic  priest  of  the  fifth  century,  and 
was  the  first  that  started  the  controversy 
on  predestination.  His  errors  were  re- 
vived by  Gottschalk,  a  wandering  monk  of 
the  monastery  of  Orbais,  in  France,  and  a 
disciple  of  the  learned  Rabanus  Maurus. 
Gottschalk  blasphemously  asserted  that 
God  predestinates  to  good  as  well  as  to 
evil,  and  foreordains  some — the  elect  —  to 
eternal  life,  and  others — the  reprobate  — 
to  eternal  death.  As  the  elect  cannot  help 
being  saved,  neither  can  the  reprobate 
help  being  damned.  For  these  latter,  he 
maintained,  the  sacraments  are  but  empty 
forms  and  ceremonies.  Christ,  he  said, 
died  only  for  the  elect,  who  alone  are  the 
object  of  His  merciful  redemption.  This 
heresy  was  condemned  in  the  Councils  of 
Mentz,  in  848,  and  of  Quiercy,  in  849,  pre- 
sided over  by  Rabanus  Maurus  and  Hinc- 
mar  of  Rheims.  Gottschalk  was  himself 
committed  to  the  charge  of  the  latter  who 
sentenced  him  to  corporal  punishment  and 
confinement  in  a  monastery.  He  died  in 
869. 

Luciferians. —  Followers  of  Lucifer, 
Bishop  of  Cagliari  (died  about  370).  The 
Luciferians  were  vehement  upholders  of 
the  Nicene  faith,  and  separated  themselves 
from  their  fellow  Catholics,  on  the  ground 
that  the  latter  showed  undue  leniency  to 
those  who  had  been  received  back  into  the 
Church  after  forsaking  Arianism. 

Lucius  (name  of  three  Popes).  —  Lucius 
I.  (St.) — Pope  from  253  to 254.  Successor 
of  St.  Cornelius,  was  exiled  by  Gallus, 
then  permitted  to  return  to  his  Church, 
was  beheaded  for  the  faith  by  order  of 
Valerian.  Lucius  II. — Pope  from  1144  to 
1145.  Successor  of  Celestine  IL  Was 
mortally  wounded  by  the  blow  of  a  stone, 
cast  by  one  of  the  adherents  of  Arnold  of 
Brescia.  Lucius  III. — Pope  from  1181  to 
1185.  Successor  of  Alexander  IIL  Held 
the  Council  of  Verona,  which  the  Emperor 
Frederick  Barbarossa  likewise  attended, 
and  published  edicts  against  the  Cathari 
and  Waldenses. 

Ludmilla  (St.)  (873-927).  —  Martyr; 
patroness  of   Bohemia,   born   in   Bavaria. 


Daughter  of  the  count  and  lord  of  Mel- 
nick.  Wife  of  Duke  Boriwoy,  first  Chris- 
tian Duke  of  Bohemia,  was  instructed  in 
religion  as  well  as  he,  by  St.  Cyril  and  St. 
Methodius,  apostles  of  the  Slavs.  Was 
treacherously  murdered  by  her  heathen 
daughter-in-law,  Dahomira.  F.  Sept.  i6th. 

Lugo  (John  de)  (1583-1660). —  Spanish 
Jesuit  and  cardinal,  born  at  Madrid.  Pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Rome.  His  theolog- 
ical Works  form  7  volumes,  in  folio  (1751). 
Reprinted  in  our  time. 

Luitprand. — Bishop  of  Cremona,  lived 
about  the  middle  of  the  tenth  century.  He 
was  the  author  of  several  historical  works 
containing  a  frightful  picture  of  the  de- 
pravity of  the  age.  But  the  truthfulness 
of  his  statements  is  very  much  shaken  by 
the  looseness  of  his  own  life  and  his 
courtly  servility.  Being  a  courtier  of 
Otho  I.  and  a  violent  adherent  of  the  Ger- 
many party,  he  was  bitterly  hostile  to  the 
Italian  party,  and  all  the  Popes  who 
favored  it.     Luitprand  died  in  972. 

Luke  (St.).  —  One  of  the  four  Evangel- 
ists, and  a  disciple  of  St.  Paul,  whom  he 
joined  at  Troas  in  the  year  53.  He  was  a 
native  of  Antioch  in  Syria,  a  physician  by 
profession,  and  a  painter  of  no  mean  skill. 
St.  Luke  shared  the  travels  and  trials  of 
St.  Paul,  and  attended  him,  also,  in  his 
second  imprisonment.  He  afterwards,  re- 
turned to  Macedonia  and  Achaja,  and  died 
a  martyr  at  Patrae',  at  the  age  of  seventy- 
four.  Luke  is  the  author  of  the  third 
Gospel  and  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles. 
He  wrote  both  works  in  Greek;  his 
Gospel  was  written  some  time  after  the 
Gospels  of  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Mark. 

Lust  denotes  an  irregular  and  depraved 
desire  for  impure  pleasures.  To  keep  our- 
selves free  from  this  vice,  we  should  avoid 
bad  companionship,  because  "  evil  com- 
munications corrupt  good  manners "  (L 
Cor.  XV.  33) ;  and  we  make  enemies  to  our- 
selves if  we  frequent  society  that  may  lead 
to  our  own  destruction,  or  allow  others  un- 
der our  protection  to  come  in  contact  with 
such  pernicious  influences.  We  should 
shun  entertainments  that  are  dangerous 
and  blameworthy,  such  as  immodest  plays 
and  dances.  We  should  be  careful  what 
we  read,  and  be  on  our  guard  again!?t  im- 
moral principles,  and  contemn  that  appeal 
which  is  not  within  the  strict  limits  of 
decorum. 


Luther 


427 


Luther 


Luther  (Martin)  (1483-1546).  —  Martin 
Luther  was  the  son  of  a  poor  miner,  and 
was  born  at  Eisleben.  He  was  brought  up 
under  pious,  but  harsh  and  rough  disci- 
pline. The  elementary  schools,  as  well  as 
the  higher  educational  institutions,  at  that 
time,  were  very  numerous  in  Germany. 
At  the  age  of  fourteen,  Martin  was  sent  to 
the  school  of  the  Franciscans  at  Magde- 
burg, and,  a  year  after  to  Eisenach,  to  at- 
tend the  Latin  School.  His  gifts  were 
remarkable  from  the  beginning,  but  his 
parents  were  very  poor.  Following  the 
custom  of  the  time,  he  sang  before  the 
houses  of  the  rich,  to  make  a  living.  In 
1501,  he  entered  the  University  of  Erfurt, 
where  he  was  graduated,  in  1505.  Master 
of  Arts,  he  opened  a  course  of  lectures  on 
Aristotle.  The  sudden  death,  caused  by 
lightning,  of  a  friend,  led  Luther  to  enter 
the  Augustinian  convent  at  Erfurt,  against 
the  express  will  of  his  father,  who  had  des- 
tined him  for  the  profession  of  law.  After 
going  through  the  customary  discipline, 
he  made  his  solemn  vows  and  received 
priestly  ordination,  in  1507.  In  compliance 
with  the  wish  of  his  superiors,  he  specially 
applied  himself  to  Biblical  studies.  On  the 
recommendation  of  Dr.  John  Staupitz,  the 
Augustinian  provincial,  Frederick  the  Wise 
elector  of  Saxony,  appointed  Luther,  in 
1508,  professor  of  Dialectics  and  Ethics  in 
the  new  University  of  Wittenberg.  In  15 10, 
Luther  visited  Rome  in  the  interest  of  his 
order.  Coming  in  view  of  the  eternal  city, 
he  fell  on  his  knees  and  exclaimed  :  "  Hail 
Rome,  holy  city,  thrice  sanctified  by  the 
blood  of  the  martyrs  !  "  With  great  devo- 
tion he  knelt  at  its  holy  shrines ;  yet,  with 
a  silly  pietism,  he  "almost  regretted  that 
his  parents  were  not  dead,  so  that  he  might 
release  their  souls  from  purgatory,  by  say- 
ing masses  !  "  His  fond  attachment  and 
adhesion,  which  he  then  had  to  the  Vicar 
of  Christ,  he  afterwards  described  in  these 
fierce  words  :  "  I  was  ready  to  slay  every- 
one who  should  in  the  least  refuse  obedi- 
ence to  the  Pope."  Even  these  two  instances 
of  ignorant  zeal  betrayed  in  the  monk  an 
abnormally  unbalanced  brain,  which  plainly 
foreboded  the  after  development  of  his 
phenomenally  morbid  character.  In  1512, 
he  took  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Theology, 
and  began  his  lectures  on  the  Psalms  and 
the  Pauline  Epistles. 

Luther  was  of  an  ardent  and  impulsive 
temperament.  Naturally  stubborn,  he  held 
tenaciously  to  preconceived  opinions,  and 
would  not  brook  contradiction.     His  mind 


seems  never  to  have  enjoyed  perfect  rest, 
but  was  given  to  great  scrupulosity;  nor 
were  his  convictions  wholly  clear  on  cer- 
tain doctrinal  questions.  But  the  means 
he  used  to  obtain  peace  only  aggravated 
the  evil.  He  was  presumptuous,  neglect- 
ful of  the  duties  of  his  state,  and  lacking 
obedience  to  the  rules  of  his  order. 
Though  morally  bound  to  recite  the  divine 
office  daily,  he  would,  at  times,  not  touch 
his  Breviary  for  weeks.  Then  he  would 
atone  for  his  neglect  by  cruelly  chastising 
his  body,  the  mortifications  prescribed  in 
his  community  not  satisfying  his  ardor. 
To  him  might  well  apply  the  old  monastic 
saying:  "  Everything  beyond  obedience  is 
suspicious  in  a  monk."  Even  at  his  early 
age,  Luther  had  departed  from  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Church,  on  justification;  he 
regarded  good  works  as  wholly  worthless 
and  faith  alone  as  sufficient  for  salvation. 
This  doctrine  ruled  the  University  of  Wit- 
tenberg and  soon  began  to  spread  through- 
out Germany. 

About  this  time.  Pope  Leo  X.  pro- 
claimed an  indulgence  for  those  who, 
besides  performing  the  prescribed  works 
of  penance  and  piety,  would  contribute  to 
the  completion  of  St.  Peter's  Basilica,  in 
Rome.  Albert,  cardinal,  and  Archbishop 
of  Mentz  and  Magdeburg,  were  charged 
with  the  promulgation  of  the  papal  grant 
in  Germany,  and  John  Tetzel,  a  pious  and 
learned  Dominican,  was  one  of  the  preach- 
ers appointed  by  Albert,  to  publish  the 
indulgence  among  the  people.  The  preach- 
ing of  the  indulgence  by  the  Dominicans, 
it  is  said,  at  once  excited  the  jealousy  and 
opposition  of  the  Augustinians,  and  cer- 
tainly that  of  Luther  in  particular,  for  he 
raised  a  bold  protest  in  the  famous  Ninety- 
five  Theses  which  he  affixed  to  the  door  of 
the  castle  church  at  Wittenberg,  on  the 
eve  of  All  Saints  (Oct.  31st,  1517).  The 
publication  of  indulgences  were  not  new 
in  Germany,  nor  was,  as  has  been  asserted, 
the  one  proclaimed  by  Leo  X.  an  uncondi- 
tional pardon  for  past  sins  or  an  unqualified 
remission  of  their  temporal  punishment, 
much  less  a  license  for  future  sins.  The 
instructions  of  Archbishop  Albert  to  the 
preachers,  and  those  of  Tetzel  to  pastors 
and  confessors,  made  the  gaining  of  the  in- 
dulgence expressly  dependent  on  the  usual 
conditions,  namely,  true  repentance  with 
the  humble  confession  of  sins,  and  the  per- 
formance of  certain  works  of  piety,  besides 
almsgiving.  True  it  is,  that  the  personal 
appearance  of  some  preachers  and   their 


Luther 


428 


Luther 


manner  of  offering  the  indulgence  was  the 
cause  of  much  complaint.  But  it  was  not 
the  abuses  which  Luther  attacked  in  his 
Theses,  but  the  doctrine  of  indulgences 
itself,  which  was  directly  opposed  to 
his  views  on  justification.  The  funda- 
mental principle  expressed  in  his  proposi- 
tion on  that  point  was  that  "  God  alone, 
independently  of  human  exertion,  is  all  in 
all  in  the  affair  of  man^s  salvationP 
There  were  various  replies  to  Luther,  one 
of  the  ablest  being  the  One  Hundred  and 
Sixty  Counter- Theses  by  Tetzel. 

This  impious  initiative  of  Luther  was 
applauded  by  men  of  various  suspected 
parties,  especially  by  the  Humanists,  in 
their  itching  for  the  most  dangerous  nov- 
elties and  in  their  sad  decadence  of  faith. 
Within  two  months,  his  Theses  were  spread 
through  the  Press,  now,  for  the  first  time, 
employed  in  a  popular  agitation  through- 
out Europe.  Many,  even  well-disposed 
men,  approved  of  the  course  Luther  had 
taken,  believing  that  he  attacked  only  cer- 
tain disorders.  Imagining  his  cause  to  be 
the  cause  of  God,  Luther  would  hear  of  no 
submission  to  the  Church ;  on  the  con- 
trary, he  insisted  that  the  Church  should 
embrace  his  new  Gospel,  "  on  justification 
by  faith  alone,"  which  he  pretended  to 
have  received  directly  from  God  !  In  his 
proud  arrogance  he  even  went  so  far  as  to 
declare  :  "  I  will  have  my  doctrine  judged 
by  nobody  —  not  even  by  angels ;  he  who 
does  not  receive  my  doctrine,  cannot  be 
saved  !  "  Instead  of  calmly  answering  the 
arguments  of  his  adversaries,  he  spewed 
out,  both  in  speaking  and  in  writing,  the 
vilest  ephithets  and  basest  calumnies 
against  all  those  who  did  not  agree  with 
him.  His  opponents  were  "  knaves,  dolts, 
dogs,  pigs,  asses,  infernal  blasphemers," 
and  worse.  Yet  during  all  this  time, 
Luther  affected  to  believe  himself  in  per- 
fect accord  and  concert  with  the  Holy 
See !  In  a  most  humble  letter  to  Pope 
Leo  X.,  he  averred  entire  submission  to 
the  Head  of  the  Church,  and  that  it  was 
the  abuses  only  he  had  been  assailing. 
'•Most  Holy  Father,"  he  writes,  "  I  cast 
myself  at  your  feet  with  all  that  I  have  and 
am ;  give  life,  or  take  it ;  call,  recall,  ap- 
prove, reprove;  your  voice  is  that  of 
Christ,  who  presides  and  speaks  in  3'ou." 
The  efforts  of  the  Pope  to  compromise  the 
difficulty  in  Germany,  through  Cardinal 
Cajetan,  and  afterwards,  through  a  special 
envoy,  unhappily  failed.  Luther  would 
listen  to  no  remonstrance,   and  appealed 


from  the  Pope  ill  informed  to  the  Pope  to 
be  better  instructed.  Miltiz,  who  seemed 
to  side  with  Luther,  threw  the  whole 
blame  on  Tetzel,  who,  taking  the  repri- 
mand so  much  to  heart,  died  shortly  after 
(1519),  as  is  said  of  grief.  In  November, 
1518,  Leo  X.  issued  a  Bull  explaining  the 
doctrine  of  the  Church  on  indulgences, 
and  threatening  such  as  should  gainsay  it, 
with  excommunication.  To  forestall  such 
a  measure,  Luther  had  previously  appealed 
from  the  Pope  to  a  general  council. 

The  disputation  between  Martin  Luther 
and  Dr.  Eck  ser\-ed  to  widen  the  existing 
breach,  but  it  had  also  the  good  effect  of 
making  more  clear  the  positions  of  the 
contending  parties  and  of  strengthening  in 
the  Catholic  faith  Duke  George  and  the 
University  and  inhabitants  of  Leipzig. 
The  defeat  which  he  sustained  at  Leip- 
zig, had  driven  Luther  to  uncontrollable 
fury.  He  did  not  fare  any  better  in  the 
disputation  between  John  Emser  and 
Melanchthon,  the  former  siding  with 
Eck,  the  latter  with  the  Wittenberg 
"Reformer."  Luther  found  a  strong 
and  zealous  colaborer  in  Philip  Melanch- 
thon. More  moderate  and  prudent  than 
Luther,  he  was  invaluable  to  the  latter,  by 
his  talents  and  writings.  In  1521,  he 
wrote  in  defense  of  his  master  the  Oration 
for  Luther,  and  Protestant  Against  the 
Decision  of  the  Paris  Uniz'ersity.  Luther 
encouraged  by  the  applause  of  the  Huss- 
ites and  Humanists,  who  greeted  him  as 
the  "greatest  theologian  of  the  age,"  and 
as  "a  second  Paul  and  Augustine,"  and 
backed  by  the  German  nobles,  cast  off  all 
disguise,  to  complete  his  separation  from 
the  Church.  His  constant  endeavor  now 
was  to  destroy  all  authority  in  order  to 
establish  his  own  on  its  ruins.  Between 
the  years  1520  and  1522  he  launched  forth 
pamphlet  after  pamphlet,  in  which  he 
poured  out  his  deadly  hatred  against  Rome 
and  the  Holy  See,  now  rabidly  blasphem- 
ing the  most  sacred  things  and  the  holiest 
doctrines,  which  previously  he  had  but 
sparingly  denounced.  He  called  upon  the 
emperor  to  overthrow  the  power  of  the 
Pope,  to  confiscate  the  possessions  of  the 
Church,  and  to  abolish  ecclesiastical  feasts 
and  holy  days  and  Masses  for  the  dead. 
"  It  would  be  no  wonder,"  the  raving 
monk  exclaimed,  "  if  God  should  rain 
down  from  heaven  sulphu;-  and  hellish 
fire  upon  Rome  and  plunge  it  into  the 
abyss,  as  He  did  with  Sodom  and  Gomor- 
rah."    At  last  Pope  Leo  X.  on  June  i5th^ 


Luther 


429 


Luther 


1520,  issued  a  Bull  condemning  forty-one 
propositions  extracted  from  the  writings 
of  Luther,  and  excommunicating  him,  un- 
less he  would  retract  within  sixty  days. 
Luther  replied  to  the  papal  sentence  by  his 
pamphlet  "Against  the  Execrable  Bull  of 
Antichrist,"  and  renewed  his  appeal  from 
the  Pope,  as  from  an  "unjust  judge,  an 
obdurate,  erring  schismatic  and  heretic, 
condemned  as  such  by  the  Bible,"  to  a 
general  council,  and  he  impetuously  urged 
the  emperor  and  the  princes  to  resist, 
what  he  called,  the  unchristian  conduct  of 
the  Pope.  "  Whosoever  shall  follow  the 
Pope,"  he  said,  "him  do  I,  Martin  Lu- 
ther, deliver  to  divine  judgment."  On 
Dec.  loth,  1520,  he  publicly  burned  the 
Pope's  Bull,  together  with  the  Canon 
Law,  at  Wittenberg,  exclaiming:  "As 
thou  hast  disturbed  the  Lord's  Holy  One, 
may  the  eternal  fire  disturb  and  consume 
thee."  On  the  following  day,  addressing 
the  students,  he  said  :  "  It  is  now  full  time 
that  the  Pope  himself  were  burned.  My 
meaning  is  that  the  Papal  Chair,  its  false 
teachings,  and  its  abominations  should  be 
given  to  the  flames." 

Upon  the  death  of  Maximilian  I.,  his 
grandson,  Charles,  the  young  king  of 
Spain,  succeeded  him  in  the  empire  as 
Charles  V.  (1519-1556).  The  new  emperor, 
yielding  to  the  wishes  of  the  States  that 
favored  Luther,  summoned  him  before  the 
German  Diet,  which  was  to  meet  at 
Worms  in  1521.  Asked  whether  he  was 
willing  to  retract  the  errors  contained  in 
the  twenty-five  books  published  under  his 
name,  he  boldly  refused  to  do  so,  unless 
*'  convicted  of  error  by  the  Scripture  and 
plain  reason."  All  eflforts  to  reclaim  him 
proving  unavailing,  Luther  was  ordered  to 
leave  Worms  and  put  under  the  ban  of  the 
empire.  On  his  way  to  Wittenberg, he  was, 
according  to  a  previous  arrangement, 
seized  and  taken  to  Wartburg,  near  Eisen- 
ach, where  he  remained  nearly  a  year,  liv- 
ing as  a  knight  under  the  name  of  "  Master 
George."  During  this  time,  he  wrote  his 
pamphlets  "  On  the  Abuse  of  Masses," 
"On  Monastic  Vows,"  and  "Against  the 
Idol  of  Halle  "  (the  Archbishop  of  Mentz). 
It  was  at  Wartburg,  which  he  called  his 
"Patmos"  that  Luther  commenced  his 
translation  of  the  Bible  into  German. 
Luther  leaving  Wartburg  continued  to 
spurn  all  authority,  spiritual  and  temporal, 
and  to  vent  his  anger  against  the  Head  of 
the  Church,  and  against  all  that  dared  to 
disagree  with  himself.   He  called  the  Pope 


a  heretic  and  apostate,  a  blasphemer  of 
God  and  traitor  of  Christ's  Church,  and 
incessantly  inveigled  against  him  as  "  the 
man  of  sin,"  "  the  minister  of  Satan,"  and 
even  the  "very  Antichrist."  Luther's  teach- 
ing of  absolute  human  equality  and  of  total 
disregard  of  all  authority,  soon  bore  its 
evil  fruits  among  the  masses.  Inflamed  by 
the  fiery  appeals  of  the  "  Reformer,"  and 
incited  by  fanatical  harangues  of  itinerant 
preachers,  the  peasants,  in  1525,  under  the 
leadership  of  Thomas  Miinzer,  rose  in  open 
rebellion  against  their  lords,  plundered 
and  burned  churches  and  convents,  stormed 
the  castles  of  the  nobles,  and  committed 
every  species  of  outrage  and  atrocity.  When 
Luther  saw  things  turn  against  the  advant- 
age of  the  princes,  he  at  once  preached 
against  the  deluded  peasants  whom  his  doc- 
trines had  misled,  and,  in  his  pamphlet 
"Against  the  Rapacious  and  Murderous 
Peasants,"  urged  the  princes  to  kill  them 
"without  mercy,  like  mad  dogs," and  de- 
clared that  none  could  die  in  a  manner  more 
pleasing  to  God  than  fighting  against  "these 
children  of  the  devil."  His  cruel  advice  was 
followed,  and  it  is  estimated  that  a  hundred 
thousand  lives  were  destroyed  in  the 
"Peasant  War."  Luther  celebrated  the 
funeral  of  the  slain  peasants,  by  secretly 
marrying  on  June  13th,  1525,  Catharine 
Bora,  a  Cistercian  nun,  who,  together  with 
eight  other  nuns,  had,  at  his  instance,  been 
carried  ofif  from  their  convent,  by  a  citizen 
of  Torgau,  named  Bernard  Koppe. 

It  was  chiefly  through  the  influence 
of  the  temporal  rulers  that  Luther  sought 
to  propogate  his  "  Gospel."  And,  indeed, 
his  "Gospel"  readily  found  powerful 
patrons  among  the  German  princes  and 
nobles,  who  perceived  in  it  a  much  desired 
means  of  enlarging  their  domains  and 
filling  their  depleted  treasuries,  by  seizing 
on  Church  property. 

Luther's  religious  system,  if  such  it  can 
be  called,  is  a  sort  of  pantheistic  mysti- 
cism. He  taught:  1.  An  all-ruling  and 
absolute  divine  necessity.  God  is  the 
author  of  man's  actions,  whether  good  or 
bad.  Man  is  born  without  a  trace  of  free- 
dom, which  is  incompatible  with  divine 
foreknowledge.  2.  In  consequence  of 
original  sin,  human  nature  is  radically 
corrupt.  Man  is  wholly  unable  to  do  any 
good  by  himself,  and  only  fit  to  sin.  3. 
Faith,  alone,  works  justification;  and  man 
is  saved  only  by  confidently  believing  that 
God  will  pardon  his  sins.  4.  The  sacra- 
ments  which   Luther    reduced   to   two  — 


Lydia 


430 


Lystra 


baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper  — are  not 
means  of  grace,  but  only  pledges  of  the 
divine  promises  for  the  forgiveness  of  our 
sins,  and  the  grace  they  impart,  conse- 
quently, depend  solely  on  the  faith  of  the 
recipient.  5.  There  is  a  universal  priest- 
hood. Every  Christian  may  assume  that 
office.  There  is  no  need  of  a  hierarchy 
and  of  priests,  consequently  there  is  no 
visible  Church.  6.  There  are  no  merito- 
rious works.  Prayers,  fasts,  mortifications, 
religious  vows,  and  other  good  works  of 
any  kind  avail  the  soul  nothing  to  its  sal- 
vation. 7.  In  matters  of  religion,  every 
man  is  his  own  judge;  and  every  Christian 
has  the  right  not  only  to  read,  but  also  to 
interpret  for  himself  the  Bible  which  is  the 
only  source  of  faith. 

Luther  died  at  Eisleben,  Feb.  i8th,  1546, 
shortly  after  delivering  a  violent  sermon 
against  the  Jews  and  after  drinking  and 
jesting  with  his  friends  the  night  before, 
on  the  speedy  downfall  of  the  Papac}-. 

In  the  United  States  the  Lutheran 
Church  at  present  consists  of  four  general 
independent  organizations.  Each  of  these 
is  governed  by  a  general  representative 
body,  named  respectively  the  General 
Synod,  the  General  Council,  the  United 
Synod  of  the  South,  and  the  Synodical 
Conference  (Missouri  Lutherans).  These 
general  bodies  consist  of  both  clerical  and 
lay  delegates  elected  by  the  district  syn- 
ods of  which  they  are  composed.  There 
are  fourteen  independent  Lutheran  syn- 
ods in  the  United  States.  The  growth 
of  the  various  Lutheran  bodies  has  been  in 
1895 :  9,915  congregations,  with  an  ag- 
gregate membership  of  1,387,764.  They 
maintain  25  theological  seminaries,  hav- 
ing, in  1895,  i>307  students;  and  33  col- 
leges, with  an  aggregate  of  4,470  students. 
They  sustain  39  orphan  asylums,  7  old 
people's  homes,  10  hospitals,  and  a  number 
of  other  special  eleemosynary  institutions. 

Lydia.  —  A  woman  of  Thyatira,  a  seller 
of  purple,  who  dwelt  in  the  city  of  Phil- 
ippi  in  Macedonia,  and  was  converted  by 
St.  Paul's  preaching  (Acts  xvi.  14,40). 

Lying.  —  A  lie  is  that  which  is  written, 
spoken,  or  insinuated,  by  word  or  act, 
with  the  intention  to  deceive ;  whether, 
by  asserting  a  thing  as  true,  we  believe  to 
be  false,  or  affirming  as  false  what  we  be- 
lieve to  be  true.  For  the  malice  of  lying 
consists,  principally,  in  the  intention  we 
have  to  deceive  our  neighbor,  not  only  by 
hiding  the  truth,  but  by  leading  him  into 


an  error.  There  is  the  jocose  lie,  told  for 
merriment;  the  officious  lie,  told  for  our 
own  or  another  person's  excuse  or  de- 
fense; and  the  pernicious  lie,  told  for  the 
injury  of  one's  neighbor.  Falsehoods 
told  for  some  necessary  utility  to  ourselves 
or  others,  in  no  way  harming  any  one,  are 
not  grievous,  though,  strictly  speaking,  all 
lying  is  forbidden,  and  "the  custom 
thereof  is  not  good  "  (Ecclus.  vii.  14).  For 
we  never  know  when  it  may  lead  us,  or 
others,  into  serious  offense,  and  it  is  com- 
pletely opposed  to  God,  who  is  truth  it- 
self, and  who  has  given  us  the  faculty  of 
expressing  our  thoughts  for  the  end  of  our 
salvation.  "A  thief  is  better  than  a  man 
who  is  always  lying :  but  both  of  them 
shall  inherit  destruction.  The  manners  of 
lying  men  are  without  honor;  and  their 
confusion  is  with  them  without  ceasing" 
(Ecclus.  XX.  27,  28).  Lying  is  pernicious 
when  we  have  the  direct  intention  or  run 
the  evident  risk  of  harming  our  neighbor; 
it  may  therefore  be  mortal  sin,  for  "  the 
mouth  that  belieth,  killeth  the  soul " 
(Wisd.  i.  II). 

Lyons  {Councils  of). — Lyons,  a  city  of 
southern  France,  in  which  two  general 
councils  were  held.  The  first,  or  Thirteenth 
General  Council,  was  convoked  by  Inno- 
cent IV.  in  1245.  The  chief  questions 
submitted  to  the  Council  for  discussion 
affected:  i.  The  relations  of  the  Greek 
Church  to  the  Latin.  2.  The  condition  of 
the  Holy  Land.  3.  The  invasion  of  Hun- 
gary by  the  Tartars.  4.  The  distressful 
situation  of  the  Latin  empire  of  Constanti- 
nople. 5.  The  persecution  of  the  Church 
by  the  Emperor  Frederick  II.  of  Germany. 

The  second  Council  of  Lyons,  or  the 
Fourteenth  General  Council  was  sum- 
moned by  Gregory  X.  in  1274.  The  de- 
clared objects  of  the  Council  were:  Succor 
to  the  Holy  Land,  the  reconciliation  of  the 
Greek  Church,  and  the  reformation  of 
morals.  In  regard  to  the  first  point,  one- 
tenth  of  all  ecclesiastical  revenues  was 
voted  for  six  years.  As  to  the  second,  in 
the  fourth  session  the  reunion  of  the  Greek 
Church  with  the  Latin  was  solemnized. 
The  Creed  was  chanted  in  both  Greek  and 
Latin,  and  the  words,  "who  proceeded 
from  the  Father  and  the  Son,"  were  re- 
peated three  times. 

Lystra.  —  A  city  of  Lycaonia  (a  region 
of  Asia  Minor),  and  the  native  place  of 
Timothy.  It  is  now  called  Latik  (Acts 
xvi.  i). 


Maacha 


431 


Machabees 


M 


Maacha. — i.  King  of  Geth.  Supported 
Hanon,  King  of  the  Ammonites,  against 
David.  The  latter  defeated  them  both. 
2.  One  of  the  wives  of  David  and  mother 
of  Absalom. 

Mabillon  (John)  (1632-1707).  —  Born  at 
St.  Pierremont,  Ardennes,  France;  died  at 
Paris.  A  noted  French  scholar  and  his- 
torian, a  member  of  the  Benedictine  Order. 
His  works  include  Acta  Sanctorum  ordi- 
nis  S.  Benedicti  (1675-1685),  De  re  dip- 
lomatica  (1681),  Museum  Italicum  (1687- 
1689),  etc. 

Macarius  (St.)  of  Egypt  or  the  Elder 
(300-390).  Born  in  Upper  Egypt,  monk  of 
the  Thebaid.  He  was  ordained  priest  in 
340.  We  have  extant  of  his  writings  fifty 
homilies,  or  exhortations  to  monks. 
Macarius  (St.)  of  Alexandria,  or  the 
Younger  (306-395).  Monk  in  the  solitude 
of  Nitria  in  Egypt,  suffered  persecution  on 
account  of  his  adherence  to  the  symbol  of 
Nice.     He  has  left  some  ascetical  works. 

Macedonia.  — A  large  country  and  re- 
gion lying  north  of  Greece  proper,  bounded 
on  the  south  by  Thessaly  and  Epirus ; 
east,  by  Thrace  and  the  yEgean  sea;  west, 
by  the  Adriatic  sea  and  Illyria,  and  north, 
by  Dardania  and  Mcesia.  Its  most  cele- 
brated mountains  were  Olympus  and 
Athos.  The  Macedonians  under  Philip 
and  Alexander  the  Great,  subdued  Greece, 
and  became  one  of  the  most  powerful 
nations  of  antiquity.  The  Romans  at 
length  divided  the  whole  of  Greece  and 
Macedonia  into  two  great  provinces,  which 
they  called  Macedonia  and  Achaia.  In  the 
New  Testament  the  name  is  probably  to  be 
taken  in  the  latter  sense. 

Macedonius.  —  Heresiarch,  named  pa- 
triarch of  Constantinople  by  the  Arians  in 
342,  he  was  replaced,  in  347,  by  the  Catholic 
Bishop  Paulus.  Replaced  on  the  patri- 
archal see  in  350,  he  remained  thereon 
only  until  360,  at  which  time  the  Arians 
themselves  deposed  him.  Then  he  became 
the  head  of  a  sect  which  denied  the  divin- 
ity of  the  Holy  Ghost. 

Machabees  {Books  of  the).  —  We  pos- 
sess no  continuous  history  of  the  events 
which  occurred  among  the  Jews  during  the 
four  hundred  years  which  elapsed  between 


the  death  of  Nehemias,  who  rebuilt  the 
walls  of  Jerusalem,  and  the  birth  of  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ.  All  the  record  we  pos- 
sess regarding  that  long  lapse  of  time  is 
contained  in  the  two  books  of  Machabees, 
which  narrate  the  fierce  struggles  of  the 
faithful  Jews  against  impiety.  If  this  pe- 
riod of  their  history  is  not  the  most  pros- 
perous, it  is  certainly  the  most  glorious; 
for  during  it,  the  body  of  the  people  re- 
mained faithful  to  the  practice  of  the  laws 
of  God.  About  this  time,  prophets  ceased 
to  appear  among  the  Jews,  and  their  office 
was  replaced  by  the  priests  and  the  scribes, 
whose  special  duty  it  was  to  preserve  their 
inspired  writings  and  explain  them.  They, 
with  the  gallant  Machabees,  were  the  in- 
struments used  by  Providence  to  guard  the 
people  of  God  against  the  false  doctrines 
of  the  Greek  philosophers,  just  as  it  had 
been  preserved  by  prophets  during  the 
captivity  from  the  contagion  of  idolatry. 
During  the  period  of  which  we  speak,  the 
Jews  were  subject  to  the  Persians,  the 
Syrians,  and  the  Egyptians,  and  through 
constant  intercourse  with  their  conquerors, 
either  at  home  or  abroad,  they,  or  at  least 
many  of  them,  were  induced  to  unite  the 
doctrines  of  Moses  with  the  philosophy 
and  heathen  practices  of  the  Greeks. 
Those  who  remained  faithful  to  the  old 
traditions  were  called  Assideans,  the  un- 
faithful were  named  iniqui  or  sinners. 
The  Assideans  were  the  true  friends  of 
their  country,  the  Hellenists  were  the 
friends  and  supporters  of  the  Egyptians  or 
of  the  Syrians.  A  moment  came  when  the 
wicked  nearly  destroyed  the  true  religion 
and  caused  paganism  to  triumph  over  it. 
Then  it  was  that  the  God  of  Israel  raised 
up  the  Machabees,  who  saved  both  their 
country  and  their  religion.  These  heroic 
men  are  sometimes  called  Asmonaeans  from 
one  Asmonaeus,  their  ancestor. 

Machabees  (The).  —  Name  of  seven 
brothers,  sons  of  Eleazar,  whom  Antiochus 
Epiphanes  wished  to  force  to  adore  the 
idols  and  to  eat  pork  meat.  Upon  their 
refusal,  this  prince  caused  them  to  be  killed 
by  the  most  atrocious  torments,  as  well  as 
their  mother  Salome,  who  did  not  cease  to 
uphold  their  courage,  while  they  were  ex- 
ecuted, 168  B.  c.  The  Church  honors  them 
as  martyrs.     F.  Aug.  ist. 


Machabeus 


432 


Magic 


Machabeus  (Jonathas).  —  High-priest, 
brother  of  the  following,  died  in  144  b.  c. 
Acknowledged  high-priest  by  the  usurper 
Alexander  Bula,  he  placed  himself  at  the 
head  of  the  Jews  after  the  death  of  Judas, 
expelled  Bacchides  from  Judea,  upheld 
the  pretensions  of  Demetrius  Nicator,  then 
of  Alexander  VI.  to  the  throne  of  Syria, 
and  was  assassinated  by  Tryphon,  tutor  of 
the  latter. 

Machabeus  (Judas).  —  Jewish  warrior, 
son  of  Mathathias,  died  in  160  b.  c.  He 
succeeded  his  father  in  the  commandry  of 
the  army  of  Israel,  167  b.  c,  successively 
defeated  Apollonius,  lieutenant  of  Anti- 
ochus,  near  Samaria,  Seron,  Syrian  general, 
at  Bethoron ;  the  generals  Ptolemy,  Ni- 
canor,  and  Gorgias,  sent  by  Lysias,  gov- 
ernor of  Syria  in  the  absence  of  Antiochus, 
and  Lysias  himself.  He  purified  the  Tem- 
ple of  Jerusalem,  profaned  by  Antiochus, 
and  restored,  therein,  the  worship  of  the 
true  God.  Antiochus  Eupator  made  peace 
with  him.  Under  Demetrius  Soter  (161), 
he  conquered  Bacchides  and  Nicanor.  But 
attacked  anew  by  Bacchides,  he  lost  his  life 
after  an  heroic  battle. 

Machabeus  (Simon). — Brother  of  Jon- 
athas Machabeus,  died  in  135  B.C.  Acknowl- 
edged high-priest  by  Demetrius  Nicator, 
he  made  an  alliance  with  the  Romans ;  ex- 
pelled the  Syrians  from  Jerusalem;  pro- 
cured the  independence  of  Judea,  after  the 
victory  over  Antiochus  VII.,  surnamed  Si- 
detes  by  his  sons,  Judas  and  John  Hyr- 
canus,  and  was  assassinated  with  two  of  his 
sons,  Judas  and  Mathathias,  by  his  son-in- 
law  Ptolemy,  governor  of  Jericho. 

Madianites.  —  An  Arabian  tribe  settled 
in  the  northern  part  of  the  Syro- Arabian 
desert.  In  Gen.  xxv.  2  the  Madianites 
are  represented  as  descendants  of  Abraham 
and  Cethura.  They  harassed  the  Israel- 
ites in  the  period  of  the  Judges,  crossing 
the  Jordan  with  their  hordes  and  despoil- 
ing the  country,  until  they  were  defeated 
by  Gedeon.  They  disappeared  more  and 
more  from  history,  and  are  mentioned  only 
as  a  trading  people  (Is.  Ix.  6.). 

Magdala.  —  In  the  Old  Testament,  a 
town  in  Palestine,  situated  on  the  western 
shore  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee ;  the  modern 
El-Mejdel.  Country  of  St.  Mary  Mag- 
dalen. 

Magdalen  (St.  Mary).  —  According  to 
an  old  tradition,  St.  Mary  Magdalen  was 


the  sister  of  Martha  and  Lazarus,  and  was 
that  sinner  who  anointed  the  Saviour's 
feet.  After  her  conversion,  she  became 
the  most  faithful  and  zealous  servant 
of  the  Lord.  She  stood  with  Mary,  the 
mother  of  Jesus,  and  Mary,  the  wife  of 
Cleophas,  under  the  Cross ;  she  was  first  at 
the  sepulchre  after  the  Sabbath,  and  there 
saw  Jesus,  whom  she  thought  to  be  a  gard- 
ener, until  He  kindly  made  Himself  known 
to  her,  and  commanded  her  to  announce 
the  news  of  His  resurrection  to  the 
Apostles  and  disciples.  She  came  into 
Provence,  Gaul,  with  Lazarus  and  Martha, 
and  passed  the  rest  of  her  days  at  St. 
Baume,  in  penance,  prayer,  and  contem- 
plation.    F.  July  22d. 

Magdalen  de  Pazzi  (St.  Mary)  (1566- 
1607). —  Religious,  born  and  died  at  Flor- 
ence. Of  the  illustrious  family  of  the 
Pazzi,  allied  to  the  Medicis;  she  took  the 
veil  in  1582,  at  the  Carmilites.  She  was 
canonized  in  1669. 

Mageddo.  —  Town  of  ancient  Palestine, 
in  the  northern  tribe  of  Manasses.  Cap- 
tured by  Josias,  king  of  Juda  and  by  Nechao, 
king  of  Egypt  in  610  B.  c.  In  the  Roman 
period,  this  city  changed  its  name  to  that 
of  Legio,  and  appears  to  have  been,  then, 
of  great  importance. 

Magi.  —  According  to  the  Gospel  of  St. 
Matthew  (ii.  i,  2)  the  three  kings  from  the 
East,  who  came  to  adore  the  new-born 
Saviour  at  Bethlehem.  Most  probably 
they  came  from  Mesopotamia.  Tradition 
qualifies  them  as  kings  and  tells  us  that 
they  were  three  in  number:  Caspar,  Bal- 
thazar, and  Melchior.  A  mysterious  star 
served  them  as  guide.  When  the  Apostle 
St.  Thomas  went  to  preach  the  Gospel  in 
their  country,  they  were  still  living.  In- 
structed, baptized,  and  consecrated  bishops 
by  him,  they  exercised  the  apostolic  func- 
tions in  Eastern  countries,  and  obtained  the 
crown  of  martyrdom.  Cologne  possesses, 
since  1162,  some  relics  of  the  Magi,  which 
are  held  in  great  veneration  by  the  inhabit- 
ants of  that  city. 

Magic  and  Spiritualism.  —  Magic,  or 
the  production  of  extraordinary  effects  by 
unnatural  means;  and  spiritualism,  or  in- 
tercourse with  spirits  by  the  aid  of  medi- 
ums or  table-rappings,  must  necessarily 
be  a  communication  with  the  evil  one,  who 
produces  false  appearances  and  impres- 
sions.    "  The  soul  that  shall  go  aside  after 


Magnificat 


433 


Mammon 


magicians  and  soothsayers"  (Lev.  xx.  6) 
is  condemned  by  God. 

Magnificat.  —  Canticle  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin,  sung  at  Vespers,  and  which  com- 
mences with  the  word  Magnificat,  and 
which  the  Mother  of  God  sang  upon  the 
occasion  of  her  visit  to  her  cousin  Eliza- 
beth (Luke  i.  46). 

Magog  and  Gog.  —  According  to  Ezech. 
(xxxviii.  and  xxxix.),  Gog  was  a  ruler  in 
the  land  of  Magog,  and  is  mentioned  as 
the  prince  of  Mesa  and  Tubal.  In  Apoc. 
(xx.  8),  Gog  and  Magog  appear  as  two 
allied  warring  tribes.  They  were  formerly 
regarded  as  connected  with  the  invasion 
of  the  Scythians  in  Western  Asia,  but  of 
late  Gog  has  been  identified  with  Gagu, 
referred  to  in  the  annals  of  the  Assyrian 
king  Asurbanipal  (668-626  b.c.)  as  the 
mighty  ruler  of  a  warlike  tribe  in  the  ter- 
ritory of  Sahi,  north  of  Assyria. 

Mahomet.     See  Mohammedanism. 

Mai  (Angelo)  (1782-1854).  —  Jesuit 
and  cardinal,  born  at  Schilpario,  province 
of  Bergamo,  died  at  Albano.  Attached  to 
the  Ambrosian  Library  of  Milan,  he  dis- 
covered, in  examining  the  palimfsesies,  a 
number  of  unpublished  works  and  frag- 
ments of  ancient  authors.  Named  by 
Pius  VIL,  in  1819,  librarian  of  the  Vatican, 
he  discovered  therein  the  greater  part  of 
the  Republic  of  Cicero ;  secretary  in  1833 
of  the  Propaganda,  cardinal  in  1838. 

Maid  of  Orleans.     See  Joan  of  Arc. 

Malachias  (Hebr.  messenger  of  the 
Lord).  —  The  last  of  the  twelve  minor 
Prophets,  of  the  tribe  of  Zabulon,  born  at 
Sopha.  He  was  a  contemporary  of  Nehe- 
mias,  and  prophesied,  it  is  believed,  from 
412  to  408  B.  c.  We  have  from  him  three 
chapters,  wherein  he  reproaches  the  Jews 
on  account  of  their  corruption,  and  an- 
nounces the  Messias.  Some  Jewish  doc- 
tors confound  him  with  Esdras. 

Malachy  (St.)  (1094-1148).  —  Malachy, 
born  at  Armagh,  was  a  disciple  of  St.  Mal- 
chus,  Bishop  of  Lismore.  After  he  had 
rebuilt  the  great  Abbey  of  Bangor,  which, 
by  his  care  again  became  a  flourishing 
seminary  of  piety  and  learning,  he  was 
named  to  the  bishopric  of  Down,  and 
afterwards  elevated  to  the  primatial  chair 
of  Armagh.  While  in  this  high  station, 
Malachy  introduced  many  reforms,  and, 
by  his  zeal  and  still  more  by  his  holy  ex- 
28 


ample,  wrought  a  great  change  through- 
out Ireland.  In  1137,  he  resigned  his 
primatial  dignity,  consecrated  Gelasius,  in 
his  place,  another  bishop  for  Connor,  and 
reserved  for  himself  the  small  see  of  Down. 
To  procure  the  papal  sanction  for  his  re- 
forms, and  also  to  obtain  the  pallium  for 
the  metropolitan  of  Armagh  and  Cashel, 
St.  Malachy  undertook  a  journey  to  Rome, 
in  1 139.  Pope  Innocent  II.  received  him 
with  mark  of  the  highest  distinction,  and 
appointed  him  Apostolic  Legate  for  Ire- 
land, but  deferred  the  concession  of  the 
palliums  to  a  future  period.  After  his  re- 
turn, St.  Malachy  discharged  his  office 
of  legate  with  characteristic  devotedness, 
which  resulted  in  much  fruit,  visiting 
every  part  of  the  island  and  holding  syn- 
ods. With  the  aid  of  the  monks  who  had 
taken  the  Cistercian  habit  at  Clairvaux, 
he  founded  the  Cistercian  Abbey  of  Melli- 
font,  in  Louth,  which  was  the  first  of  that 
order  in  Ireland.  In  1148,  he  held  the 
great  Synod  of  Holmpatrick,  and  under- 
took a  second  journey  to  Rome,  but  came 
only  as  far  as  Clairvaux  where  he  died  in 
the  arms  of  his  illustrious  friend,  St.  Ber- 
nard. F.  Nov.  3d.  As  to  the  Prophecies, 
attributed  to  St.  Malachy,  see  Popes 
( Future) . 

Malchus.  —  Servant  of  Caiphas,  had 
his  ear  cut  off  by  St.  Peter,  at  the  moment 
when  he  laid  hands  on  our  divine  Saviour 
in  the  Garden  of  Olives. 

Maldonatus  (John)  (1534-1583). — Jesuit 
and  theologian,  born  at  Estramadura.  He 
was  an  excellent  Greek  and  Hebrew  scholar 
and  a  fine  historian.  Taught,  with  great 
success,  philosophy  and  theology  in  Paris, 
and  at  the  University  of  Pont-a-Mousson, 
France.  Wrongly  accused  of  Socinianism, 
he  retired  to  Rome  (1575)  where  he  assisted 
at  the  edition  of  the  Bible  of  the  Septua- 
gint.     He  died  at  Rome, 

Mambre.  —  Name  of  a  valley  of  Pales- 
tine between  Hebron  and  Jerusalem,  where 
the  Patriarch  Abraham  resided  for  some 
time. 

Mamertus  (St.). — Archbishop  of  Vienne, 
about  463,  died  about  477.  Established  in 
his  diocese  (469)  the  processions  and  pub- 
lic prayers  called  Rogations,  to  ask  from 
God  the  cessation  of  the  plagues  that  rav- 
aged Vienne  and  Dauphine. 

Mammon. — A  Chaldaic  word  signifying 
riches,  used  twice  by  our  Lord  (Matt.  vi. 


Man 


434 


Man 


24;  Luke  xvi.  9-1 1).  It  never  was  the 
name  of  a  personal  being,  though  to  those 
who  set  their  heart  on  it,  wealth,  is  as  much 
an  idol  as  Baal  and  Astarte. 

Man  {from  the  scientific  point  of  I'/Vw). 
— They  deny  to-day,  in  the  name  of  a  false 
science,  all  that  Scripture  teaches  us  about 
the  first  man.  It  is  our  purpose  to  answer 
briefly  all  the  objections  they  make  against 
the  Sacred  Books,  when  treating  the  fol- 
lowing three  questions :  I.  Was  the  first 
man  an  intermediary  being  between  the 
animal  and  the  existing  man?  2.  Was  he 
a  savage  ?  3.  In  what  period  did  he  make 
his  appearance? 

I.  The  Animal  Origin  of  Man. —  For 
the  adherents  of  Monism,  who  admit  with 
all  its  consequences  the  evolutionary 
theory,  and  reject  all  idea  of  creation, 
there  has  not  been  a  first  man,  properly 
speaking.  The  transformation  which 
ended  in  giving  to  one  or  several  animals 
placed  among  favorable  conditions  the 
characteristics  that  distinguish  us,  has 
been  so  insensible,  that  it  is  impossible  not 
only  to  fix  the  date  of  the  appearance  of  our 
species,  but  even  to  tell  what  individual 
was  its  first  representative.  The  principal 
champion  of  contemporary  Darwinism, 
Haeckel,  formally  tells  us  that  this  change 
"took  place  with  such  slowness,  that  we 
cannot  in  any  manner,  speak  of  a  first 
man." 

The  famous  professor  of  Jena  teaches,  how- 
ever, that  the  species  which  preceded  ours, 
and  to  which  we  owe  existence,  belonged 
to  the  ape  family,  the  first  of  the  order  of 
Quadrumanes.  The  man  ape  whom  they 
have  called  more  learnedly,  the  fithecan- 
thropusy  or  anthrofofithecus  (de  Mortil- 
let),  would  have  lived  about  the  end  of  the 
Tertiary  epoch,  perhaps  even  earlier,  ac- 
cording to  de  Mortillet,  who  attributes  to 
him  the  so-called  wrought  flints  of  the 
Miocene  strata  of  Thenay,  in  France.  It 
was  an  anthropoid,  a  brother  of  the  exist- 
ing anthropoids,  but  approaching  man 
closer  in  his  anatomical  or  physiological 
characteristics ;  for  nobody  pretends  to- 
day to  derive  us  from  apes  belonging  to 
the  contemporary  fauna,  so  considerable  is 
the  distance  that  separates  us  from  them. 

The  opinion  of  Darwin,  author  of  the 
evolutionary  system  most  in  vogue,  does 
not  differ  in  this  respect  from  that  of  his 
disciple  Haeckel.  It  was,  the  English 
naturalist  tells  us  in  a  summary,  a  hairy 
mammifer,  provided  with  a  tail  and  pointed 


ears,  who  undoubtedly  lived  on  the  trees 
and  inhabited  the  ancient  continent. 

However,  we  have  to  admit  that  all  the 
opponents  of  the  creation  of  man  do  not 
make  us  descend  from  the  ape.  It  seems 
that  in  the  eyes  cf  a  great  number  of  them, 
it  would  be  rendering  us  too  great  an 
honor  to  attribute  this  origin  to  our  spe- 
cies ;  it  is  at  a  lower  stage,  at  best  among 
the  marsupials  or  the  didelphiae,  that  we 
must  look  for  our  ancestors.  They  at  least 
acknowledge  that  the  laws  which  preside 
over  the  general  development  of  beings 
are  opposed  to  our  descending  from  any 
quadrumane  whatever.  This  is  the  opinion 
of  Professors  Huxley,  of  England,  Filippi, 
of  Italy,  and  Vogt,  of  Switzerland,  al- 
though the  latter  seemed  sometimes  to 
make  our  ancestor  the  existing  ape;  and 
one  day,  perhaps  in  a  moment  of  humor, 
he  is  alleged  to  have  said  that  he  preferred 
to  be  "  rather  a  perfectioned  monkey,  than 
a  degenerated  Adam." 

We  have  rather  to  do  then  with  the  ani- 
mal origin  of  man  than  with  his  simian 
origin.  However,  this  point  is  of  little 
importance ;  for,  whatever  may  be  the  dif- 
ferent views  that  separate  them  in  regard 
to  the  human  genealogy,  our  adversaries 
have  recourse  to  the  same  arguments  when 
there  is  question  of  proving  their  general 
thesis :  the  derivation  of  man  from  a  lower 
type.  We  can,  therefore,  borrow  these 
arguments  from  Darwin  himself,  the  head 
of  the  party. 

These  pretended  proofs  are  of  three 
kinds.  They  consist:  i.  In  the  general 
conformation  of  the  body  of  man ;  2.  In 
the  development  of  the  human  embryo ; 
3.  In  the  presence  in  man  of  rudimentary 
organs.     Let  us  expose  them  briefly. 

First  Objection. — "It  is  well  known," 
says  Darwin,  "  that  man  is  built  after  the 
same  general  type,  after  the  same  model, 
as  the  other  mammifera.  All  the  bones  of 
his  skeleton  are  comparable  with  the  cor- 
responding bones  of  an  ape,  of  a  bat,  or  of 
a  seal.  It  is  the  same  with  his  muscles, 
nerves,  blood  vessels,  and  internal  viscera. 
The  brain,  the  most  important  of  all,  fol- 
lows the  same  law.  .  .  .  Man,  BischoflF 
has  said,  approaches  nearer  to  the  anthro- 
pomorphous apes  in  the  anatomical  char- 
acteristics of  his  brain  than  the  latter 
approach  not  only  other  mammifera,  but 
even  certain  quadrumanes,  she-monkeys 
and  dog-faced  monkeys." 

Man,  adds  Darwin,  has  the  same  ail- 
ments as  the  lower  animals.     He  can  re- 


Man 


435 


Man 


ceive  and  communicate  madness,  smallpox, 
the  glanders,  etc.,  "  a  fact  which  evidently 
proves  the  great  similarity  of  their  tissues 
and  blood."  Apes  are  subject  to  a  great 
number  of  other  sicknesses :  catarrh  and 
phthisis,  for  instance.  They  share  our 
taste  for  coflfee,  tea,  and  spirituous  liquors. 
We  have  seen  them  drunk  from  brandy, 
wine,  and  strong  beer.  "  These  facts 
prove,"  he  tells  us,  "  how  much  alike  are 
the  nerves  of  taste  in  man  and  apes,  and 
how  the  entire  nervous  system  is  similarly 
affected." 

Second  Objection.  —  Man  is  developed 
from  an  egg  which  differs  in  nothing  from 
that  of  other  animals.  The  embryo  itself, 
in  an  early  period,  can  hardly  be  distin- 
guished from  that  of  other  members  of  the 
kingdom  of  vertebrates.  As  proof  of  what 
he  advances,  Darwin  gives  a  double  figure 
representing  the  embryo  of  a  man  and 
that  of  a  dog,  which  hardly  differ  except 
in  the  unequal  development  of  certain 
parts. 

The  English  naturalist  adds  —  and  his 
disciples  have  insisted  still  more  than  him- 
self on  this  argument  —  that  the  human 
embryo  presents  more  marked  successive 
analogies,  in  proportion  to  its  develop- 
ment, with  diverse  classes  of  animals,  com- 
mencing naturally  with  the  lower  ones. 

Third  Objection.  —  The  organs  which 
Darwin  calls  rudimentary,  or  simply  rudi- 
ments, are  useless  organs,  and  generally 
little  developed,  whose  presence  is  ex- 
plained, according  to  him,  only  because 
man  has  inherited  them  from  ancestors  in 
whom,  on  the  contrary,  they  were  devel- 
oped and  had  their  reason  of  being.  Sev- 
eral muscles  would  be  of  this  class,  among 
others,  those  which  in  animals  serve  to 
move  the  external  ear,  and  which  in  the 
orangs  and  chimpanzees  are  already  out  of 
use  and  atrophied.  The  third  eyelid,  or 
nictitate  membrane,  which  permits  the 
birds  to  rapidly  cover  the  eyeball,  also  ex- 
ists in  the  rudimentary  state  in  man  as  well 
as  in  the  quadrumanes  and  most  of  the 
mammifera.  We  might  say  as  much  of 
the  sense  of  smell,  which  renders  such 
great  service  to  certain  animals,  either  by 
warning  them  of  danger  (ruminants),  or 
by  enabling  them  to  discover  their  prey 
(carnivora),  and  which  in  man  is  almost 
useless.  The  scattered  hair  on  man's  body, 
the  down  with  which  the  human  foetus  is 
entirely  covered  at  the  sixth  month,  would 
be  equally  a  remnant  of  the  hairy  integu- 
ment of  the  animals  from  which  we  are  de- 


rived. The  vermiform  appendix  of  the 
caecum  (blind  gut),  a  kind  of  blind  alley 
to-day  without  use,  and  even  hurtful,  since 
it  is  the  cause  of  some  ailments,  would 
also  be  a  remnant  and  a  witness  of  the 
same  organ,  very  much  developed,  how- 
ever, which  exists  in  certain  herbivorous 
mammifera,  where  it  has  its  function  to 
fulfill.  The  skeleton  furnishes  facts  of  the 
same  nature,  whether  in  the  coccyx  bone, 
which  represents  in  us  the  tail  of  the  mam- 
mifera, or  in  the  perforation  which  we 
accidently  meet  in  the  human  humerus, 
especially  anKjng  the  ancient  races,  and 
which  normally  exists  in  the  ape.  To  un- 
derstand these  anomalies,  "  it  is  enough," 
says  Darwin,  "to  suppose  that  a  remote 
ancestor  possessed  the  organs  in  question 
in  a  perfect  state,  and  that,  under  the  in- 
fluence of  a  change  in  the  vital  habits, 
they  had  the  tendency  to  disappear  through 
the  want  of  use  or  on  account  of  natural 
selection."  (Darwin,  The  Descent  of 
Man.) 

Answer. — We  have  summed  up  as  faith- 
fully as  possible,  and  without  taking  away 
anything  of  their  force,  the  arguments 
which  Darwin  brings  forward  in  support 
of  the  evolutionary  theory  applied  to  our 
species;  it  is  not  our  intention  to  answer 
them  in  detail.  Space  does  not  permit 
this,  and  it  would  be  quite  useless.  Indeed, 
running  over  the  above  short  exposition  of 
them,  our  readers  must  have  seen  that  they 
present  nothing  new,  that  the  physical  re- 
semblance of  man  to  the  animal  was  some- 
thing known  a  long  time,  and  of  a  nature 
to  set  off  still  more  the  infinite  superiority 
of  the  human  soul,  because,  with  almost 
like  organs,  our  species  has  raised  itself  far 
above  the  beast.  A  word,  however,  on 
each  of  the  groups  of  the  arguments  ap- 
pealed to  by  Darwin. 

I.  In  the  first  place  the  English  natural- 
ist purposely  exaggerates  our  exterior  re- 
semblance to  the  animal.  Anatomically 
man  is  a  mammifer  and  nothing  more ;  this 
we  have  long  known.  Each  bone  of  our 
skeleton  has  its  analogy  in  the  skeleton  of 
the  ape.  However,  it  is  not  less  true  that 
all  these  bones  have  their  peculiar  charac- 
ter, their  fades,  which  will  permit  an  ex- 
perienced anatomist  to  recognize  them  at 
a  glance.  And  this  is  only  the  least  of  the 
physical  features  that  distinguish  us.  Alone 
among  the  mammifera,  man  is  organized 
for  the  vertical  attitude ;  he  alone  has  two 
hands  and  two  feet.  His  dentition  and  the 
nakedness  of  his  skin  again  distinguish  him 


Man 


436 


Man 


from  the  ape,  whose  teeth  are  real  instru- 
ments of  defense  and  whose  skin  is  remark- 
ably shaggy,  especially  on  the  dorsal  part, 
which  in  man  is  the  most  wanting  in  hair. 
How  can  the  fact  of  the  disappearance  of 
this  hairy  covering  be  explained,  which, 
according  to  the  evolutionists,  protected 
our  ancestor  against  the  inclemency  of  the 
seasons  ?  The  Darwinist  doctrine  pretends 
to  explain,  it  is  true,  the  acquisition  of  the 
useful  variations ;  but  everyone  will  ac- 
knowledge that  the  latter  is  not  of  the 
number.  This  nakedness  is  so  little  in- 
dicative of  progress  for  man,  that  under 
every  climate  he  believes  himself  obliged 
to  supply  this  lost  protection  by  the  use  of 
clothing.  Logically,  Darwin  ought  to  have 
made  the  ape  descend  from  man  rather  than 
man  from  the  ape. 

It  is  also  very  wrong  for  him  to  seek  in 
the  brain  an  argument  in  support  of  his 
theory.  The  weight  of  the  brain,  com- 
pared with  that  of  the  body,  is  three  times 
more  considerable  in  man  than  in  the  ape. 
The  circumvolutions  are  also  deeper,  and, 
which  is  a  remarkable  thing,  the  circum- 
volutions develop  themselves  in  an  inverted 
order  in  the  two  cases.  In  man,  they  ap- 
pear at  first  on  the  forehead,  while  in  the 
ape  those  of  the  middle  lobe  delineate 
themselves  first.  The  Darwinists  have  not 
yet  been  able  to  explain  this  anomaly, 
which  denotes  quite  a  different  origin. 
"It  is  evident,  especially  according  to  the 
most  fundamental  principles  of  the  Dar- 
winist doctrine,"  remarks  Quatrefages, 
'*  that  an  organized  being  cannot  descend 
from  another  being  whose  development 
follows  an  inverse  process  of  its  own.  Con- 
sequently, man  cannot,  according  to  these 
same  principles,  count  among  his  ances- 
tors a  simian  type." 

After  this  we  are  permitted  to  pass  over 
the  other  characteristic  features  of  our 
species.  They  must,  however,  be  well  de- 
fined, because  Cuvier  and  other  naturalists, 
who,  in  general  classification  of  beings, 
have  kept  account  only  of  the  exterior 
characters,  have  been  led  to  make  of  man 
not  only  a  species,  but  a  family,  even  a 
class  apart.  Is  there  in  nature  a  single 
other  being  of  which  one  can  say  the 
same? 

This  simple  remark  constitutes  a  suffi- 
cient answer  to  those  who  pretend  that  one 
cannot  logically  explain  the  transforma- 
tion of  animals  without  extending  it  to 
man  himself.  All  the  animals  are  suffi- 
ciently connected  with  one  another.     Es- 


pecially since  the  rise  of  paleontology, 
through  the  association  of  the  fossil  species 
with  the  existing  species,  we  can  fill  up  a 
great  number  of  gaps  that  existed  in  the 
general  series  of  beings.  Few  species  con- 
stitute in  themselves  alone  so  many  distinct 
kinds  to  form  families,  and  families  to 
form  classes.  Man  alone  forms  an  excep- 
tion to  this  rule,  and,  as  we  shall  see, 
paleontology  has  only  confirmed  his  isola- 
tion. What  would  a  man  be  were  we  to 
take  into  consideration  his  intellectual 
faculties?  Then  it  would  be  not  only  a 
family  or  an  isolated  class  that  he  would 
constitute  but  a  kingdom,  because  reason, 
which  distinguishes  him,  elevates  him  not 
less  above  the  animal  than  sensibilitv, 
which  distinguishes  the  latter  and  elevates 
it  above  the  plant. 

We  think  it  useless  to  take  up  the  con- 
siderations of  Darwin  in  regard  to  the 
identity  of  the  ailments  that  attack  both 
man  and  animal,  and  the  identity  of  the 
remedies  that  cure  both.  To  be  aston- 
ished at  these  traits  of  resemblance,  one 
forgets  that  all  organized  beings  have  been 
created  according  to  the  same  general 
plan  and  obey  the  same  physical  laws. 

2.  The  argument  drawn  from  the  em- 
bryogenic  development  offers  little  diffi- 
culty. It  is  true  that  man  starts  out  by 
an  ovule,  like  all  animals ;  to  believe 
Haeckel,  the  human  embryo,  in  develop- 
ing itself,  would  be  in  turn  a  zo-ophite,  a 
fish,  a  batrachian,  a  reptile,  and  a  mam- 
mifer;  but  these  alleged  successive  states 
are  more  than  contestable,  and,  "if  they 
were  real,  they  would  have  no  bearing  on 
the  origin  of  man. 

First,  they  are  contestable.  Indeed,  in 
order  to  convince  us,  it  is  not  enough  that 
Haeckel  affirms  these  states.  For  we 
know  that  good  faith  is  not  the  dominant 
quality  of  the  professor  of  Jena.  It  is 
proved  to-day  that,  to  render  more  strik- 
ing the  resemblance  of  the  embryos  of 
man  and  animal,  he  greatly  altered  the 
cuts  which  pretend  to  represent  them  in 
one  of  his  books.  This  was  long  ago  re- 
marked in  Germany.  Dr.  Jousset  estab- 
lishes "  an  enormous  difference  "  between 
the  human  embryo,  pictured  by  Haeckel, 
and  that  which  is  represented  in  the 
Encyclopedic  Dictionary  of  the  Medical 
Sciences.  He  adds  that  the  embryo  of  the 
chicken,  which  Haeckel  compares  with  the 
human  embryo,  presents  a  development 
and  "  rudimentary  buds,"  which  it  has  not 
in  reality,  but  which  result  in  accentuating 


Man 


437 


Man 


its  resemblance  to  the  human  embryo.  It 
can  be  seen  that  we  have  good  reasons  for 
not  believing  the  word  of  the  German  pro- 
fessor. 

In  the  judgment  of  the  most  competent 
naturalists,  the  similarities  alleged  are 
purely  illusive.  That  there  are  certain 
analogies  between  the  successive  states 
that  the  embryo  assumes,  and  the  different 
groups  of  the  animal  series,  we  do  not  dis- 
pute ;  but  from  simple  analogy  to  a  com- 
plete resemblance  is  a  long  distance.  "At 
no  moment  of  its  existence,"  says  Gratio- 
let,  the  famous  anatomist,  "  does  man 
resemble  any  other  species.  ...  In  all  the 
stages  of  foetal  life,  man  is  man  potentially, 
and  definite  characteristics  distinguish 
him.  The  forms  of  the  embryo  have  a  re- 
markable relation  to  the  future  forms,  they 
are  complicated,  it  is  true,  but  according 
to  a  specific  mode ;  in  a  word,  at  all  times, 
the  future  man  reveals  himself.  .  .  .  At  no 
time,  does  the  brain  of  the  human  foetus 
absolutely  resemble  that  of  an  ape;  far 
from  it.  The  greater  its  development,  the 
more  marked  is  the  difference." 

Although  these  are  facts,  and  not  mere 
personal  impressions,  it  might  be  objected 
that  Gratiolet  allowed  himself  to  be  in- 
fluenced by  his  prejudices  in  favor  of  the 
fixity  of  species,  and  the  superiority  of 
human  nature.  This  reproach  will  not  be 
made  to  Carl  Vogt,  one  of  the  champions  of 
evolution  and  of  free  thought.  Now  Carl 
Vogt  protests  still  more  energetically  than 
Gratiolet  against  the  pretended  similarities 
of  the  human  embyro,  and  that  of  the 
lower  animals.  "It  has  been  supposed," 
he  says,  "  that  the  embryos  must  run 
through  in  abridgment,  the  same  phases 
which  the  stratum  has  run  through  during 
its  development  in  the  geological  epochs. 
This  law,  which  I  long  believed  to  be  well 
founded,  is  absolutely  false  in  its  basis. 
An  attentive  study  of  embryology  proves, 
indeed,  that  the  embryos  have  certain  har- 
mony, although  very  different  from  those 
of  adults."  For  example,  the  professor  of 
Geneva  quotes  the  alleged  form  of  fish 
which  the  embryo  of  the  mammifer  tem- 
porarily assumes,  and  he  remarks  that  "  a 
similar  being  could  not  live,"  seeing  that 
the  embryo  has  in  this  state  "  neither  in- 
testines, nor  locomotive  organs,  nor  brain, 
nor  organs  of  the  senses  proper  to  the  ex- 
ercise of  their  functions."  {'■'■  Revue  Sci- 
entifique,'"  Oct.  i6th,  1886.) 

Those,  therefore,  who  have  claimed  that 
the  human  embryo  represents  by  turns  the 


different  groups  of  the  animal  series,  com- 
mencing with  the  zo-ophites,  have  been 
greatly  deceived.  Undoubtedly,  there  is 
progression  in  the  foetal  life ;  consequently, 
there  is  a  passage  through  a  series  of  phases 
which  remind  us  of  the  ascending  ladder 
we  remark  in  nature ;  but  the  human 
being  has  never  an  identical  resemblance 
with  any  other  being.  Besides,  if  such 
were  the  reality,  we  might  ask  what  would 
this  prove  from  the  point  of  view  of  man's 
origin.  What  necessary  relation  is  there 
between  these  transitory  states  and  the 
alleged  phases  through  which  our  species 
might  have  passed  anteriorly.?  One  would 
be  so  much  the  less  authorized  to  conclude 
from  the  one  to  the  other,  because  by  the 
avowal  of  an  evolutionist  who  is  at  the 
same  time  an  eminent  geologist,  Albert 
Gaudry,  "  paleontology,  which  must  be 
questioned  first  in  such  matters,  is  not  far 
from  having  furnished  the  proof  that  the 
mammifer  does  not  descend  from  the  rep- 
tile, nor  the  reptile  from  the  fish." 

3.  The  rudimentary  organs  will  not  de- 
tain us  long.  We  may  say  of  these  organs 
what  we  have  said  of  the  pretended  embry- 
onic phases  :  they  have  neither  the  impor- 
tance nor  the  significance  attributed  to 
them.  Their  presence  in  man  is  explained 
by  the  simple  consideration  that  all  organ- 
ized beings  are  subject  to  the  same  physio- 
logical laws. 

The  argument  which  they  oppose  to  us 
has  the  defect  of  proving  too  much.  The 
rudimentary  organs  are  so  numerous  and 
of  such  a  different  nature  in  man,  and  they 
resemble  in  this  respect  so  many  animals 
in  which  they  have  their  complete  devel- 
opment, that,  if  they  were  to  suppose  an 
identity  of  origin,  we  would  have  to  con- 
clude that  man  has  passed  anteriorly 
through  all  the  classes  of  the  vertebrates. 
Now,  who  will  believe,  for  instance,  that 
he  counts  birds  among  his  ancestors,  be- 
cause he  possesses  in  the  embryonic  state 
the  nictitate  membrane.?  One  would  arrive 
at  stranger  consequences  were  he  to  pre- 
tend to  see  in  these  rudiments  a  remnant 
of  organs  developed  and  utilized  in  a  prior 
state.  The  atrophied  breasts  which  males 
possess  in  the  class  of  the  mammifera  are 
certainly  rudimentary  organs  and  the 
most  striking  of  all.  Must  we  conclude 
from  this  that  formerly  the  males  were 
females.?  These  rudimentary  organs  are 
common  to  all  animals  and  until  now  it 
never  entered  anyone's  mind  to  see  in 
them   traces   of  an   anterior  state.     So  it 


Man 


438 


Man 


is  that  the  embryo  of  the  whale  is  pos- 
sessed of  teeth  which  never  succeed  in 
piercing  the  gums.  It  is  the  same  with 
the  incisors  with  which  the  calf  is  pro- 
vided in  the  foetal  state.  Does  this  mean 
that  the  whale  and  the  bull  passed  through 
anterior  states  in  which  they  were  pro- 
vided with  teeth  of  which  they  are  de- 
prived to-day.?  Evolutionists  themselves 
would  hardly  dare  to  assert  this. 

The  olecranial  perforation  of  the  hu- 
merus alleged  by  Darwin  has  not,  in  every 
case,  the  significance  which  the  English 
naturalist  attaches  to  it.  According  to 
an  unprejudiced  anthropologist,  George 
Herve,  it  cannot  be  looked  upon  as  a  simian 
characteristic  peculiar  to  certain  inferior 
races.  "  We  meet  with  it  as  often  among 
the  higher  races  as  among  the  lower  races, 
and  its  existence  is  every  whit  as  variable 
as  among  the  animals."  The  same  author 
elsewhere  says  that  this  perforation  is  much 
more  rare  in  the  Merovingian  sepulchres 
than  in  the  modern  sepulchres.  It  is,  there- 
fore, false  to  say,  as  do  most  of  the  evolu- 
tionists, that  it  is  so  much  the  more  frequent 
as  we  draw  nearer  the  beginning  of  man- 
kind. Like  the  phases  of  the  embryonic 
life,  the  rudimentary  organs  prove  once 
more  that  a  general  plan  has  presided  at 
the  creation.  They  do  not  prove  anything 
else. 

So  we  see  that  of  all  the  arguments  al- 
leged by  Darwin  in  support  of  his  thesis, 
none  has  the  force  which  their  author  at- 
tributes to  them.  We  need  not  be  surprised 
then,  that  the  work  which  contained  the 
development  thereof,  the  treatise  on  the 
Descent  of  Man,  caused  a  certain  disap- 
pointment among  the  evolutionists.  "  We 
imagined  that  this  work  would  be  of  much 
greater  importance,"  wrote  an  admirer  of 
the  English  naturalist  shortly  after  its  pub- 
lication. "  We  would  not  be  candid  with 
our  readers  if  we  did  not  confess  that  these 
volumes  are  in  no  respect  comparable  to 
any  of  the  preceding  books  of  Mr.  Dar- 
win. ...  In  regard  to  the  origin  of 
man,  they  contain  less  than  we  had  ex- 
pected, and  the  proofs  brought  forward  in 
support  of  that  thesis  are  hardly  stronger 
than  those  we  knew  before."  ("The  Popu- 
lar Science  Review,"  July,  1871.) 

There  would  have  been  for  Darwin  an- 
other means  of  proving  his  thesis,  namely, 
to  point  out  in  the  superficial  strata  of  the 
earth  the  fossil  skeleton  of  one  of  these  an- 
thropoids who  were,  according  to  his  the- 
ory, the  precursors  of  our  species.     The 


famous  naturalist  was  careful  not  to  have 
recourse  to  this  argument.  He  knew  very 
well  that  paleontology  has  revealed  noth- 
ing of  this  sort.  He  does  not  even  dare  to 
put  the  question,  for  fear  that  the  answer 
might  prove  fatal  to  his  system.  Is  it  not 
strange,  indeed,  that  none  of  the  numerous 
links  which,  according  to  this  system, 
ought  to  connect  man  to  the  lower  animals 
has  thus  far  been  found,  and  that  the  ad- 
herents of  the  animal  origin  of  our  species 
are  reduced  to  the  necessity  of  making  our 
more  or  less  simian  precursors  live  on 
some  ancient  continent  submerged  to-day.? 
What  are  we  to  think  of  a  theory  which, 
in  order  to  support  itself,  appeals  to  the 
unknown,  and  is  based  only  on  conjectures 
and  wholly  gratuitous  hypotheses? 

Evolutionists  flattered  themselves,  for 
a  time,  that  they  had  discovered  one  of 
these  precious  links  so  ardently  desired, 
but  looked  for  in  vain.  The  ver}'  incom- 
plete remains  of  a  large  monkey  had  been 
discovered  in  1856  in  the  south  of  France. 
The  paleontologist,  Edward  Lartet,  found 
in  this  anthropoid,  which  was  named 
Dryopithecus,  characteristics  superior  to 
those  of  the  existing  anthropoids.  It  was 
hastily  concluded  that  one  of  the  ancestors 
of  man  had  at  length  beeen  discovered. 
Unfortunately  for  the  theorists  of  the  evo- 
lutionary school,  a  jawbone  of  the  same 
animal,  more  complete  and  better  pre- 
served than  the  preceding,  was  recently 
discovered  in  the  Miocene  layers  of  Saint- 
Gaudens,  France.  Albert  Gaudry,  to 
whom  it  was  sent,  and  who  minutely  de- 
scribed it  in  a  learned  memoir  read  before 
the  Geological  Society  of  France,  does  not 
hesitate  to  acknowledge  that  the  animal  to 
which  it  belonged  was  very  inferior  to  the 
present  large  monkeys.  Gaudry' s  avowal 
has  so  much  the  more  merit  because  in  a 
previous  publication  he  had  expressed  the 
idea  that  perhaps  it  was  to  the  Dryopithe- 
cus  we  owe  the  shape  of  flints,  apparently 
hand-worked,  which  were  discovered  in 
the  Tertiary  grounds.  "  To-day,  having 
become  a  little  less  ignorant,"  he  adds, 
with  a  frankness  that  honors  the  learned 
paleontologist,  "  I  would  not  make  use  of 
the  same  language.  To  judge  from  the 
state  of  our  knowledge,  there  was  not  in 
Europe,  in  the  Tertiary  times,  either  a  man 
or  any  creature  that  resembled  him 
Since  the  Dryopithecus  is  the  most  ele- 
vated of  the  large  fossil  monkeys  discov- 
ered until  now,  we  have  to  acknowledge 
that   paleontology   has  not  yet  furnished 


Man 


439 


Man 


any  indication  of  the  connecting  link  be- 
tween man  and  the  animals." 

Thus,  we  see,  the  missing  link  is  still  to 
be  discovered.  The  progress  of  anthro- 
pology, instead  of  giving  us  any  hope  of 
finding  it  some  day,  authorizes  us  more 
and  more  to  doubt  its  existence.  Some 
anthropologists  very  favorable  to  the 
Darwinian  theory  readily  acknowledge 
this.  "  In  1869,"  says  one  of  them,  "  it 
appeared  that  nothing  could  be  easier 
than  to  prove  the  descent  of  man  from  an 
ape  or  from  some  other  mammifer.  We 
have  been  forced  to  lessen  our  hopes 
a  good  deal,  and  at  the  present  hour  we 
do  not  see  even  the  possibility  of  ever  es- 
tablishing the  descent  of  the  races  from 
one  another.  As  to  the  precursor  of  man, 
he  is  an  hypothesis  more  than  ever;  and 
we  know  now  that  the  men  of  the  prehis- 
toric ages  no  more  resembled  the  apes 
than  the  present  races."  (Leon  Laloy,  in 
the  ^^  Antkropologie^'  August,  1890.) 

Logic,  would  require,  perhaps,  to  re- 
nounce forever  the  Darwinian  theory;  but 
then  it  would  be  necessary  to  bow  down 
before  the  fact  of  creation,  and  this  con- 
cession is  repugnant  to  modern  rationalism. 
But,  at  least,  let  them  not  impose  upon  us 
in  the  name  of  science  a  theory  which 
science  condemns ! 

It  is  not  only  paleontology  that  is  op- 
posed to  the  evolutionary  system  as  applied 
to  our  species,  but  the  principle  itself  of 
the  Darwinian  evolution.  An  intimate 
friend  of  Darwin,  Mr.  Wallace  has  ac- 
knowledged this.  "Of  itself  alone,"  he 
says,  "  natural  selection,  which  is  the  basis 
of  this  system,  is  unable  to  explain  the 
animal  origin  of  man."  And  he  proves 
this.  Undoubtedly,  selection,  explains  the 
development  and  preservation  of  charac- 
teristics having  an  immediate  and  personal 
usefulness ;  but  all  the  changes  which  man 
has  experienced  in  the  Darwinian  hy- 
pothesis, in  order  to  pass  from  the  simian 
state  to  the  present  state,  were  not  of  this 
nature.  Some  of  them  were  useless  or 
even  harmful.  What  advantage  had,  for 
instance,  the  anthropopithecus  that  gave 
rise  to  man  in  ridding  himself  of  the 
shaggy  integument  that  covered  him? 
"  Fur  protects  the  individual  against  rain 
and  cold.  ...  It  would  have  been  very 
useful  for  the  savage  to  be  protected  in 
this  way.  This  is  so  true  that  the  most 
degraded  peoples  have  invented  some  kind 
of  garment  to  cover  themselves.  .  .  . 
Therefore,  natural  selection  has   not  pro- 


duced the  nakedness  of  the  body  of  man." 
{Contributions  to  the  Theory  of  Natural 
Selection.) 

We  can  say  the  same,  after  Wallace,  of 
the  hand  and  larynx,  which  in  the  savage 
present  a  perfection  that  is  not  in  harmony 
with  the  conclusion  Darwin  draws,  and 
hence  cannot  be  explained  by  natural  se- 
lection. So  in  regard  to  the  transforma- 
tion of  the  hind-hand  of  the  ape  into  a  foot. 
This  transformation  is  far  from  being  a 
progress.  It  would  have  been  very  useful 
to  the  savage  to  have  kept  this  hind-hand, 
whose  disappearance  it  is  very  difficult  to 
explain  by  natural  selection. 

In  order  to  give  an  account  of  the  acqui- 
sition of  the  characteristics  of  this  nature, 
Mr.  Wallace  is  obliged  to  have  recourse  to 
an  artificial  selection,  whose  agent  would 
have  been  a  "  superior  being,"  of  which  he 
does  not  give  a  clear  explanation,  but 
which  would  have  "  guided  the  march  of 
the  human  species  in  a  definite  direction 
and  for  a  special  end,  just  as  man  guides 
that  of  many  animal  and  vegetable  forms." 
Mr.  Wallace  hereby  acknowledges  with 
de  Quatrefages  that  it  is  impossible  to 
explain  the  appearance  of  our  species 
"without  going  outside  of  the  exclusively 
scientific  domain,  that  is  to  say,  in  adher- 
ing to  what  experiment  and  observation 
teach."  Under  such  circumstances,  is  it 
not  best  to  return  to  the  traditional  belief 
based  upon  the  Biblical  account  of  the 
creation .? 

II.  Social  State  of  the  First  Man. 
—  Science  does  not  prove  that  man  sprang 
from  a  lower  being.  It  does  not  even 
prove,  whatever  the  evolutionary  school 
may  say,  that  the  first  men  were  savages. 
In  support  of  its  assertion  this  school 
pleads:  i.  The  rudeness  of  the  primitive 
implements.  2.  The  more  or  less  simian 
conformation  of  some  human  skeletons 
regarded  as  the  most  ancient.  Let  us  fol- 
low it  on  this  double  ground. 

I.  Rudeness  of  the  Primitive  Ijnple- 
ments.  —  It  is  very  true  that  the  imple- 
ments of  the  first  inhabitants  of  Western 
Europe,  the  only  ones  of  which  there  is 
question  here,  were  far  from  being  like 
ours.  Their  tools  in  use  were  exclusively 
of  stone,  bone,  or  wood.  No  metal  was 
known  at  that  time  and  none  was  em- 
ployed. 

What  we  may  question  is  that  this  stone 
age  forcibly  supposes  an  absolute  state  of 
savagery.  The  absence  of  metals  is  not 
incompatible  with  a  certain  degree  of  civi- 


Man 


440 


Man 


lization.  Ethnography  offers  more  than 
one  example  of  a  similar  association.  It 
shows  us  among  certain  peoples,  whose 
industry  is  the  most  rudimentary,  rela- 
tively elevated  moral  and  religious  ideas. 
No  people  is,  perhaps,  more  remarkable 
in  this  respect  than  the  Mincopies,  those 
^vage  inhabitants  of  the  Andaman  is- 
lands. Nothing  could  be  more  rudimen- 
tary than  their  industry,  which  is  reduced, 
saj's  Quatrefages,  to  the  exclusive  use  of 
wood,  shells  gathered  on  the  seashore, 
and  stone  split  in  the  fire.  They  are  in- 
finitely more  barbarous  from  this  point  of 
view  than  the  inhabitants  of  France  in  the 
Quaternary  epoch,  they  do  not  know  how- 
to  cut  stone  nor  to  kindle  the  fire  when 
once  extinguished.  And  nevertheless  they 
have  a  religion,  some  principles  of  mo- 
rality and  traditional  knowledge  that  raise 
them  far  above  the  most  savage  or  bar- 
barous people.  Far  from  living  in  a  state 
of  wholly  bestial  promiscuousness,  as  has 
been  alleged,  they  are  monogamists  and 
severely  moral.  As  to  their  belief  in  re- 
gard to  a  future  life  and  to  the  origin  of 
the  world  and  of  man,  it  comes  surpris- 
ingly near  to  the  Christian  doctrine  in 
this  respect.  We  can  say  the  same  of  the 
Negritos  of  the  peninsula  of  Malacca. 
They  also  know  how  to  unite  an  industry 
of  the  rudest  character  with  a  knowledge 
that  prevents  us  from  confounding  their 
state  with  real  savagery. 

If  it  is  thus  with  these  populations  taken, 
it  seems,  at  the  lowest  degree  of  the  social 
ladder,  with  much  more  reason  may  we  be- 
lieve that  the  barbarity  of  our  predecessors 
in  the  Quaternary  epoch  was  neither  so 
profound  nor  so  abject  as  some  would  have 
us  believe.  Their  industry  was,  indeed, 
far  superior  to  that  of  the  Mincopies.  At 
least  they  knew  how  to  work  the  stone, 
and  work  it  with  such  a  skill  that  we  could 
hardly  do  as  well  as  they  did,  even  with 
the  help  of  our  metal  instruments.  From 
a  lump  of  flint  or  quartz  they  formed  an 
ax,  a  knife,  a  saw,  a  scraper,  a  lance  point, 
or  an  arrow.  With  a  bone  they  made  har- 
poons, barbed  arrows,  bodkins,  even  nee- 
dles ;  which  proves  that  man  used  garments 
at  that  time.  His  industry  extended  still 
further.  According  to  need  he  became  an 
artist,  and  a  talented  one  at  that.  He  has 
left  to  us  in  different  localities  of  Europe, 
manifest  proofs  of  his  skill  as  an  engraver 
and  sculptor.  He  knew  how  to  represent 
with  great  precision  most  of  the  animals 
that  surrounded  him.     Some  of  these  pic- 


tures reveal  a  talent  for  imitation  of  which 
many  an  artist  in  our  day  would  be  proud. 
Certainly  there  is  nothing  in  all  this  that 
denotes  great  barbarity. 

It  is  true,  they  tell  us,  that  this  perfec- 
tioned  work  dates  only  from  the  late  Qua- 
ternary epoch,  and  that  we  must  not 
confound  it  with  the  very  rude  industry 
of  the  early  Quaternary  age.  To  this  we 
answer  that  the  oval  or  almond-shaped  axes 
of  the  earlier  epoch  are  already  superior 
to  the  stone  implements  in  use  among  cer- 
tain savage  populations,  such  as  the  Minco- 
pies. Moreover,  they  ^\nll  not  succeed  in 
convincing  us  that  the  man  who  manufac- 
tured them  was  reduced  to  this  sole  imple- 
ment, if  implement  it  was ;  for  we  are  still 
ignorant  to  what  use  they  were  devoted, 
and  ethnography  points  out  nothing  similar 
in  the  tools  of  the  savages  of  our  day.  If 
they  exist  alone  or  almost  alone  in  certain 
layers,  it  is  undoubtedly  because  they  were 
the  object  of  a  special  manufacture ;  but 
nothing  prevents  us  from  believing  that  in 
the  same  epoch,  in  a  neighboring  locality, 
they  worked  stone  in  a  different  manner. 
We  are  even  forced  to  admit  this  contem- 
poraneousness, at  least  for  some  of  the 
various  types  in  the  Quaternary  time,  if 
we  do  not  wish  to  be  forced  to  the  impos- 
sible consequence  of  admitting  that  man 
had  hardly  more  than  one  instrument  at 
his  disposition :  first  the  ax,  then  the 
scraper,  the  arrow,  and  finally  the  knife. 
Just  as  if  he  had  to  pass  through  three  long 
periods  before  discovering  that  a  blade 
of  flint  could  be  used  for  a  cutting  instru- 
ment! 

It  is  best,  then,  to  consider  all  the 
products  of  human  industry  in  the  Qua- 
ternary time  as  about  contemporaneous. 
Now,  viewed  thus  as  a  whole,  these  imple- 
ments leave  far  behind  those  of  the  most 
of  the  savages  of  our  time.  From  this  we 
have  to  conclude  that  man  in  this  epoch 
was  superior  to  them  morally  and  socially. 
The  very  fact  that  this  man  progressed, 
that  he  triumphed  in  his  struggle  against 
the  animals  that  surrounded  him,  that  he 
developed  his  tools  and  his  industry,  alone 
proves  that  he  was  not  an  absolute  savage. 
Even  E.  Renan  admits  this,  and  all  his- 
tory attests  that  no  people  have  by  them- 
selves succeeded  in  developing  from  a 
savage  state.  We  may  say  that  the  primi- 
tive man  was  a  barbarian,  but  we  may  not 
call  him  a  savage. 

After  all,  we  cannot  judge  of  the  state 
of  the  really  primitive  man  from  that  of 


Man 


441 


Man 


man  in  the  Quaternary  epoch  in  Western 
Europe,  for  this  would  be  going  against 
all  traditions  and  probabilities,  even 
against  the  deductions  of  linguistics,  eth- 
nography, and  the  natural  sciences,  by 
pretending  that  mankind  took  its  rise  in 
Europe.  It  cannot  be  questioned  that 
mankind  comes  from  Asia.  If,  therefore, 
we  wish  to  judge  of  man's  social  state,  his 
nature,  and  his  industry  in  the  times  that 
immediately  followed  his  appearance,  it  is 
thither  we  must  go  to  study  him.  Now, 
to  our  knowledge  it  happened  only  once 
that  there  was  established  on  Asiatic  soil 
the  clearly  marked  superposition  of  differ- 
ent industries-,  this  was  at  Hissarlik,  on 
the  supposed  site  of  ancient  Troy.  Schlie- 
mann,  the  author  of  the  famous  excava- 
tions, tells  us  that  he  found  superposed 
ruins  of  seven  distinct  civilizations.  Now, 
far  from  there  being  progress  from  the 
bottom  to  the  top,  just  the  contrary  took 
place,  at  least  starting  from  the  second 
layer.  This  discovery,  to  which  the  evo- 
lutionists affected  to  close  their  eyes,  is 
nevertheless  one  of  the  most  significant. 
It  alone  gives  us  a  truer  idea  of  the  gen- 
eral march  of  civilization  than  all  the  dis- 
coveries that  have  been  made  in  the  West, 
not  only  because  it  shows  more  superposed 
industries,  but  also  because  being  nearer 
to  the  cradle  of  mankind,  it  necessarily 
dips  deeper  into  the  past,  and  traces  the 
customs  of  a  people  that  we  can  properly 
consider  as  primitive,  on  account  of  their 
proximity  to  the  place  which  saw  the  first 
appearance  of  our  species. 

2.  Nature  of  the  Human  Fossils.  — 
The  rudeness  of  the  implements  in  the 
Quaternary  time  does  not,  therefore,  prove 
that  the  first  man  was  a  mere  savage,  and 
much  less  that  he  had  an  animal  origin,  as 
the  Darwinian  school  would  have  us  be- 
lieve. Does  the  nature  of  the  fossil  human 
remains  prove  this  any  more  clearly .? 

The  number  of  human  bones  that  merit 
the  name  oi  fossils, —  that  is,  those  which 
go  back  at  least  to  the  Quaternary  time, — 
is  far  from  being  so  considerable  as 
was  claimed  at  the  beginning  of  the  pre- 
historic studies  Even  those  who  claim 
that  man,  or  rather  his  precursor,  comes 
down  from  the  Tertiary  epoch,  acknowl- 
edge that  they  have  not  yet  discovered  any 
human  remains  dating  back  authentically 
to  this  epoch.  This,  however,  did  not 
hinder  them  from  describing  minutely 
and  dividing  into  distinct  species  that 
Tertiary  ancestor  whom  they  have  deco- 


rated with  the  name  Anthrofopithecus. 
For  those  who,  like  ourselves,  keep 
strictly  to  the  facts,  there  can  be  question 
only  of  a  Quaternary  man. 

We  could  quote  at  least  forty  localities 
where  they  discovered  human  skeletons, 
or  fragments  thereof,  apparently  going 
back  to  the  Quaternary  time.  Unfortu- 
nately, the  most  of  these  human  remains 
had,  in  the  eyes  of  the  evolutionists,  the 
defect  of  too  much  resemblance  to  the 
present  man.  For  this  reason,  M.  de 
Mortillet  has  thrown  out  three-fourths 
of  them.  He  retained  only  nine,  natu- 
rally those  which  had  the  desired  forms 
and  tended  to  confirm  the  animal  origin 
of  man .  The  pieces  on  which  he  has  be- 
stowed this  honor  comprise  six  skulls,  two 
jawbones,  and  nearly  an  entire  skeleton. 
The  skulls  were  found  at  Cannstatt,(Wurt- 
temberg),  at  Neanderthal  (Rhenish  Prus- 
sia), at  Eguisheim  (Alsace),  at  Brux 
(Bohemia),  at  Denise  (France),  and  in  the 
trench  of  Olmo  (Italy) ;  the  jawbones,  in 
the  grottos  of  Naulette  (Belgium),  and  at 
Arcy-sur-Cure  (France) ;  finally  the  skele- 
ton, at  Laugerie- Basse  (France).  Let  us 
throw  a  glance  on  each  of  these  precious 
remains  and  consider  both  their  authen* 
ticity  and  form. 

The  skull  of  Cannstatt,  the  oldest  col- 
lected, because  its  discovery  goes  back  to 
the  year  1700,  was  found  in  the  locality  of 
this  name,  near  Stuttgart,  together,  they 
tell  us,  with  bones  of  the  elephant,  bear, 
and  hyena.  The  evolutionists,  who  ap- 
plauded it  on  account  of  its  passably  rude 
form,  are  obliged  to  acknowledge  that 
there  are  serious  doubts  as  to  its  authen- 
ticity. "  It  is  now  believed  at  Stuttgart," 
writes  an  admirer  of  de  Mortillet,  Ph. 
Salmon,  "  that  it  was  not  in  the  bosom  of 
the  Quaternary  grounds,  but  among  the 
rubbish  of  the  clilT  with  some  pottery  that 
it  was  discovered."  Now  it  is  an  estab- 
lished fact,  in  prehistoric  matters,  that 
pottery  was  yet  unknown  in  the  Quater- 
nary epoch.  The  result  is  that  we  must 
discard  the  skull  of  Cannstatt,  because  it 
is  agreed  that  we  must  take  into  consider- 
ation only  those  whose  authenticity  is  un- 
questioned. M.  de  Mortillet  was  not  far 
from  acknowledging  this  when,  in  opposi- 
tion to  M.  de  Quatrefages,  he  refused  to 
make  it  the  type  of  the  primitive  race,  and 
reserved  this  honor  to  the  skull  of  Nean- 
derthal. 

Does  the  Quaternary  origin  of  the  latter 
offer  a  greater  guarantee  ?     We  are  at  lib- 


Man 


442 


Man 


erty  to  doubt  this.  It  was  found  in  1856, 
near  Diisseldorf,  in  a  clayey  alluvion 
which,  they  tell  us,  has  furnished  some  re- 
mains of  Quaternary  species.  It  is  possible; 
but  it  is  well  to  add  that  they  have  also 
found  polished  stones  in  the  same  alluvion ; 
something  which  tends  to  refer  it  to  the 
present  period.  Moreover,  nothing  proves 
that  we  have  not  to  do  with  an  ordinary 
tomb.  The  corpse,  to  which  the  skull  be- 
longed, was  lying,  regularly  stretched  out, 
only  two  feet  deep,  like  that  of  a  buried 
person.  Now,  if  there  is  question  of  a 
burial,  the  association  with  fossil  species 
proves  nothing.  Even  to-day  we  some- 
times bury  our  dead  in  grounds  rich  in 
fossils  of  different  geological  periods. 
Shall  the  future  inquirer,  who  establishes 
this  association,  be  authorized  to  deduce 
therefrom  the  contemporaneity  of  man  and 
the  animal  species,  the  debris  of  which  ac- 
company his  own? 

Hence,  we  might  refuse  to  accept  the 
skull  of  Neanderthal  as  well  as  that  of 
Cannstatt.  But  suppose  we  acknowledge 
its  authenticity.  What  must  we  conclude 
from  this.?  It  is  true  that  the  forehead  is 
straight,  the  cranial  cavity  elliptic  and  very 
long,  the  bones  quite  thick,  and  the  super- 
ciliary arches  remarkably  prominent ;  but 
there  is  nothing  to  prove  that  this  skull  is 
not  pathological,  as  was  believed  at  the 
beginning.  If  to-day  it  is  considered  nor- 
mal, it  is  because  there  have  been  found 
the  same  characteristics  in  different  his- 
torical personages  and  in  a  certain  number 
of  our  contemporaries  whose  intelligence 
is  at  least  equal  to  the  average.  In  its  ca- 
pacity, the  skull  of  Neanderthal  is  superior 
to  the  skulls  of  the  Australians,  and  at- 
tains almost  the  average  of  female  skulls. 
Whatever  its  age  may  be,  the  skull  of  Ne- 
anderthal has  nothing  simian,  and  the 
evolutionary  school  has  to  look  somewhere 
else  for  the  missing  link  which  it  claims 
exists  between  man  and  beast. 

We  shall  pass  rapidly  over  the  skulls  of 
Eguisheim,  Brux,  Denise,  and  Olmo. 
They  disclose  nearly  the  same  character- 
istics as  the  preceding,  and  their  authen- 
ticity is  almost  always  open  to  discussion. 
The  first  was  found,  it  is  true,  in  a  clayey 
alluvion,  which  appears  to  be  Quaternary. 
However,  they  have  discovered  in  this 
same  clay,  and  at  a  considerable  depth, 
three  corpses,  of  which  one  at  least  must 
have  been  buried ;  for  it  carried  on  the 
breast  a  vase  covered  with  a  stone,  and 
near  it  were  found  other  vases  of  the  same 


kind,  as  well  as  an  ax  of  polished  stone. 
The  burial,  pottery,  and  polished  stone 
are,  according  to  the  teaching  of  the 
school,  so  many  indications  of  the  present 
period.  Undoubtedly,  it  will  be  claimed 
that  the  presence  of  these  objects'  at  the 
same  depth  is  due  to  a  disturbance  of  the 
ground;  but  why  do  they  exclude  the 
skull  of  Eguisheim  from  this  interference.? 

The  same  uncertainty  exists  in  regard  to 
the  skull  of  Brux.  The  report  which  made 
it  known  to  us,  and  which  dates  only  from 
1872,  expressly  states  that,  in  the  alluvion 
where  it  lay,  there  was  found  an  ax  of 
polished  stone.  As  they  do  not  note  any 
other  Quaternary  species  in  this  layer,  we 
are  permitted  to  call  in  question  the  date 
they  have  assigned  to  it. 

The  skull  and  other  human  bones  dis- 
covered since  1844  in  a  volcanic  tufa,  near 
Puy,  are  probably  less  ancient  than  the 
preceding.  Nobody  believes  to-day,  as 
they  did  formerly,  that  they  are  contem- 
porary with  the  mastodon.  The  volcanic 
tufa  in  which  they  were  incased,  so  to  say, 
is  evidently  very  recent,  because  it  sur- 
mounts Quaternary  alluvions.  They  may 
be  even  posterior  to  the  formation  of  the 
tufa,  and,  consequently,  may  be  due  to  tlie 
last  volcanic  eruptions  of  the  Denise.  Two 
competent  geologists,  Herbert  and  Lartet, 
who  visited  the  locality  in  1857,  believed 
they  could  recognize  therein  the  traces  of 
a  tomb.  Whatever  their  nature  may  be, 
these  bones  cannot  give  us  any  useful  in- 
formation about  the  question  of  man's 
origin. 

There  remains  the  skull  found  in  1863,  in 
the  trench  of  Olmo,  near  Arezzo,  Italy. 
This  time  the  authenticity  cannot  be  ques- 
tioned, for  it  was  found  at  a  depth  of  150 
feet,  and  in  the '  neighborhood  of  bones 
with  animal  characteristics  of  the  Qiiater- 
nary  times.  We  have  less  reason  to  con- 
test it,  because,  according  to  de  Mortillet, 
this  skull  has  none  of  the  simian  features 
which  he  attributes  to  the  primitive  man. 
The  form  is  elongated,  it  is  true,  but  this 
form,  the  dolicJiocephalous,  agrees  very 
well  with  a  developed  intelligence. 

Are  the  simian  characteristics,  so  ar- 
dently sought  for  by  the  evolutionists, 
found  any  better  in  the  jawbone,  discov- 
ered in  1865,  in  the  cave  of  Naulette,  Bel- 
gium.? This  was  the  belief  for  quite  a 
while,  but  it  is  no  longer  so.  The  jaw- 
bone found  in  1859,  in  the  grotto  or  Arcy- 
sur-Cure,  France,  cannot  detain  us;  for, 
according  to  the  avowal  of  de  Mortillet, 


Man 


443 


Man 


the  simian  characteristics  hardly  reveal 
themselves.  The  chief  of  the  prehistoric 
school,  also  refers  it  to  the  last  part  or  the 
Quaternary  epoch.  The  last  piece  which 
de  Mortillet  attributes  to  the  Quaternary 
times,  is  a  skeleton  discovered  in  1872, 
near  Laugerie-Basse,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Vezere.  This  time  de  Mortillet  is  prudent 
enough  not  to  draw  any  conclusion  in  re- 
gard to  the  primitive  man,  and  he  is  right, 
for  the  skull  has  been  completely  crushed 
by  the  fall  of  a  rock,  and  it  is  impossible 
to  construct  its  form. 

We  have  exhausted  the  list  of  fossil  hu- 
man bones,  acknowledged  as  such  by  the 
chief  representative  of  prehistoric  science. 
From  the  rapid  examination  we  have  made 
it  follows  that  the  authenticity  of  the  most 
of  them  is  debatable ;  in  none  of  them  do  we 
find  the  simian  features  predominating. 
The  skulls  of  to-day  do  not  indicate  more 
perfect  beings  than  those  of  the  Quater- 
nary times.  The  adherents  of  the  animal 
origin  of  our  species  will  have  to  stop  ap- 
pealing to  human  paleontology  in  support 
of  their  system.  "  The  Quaternary  man," 
says  Quatrefages,  "  has  always  been  man 
in  the  full  sense  of  the  word." 

III.  Age  of  Man  According  to  Pre- 
historic Archeology.  —  "Man  ap- 
peared in  Europe  at  the  beginning  of  the 
Quaternary  age,  that  is,  at  least  230,000  to 
240,000  years  ago."  That  is  what  we  read 
in  a  book  written  by  M.  de  Mortillett,  one 
of  the  chiefs  and  founders  of  prehistoric 
science.  So  we  see  that  we  are  far  from 
the  Biblical  chronology.  Elastic  as  this 
chronology  may  be,  and  liberal  as  we  may 
be  in  its  interpretation,  we  cannot  stretch 
it  to  this  measure.  M.  de  Mortillet  is 
only  logical  when  he  laughs  at  those  who 
continue  "  to  teach  religiously  that  Adam 
was  the  first  man."  If  our  species  goes 
back  as  far  as  he  affirms,  we  have  to  ac- 
knowledge that  the  Bible  is  in  error. 
The  person  whom  it  presents  to  us  as  the 
father  of  mankind  can  be  at  most  only  the 
father  of  the  Jewish  people,  who  in  his 
pride  made  himself,  they  say,  the  father  of 
the  entire  human  race. 

Happily  the  chronological  calculations 
of  de  Mortillet  do  not  command  our  as- 
sent. Even  many  of  his  adherents  do  not 
accept  them  as  serious.  The  most  author- 
itative scholars  of  prehistoric  science  do  not 
hesitate  to  acknowledge  that  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  determine  with  any  exactness  the 
date  of  the  appearance  of  man.  They  are 
not  less   in   agreement   as   to  the  insuffi- 


ciency of  the  traditional  chronology,  in 
view  of  the  discoveries  recently  made  in 
the  domain  of  natural  sciences. 

We  are  of  quite  a  different  opinion.  If 
there  were  any  reason  to  set  back  for  some 
thousand  years  the  date  of  the  creation 
of  man,  it  would  be»  history  that  would 
oblige  us  to  do  so,  and  not  geology  nor 
prehistoric  archaeology.  Egyptian  chro- 
nology, uncertain  as  it  may  be  in  its  begin- 
ning, take  us  back  to  three  or  four  thou- 
sand years  before  our  era,  that  is,  to  a  date 
anterior  to  that  which  most  of  the  calcula- 
tions based  upon  the  Bible  attribute  to  the 
Deluge.  Therefore,  unless  we  accept  the 
Egyptian  people  from  the  diluvian  cata- 
clysm, as  has  been  proposed,  and  place 
before  the  Deluge  the  first  pharaonic  dy- 
nasties, which  is  hardly  admissible,  we 
must  necessarily  increase  the  interval  com- 
prised between  Noah  and  Abraham.  What- 
ever may  be  said  of  it,  neither  geology  nor 
prehistoric  archaeology  has  any  such  need. 
Let  us  briefly  show  this. 

We  know  that  the  geologists  have  di- 
vided the  history  of  the  globe  into  four 
great  epochs,  of  very  unequal  durations, 
which  they  have  called,  according  to  their 
order :  Primary,  Secondary,  Tertiary,  and 
Quaternary.  Their  duration,  impossible 
to  figure  in  number  of  years,  diminishes 
very  rapidly  from  the  first  to  the  last.  It 
is  from  this  point  of  view  that  the  Quater- 
nary period  hardly  merits  to  enter  into 
comparison  with  the  preceding  ones,  so 
short  has  it  been.  It  is  mostly  in  France 
that  they  have  ranked  it  as  one  of  the 
great  geological  epochs.  The  English 
have  made  of  it  a  kind  of  supplement  to 
the  Pliocene  period,  the  third  part  of  the 
Tertiary  epoch,  and  consequently  have 
called  it  Postplioce.ne.  Certainly  this  term 
better  indicates  its  real  place  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  globe  than  the  word  Quater- 
nary. 

In  which  of  these  epochs  did  man  ap- 
pear? Everybody  admits  that  it  was 
neither  in  the  Primary  nor  the  Secondary 
epoch ;  thereby  recognizing  already  the 
recent  date  of  his  advent,  seeing  that  these 
two  epochs  together  constitute,  perhaps, 
nine-tenths  of  the  geological  times.  The 
doubt  begins  in  the  Tertiary  epoch.  Some 
geologists,  endowed  with  a  lively  imagi- 
nation, have  pretended  to  discover  in  the 
Miocene  strata,  which  represent  the  mid- 
dle part  of  this  epoch,  artificially  cut 
flints.  The  Abb6  Bourgeois  set  the  ball 
rolling  by  labeling  the  many  flints  he  had 


Man 


444 


Man 


found  in  Thenay  as  the  workmanship  of 
the  Tertiary  man.  At  first  he  succeeded 
in  enlisting  several  men  of  science  on  his 
side ;  but  the  matter,  on  investigation,  be- 
came so  thickly  enveloped  in  the  mists  of 
doubt  that  it  vanished  at  last  in  utter  im- 
probability. The  reputed  works  of  art, 
with  indented  surfaces,  are  more  likely 
shapeless  works  of  nature.  Again,  other 
flints,  lances,  arrowheads,  spears,  and  the 
like,  found  in  St.  Prest,  probably  belong 
to  a  later  formation.  To  determine  the 
age  of  objects  found  in  mud  or-  sand  de- 
posits is  most  difficult,  as  they  may  easily 
have  been  buried  subsequently  at  a  greater 
depth.  In  like  manner  man's  handiwork 
in  conjunction  with  natural  causes  may 
have  shifted  the  deposit.  Moreover  no 
standard  is  at  hand  for  gauging  the  time 
of  the  deposits  in  the  several  periods. 
Recent  researches,  even  in  the  much 
lauded  Somme  valley,  have  shown  that 
the  layers  of  sand  were  formed  in  historic 
times.  Furthermore,  it  was  alleged  that 
droTving-s,  which  none  but  the  hand  of 
man  could  execute,  adorned  the  bones  of 
some  Tertiary  animals.  Bones,  too,  had 
been  produced  which  had  been  fractured, 
so  it  was  said,  by  the  hand  of  man.  Col- 
ored impressions  were  also  said  to  be 
distinctly  perceptible  on  the  bones  of  a 
petrified  Hipparion  recently  discovered  in 
Greece.  How  transparently  thin  these 
reasons  are,  he  who  runs  may  read.  On 
investigation,  it  turns  out  that  the  holes 
and  indentures  were  made  by  contem- 
porary' anin^als.  Many  of  the  alleged 
marks  and  drawings  are  accidental  chinks 
wrought  by  mechanical  causes. 

The  Tertiary  man  being  thus  out  of 
question,  there  remains  the  Quaternary 
man.  The  existence  of  the  latter  cannot 
be  questioned.  To  say  that  man  has  lived 
in  the  Quaternary  epoch  is  simply  to  ad- 
mit that  he  has  been  the  contemporary  of 
certain  animal  species  characteristic  to  this 
epoch,  such  as  the  mammoth  {Elepbas 
frimi^renius),  the  woolly  rhinoceros  {Rb. 
tichorrhinus),  the  cave  bears,  the  Irish 
stag,  and  even  the  reindeer  (  Cerz'us  taran- 
dus),  which  we  find  no  longer  except  in 
the  Arctic  regions,  but  which  at  that  time 
lived  in  the  temperate  zone.  Now,  remains 
of  these  animals  have  been  found  so  often, 
either  together  with  human  bones,  or  with 
the  rude  products  of  the  industry  of  the 
primitive  inhabitants,  that  the  contempo- 
raneity of  both  can  no  longer  be  ques- 
tioned.    The  fossil  man,  on  which  ortho- 


dox writers  made  war  for  a  long  time,  is 
therefore  a  reality.  The  Quaternary  epoch 
having  been  ranked,  rightly  or  wrongly, 
among  the  geological  times,  all  the  or- 
ganic remains  which  belong  to  it  deserve 
to  be  termed  fossils,  and  those  of  man 
form  no  exception  to  this  law. 

Only,  let  us  hasten  to  say  it,  to  admit 
that  man  exists  in  the  fossil  state  —  in 
other  words,  that  he  lived  in  the  Quater- 
nary epoch —  does  not  mean,  according  to 
our  view,  that  we  have  to  leave  the  confines 
of  traditional  chronology.  Indeed,  every- 
thing goes  to  show  that  the  animals  which 
characterize  the  Quaternary  epoch  have 
lived,  at  least  in  some  localities,  until  a  * 
very  recent  date,  approaching  that  of  the 
Christian  era.  Remains  of  the  mammoth 
have  been  found  in  European  countries  in 
quite  recent  formations,  for  instance,  in 
peat-moors,  which  are  usually  referred  to 
the  present  time.  This  animal  has  been 
found  in  Siberia  in  such  a  state  of  preser- 
vation that  the  dogs  ate  its  flesh.  The 
elephant,  mammoth,  or  otter,  still  existed 
in  the  north  of  Africa  and  in  the  region  of 
Ninive  in  historic  times,  and  Parthenopex 
of  Blois  maintains  that  the  latter  animal 
could  be  found  among  the  beasts  which 
formerly  inhabited  the  forests  of  Gaul. 
Caesar  describes  the  reindeer  as  having 
lived,  in  his  time,  in  the  Hercynian  forest, 
—  that  is,  on  the  shores  of  the  Rhine. 

It  is  an  error  to  believe  that  the  Quater- 
nary fauna  was  much  different  from  ours. 
In  fact,,  it  comprised  all  the  savage  animals 
that  surround  us,  together  with  some  spe- 
cies that  had  to  emigrate  on  account  of 
climatic  changes,  or  fell  under  the  strokes 
of  the  hunter,  or  succumbed  in  the  strug- 
gle for  life. 

Thus  we  see  that,  if  we  are  to  judge  by 
the  animals  that  characterize  it,  the  Quater- 
nary epoch  must  have  lasted  nearly  until 
the  Christian  era. 

It  is  true  that  it  has  some  other  charac- 
teristics, derived  from  climatology.  Who 
says  Quaternary'  epoch  says  Glacial  epoch, 
these  two  epochs  having  certainly  coin- 
cided, at  least  in  part.  At  that  time,  in- 
deed, the  glaciers  were  considerable  in 
extent,  and  the  water  courses  more  abun- 
dant than  in  our  day:  a  double  phenome- 
non which  might  have  been  due  to  the 
same  cause,  the  melting  of  the  ice  each 
summer  occasioning  immense  inundations, 
traces  of  which  still  exist.  But,  to  recover 
something  of  these  phenomena,  it  is  not 
necessary  to  go  back  so  far  in  the  past  as 


Man 


445 


Man 


one  might  believe.  History  permits  us  to 
have  quite  clear  glimpses  thereof.  Only 
fifteen  or  twenty  centuries  ago  the  winters 
were  a  good  deal  colder  than  they  are  at 
present.  Herodotus  describes  the  climate 
of  Scythia  in  terms  which  would  aptly  re- 
fer to-day  to  Lapland  and  Greenland.  He 
shows  us  this  country  completely  frozen 
during  eight  months  of  the  year,  and  the 
Black  Sea  frozen  to  such  a  degree  as  to 
carry  the  heaviest  wagonloads.  Aristotle 
and  others  after  him  tell  us  that  it  was  so 
cold  in  Gaul  that  the  ass  could  not  live 
there.  The  Latin  writers  insist  on  their 
part  on  the  rigors  of  the  Gaulish  climate, 
which  did  not  permit,  they  say,  either  the 
culture  of  the  olive  tree  or  that  of  the  vine. 
Virgil  shows  us  the  Danube  crossed  by 
teams,  and  the  inhabitants  of  these  misera- 
ble countries  retiring  into  caves,  clothed 
with  the  skin  of  wild  beasts.  Ovid,  who 
passed  several  years  in  the  region  of  the 
Danube,  shows  us  this  river  entirely  frozen 
at  its  mouth,  so  that  wagons  heavily  loaded 
could  cross  it.  He  adds  that  he  saw  wine 
frozen  in  the  bottles,  and  that  he  crossed 
over  the  ice  of  the  Black  Sea.  Afraid  of 
being  accused  of  exaggerating,  he  appeals 
to  the  testimony  of  two  former  governors 
of  Moesia,  who  could  also  establish  these 
facts. 

Italy  itself  did  not  have  at  that  time  its 
present  climate ;  at  least  the  Latin  writers 
speak  of  it  in  terms  that  would  not  be  true 
of  it  in  our  day.  They  speak  of  heaped- 
up  snow,  of  rivers  filled  with  floating  ice, 
of  hard  winters  that  split  stone  and  stopped 
the  course  of  rivers,  and  this  in  the  warm- 
est region  of  Italy,  at  the  foot  of  the  bul- 
warks of  Tarentum.  Such  a  picture  could 
be  applied  to-day,  at  most,  only  to  Central 
Europe. 

We  have  the  same  testimony  in  regard 
to  the  abundance  of  the  water  courses. 
Here  geology  joins  its  voice  with  that  of 
history  in  attesting  that  most  of  the  rivers 
had,  1,500  or  2,000  years  ago,  a  much 
larger  volume  of  water  than  they  have  at 
present.  Michael  Rossi  has  proved  this 
of  the  Tiber;  others  have  established  the 
same  fact  for  several  rivers  of  Europe,  of 
America,  and  Asia. 

Everything,  then,  goes  to  show,  both 
fauna  and  climatology  that  the  Quater- 
nary epoch  is  not  so  distant  from  our  times. 
As  to  its  duration  we  know  nothing;  but 
there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  it  was 
not  very  considerable.  However,  we  do 
not  need  to  know  it  as  far  as  regards  the 


question  that  occupies  us  here;  for,  ac- 
cording to  all  appearances,  man  did  not 
see  the  beginning  of  this  epoch.  He  did 
not  precede  the  glacial  period,  and  was 
not  even  a  contemporary  of  the  great 
dominance  of  the  glaciers.  Hence  his 
origin  is  comparatively  recent. 

In  support  of  the  vast  antiquity  of  the 
human  race,  they  also  appeal  to  tools, 
found  sometimes  at  a  considerable  depth. 
These  tools  have  been  classified,  to  mark 
successive  ages  of  long  duration,  into  ages 
of  rough  and  polished  stone,  of  bronze, 
and  of  iron.  The  supposed  evidence  of 
deposits  in  caves,  of  river  and  other 
gravels,  of  fen-beds,  etc.,  are  pressed  into 
service.  But  it  staggers  our  faith  in  the 
whole  chronological  scheme  to  find,  at  the 
outset,  that  while  Dr.  James  Geikie 
reckons  the  boulder  clay  in  which  old 
stone  implements  are  found  as  marking 
200,000  years,  Croll,  a  no  less  eminent  au- 
thority, sets  it  down  as  980,000  years  old. 
The  age  of  human  implements  found  un- 
der floors  of  stalagmite  in  caves,  is,  more- 
over, open  to  equal  doubt,  since  observers 
differ  greatly  as  to  the  rate  of  deposit  at 
different  times.  For,  while  Mr.  Pengelly 
tells  us  that  it  takes  5,000  years  to  create 
an  inch  of  lime-dropping  on  the  floors  of 
Kent's  Cavern  in  England,  others  assert 
that,  elsewhere,  it  is  formed  at  the  rate  of 
the  third  of  an  inch  a  year,  which  would 
give  a  foot  in  depth  in  little  more  than  a 
century.  A  copper  plate  of  the  twelfth  or 
thirteenth  century,  we  are  told,  was  found 
in  a  cave  at  Gibraltar,  under  eighteen 
inches  of  stalagmite.  At  Knaresboro. 
England,  objects  are  incrusted  with  similar 
calcareous  deposit  so  quickly  that,  as  is 
well  known,  a  trade  in  them  is  briskly 
kept  up.  In  Italy  the  waters  of  the  baths 
of  San  Felipe,  have  been  known  to  deposit 
a  solid  mass  of  it,  thirty  feet  thick,  in 
twenty  years.  It  is  thus  clear  that  the  rate 
of  deposit  depends  on  circumstances. 
One  condition  of  the  surface  may  supply 
acids,  from  decaying  vegetation,  for  ex- 
ample, which  may  dissolve  the  limestone 
much  taster  than  another.  It  is  not,  there- 
fore, by  any  means  certain  that  any  given 
deposits,  in  a  special  case,  imply  even  an 
approach  to  the  extreme  age  demanded 
for  them. 

The  evidence  deducted  from  river  and 
other  gravels  and  drifts  is  no  less  unsatisfac- 
tory. It  is,  indeed,  quite  impossible  to 
fix  their  age  either  from  their  depth  or 
their  contents.     Mr.  Wood  found  the  road 


Manahem 


446 


Manichaeanism 


leading  to  the  Temple  of  Diana,  at  Ephe- 
sus,  more  than  four  yards  below  the  pres- 
ent surface,  and  obtained  remains  of 
colossal  sculptures,  at  the  Temple  itself, 
from  the  depth  of  six  yards  and  a  half. 
Local  floods  work  great  changes,  and  it  is 
to  be  remembered  that  all  rivers  are  much 
larger  in  a  country  still  in  a  state  of  na- 
ture than  when  human  settlement  has  in 
great  measure  drained  oflf  the  surface 
waters.  The  shifting  of  river  beds  them- 
selves, work  great  changes.  M.  de  Rossi 
thinks  that  the  beds  of  drift,  in  the  course 
of  the  Tiber,  are  not  older  than  the  Ro- 
man republic.  M.  Chabas,  in  a  close 
examination  of  the  tool-bearing  drifts  of 
Northern  France,  found  that,  at  one  part, 
bits  of  Roman  pottery,  at  another,  a  cop- 
per coin  of  Charles  VIII.  of  France,  and  at 
a  third,  pieces  of  yellow  brick,  were  as 
deep  in  the  soil  as  the  stone  axes,  etc., 
and  finally  gave  up  the  hope  of  fixing  the 
age  of  anything  by  its  position. 

The  theory  of  widely  separate  ages  for 
old  and  new  stone  tools,  and  for  bronze 
and  iron,  is  one  of  the  scientific  fancies 
which  further  investigation  overthrows. 
To  use  the  words  of  the  Duke  of  Argyle , 
"There  is  no  proof  whatever  that  such 
ages  ever  existed  in  the  world."  Nations 
may  all  at  a  certain  time  have  used  stone 
tools,  but  the  discovery  of  the  metals  must 
have  been  made  much  sooner  at  some 
places  than  at  others.  Thus,  though  flint 
implements  have  been  found  in  abundance 
in  South  Africa,  iron  has  been  known  from 
very  ancient  times  over  a  large  portion  of 
that  vast  continent;  iron  ore,  as  Sir  Sam- 
uel Baker  informs  us,  being  so  common  in 
Africa,  and  of  a  kind  so  easily  reducible  by 
heat,  that  its  value  might  well  be  discovered 
by  the  rudest  tribes.  Stone,  moreover,  is 
rare  in  some  countries,  as,  for  example,  in 
Mesopotamia,  and  hence  it  is  not  surpris- 
ing to  find  that  stone  implements  of  a  very 
rude  character  coexisted  there  with  ad- 
vanced civilization  in  agriculture  and  com- 
merce. Each  "age,"  in  fact,  runs  into  the 
other,  and  tools  of  all  the  four  kinds  were 
used  in  not  a  few  localities  at  the  same 
time.  So  far  from  being  indefinitely  an- 
cient, the  stone  age,  in  all  its  characteristics, 
has  prevailed  during  even  the  historic  pe- 
riod. A  well-made  bronze  pin  was  found 
in  an  excavation  at  the  Isle  of  St.  Jean, 
near  Majon,  in  France,  which  till  then  had 
yielded  only  remains  of  the  polished  stone 
period,  and  M.  Chabas  found  iron  under 
similar  circumstances  elsewhere. 


In  fine,  of  all  the  chronologies,  that  of 
which  the  Bible  furnishes  the  elements  is 
still  the  most  authorized,  and  wherever  we 
may  look,  we  find  nothing,  absolutely  noth- 
ing, in  the  natural  sciences  that  clearly 
tends  to  discredit  it.  No  more  on  this 
point  than  on  others  can  the  traditions 
taught  in  the  text  be  given  the  lie. 

Manahem. —  King  of  Israel,  died  in  761 
B.C."  Overthrew  and  killed  the  usurper 
Sellum,  mounted  the  throne  and  reigned 
ten  years  in  paying  a  tribute  to  Phul,  king 
of  Assyria.  He  left  the  throne  to  his  son 
Phaceia. 

Manasses. —  i.  Jewish  Patriarch,  eldest 
son  of  Joseph,  born  in  Egypt,  was  blessed 
by  Jacob  on  his  deathbed,  and  became  the 
chief  of  one  of  the  twelve  tribes.  This  tribe, 
at  the  time  of  its  leaving  Egypt,  counted 
32,000  men  capable  of  bearing  arms;  one- 
half  remained  beyond  the  Jordon,  in  the 
division  of  the  Promised  Land  ;  the  other 
half  obtained  its  possessions  in  the  terri- 
tory of  Samaria,  Sichem,  and  Bethania. 
2.  Manasses  (706-639  B.  c). — King  of  Juda, 
died  at  Jerusalem.  The  son  and  impious 
successor  of  the  good  Ezechias.  He  began 
to  reign  when  twelve  years  old.  For  his 
impiety  and  cruelties,  God  suffered  him  to 
be  carried  as  prisoner  to  Babylon.  Ma- 
nasses repented,  did  penance  and  was  re- 
stored to  his  throne.  He  tried  to  repair 
the  evil  which  he  had  caused,  destroyed 
the  temples  of  the  idols,  restored  the 
worship  of  the  true  God  and  fortified  Jeru- 
salem. We  have,  under  the  name  of  Ma- 
nasses, a  prayer  filled  with  sentiments  of 
piety  and  penance  which  it  is  believed  he 
composed  during  his  captivity.  He  had 
for  successor  his  son  Amon. 

Mandaeans.     See  Sabeans. 

Manichaeanism  is  the  Persian  form  of 
Gnosticism.  Its  author  was  Mani  or 
Manes,  who,  according  to  traditian,  was 
flayed  alive,  about  the  year  277,  by  order 
of  King  Veranes  I.  His  doctrine  was  a 
combination  of  Parseeism  and  Gnosticism. 
It  had  nothing  in  common  with  Christian- 
ity, merely  substituting  Christian  names 
for  pagan  ideas.  Two  eternal  principles, 
Light  and  Darkness,  with  many  Eons  are 
constantly  at  war  with  each  other.  This 
is  called  the  sj'stem  of  Dualism  Man 
consists  of  two  parts,  mind  ^nd  matter,  the 
latter  is  the  seat  of  all  evil.  Christ,  the 
son  of  Eternal  Light,  assumed  a  body  cor- 
poreal  only  in  appearance  (Docetas),  re- 


Maniple 


447 


Mankind 


deemed  man  by  instructing  him  to  alienate 
himself  from  evil  matter.  His  death  on 
the  Cross  was  an  illusion.  The  "perfect" 
among  the  Manichaeans  were  obliged  to 
abstain  from  animal  food  and  intoxicating 
liquors ;  the  killing  of  animals  was  pro- 
hibited ;  they  were  enjoined  not  to  perform 
manual  labor,  and  marriage  was  con- 
demned. The  Mariichaeans  boasted  out- 
wardly of  their  asceticism  and  superior 
knowledge,  but  their  private  life  belied 
their  professions.  They  based  their  doc- 
trine on  the  revelations  of  Manes,  the 
Paraclete,  and  on  the  Sacred  Scriptures. 
Their  distinguished  adversary,  St.  Augus- 
tine tells  them :  "  You,  who  believe  of  the 
Gospel  what  you  please  and  reject  what 
you  please,  rather  believe  yourself  than  the 
Gospel." 

Maniple. — An  ornamental  vestment 
worn  by  the  priest  upon  his  left  arm  at 
Mass.  It  is  worn  by  deacons  and  subdea- 
cons,  also.  Originally,  the  maniple  w^as  a 
narrow  strip  of  linen  suspended  from  the 
left  arm,  which  supplied  the  place  of  and 
was  used  as  a  handkerchief.  About  the 
eighth  century  it  was  enumerated  among 
the  sacerdotal  vestments. 

Mankind  {Unity  of). — The  unity  of 
mankind,  proceeding  from  a  single  pair, 
is,  from  the  moral  and  dogmatic  point  of 
view,  one  of  the  most  important  truths 
which  result  from  the  account  of  the  cre- 
ation of  man.  The  dogma  of  original 
sin  presupposes  the  community  of  origin 
of  all  men,  and  upon  this  community 
of  origin  human  solidarity  and  frater- 
nity are  founded.  In  our  day,  however, 
it  finds  a  great  number  of  adversaries,  and 
we  have  to  answer  their  objections.  The 
advocates  of  a  plurality  of  the  human  spe- 
cies, or  the  polygenists,  have  largely  in- 
creased in  both  Europe  and  America  of 
late  years,  and  they  strenuously  oppose  the 
doctrine  of  monogenism. 

I.  Historic  Glance  at  Polygenism. 
—  The  first  polygenist  whose  opinions 
caused  some  notice  was  La  Peyrere,  a 
Frenchman.  In  his  book  Systeme  theolo- 
giqiie  fondS  sur  I  ^ Hypothe.se  des  Preadam- 
ites,  published  in  1655,  the  two  principal 
ideas  which  he  sets  forth  are,  that  Adam 
was  not  the  first  man,  but  only  the  father 
of  the  Jews,  and  that  Moses  is  not  the  au- 
thor of  the  Pentateuch.  According  to 
him,  chapter  i.  of  Genesis  relates  the  crea- 
tion of  the  Gentiles  or  pagans ;  they  were 
produced  at  the  same  time  as  the  animals, 


and  they  appeared  at  the  same  time 
upon  earth;  these  are  the  Preadamites. 
Chapter  ii.  of  Genesis,  on  the  contrary, 
makes  known  to  us  the  origin  of  the  people 
chosen  by  God  to  preserve  the  deposit  of 
revelation.  Adam  is  the  first  Jew  and  the 
father  of  this  chosen  people.  Made  from 
the  slime  of  the  earth,  he  received  exist- 
ence only  after  the  rest  of  the  seventh  day ; 
alone  with  Eve  he  inhabited  the  earthly 
Paradise ;  he  alone  with  Eve  violated  the 
prohibition  which  God  had  made  as  to  the 
eating  of  the  fruit  of  the  tree  of  knowledge 
of  good  and  evil ;  the  other  men,  spread  at 
that  time  over  the  globe,  had  no  share  in 
the  sin  of  Adam. 

La  Peyrere  pretended  to  find  the  proof 
of  this  distinction  of  diverse  species  of  men 
in  the  fifth  chapter  of  the  Epistle  to  the 
Romans,  and  in  certain  facts  related  by 
Moses.  St.  Paul  says  that  men  have  sinned  : 
some,  after  the  promulgation  of  the 
law,  against  the  law ;  others,  before  the 
law,  against  nature.  His  new  interpreter 
concludes  from  this  that  there  existed  be- 
fore the  men  who  were  subject  to  the  law, — 
that  is,  before  the  Jews, —  other  men  of  a 
different  species.  But  the  law  of  which 
the  Apostle  speaks  is  that  of  Moses,  and 
in  the  time  of  Moses  there  existed  already 
upon  earth  numerous  nations,  descended 
like  the  Jews  from  Noe  and  for  whom  the 
legislation  of  Sinai  had  not  been  made. 
La  Peyrere  sought  to  establish,  it  is  true, 
that  the  Preadamites  were  mentioned  in 
the  history  of  Cain,  because  the  latter  was 
afraid  of  being  killed  by  those  whom  he 
might  meet  and  who  could  only  be  men  of 
non-Adamitic  origin.  He  alleged  also  the 
existence  of  a  city  in  this  time,  when  the 
descendants  of  Adam,  however,  could  not 
be  numerous  enough  to  form  considerable 
agglomerations,  and,  finally,  he  pointed 
out  the  distinction  between  the  sons  of  God 
and  the  daughters  of  men  or  of  Adam, 
whose  union  produced  the  giants.  Accord- 
ing to  him,  the  sons  of  God  were  not  of 
the  race  of  Adam. 

Later  on,  La  Peyrere  retracted  his  errors, 
and  his  book  remained  unfinished ;  but  his 
arguments  were  taken  up  again  in  our  time 
by  the  American  polygenists,  as  we  shall 
see  further  on.  In  the  seventeenth  century 
his  system  found  no  supporters,  but  things 
were  to  be  different  in  the  eighteenth. 
Voltaire,  who  collected  in  his  writings  all 
that  preceding  ages  had  imagined  against 
our  Sacred  Books,  did  not  fail  to  uphold 
that  there  exist  diverse  "  species  of  men." 


Mankind 


448 


Mankind 


"Only  a  blind  man,"  he  says,  "is  permit- 
ted to  doubt  that  the  Whites,  Negroes, 
Albinos,  Hottentots,  Laplanders,  Chinese, 
and  Americans,  are  entirely  diflFerent  races." 
Soon  the  negation  of  the  unity  of  the  hu- 
man species  became  the  fashion  in  the 
philosophic  camp,  and,  despite  the  author- 
ity of  the  most  of  the  naturalists,  notwith- 
standing that  Linnaeus  and  Buffon  without 
hesitation  pronounced  themselves  in  favor 
of  the  old  doctrine,  the  pleasantries  of  the 
patriarch  of  Ferney  prevailed. 

Infidelity  had  favored  polygenism  in 
Europe;  political  causes  contributed  a 
good  deal  to  increase  the  number  of  its 
adherents  in  America.  One  of  the  most 
celebrated  defenders  of  this  system,  Mr. 
Nott,  has  himself  related  the  following 
fact.  In  1844,  the  secretary  of  State  of 
the  United  States,  Mr.  Calhoun,  had  ex- 
hausted his  arguments  in  answering  the 
pressing  notes  which  England,  backed  by 
France,  addressed  to  him  on  the  question 
of  abolishing  Negro  slavery.  He  could 
imagine  nothing  better  than  to  support 
himself  upon  the  authority  of  American 
anthropologists,  and  he  defended  his  gov- 
ernment in  the  name  of  their  theories,  ac- 
cording to  which  the  black  men  are  of 
another  si>ecies  than  the  white.  The 
cabinet  of  Great  Britain  was  nonplussed 
by  this  unlooked-for  argumentation,  and 
thereafter  ceased  its  importunities. 

It  is  certain  that  several  American  scien- 
tists allowed  themselves  to  be  influenced 
by  the  more  or  less  unconscious  desire  to 
justify  slave-trading  and  slavery.  The 
/nost  celebrated  among  them  are  Morton, 
Nott,  and  Gliddon.  These  polygenists  ex- 
pressly admitted  the  fixity  of  the  species, 
and  even  supported  themselves  upon  this 
fixity  of  the  species  to  conclude  from  the 
actual  existence  of  human  varieties  as 
to  their  primordial  and  original  exist- 
ence. Since  that  time  there  has  been 
a  complete  change  in  the  system,  and 
to-day  we  have  to  look  for  the  polyg- 
enists among  the  ranks  of  the  adherents  of 
the  changeableness  of  the  species,  among 
the  materialists  and  atheists,  the  defenders 
of  evolution  without  limit.  In  their  opin- 
ion man  has  not  been  created  as  man ;  he 
has  become  such  by  a  series  of  transforma- 
tions, abrupt  according  to  some,  slow, 
according  to  the  majority  of  them.  The 
lower  species  perfected  and  gradually 
raised  themselves  to  language  and  reason, 
to  the  status  of  the  intelligent  and  perfect 
being.      Thus    nature    has    produced    by 


divers  means  diverse  human  species.  That 
which  Scripture  teaches  about  our  origin 
is  consequently  irreconcilable  with  the 
accounts  of  the  new  science. 

However,  if  the  adherents  of  the  plu- 
rality of  the  human  species  have  become 
quite  numerous,  those  of  the  unity  of  man- 
kind are  far  from  throwing  away  their 
arms  and  abandoning  the  battlefield.  Not 
only  among  the  Faithful,  but  also  among 
the  indifferent,  and  even  among  the  free- 
thinkers, monogenism  counts  defenders 
not  less  enlightened  than  convinced,  and 
recruits  new  adherents  every  day.  Lyell 
and  Huxley  acknowledge  in  express  terms 
that  all  men  may  descend  from  one  single 
pair;  Alexander  von  Humboldt  formally 
declares  himself  for  the  unity  of  our  spe- 
cies, so  also  the  anatomist  Owen  and  the 
learned  Prichard.  The  labors  of  the  learned 
Protestant,  Quatrefages,  in  favor  of  the 
unity  of  the  human  species  enjoy  a  uni- 
versal and  well-merited  reputation.  The 
numberless  proofs  accumulated  by  this  em- 
inent anthropologist,  as  well  as  by  many 
other  naturalists,  establish  in  a  peremptory 
and  decisive  manner  that  science  is  far 
from  being  in  contradiction  with  Scripture, 
according  to  which  all  men  belong  to  the 
same  species.  Now  it  remains  for  us  to 
show  this  accord  of  science  and  faith ;  but 
as  the  American  polygenists,  in  order  not 
to  fall  into  contradiction  with  the  Bible, 
have  followed  the  errors  of  La  Peyrere 
and  pretended  that  monogenism  is  not  a 
Christian  dogma,  before  all  we  have  to 
answer  their  objections  and  to  rectify  their 
false  interpretation  of  the  sacred  text; 
then  we  will  set  forth  the  proofs  of  the 
unity  of  the  human  species. 

II.  Genesis  and  the  Preadamites. — 
The  arguments  alleged  by  some  of  the  sci- 
entists of  the  United  States  to  turn  Gen- 
esis in  favor  of  their  opinion  are  summed 
up  in  the  following  passage  :  — 

"  Why  still  hesitating  whether  to  throw 
the  Bible  under  the  wheels  of  progress? 
Alreadv  many  sincere  Christians  confess 
that  the  moment  has  arrived  for  preparing 
the  reconciliation  of  the  doctrine  of  the 
polygenists  with  the  sacred  texts.  They 
are  disposed  to  admit  that  the  narrative  of 
Moses  does  not  apply  to  the  whole  of  man- 
kind, but  only  to  the  Adamites,  to  the  race 
from  which  God's  people  sprang;  that 
there  could  have  been  upon  earth  other 
men  about  whom  the  sacred  writer  did  not 
need  to  busy  himself ;  that  it  is  nowhere 
said  that  the  sons  of  Adam  contracted  in- 


Mankind 


449 


Mankind 


i 


cestuous  unions  with  their  own  sisters; 
that  Cain,  driven  toward  the  Orient  after 
his  fratricide,  was  marked  with  a  sign,  so 
'  that  whosoever  found  him  should  not 
kill  him ' ;  that  aside  from  the  race  of  the 
children  of  God  there  was  a  race  of  the  chil- 
dren of  men ;  that  the  origin  of  the  children 
of  men  is  not  specified ;  that  nothing  au- 
thorizes us  to  consider  them  as  the  chil- 
dren of  Adam ,  that  these  two  races 
undoubtedly  differed  in  their  physical 
characteristics,  because  their  union  pro- 
duced mongrels  designated  under  the  name 
of  giants,  '  as  if  to  indicate  the  physical 
and  moral  strength  of  the  crossed  races ' ; 
that  finally  these  different  antediluvian 
races  could  have  survived  the  Deluge  in 
the  person  of  the  three  daughters-in-law  of 
Noe."  (J.  Pye  Smith,  Relations  Bet-ween 
the  Holy  Scripture  and  Geology,  3d  ed., 

PP-  398-400) 

Let  us  take  up  these  several  arguments 
one  after  another.  In  the  first  place,  it  is 
not  true  that  Genesis  speaks  of  different 
human  species.  When  La  Peyrere  beheld 
in  the  man  created  in  the  first  chapter  a 
man  different  from  the  one  whose  history 
the  second  chapter  relates  more  in  detail, 
he  falsely  interpreted  the  original  text,  for 
the  Hebrew  text  in  both  cases  calls  by  the 
same  name  Adam,  the  rational  creature 
gone  forth  from  the  divine  hands.  Mor- 
ton himself  is  obliged  to  agree  that  "the 
sacred  writings,  according  to  their  literal 
and  obvious  sense,  teach  us  that  all  the 
men  descend  from  a  single  pair."  {Cra- 
nia Americana,  Introd.,  Philadelphia, 
1839.)  Moses,  conformable  to  the  uni- 
form and  unchangeable  plan  which  he  fol- 
lowed in  drawing  up  the  first  Book  of  the 
Pentateuch,  sets  forth  in  the  account  of 
the  earthly  Paradise  the  history  of  our 
first  father,  whose  creation  he  had  simply 
announced  in  the  account  of  the  general 
creation.  Then  he  continues  the  history 
of  the  children  of  Adam,  without  trou- 
bling himself  to  fill  up  a  certain  number  of 
breaks,  because  the  things  which  he  omit- 
ted are  naturally  understood  and  cannot 
cause  any  doubt  in  the  minds  of  readers 
generally.  Thus  he  supposed  that  it  was 
useless  to  relate  in  express  terms  that', 
from  the  beginning,  Adam  and  Eve  had 
daughters  as  well  as  sons,  and  that  the 
brothers  had  taken  the  sisters  for  wives ; 
everyone  understands  this  without  being 
told.  Besides,  the  sacred  writers  gener- 
ally mention  women  only  in  a  vague  manner 
in  their  genealogies;  they  are  expressly 
29 


named  only  when  the  sequel  of  the  narra- 
tive demands  it  for  fear  of  being  unintel- 
ligible. Moses  had  no  reason  to  inform 
us  in  so  many  words  that  Cain  and  Abel 
married  their  own  sisters ;  this  appears 
clearly  from  his  account  and  everybody 
knew  it.  In  reading  Genesis  simply  and 
without  partisan  spirit,  one  cannot  help 
acknowledging  that  Moses  knew  no  other 
men  than  Adam  and  his  posterity. 

But,  they  say,  if  there  existed  no  other 
men  than  the  Adamites,  how  could  Cain, 
after  having  committed  his  fratricide,  be 
afraid  of  being  killed  by  those  whom  he 
would  meet .?  It  is  easy  to  answer  that  it 
was  because  he  could  not  forget  that  men 
would  become  multiplied,  and  as  remorse 
and  a  bad  conscience  render  one  suspicious 
and  restless,  what  is  there  astonishing  in 
the  fact  that  he  was  afraid  that  his  crime 
might  be  avenged  by  his  own  death,  when 
the  children  of  Adam  would  have  become 
more  numerous? 

Some  have  endeavored  to  enforce  the  ob- 
jection and  to  establish  the  existence  of  an- 
other race  by  what  the  Scripture  tells  us : 
"Cain  built  a  city,  and  called  the  name 
thfereof  by  the  name  of  his  son  Henoch" 
(Gen.  iv.  17).  We  have  shown  in  another 
place  that  we  must  not  understand  this 
word  "  city"  in  the  sense  in  which  we  em- 
ploy it  to-day. 

A  last  argument  is  drawn  from  the  men- 
tion of  "  sons  of  God  "  and  "  daughters  of 
men."  "The  sons  of  God  seeing  the 
daughters  of  men,  that  they  were  fair,  took 
to  themselves  wives  of  all  which  they  chose" 
(Gen.  vi.  2).  Here,  the  polygenists  claim, 
there  is  question  of  two  different  species 
of  men.  The  daughters  of  men  are  called 
in  the  original  text  "  daughters  of  Adam," 
that  is,  the  posterity  of  Adam  and  Eve ; 
the  sons  of  God  belong  to  another  race 
which  has  nothing  in  common  with  those 
whom  we  call  without  reason  our  first  par- 
ents. 

Such  is  the  objection.  It  is  false,  because 
the  "sons  of  God"  cannot  be  understood 
as  non-Adamitic  men.  The  descendants 
of  Adam  were  the  creatures  of  God  and 
consequently  the  sons  of  God,  as  much  as 
every  other  species  of  men  which  one 
might  suppose,  or,  better  still,  they  would 
have  been  more  so,  if  several  creations  had 
existed,  because  God,  distinguishing  and 
separating  them  from  all  the  others,  wished 
to  make  of  the  posterity  of  Adam,  in  the 
person  of  the  Jews,  His  chosen  people.  It 
is   generally  believed    that   the  "  sons   of 


Mankind 


450 


Mankind 


God  "  are  the  descendants  of  Seth,  who  had 
remained  faithful  to  the  Lord,  while  the 
"daughters  of  men"  are  Cainites,  whose 
fathers  were  impious ;  but,  whatever  may 
be  the  exact  meaning  of  these  expressions, 
it  is  enough  for  us  to  state  that  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  polygenists  is  a  manifest 
counter  sense  and  consequently  inaccepta- 
ble. 

All  the  arguments  which  they  have  tried 
to  draw  from  Holy  Scripture  against  the 
unity  of  the  human  species  are,  therefore, 
false  and  without  value.  St.  Paul  rendered 
correctly  the  meaning  of  Genesis,  when  he 
declared  that  all  men  who  live  upon  earth 
descend  from  the  same  father  (Acts  xvii. 
26).  The  doctrine  of  monogenism  is  truly 
a  Biblical  doctrine. 

Since  it  is  thus,  we  have  only  now  to  es- 
tablish that  Scripture  in  regard  to  this 
subject  is  not  in  disagreement  with  science, 
not  in  the  sense  that  science  can  prove 
that  all  men  descend  from  one  pair,  — 
this  question  is  out  of  its  domain, —  but  in 
the  sense  that  it  establishes  that  all  men 
form  only  one  species.  The  scientific  ob- 
jection against  monogenism  is  drawn  from 
the  differences  which  we  remark  among 
the  human  races.  We  will  explain  first 
the  diversity  in  the  races  actually  existing, 
and,  second,  we  will  establish  the  unity  of 
mankind. 

III.  Diversity  in  the  Human  Races. 
—  I.  General  Observations.  —  The  most 
popular  argument  in  favor  of  polygenism, 
that  which  most  strikes  superficial  minds 
and  those  little  accustomed  to  reflection,  is 
that  drawn  from  the  remarkable  exterior 
differences  which  distinguish  the  diverse 
human  races  from  one  another.  The  ene- 
mies of  the  unity  of  our  species  also  insist 
upon  this  point  the  most.  The  learned  of 
our  day  have  repeated  only  in  other  terms 
what  Voltaire  had  said,  that  the  Negro 
with  his  woolly  hair  and  the  white  with  his 
smooth  hair  cannot  be  of  the  same  species. 

In  the  physical  order  there  seems  to  be 
an  abyss  between  one  another.  In  the  in- 
tellectual or  moral  order  how  different  also 
is  the  intelligence  of  a  native  of  Terra  del 
Fuego  from  that  of  a  Plato,  a  St.  Augus- 
tine, or  a  St.  Thomas.?  And  if  in  imagina- 
tion we  assemble,  from  among  the  millions 
of  men  that  at  present  people  the  earth, 
representatives  of  all  the  living  languages 
and  make  each  one  express  himself  in  his 
own  language,  or  dialect,  what  a  cacao- 
fhony'.  What  confusion!  How  can  all 
these  men  who  express  themselves  in  such 


a  different  way  descend  from  the  same 
mother.?  How  could  their  fathers  of  old 
have  called  the  same  things  by  the  same 
names?  That  is  what  strikes  the  crowd 
and  impresses  the  groundlings. 

But  nevertheless,  when  we  look  closer, 
when  we  reflect  on  what  these  differences 
and  contrasts  in  reality  are,  we  perceive 
very  soon  that  we  cannot  draw  from  this 
any  conclusion.  Intermediary  rings  exist 
and  form  only  one  long  chain.  Between 
the  Greek  of  Athens  and  the  Esquimaux, 
there  are  a  thousand  gradations,  which 
from  the  Hellenic  type  reach  down  to  ugli- 
ness by  a  regular  descent.  From  the  ob- 
tuse mind  of  an  inhabitant  of  Terra  del 
Fuego  to  the  intelligence  of  a  Plato,  there 
are  equally  numerous  steps  by  which  we 
mount  gradually  from  the  depths  where 
degraded  man  possesses  only  some  mate 
rial  and  gross  ideas,  up  to  those  serene 
heights  where  flourishes  the  philosophy  of 
the  Academy  and  of  the  Angel  of  the 
School.  And  in  the  physical  order,  as  in 
the  intellectual,  the  transition  is  effected 
by  means  of  an  almost  indefinite  series  of 
stages,  degeneration,  proceeding  only 
through  shades  hardly  perceptible  from 
one  another.  In  a  word,  the  contrast  no 
longer  surprises,  when  one  passes  through 
all  the  intermediary  degrees. 

2.  Causes  of  the  Diversity  in  the  Human 
Races. —  It  cannot  be  denied,  however, 
that  there  are  differences  existing  among 
men.  Just  as  the  lightest  blue  and  the 
darkest  blue  are  distinct,  in  spite  of  the 
shades  that  unite  them,  so  also  there  are 
distinct  races  in  the  human  species,  in 
spite  of  the  ties  of  relationship  that  con- 
nect them.  We  are  careful  not  to  deny 
these  real  distinctions ;  what  we  wish 
solely  to  establish  is  that  these  differences 
do  not  exclude  the  community  of  origin; 
that  these  varieties,  these  races,  do  not 
constitute  diverse  species  ;  that  the  polyg- 
enists are  mistaken  when  they  confound 
the  races  with  the  species  and  conclude 
from  the  diversity  of  the  human  races  the 
plurality  of  the  species.  As  to  this  some 
indispensable  notions  and  definitions  are 
subjoined. 

The  species  is  a  collection  of  individuals 
having  the  same  essential  characteristics, 
descending  from  the  same  primitive  pair 
and  enjoying  the  faculty  of  reproducing 
themselves  indefinitely.  A  group  of  species 
having  common  characteristics  is  called 
genus  or  kind.  The  species  is  unchangeable 
in  its  essential  characteristics,  but  its  ac- 


\ 


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cessory  characteristics  may  become  modi- 
fied and  changed,  under  the  influence  of 
diverse  causes,  and  then  give  rise  to  varie- 
ties and  races.  We  call  varieties  the 
groups  of  individuals  of  the  same  species 
which  are  distinguished  from  the  common 
type  by  accidental  modifications.  These 
modifications  are  not  essential  and  specific, 
but  changeable  and  unstable  by  their  very 
nature,  although,  on  account  of  peculiar 
circumstances,  they  may  become  fixed  and 
lasting.  In  virtue  of  the  natural  law  of 
reversion,  the  varieties  return  of  them- 
selves to  their  original  type,  unless  exter- 
nal causes,  and  particularly  the  union 
between  individuals  of  the  same  variety, 
render  these  passing  characteristics  per- 
manent, conformably  to  the  law  of  hered- 
ity, which  transmits  to  the  children  the 
qualities  peculiar  to  the  parents.  When 
the  accessory  characteristics  which  consti- 
tute a  variety  are  fixed  and  perpetuated  in 
a  constant  manner  by  a  generation,  they 
form  a  race. 

By  applying  to  the  human  species  these 
notions,  universally  admitted  by  all  former 
naturalists,  it  will  be  easy  to  account  for 
the  phenomena  which  humanity  now  pre- 
sents. The  solution  of  the  problem  is 
just  this :  All  men  who  live  upon  earth 
form  only  one  species,  but  this  species 
comprises  several  particular  races ;  these 
races  all  have  for  their  starting  point  some 
primitive  varieties,  produced  accidentally 
or  naturally  through  diverse  causes,  and 
whose  characteristics  have  become  heredi- 
tary. The  varieties  may  have  manifested 
themselves  sometimes  through  the  effect 
of  a  sudden  change  in  some  individuals ; 
generally  they  must  have  been  the  accum- 
ulated result  of  gradual  modifications, 
brought  on  by  the  particular  circum- 
stances in  which  the  subjects  found 
themselves  placed,  among  whom  these 
alterations  from  the  original  type  were 
produced.  The  error  of  the  polygenists 
consists,  therefore,  in  confounding  the 
races  with  the  species  and  in  pretending 
that  the  accessory  characteristics  which 
distinguish  the  races  are  specific  charac- 
teristics. We  shall  show  that  these  char- 
acteristics are  not  really  specific,  but 
have,  or  at  least  may  have,  an  accidental 
origin.  Now,  to  show  that  science  is  not 
in  contradiction  with  Scripture  on  the 
fact  of  the  unity  of  the  human  species,  it 
is  enough  to  establish  that  this  unity 
is  scientifically  explainable  and  admissi- 
ble, and  that  anthropology  is  entirely  una- 


ble to  prove  the  plurality  of  the  human 
species. 

That  which  establishes  in  a  peremptory 
manner  the  possibility  of  an  origin  com- 
mon to  all  men,  is  that  there  exists  in  no 
race  any  distinctive  characteristic  which 
is  not  found  exceptionally  in  some  indi- 
viduals of  another  race.  None  of  these 
characteristics  is,  therefore,  really  spe- 
cific, for,  in  the  contrary  case,  we  could 
find  it  only  in  the  species  to  which  it 
would  properly  belong.  Since  it  appears 
accidentally  in  individuals  of  diverse 
races,  it  follows  that  it  could  also  be  pro- 
duced primitively  in  the  same  manner, 
and  that  it  became  common  in  certain 
fractions  of  humanity  only  in  virtue  of 
what  we  call  the  influence  of  surroundings 
and  heredity.  For  the  rest,  to  convince 
ourselves,  we  have  only  to  study  succes- 
sively the  various  characteristics  of  the 
races  and  to  show,  by  the  light  of  observa- 
tion and  experience,  that  they  are  all  acci- 
dental and  not  essential  to  the  species; 
consequently,  the  fruit  of  circumstances, 
and  not  a  quality  without  which  it  is  im- 
possible to  conceive  an  individual  belong- 
ing to  our  species. 

It  is  so  true  that  the  characteristics  of  the 
races  have  nothing  absolute,  but  are  on 
the  contrary  very  relative,  we  might  al- 
most say  arbitrary,  that  until  now  anthro- 
pologists could  not  come  to  an  understand- 
ing in  determining  them,  some  adopting 
such  a  characteristic  as  sufficiently  distinct, 
others  rejecting  it  as  subject  to  too  many 
exceptions.  Hence,  in  spite  of  the  ac- 
cumulated labors  of  many  learned  investi- 
gators, they  have  not  yet  agreed  on  a 
classification  of  the  races  that  is  unani- 
mously or  even  generally  accepted.  Thus, 
there  neither  exists,  nor  can  there  exist,  a 
really  scientific  classification  of  the  human 
races.  In  other  words,  all  the  divisions 
that  have  been  proposed  are  arbitrary, 
and  no  characteristic  has  been  discovered 
that  is  exclusively  peculiar  to  each  race. 
Hence,  they  belong  more  or  less  to  one 
another. 

However,  it  may  be  as  to  the  races,  it 
follows  at  least  from  what  we  have  just 
seen,  that  the  principal  characteristics 
which  distinguish  men  from  one  another 
are  the  diversity  of  organic  conformation, 
color,  hair,  and  language.  These  are 
characteristics  which  we  have  now  to  ex- 
amine, in  order  to  establish  whether  they 
are  really  original  or  whether  they  are 
simply    accidental     deviations    from    the 


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primitive  form,  having  become  stable  in 
the  course  of  time. 

By  examining  these  characteristics  one 
after  another,  we  siiall  see  that  they  can 
originate  from  the  influence  of  surround- 
ings, and  from  that  of  heredity.  By 
"surroundings"  we  understand  the  cli- 
mate, nourishment,  mode  of  life,  customs^ 
civilization,  in  a  word  all  that  pertains  to 
the  place  and  time  in  which  one  lives 
and  which  may  exercise  a  certain  influ- 
ence on  the  physical,  intellectual,  or  moral 
development  of  the  individual.  The  in- 
fluence of  surroundings  is  indisputable  in 
natural  history.  A  vast  number  of  per- 
fectly established  facts  furnish  the  proof. 

Vegetables  become  white  when  sheltered 
from  light,  and  the  effect  is  not  superficial, 
but  extends  even  to  the  fibers  of  the  plant, 
to  its  taste,  and  to  other  succiferous  quali- 
ties. The  animals  of  the  polar  regions 
become  white  at  the  approach  of  winter. 
The  Swiss  ox  becomes,  in  two  generations, 
on  the  plain  of  Lombardy,  a  Lombard  ox. 
Two  generations  also  suffice  to  change  the 
bees  of  Bourgogne,  which  are  small  and 
brown,  into  bees  of  Brescia,  which  are 
large  and  yellow,  when  raised  in  the  latter 
district.  In  the  warm  regions  of  South 
America,  European  cattle  have  by  degrees 
lost  their  hair.  The  dahlia,  sent  from 
Mexico  to  the  botanical  garden  of  Madrid, 
produced  there  in  1791  a  flower  which  had 
nothing  remarkable  about  it.  It  was 
cultivated,  not  as  an  ornamental  plant,  but 
because  it  was  believed  to  be  a  succedaneum 
of  the  potato.  However,  the  surround- 
ings into  which  it  had  been  transported 
finished  by  transforming  it  entirely.  In 
1810,  some  flowers  of  seedlings  attracted 
attention  and  florists  commenced  to  culti- 
vate it  with  care.  In  1834,  they  had  ob- 
tained the  varieties  which  to-day  make 
the  dahlia  one  of  the  principal  ornaments 
of  our  flower  gardens.  Dogs  in  particu- 
lar, offer  us  a  striking  example  of  the 
changes  produced  by  environment.  The 
following  example  is  related  :  — 

"A  man  went  to  live  under  the  polar  cir- 
cle ;  his  dog  followed  him  and  clothed  him- 
self with  the  thick  fur  of  the  spitz ;  the  man, 
with  his  companion,  passed  to  the  inter- 
tropical regions,  and  the  dog  lost  all  his 
hair.  And  it  was  not  merely  the  exterior 
that  underwent  a  change,  but  the  skeleton 
was  affected,  together  with  the  bony  head, 
like  the  rest.  Who  would  confound  the 
skull  of  a  bulldog  with  that  of  a  greyhound  ? ' ' 
See  art.  Racks,  in  Dictionn.  encycloped. 


The  influence  of  civilization  and  environ- 
ment upon  man  himself  is  established  by  a 
number  of  facts.  The  sedentary  Arabians 
of  Hauran  are  of  high  stature  and  adorned 
with  a  very  strong  beard,  while  their  no- 
madic brethren,  the  Bedouins,  exposed  to 
all  the  vicissitudes  of  an  unstable  life,  are 
small  and  have  hardly  any  beard.  To  make 
amends,  they  have  a  more  piercing  look. 
For  the  rest,  the  difference  commences  to 
be  perceptible  only  at  the  age  of  sixteen 
years.  They  have  remarked  at  Morocco 
the  same  difference  between  the  Arabs  who 
dwell  in  cities  and  those  who  live  under 
the  tent.  In  many  countries,  there  have 
been  established  notably  different  charac- 
teristics among  the  noble  families  and  the 
common  people.  The  Arabs  of  the  North 
compare  the  nobility  to  the  palm-tree,  and 
the  people  to  the  brier.  If  a  different  man- 
ner of  living  produces  differences  in  the 
same  country,  with  much  more  reason  does 
the  complete  change  of  environment  carry 
with  it  considerable  modifications. 

The  Frenchman,  transported  into  Can- 
ada not  many  generations  back,  has  seen 
the  change  of  his  complexion,  physiog- 
nomy, and  hair.  In  the  United  States,  in 
the  same  lapse  of  time,  the  Anglo-Saxon 
has  given  rise  to  the  Tankee  race,  which 
differs  from  the  mother-stock  in  certain  ex- 
terior characteristics.  Since  the  first  Creole 
generation,  this  same  English  type  has  be- 
come so  modified  in  New  Zealand,  as  well 
as  in  Australia,  that  the  eye  distinguishes 
at  once  "  the  persons  of  the  old  soil,"  from 
"  the  children  of  the  new  soil." 

The  influence  of  environment  on  the  or- 
ganic constitution  is  therefore  certain  and 
incontestable.  Heredity  is  another  factor 
which  is  sufficient  in  itself  to  explain  a  por- 
tion of  the  phenomena  that  we  are  study- 
ing. It  is  the  peculiarity  of  living  beings 
to  repeat  or  to  reproduce  themselves  with 
the  same  forms  and  attributes.  A  white 
man  transported  into  warm  countries,  takes 
such  a  dark  shade  that  he  might  be  mis- 
taken for  a  black  man.;  however,  his  son  is 
born  white  and  keeps  himself  thus,  as  long 
as  he  is  not  subject  to  the  same  atmospheric 
conditions.  The  intellectual  qualities  trans- 
mit themselves  as  well  as  the  physical  char- 
acteristics ;  in  the  family  of  Bach,  there 
were  thirty-two  musicians. 

An  accidental  quality,  a  variety  produc- 
ing itself  spontaneously  without  any  known 
cause,  may  transmit  itself  through  heredity 
and  thus  constitute  a  race.  In  1790  there 
appeared  in  Paraguay  a  bull  without  horns. 


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At  the  end  of  a  few  years  this  breed  had 
covered  entire  provinces.  Cases  of  pecul- 
iar characteristics  produced  spontaneously 
and  transmitted  by  heredity  abound,  and 
this  law  of  transmission  is  universally  ad- 
mitted by  naturalists. 

The  influence  of  heredity  and  that  of 
environment  may  unite  and  combine  them- 
selves so  as  to  tend  toward  the  same  end 
and  thus  render  more  stable  the  character- 
istics which  differentiate  the  races.  The 
environment  insensibly  brings  on  more  or 
less  considerable  changes;  heredity  fixes 
and  perpetuates  them,  so  that  the  modifi- 
cations due  to  climate,  or  mode  of  life,  for 
instance,  may  still  continue  to  exist,  and 
transmit  themselves  in  a  certain  measure, 
even  under  another  climate  and  with  other 
habits  and  different  civilization.  Finally, 
the  crossing  or  mixture  of  races  produces 
new  modifications,  intermediary  or  sub- 
races,  capable  of  perpetuating  themselves 
with  their  new  characteristics,  when  the 
circumstances  are  favorable. 

With  the  help  of  these  certain  and  indis- 
putable principles,  all  the  differences  that 
distinguish  the  human  races  from  one  an- 
other, explain  themselves  without  diffi- 
culty, and  in  a  satisfactory  manner,  as  we 
shall  show.  Let  us  begin  by  accounting 
for  the  diversity  of  color. 

3.  Color  in  the  Races.  —  The  color  of 
the  skin  is  no  specific  sign.  Darwin  him- 
self acknowledges  that  nothing  is  more 
uncertain,  or,  according  to  his  expression, 
"  more  floating  than  color."  It  is  such  an 
accessory  quality  that  we  can  find  its  whole 
series  in  a  single  animal.  Among  the  col- 
ored people  themselves,  black  is  so  little 
essential  that  "at  the  moment  of  birth,  the 
Negroes  are  not  black;  they  become  so 
only  through  contact  with  the  atmospheric 
air,"  says  Pruner-Bey.  Besides,  the  cause 
of  this  phenomenon  is  well  known  to-day. 
Color  is  caused  by  the  carbon  pigment 
found  in  the  Malpighian  cells.  These  cells 
are  also  found  in  the  colored  places  of  the 
white  man's  skin.  The  sun  cannot  sud- 
denly effect  this  transformation,  but  it 
may  further  it  in  the  course  of  time.  A 
change  in  the  color  of  the  skin  may  have 
easily  been  caused  b}'  the  sun  acting  in 
conjunction  with  moisture,  temperature, 
manner  of  living,  and  other  climatic  fac- 
tors. The  physiological  explanation  is 
that  respiration,  being  retarded  by  heat, 
fails  to  change  all  the  carbon  into  carbonic 
acid.  The  light  playing  on  the  surface 
materially  aids  the  process.     Parts  not  ex- 


posed, like  the  sole  of  the  foot  and  the 
palm  of  the  handj  are  less  dark  even  in  the 
Negro.  Arabian  women,  who  go  about 
well  wrapped  up,  are  as  white  as  Europeans. 
Even  in  the  same  country  and  climate  this 
influence  acts  in  different  degrees,  al- 
though the  skins  are  generally  darkest  in 
hot  countries.  Anyhow,  side  by  side  with 
secondary  and  accidental  causes,  light  and 
climate  will  always  be  regarded  as  the 
chief  factors  in  producing  the  change. 
The  experience  gained  in  America  during 
three  hundred  years  has  shown  that  the 
color  and  facial  expression  of  Negroes  are 
undergoing  a  slow  change,  especially  when 
they  are  brought  into  Northern  countries. 

4.  The  Hair  in  the  Human  Races.  — 
With  the  characteristic  trait  of  the  color 
of  the  skin  in  the  human  races  is  intimately 
connected  that  of  the  color  and  nature  of 
the  hair,  for  there  is  almost  always  a  cor- 
relation between  them.  Thus,  the  black 
always  have  black  hair. 

Some  anthropologists  of  our  day  attach 
great  importance  to  the  hair  conditions  of 
man.  Even  some  polygenists  have  at- 
tempted to  make  it  the  basis  of  a  differen- 
tiation of  the  human  species.  But,  in  spite 
of  the  differences  in  color  and  form,  the 
hair  is  essentially  the  same  among  all  men, 
and  the  change  from  one  variety  tx>  another 
is  effected  only  by  insensible  gradations. 
The  so-called  woolly  hair  of  the  Negro  is 
such  only  in  appearance.  Age  and  climate 
have  an  admitted  influence  on  the  hair. 
We  know  that  the  color  of  the  hair  changes 
with  age.  Often  from  a  light  color  at  the 
time  of  birth,  it  gradually  takes  on  a  darker 
shade,  and  finally  becomes  white  in  old 
age.  *'  The  hair  of  the  newborn  Negro  is 
generally  more  of  a  chestnut  color  than 
black;  it  is  straight  and  slightly  curled  at 
the  end,"  says  Pruner-Bey,  that  is  to  say, 
it  then  resembles,  just  as  in  the  color  of 
the  skin,  that  of  the  European.  Generally 
the  Negro  becomes  gray  quite  early. 

The  hair  in  the  human  races  is,  there- 
fore, only  of  secondary  importance,  and 
does  not  establish  in  any  manner  their  di- 
versity of  origin. 

5.  Forms  of  the  Skull.  —  Differences  in 
the  human  races,  for  instance,  in  the  skele- 
ton and  in  the  formation  of  the  skull,  are 
also  of  little  importance.  Occupation  and 
manner  of  living,  and  malformations,  in- 
tentional or  otherwise,  may  have  had  their 
share  in  producing  a  clear  but  variable 
type  in  a  short  time.  Such  deviations, 
however,  in  the  animal  world  do  not  hin- 


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der  the  various  races  from  forming  one 
species.  In  man  the  difficulty  is  even  less. 
For  as  the  races  are  generally  fertile,  in- 
termediate forms  are  possible  everywhere, 
and  these  act  as  links  and  transmission 
agents.  Blumenbach  has  pointed  out  that 
transitional  forms  grow  more  and  more 
numerous.  Humboldt  considers  that  the 
many  intermediate  stages  in  skull  forma- 
tion and  in  the  color  of  the  skin  are  a 
strong  plea  for  unity.  The  transition  of 
races  is  made  still  clearer  by  modern  re- 
searches. The  American  stock  is  the  con- 
necting link  between  the  Caucasian  and 
the  Mongolian ;  the  Malay  bridges  over 
the  Caucasian  and  the  Negro.  The  differ- 
ence between  the  highest  and  lowest  types 
may  well  be  greater  than  that  between  the 
lowest  human  and  the  highest  animal 
type ;  but,  as  in  the  species  of  animals, 
the  intermediaries  equalize  the  difference 
and  leave  the  human  type  unaffected.  The 
orang-outang  is  brown  like  the  Malay ;  the 
gorilla  and  the  chimpanzee  are  black  like 
the  Negro.  But  neither  all  Malays  nor  all 
Negroes  have  the  same  intense  coloring. 
Similar  climatic  influences  may  have  been 
at  work  to  produce  similar  results  in  both 
man  and  ape.  Whether  the  orang-outang 
has  a  round  skull  like  the  Malay,  and 
whether  the  chimpanzee's  skull  is  elon- 
gated like  that  of  the  Negro,  are  points 
still  hotly  debated  by  the  learned ;  in  any 
case  the  identity  would  not  be  sufficient  to 
establish  descent. 

6.  Higher  and  LoTver  Races. — The  dis- 
tinction between  higher  and  lower  races 
proves  nothing  against  the  unity  of  the 
human  species.  The  Caucasian  has  no 
claim  to  the  highest  place ;  for  other  races 
are  equally  complete,  and  equally  adapted 
to  their  environment.  The  Negro  can  en- 
dure heat  and  cold  and  withstand  fatigue 
better  than  the  Caucasian  and  American. 
And  in  this  respect  the  Malay,  climate  not- 
withstanding, is  superior  to  the  European. 
In  intellect,  however,  the  case  is  different. 
No  one  denies  that  the  very  lowest  races 
are  still  human.  But  there  is  a  wide- 
spread opinion  that  some  races  are,  and 
have  been,  low,  and  will  never  rise.  Dar- 
win could  hardly  belive  that  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Terra  del  Fuego  were  men. 
Similar  stories  are  told  of  Australians  and 
Polynesians,  and  in  the  case  of  Negroes 
have  passed  current  as  an  axiom.  Intel- 
lectual inferiority  is  regarded  as  a  specific 
characteristic  of  the  Negro  race,  especially 
of  those  stocks  that  are  the  typical  repre- 


sentatives of  the  race.  It  is  likewise  pre- 
tended that  the  ape  approximates  man  in 
the  formation  of  the  brain.  With  the 
physical  differences,  we  have  already  dealt ; 
but  speech  and  reason  clearly  demonstrate 
that  the  intellectual  difference  between  the 
ape  and  the  Negro  is  specific ;  whereas, 
there  is  a  difference  of  degree  only  between 
the  Negro  and  other  races.  The  intellec- 
tual inferiorit}'  of  the  Negro  and  savage 
tribes  has  been  grossly  exaggerated.  Even 
Darwin  was  subsequently  obliged  to  recon- 
sider his  verdict  on  the  people  of  Terra 
del  Fuego.  Owing  to  the  praiseworthy 
efforts  of  the  missionaries,  notable  results 
have  already  been  achieved.  This  proves 
that  they  possess  a  great  capacity  for  edu- 
cation. The  Indians  often  display  great 
shrewdness  and  intelligence.  Thanks  to 
Jesuit  influence,  a  new  and  able  nation  has 
sprung  up  in  Paraguay,  Colorado,  and 
elsewhere.  Negro  children  educated  in 
America  and  Europe  learn  easily.  All 
tribes  are  susceptible  of  education  and 
culture ;  all  are  possessed  of  a  greater  or 
less  intelligence. 

7.  The  Plurality  of  the  Languages.  — 
The  plurality  of  languages  does  not  prove 
anything  against  the  unity  of  mankind. 
Languages  are,  in  fact,  as  numerous  as  in- 
dependent peoples,  and  history  tells  us 
that  language  and  customs  were  the  great 
barrier  that  separated  tribe  from  tribe. 
Some  people  have,  indeed,  changed  their 
language.  One  original  language  may 
not  be  an  absolutely  certain  proof  that  the 
human  race  is  one.  Still  language  is  a 
certain  guide,  and  the  o'riginal  language  is 
at  least  a  negative  proof,  and  affords  a 
strong  and  positive  presumption  in  favor 
of  unity  of  mankind.  Whence  comes  it 
that  languages  differ.?  This  question, 
though  hardly  ever  broached  formerly, 
seems  now  to  be  the  subject  of  discussion. 
Outside  the  Old  Testament  there  is 
scarcely  a  record  of  any  nation  occupying 
itself  with  the  problem  why  languages  are 
many,  instead  of  one.  The  Indians  of 
Central  America  have  a  legend,  similar  to 
the  account  of  Scripture,  that  all  men 
formerly  had  one  speech  and  one  religion, 
but  that  when  the  people  of  Tulan 
worshiped  false  gods,  their  speech  was 
changed. 

"  Though  languages,"  says  Humboldt, 
*'  may  at  first  sight  appear  very  different, 
though  their  notions,  humors,  peculiari- 
ties, may  seem  singular,  nevertheless,  they 
betray  a  certain  analogy,  and  we  shall  un- 


Manna 


455 


Marcellina 


derstand  their  numerous  relations  better 
according  as  the  philological  history  of 
nations  and  the  study  of  language  be- 
comes more  perfect."  The  last  twenty 
years  have  proven  the  correctness  of  this 
view  to  a  great  extent.  The  Mosaic  ac- 
count represents  nations  as  related  whose 
relationship  antiquity  was  unable  to  recog- 
nize. The  Romans  and  Greeks,  in  spite 
of  their  culture,  never  dreamed  that  they 
were  more  nearly  related  to  the  Arians 
and  Germans  than  were  the  Syrians  and 
Tyrians.  What  Holy  Writ  has  stated,  the 
science  of  the  nineteenth  century  has  con- 
firmed :  lonians,  Arians,  and  Germans 
are  of  common  origin.  The  study  of  lan- 
guage has  proven  that  before  the  ancestors 
of  the  Hindoos  and  Persians  emigrated 
toward  the  south,  and  before  the  Greek, 
Roman,  Celtic,  Teutonic,  and  Slav  colo- 
nies went  to  Europe,  there  was  probably 
on  the  plains  of  Asia  a  tribe  of  Arians 
who  spoke  a  language  which  was  not 
Sanskrit,  nor  Greek,  nor  German,  but 
which  called  the  Giver  of  light  and  life 
by  the  same  name,  which  may  to-day  be 
heard  in  the  temples  of  Benares,  in  the 
basilicas  of  Rome,  and  in  the  cathedrals 
and  churches  of  Northern  Germany,  "  All 
the  Indo-Germanic  languages,"  says  Pott, 
"were  identical  before  the  separation; 
they  exist  in  the  germ  of  one  original 
language,  which  disappeared  when  they 
were  differentiated  from  it." 

In  conclusion,  we  can  hold  that  the 
Mosaic  account,  which  tells  us  the  di- 
vision of  languages  took  place  a  long  time 
after  the  creation,  and  brings  this  division 
into  immediate  connection  with  the  di- 
vision of  mankind  into  different  nations, 
at  the  building  of  the  Tower  of  Babel,  ap- 
pears to  be  confirmed  by  the  teachings  of 
the  science  of  language. 

Manna.  —  A  concrete  vegetable  exuda- 
tion, a  grain,  in  the  Old  Testament  manna, 
described,  as  found  by  the  Israelites,  as  a 
small  round  thing,  as  small  as  the  hoar 
frost  on  the  ground.  And  when  the  chil- 
dren of  Israel  saw  it,  they  said  one  to 
another:  "  Man-hu !  which  signifieth : 
What  is  this !  for  they  knew  not  what  it 
was"  (Ex.  xvi.  15),  implying  that  the 
name  thus  arose  from  the  question, 
Man-hu,  {what  is  this?).  Hence  manna 
signifies  the  food  by  which  the  children  of 
Israel  were  sustained  in  the  wilderness 
(Ex.  xvi.  14-36;  Num.  xi.  6,  7).  The  cir- 
cumstances attending  the    gift  of  manna 


show  that  it  was  miraculous.  It  fell  every 
morning  with  the  dew  and  in  such  quanti- 
ties, during  forty  years,  as  to  supply  Is- 
rael with  a  substitute  for  bread.  It  did 
not  fall  on  the  Sabbath,  but  a  double  quan- 
tity fell  the  day  before,  and  when  gathered 
remained  fresh  till  the  first  day.  It  ceased 
when  the  people  reached  Galgala,  but  Moses 
laid  up  a  golden  vase  of  it  near  the  Ark  as 
a  memorial.  All  these  features  prove  that 
the  manna  was  something  supernatural. 

Manning  (Henry  Edward). — An 
English  cardinal ;  born  in  Totteridge, 
Hertfordshire,  July  15th,  1808.  After 
graduating  as  double  first  at  Balliol  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  in  1830,  he  was  appointed, 
in  1834,  rector  of  Lavington  and  Graffam, 
in  Sussex,  and  in  1840  he  was  made  arch- 
deacon of  Chichester.  In  1851  he  left  the 
Church  of  England  and  joined  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  After  studying  for 
some  years  in  Rome  he  was  ordained 
priest  in  1857,  and  founded  the  Congrega- 
tion of  the  Oblates  of  St.  Charles  Borro- 
meo,  at  Bayswater,  London.  On  the 
death  of  Cardinal  Wiseman,  in  1865,  he 
was  appointed  archbishop  of  Westminster. 
Being  a  zealous  supporter  of  Papal  In- 
fallibility, Dr.  Manning  was  made  a  cardi- 
nal in  1875.  He  was  the  foremost  spirit 
in  all  Catholic  movements  in  England,  or- 
ganized many  parochial  schools,  built 
more  than  200  churches  or  chapels, 
promoted  temperance,  started  many  be- 
nevolent societies  among  the  poor,  and 
took  a  lively  interest  in  all  practical  re- 
forms. He  wrote :  The  Grounds  of  Faith 
(1852)  ;  The  Temporal  Power  of  the  Pope 
(1866) ;  The  True  Story  of  the  Vatican 
(1877-1888);  The  Catholic  Church  and 
Modern  Society  (1880)  ;  The  Eternal 
Priesthood  {i9Sj,);  Temporal  Mission  of 
the  Holy  Ghost;  England  and  Christen- 
dom; and  numerous  volumes  of  sermons 
and  letters  on  ecclesiastical  topics.  Died 
in  London,  Jan.  14th,  1892. 

Maranatha.     See  Anathema. 

Marcellina  (St.). -^Christian  widow,  born 
at  Rome.  Of  the  illustrious  family  of  the 
Marcellus,  widow  at  the  age  of  sixteen 
years ;  in  possession  of  immense  wealth, 
she  erected  a  cloister  in  her  palace  on 
Mount  Aventin;  turned  her  opulent  apart- 
ments into  cells  and  oratories,  which  she 
opened  to  widows  and  young  ladies  who 
desired  to  consecrate  themselves  to  God. 
F.  Jan.  31st. 


Marcellinus 


456 


Mark 


Marcellinus  (St.).  —  Pope  from  296  to 
304.  Roman  bj  birth,  martyr  under  Dio- 
cletian. The  story  of  the  supposed  fall  of 
Marcellinus,  that,  in  the  time  of  persecu- 
tion he  had  ofTered  incense  to  the  idols 
and  subsequently  repented  before  a  coun- 
cil of  300  bishops  assembled  at  Sinuessa, 
between  Rome  and  Capua,  is  by  all 
learned  men  now  universally  rejected  as 
false.  The  whole  fabrication  was  stig- 
matized already  by  St.  Augustine,  as  a 
Donatist  calumny,  and  ascribed  by  him  to 
Petilius,  a  Donatist  bishop,  who,  without 
a  shadow  of  proof,  also  accused  the  suc- 
cessors of  Marcellinus,  Marcellus,  Melchi- 
ades,  and  Sylvester,  of  having  delivered 
the  Sacred  Scriptures  to  the  persecutors. 

Marcellus  (name  of  two  Popes).  — 
Afarcelltts  I.  —  Pope  from  308  to  309. 
Successor  of  Marcellinus,  suffered  perse- 
cution under  the  tyrant  Maxentius; 
was  condemned  to  serve  as  groom  in  the 
imperial  horse  stables,  and  died  in  this 
slavery.  Marcellus  II.  —  Pope  in  1555. 
Reigned  only  twenty-two  days. 

Marcion  and  Marcionites.  —  Marcion,  a 
Gnostic  philosopher  and  heresiarch,  of 
the  second  century.  Originally  a  priest 
of  Sinope  in  Pontus.  He  had  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  zeal  and  his  ascet- 
ical  life,  but,  falling  into  the  crime  of 
incontinence,  he  was  excommunicated  by 
his  own  father,  the  Bishop  of  Sinope.  He 
came  to  Rome  about  the  year  150,  to  ap- 
ply for  readmission  into  the  Church,  but 
was  rejected.  Upon  which  he  joined 
Cerdo,  a  Syrian  Gnostic,  who  had  come  to 
Rome  in  the  time  of  Pope  Hyginus. 
Cerdo  maintained  that  the  God  of  the  Old 
J^aw  and  the  Prophets  was  not  the  Father 
of  Jesus  Christ.  Adopting  this  heresy, 
Marcion,  whom  St.  Polycarp  had  called 
"  the  firstborn  of  Satan,"  taught  an  abso- 
lute distinction  between  the  God  of  the 
Christians  and  the  God  of  the  Jews,  and 
asserted  that  the  Church  had  lapsed  into 
Judaism.  He  repudiated  the  Old  Testa- 
ment entirely,  and  of  the  New  Testament 
he  retained  only  a  mutilated  copy  of  the 
Gospels  of  St.  Luke  and  the  ten  Epistles 
of  St.  Paul.  Marcion  is  said  to  have  re- 
pented of  his  apostasy,  but,  if  so,  his  rec- 
onciliation with  the  Church  was  precluded 
by  his  speedy  death.  The  most  noisy  of 
his  disciples  were  Mark  and  Apelles.  The 
Marcionites  were  very  numerous  in  Italy, 
Egypt,  Palestine,  Asia  Minor,  and  even  in 
Persia.     The  sect  had  a  complete  ecclesi- 


astical organization,  with  priests  and 
bishops,  and  continued  as  late  as  the  sixth 
century. 

Marechal  (Ambrose)  (1768- 1828). — 
American  prelate;  was  born  at  Ingre, 
France,  and  came  to  America  in  1792.  He 
entered  on  his  priestly  career  by  mission- 
ary labors  in  St.  Mary's  county  and  on  the 
Eastern  shore  of  Maryland,  but  on  the  or- 
ganization of  St.  Mary's  College  in  1799 
became  professor  of  theology  in  that  insti- 
tution. Archbishop  of  Baltimore  in  1817. 
He  encountered  great  opposition  from 
lay  trustees,  who  claimed  the  right  to  ap- 
point priests,  and  who  wished  to  make 
the  pastors  of  God's  Church  their  hired 
servants. 

Marists.  —  Religious  congregation, 
founded,  at  Marseilles,  by  Eugene  of 
Mazenod  (later  bishop  of  this  city;  died 
in  1861).  Established  in  1815,  the  society 
was  approved  by  Leo  XH.  in  1828.  Its 
members  devote  themselves  to  the  manage- 
ment of  schools,  instruction  in  industry, 
agriculture,  etc.  They  have  houses  in 
Italy,  England,  North  America,  and  other 
countries. 

Mark.  —  Greek  heresiarch  of  the  second 
century,  disciple  of  Valentinus.  Substi- 
tuted to  the  Catholic  Trinity  a  Quaternity, 
composed  of  the  Ineffable,  the  Silence, 
the  Father,  and  the  Truth ;  sought  mys- 
teries in  the  number  and  position  of  letters, 
rejected  the  sacraments,  admitted  a  prin- 
ciple of  evil,  and  held  women  worthy  of 
the  priesthood.  His  disciples  were  called 
Marcasians,  and  spread  in  Asia,  and  espe- 
cially in  Gaul  and  Spain. 

Mark  (St.)  —  One  of  the  four  Evangel- 
ists. Was  probably  the  same  as  John  Mark, 
mentioned  in  the  Acts  (xii.  25).  He  was 
the  nephew  or  cousin  of  St.  Barnabas. 
Mark  afterwards  became  the  favorite  com- 
panion and  disciple  of  St.  Peter  at  Rome. 
Sent  on  a  mission  to  Egypt  by  St.  Peter, 
Mark  there  founded  the  Church  of  St.  Al- 
exandria, which  he  governed  till  the  year 
62,  when  he  appointed  Annianus  his  suc- 
cessor. His  life  was  ended  by  martyrdom 
in  the  year  68.  Mark  wrote  his  Gospel  in 
Greek,  which,  as  St.  Irenaeus  tells  us,  ap- 
peared after  the  death  of  the  Apostles 
Peter  and  Paul,  and  which  he  is  said  to 
have  compiled  from  the  preaching  of  St. 
Peter,  who,  also,  gave  it  his  sanction. 
Hence,  ancient  writers  call  him  the  "  In- 
terpreter" of  that  Apostle.     F.  April  25fh. 


Mark 


457 


Marriage 


Mark  (St.)  —  Pope  in  333.  Roman  by 
birth,  rendered  a  decree  conferring  upon 
the  Bishop  of  Ostia  the  exclusive  right  to 
consecrate  the  sovereign  Pontiff.  It  was 
he  who  ordained  the  recitation  at  Mass  of 
the  symbol  of   Nice.     F.  Oct.  7th. 

Mark's  Day  or  Procession  on  St.  M^'i'lc's 
Day.  —  The  procession  on  St.  Mark's  Day 
was  instituted  even  before  the  time  of 
Pope  Gregory  the  Great  (607)  who,  how- 
ever, brought  it  into  fervent  practice,  "  in 
order,"  as  he  says,  "to  obtain,  in  a  meas- 
ure, forgiveness  of  our  sins."  The  same 
Pope  introduced  another,  called  the  Seven- 
fold Procession,  because  the  Faithful  of 
Rome  took  part  in  it  in  seven  divisions, 
from  seven  different  Churches,  meeting  in 
the  Church  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  of  Santa 
Maggiore.  It  was  also  named  the  Pest 
Procession,  because  it  was  ordered  by  St. 
Gregory  to  obtain  the  cessation  of  a  fear- 
ful pestilence  which  was  at  that  time 
raging  in  Rome,  and  throughout  all  Italy. 
This  pestilence  so  poisoned  the  atmos- 
phere that  one  opening  his  mouth  to  sneeze 
or  gape  would. suddenly  fall  dead;  hence 
the  custom  of  saying  "God  bless  you," 
to  one  sneezing,  and  of  making  the  sign 
of  the  Cross  on  the  mouth  of  one  who 
gapes.  The  same  holy  Pope  ordered  the 
picture  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  which  is 
said  to  have  been  painted  by  St.  Luke  to 
be  carried  in  this  procession,  and  that  the 
intercession  of  this  powerful  mother  be 
asked.  God  heard  these  supplications  and 
the  pestilence  ceased. 

Maronites.  —  Catholic  people  of  Syria, 
living  in  the  number  of  about  500,000  in 
the  district  of  Tripoli  and  Libanon.  Con- 
stituted in  the  seventh  century  by  John 
the  Maronite,  the  Maronites  acknowledged 
in  1215,  the  authority  of  the  Pope  and 
placed  themselves  under  the  protection  of 
St.  Louis,  king  of  France.  They  use  un- 
leavened bread  for  the  confection  of  the 
Eucharist,  and,  like  the  rest  of  the  Ori- 
entals, communicate  the  laity  under  both 
kinds,  except  that  in  communicating  the 
sick,  only  the  species  of  bread  is  used.  They 
use  incense  at  low  Mass,  and  read  the 
Gospel  in  Arabic,  after  it  has  been  read  in 
Syriac,  Arabic  being  the  vulgar  language 
in  those  countries  where  this  rite  prevails. 
Their  secular  clergy  number  about  one 
thousand,  and  their  regular  clergy  or 
monks,  about  fourteen  hundred.  The 
monks  are  not  married.  The  patriarch  of 
the    Maronites    is    styled    "Patriarch   of 


Antioch  of  the  Maronites,"  and  resides  at 
Deir  Kanobin,  near  the  Libanon.  Besides 
the  patriarch,  they  have  six  archbishops  and 
three  bishops.  The  people  elect  the  pa- 
triarch, who,  however,  must  await  the  con- 
firmation of  the  Pope  before  he  is  installed 
in  office. 

Marquette  (jAcquES)  (1637-1675)  — 
Born  at  Laon,  France;  died  near  Lake 
Michigan.  A  French  Jesuit  missionary 
and  explorer  in  America.  He  accompanied 
Joliet  in  his  voyage  down  the  Wisconsin 
and  Mississippi  and  up  the  Illinois  in 
1673.  He  died  Avhile  attempting  to  es- 
tablish a  mission  among  the  Illinois.  He 
wrote  in  French  a  description  of  the  ex- 
pedition of  1673  entitled  Voyage  and  Dt's' 
covery  of  Some  Countries  and  Nations  in 
North  America. 

Marriage.     See  Matrimony  ;  Bigamy. 

Marriage  {Civil). — Civil  marriage  we 
call  a  marriage  contracted  before  some 
State  official.  Civil  marriage  is  to  be 
distinguished  from  Christian  marriage,  in- 
asmuch as  it  is  no  sacrament,  and  conse- 
quently in  the  sight  of  God  no  true  and 
real  marriage  for  Catholics.  Civil  mar- 
riage may  be  said  to  have  originated  with 
Luther,  for  he  prepared  the  way  for  the 
State  to  legislate  concerning  marriage. 
What  he  began,  the  French  revolution 
completed  ;  for  marriage  was  then  declared 
to  be  a  civil  contract,  concluded  before  a 
government  official.  Civil  marriage  is 
obligatory  or  compulsory  when,  as  is  the 
case  in  some  countries,  the  marriage  is 
otherwise  not  recognized  by  the  State ;  it 
is  optional  when  the  parties  are  free  to 
choose  whether  the  ceremony  shall  be 
civil  or  religious,  as  in  America;  finally, 
it  is  unavoidable,  if  on  account  of  the  priest 
being  debarred  from  marrying  them 
through  political  reasons,  or  on  other 
obvious  grounds,  the  persons  desirous  of 
being  married  cannot  be  united  otherwise 
than  by  the  secular  authorities.  We  said, 
civil  marriage  is  no  sacrament.  However, 
in  England,  Scotland,  and  most  of  the 
United  States  of  America,  where  the  de- 
cree Tametsi  of  the  Council  of  Trent  has 
not  been  duly  published,  marriage  con- 
tracted between  two  baptized  Catholics 
without  the  sanction  of  the  Church  is  a 
valid  marriage  and  a  sacrament,  although 
an  unlawful  and  sacrilegious  act.  Catho- 
lics who  contract  civil  marriage,  are  ex- 
cluded from  the  sacraments  until  they  have 
repaired  the  scandal  they  have  given. 


Marriage 


458 


Martin  of  Tours 


Marriage  {Mixed). — By  mixed  marriage 
we  understand  the  marriage  of  a  Catholic 
to  a  non-Catholic.  Mixed  marriages  have 
always  been  disapproved  of  by  the  Church. 

1.  Because  in  such  marriages  the  proper 
training  of  the  children  is  a  matter  of  great 
difficulty,    if    not    altogether    impossible. 

2.  Because  such  unions  are  productive  of 
no  concord,  no  true  happiness.  3.  Because 
the  Catholic  is  in  great  danger  of  losing 
his  or  her  faith.  4.  And,  besides,  the  non- 
Catholic  may  at  any  time  obtain  a  divorce, 
leave  his  or  her  Catholic  partner,  and  con- 
tract another  marriage.  Even  in  the  Old 
Testament  mixed  marriages  were  pro- 
hibited ;  the  Jews  were  not  permitted  to 
make  marriages  with  the  Chanaanites 
(Deut.  vii.  3),  nor  indeed  with  the  Samar- 
itans, although  they  kept  the  law  of  God 
and  had  the  Books  of  Moses,  because  of 
the  heathen  ceremonies  they  observed.  In 
like  manner  in  the  present  day  the  Church 
discourages  the  marriage  of  Catholics  to 
non-Catholics,  who,  though  they  call 
themselves  Christians,  hold  doctrines 
which  are  at  variance  with  the  teaching  of 
Christ.  The  Church  warns  her  children 
against  such  alliances,  just  as  a  loving 
father  might  warn  his  son  against  under- 
taking some  journey  which  he  knows  will 
expose  him  to  great  perils.  In  early  times 
parents  who  gave  their  daughter  in  mar- 
riage to  a  heretic  were  subjected  to  five 
years'  penance.  The  Church  tolerates 
mixed  marriages  on  three  conditions:  i. 
Both  parties  must  promise  that  their  chil- 
dren shall  be  brought  up  as  Catholics.  3. 
The  Catholic  must  promise  to  endeavor  to 
bring  the  non-Catholic  to  the  knowledge 
of  the  truth.  3.  The  non-Catholic  must 
promise  to  allow  the  Catholic  liberty  for 
the  free  exercise  of  his  or  her  religion. 
Without  these  three  conditions  the  Church 
will  not  sanction  a  mixed  marriage.  The 
Catholic  who  contracts  a  mixed  marriage 
without  the  blessing  of  the  Church  com- 
mits a  mortal  sin,  and  cannot  be  admitted 
to  the  sacraments. 

Martha.  —  A  sister  of  Lazarus  whom 
our  Lord  raised  from  the  dead  (Luke  x. 
38,  etc.;  John  xi.).  During  the  great  per- 
secution of  the  Church  at  Jerusalem, 
Martha,  Lazarus,  Mary  Magdalen,  and 
other  Christians  were  placed  on  a  vessel 
without  sails,  rudders,  pilot,  or  provi- 
sions in  order  to  cause  them  to  perish  in 
the  midst  of  the  sea.  The  vessel  landed 
at   Marseilles.      St.    Martha   having   con- 


verted the  inhabitants  of  the  city  of  Taras- 
con,  lived  there  until  her  death  in  a.  d.  84. 
She  was  buried  in  the  actual  crypt  of  the 
Church  of  St.  Martha.  She  is  the  patron 
saint  of  Tarascon.     F.  July  29th. 

Martha  {Religious  of  St.) .  —  Female  re- 
ligious congregation,  which  draws  its  origin 
from  the  Beguines  of  the  Netherlands  and 
which  was  founded  by  Nicholas  Robin, 
chancellor  of  King  Philip  the  Kind.  They 
have  charge  of  a  great  number  of  hospitals 
in  Burgundy. 

Martial  (St.  ).  —  First  bishop  of  Limoges, 
apostle  of  Aquitaine,  in  the  first  century. 
Jew  by  origin,  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin, 
disciple  of  our  Saviour,  he  came  to  Rome 
together  with  St.  Peter,  and  received  from 
the  chief  of  the  Apostles  the  mission  to 
preach  the  faith  among  the  inhabitants  of 
Gaul.  Patron  saint  of  Limoges,  Cahors, 
Tulle,  etc.     F.  June  30th. 

Martin  (name  of  five  Popes). —  Martin  I. 
(St.) — Pope  from  649  to  655.  He  formally 
condemned  the  Monothelites  and  the  two 
imperial  edicts,  called  Ecthesis  and  Typos, 
which  forbade  all  controversy  on  the  sub- 
ject of  Two  Wills  in  Christ.  For  tliis  op- 
position. Pope  Martin,  by  order  of  Emperoi 
Constans  II.,  was  forcibly  carried  to  Con- 
stantinople, and,  after  many  suflFerings, 
died  a  martyr  in  exile.  Martin  II.  —  Pope 
from  882  to  884.  Excommunicated  Photius, 
Patriarch  of  Constantinople.  Martin  III. 
—  Successor  of  Stephen  VIII.  or  IX.  in 
942  and  died  in  946.  Martin  IV.  —  Pope 
from  1281  to  1285.  Governed  the  Church 
with  prudence  and  ability.  Excommuni- 
cated Peter  of  Aragon,  who  had  taken 
Sicily.  Martin  V.  —  Pope  from  1417  to 
1431.  Was  elected  after  Gregory  XII. 
had  abdicated,  and  after  the  antipope 
Benedict  XIII.  had  been  deposed.  He 
presided  at  the  42d  session  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Constance;  declared,  by  a  special 
Bull,  "  that  it  was  unlawful  for  any  one, 
either  to  appeal  from  the  judgment  of  tha 
Holy  See,  or  to  reject  its  decisions  in  mat- 
ters of  faith."  He  exerted  all  his  efforts 
to  restore  industry  and  commerce  in  the 
Papal  States,  and  to  carry  out  the  reforms 
inaugurated  at  Constance. 

Martin  of  Tours  (St.)  (316-400) .  —  Born 
at  Sabaria,  Hungaria;  died  at  Candes, 
France.  Martin  became  a  Christian  cate- 
chumen against  his  parents'  wish ;  and  at 
the  age  of  fifteen  he  was,  therefore,  seized 
by  his  father,  a  pagan  soldier,  and  enrolled 


Martinelli 


459 


Martyrs 


in  the  army.  One  winter  day,  when  sta- 
tioned at  Amiens,  he  met  a  beggar  almost 
naked  and  frozen.  Having  no  money,  he 
cut  his  cloak  in  two  and  gave  him  half  of 
it.  That  night  he  saw  our  Lord  clothed  in 
the  half  of  his  cloak,  and  heard  Him  say  to 
the  angels:  "  Martin,  yet  a  catechumen, 
hath  wrapped  me  in  this  garment."  This 
decided  him  to  be  baptized,  and  shortly 
after  he  left  the  army.  He  succeeded  in 
converting  his  mother;  but,  being  driven 
from  his  home  by  the  Arians,  he  took 
shelter  with  St.  Hilary,  and  founded,  near 
Poitiers,  the  first  monastery  in  France.  In 
372  he  was  made  bishop  of  Tours.  Un- 
armed and  attended  only  by  his  monks, 
Martin  destroyed  the  heathen  temples  and 
groves,  and  completed  by  his  preaching 
and  miracles,  the  conversion  of  the  people, 
whence  he  is  known  as  the  Apostle  of 
Gaul.     F.  Nov.  nth. 

Martinelli  (Sebastian).  —  Archbishop 
of  Ephesus  and  Apostolic  Delegate  to  the 
Catholic  Church  in  the  United  States ;  born 
in  the  parish  of  St.  Anna,  near  Lucca, 
Italy,  Aug.  3oth,  1848;  the  brother  of  the 
late  Cardinal  Tommaso  Martinelli.  He 
studied  for  the  priesthood  and  was  admit- 
ted into  the  Order  of  St.  Augustine  in  1871, 
and  from  that  time  until  1886  was  professor 
of  theology  in  the  Irish  Augustinian  Col- 
lege in  Rome.  In  1889  he  was  appointed 
General  of  the  Augustinian  Order.  In 
1893  ^^  spent  several  months  in  the  United 
States,  reorganizing  the  American  branch 
of  his  Order.  In  1896  he  was  selected  by 
the  Pope  as  Delegate  and  the  Vatican  rep- 
resentative in  the  United  States,  in  suc- 
cession to  Cardinal  Satolli. 

Martyrologium  (the  history  of  the 
lives,  sufferings,  and  death  of  Christian 
martyrs).  —  The  custom  of  drawing  up 
Martyrologies  is  so  much  more  natural  as 
the  pagans  themselves  inscribed  in  their 
fasces  the  names  of  their  heroes,  in  order 
to  preserve  to  posterity  the  example  of  the 
great  actions  they  had  performed.  Baron- 
ius  claims  that  Pope  Clement  I.  introduced 
this  custom  into  the  Church.  There  is 
quite  a  number  of  Martyrologies :  the  first 
is  that  of  Eusebius  and  of  St.  Jerome; 
Cassiodorus  quotes  it  in  the  sixth  century, 
and  Bede  in  the  seventh  ;  the  second  is  that 
of  Bede,  written  about  the  year  730,  and 
augmented  by  Florus,  about  the  year  839; 
the  third  is  of  Vandelbert,  monk  of  Prom, 
in  the  Diocese  of  Treves,  written  in  848 ; 
the  fourth  was  composed,  about  the  year 


845,  by  Rabanus,  Archbishop  of  Mayence ; 
the  fifth  was  written,  about  the  year  894, 
by  Notker,  surnamed  the  "Little  Stam- 
merer," monk  of  St.  Gall;  the  sixth,  com- 
posed about  the  year  858,  by  Adon,  is  a 
compilation  of  the  Roman  Martyrology 
and  of  that  of  Bede;  the  seventh,  made 
after  a  copy  of  that  of  Adon,  was  written, 
in  875,  by  Usuard,  monk  of  St.  Germain- 
des-Pr^s ;  the  eighth  was  composed  about 
the  year  1089,  by  Nevolon,  monk  of 
Corbie ;  the  ninth  is  the  Martyrology  of 
the  Copts,  kept  by  the  Maronites,  at  Rome, 
and  mentioned  by  Father  Kircher  in  his 
Prodromus;  the  tenth  is  the  Roman 
Martyrology  which  contains  the  names  of 
all  the  canonized  saints.  There  are,  besides, 
Martyrologies  of  particular  Churches. 

Martyrs  (the  name  given  to  those 
who  suffer  death  or  torments  for  the 
Christian  religion). —  It  is  the  constant 
doctrine  of  the  Fathers,  that  all  men,  who 
suffer  martyrdom  for  Christ,  attain  remis- 
sion of  all  sin  and  punishment,  whether 
they  be  infants  or  adults.  By  a  martyr  is 
here  to  be  understood  one  who  suffers 
with  patience,  death,  or  treatment  which 
would  naturally  cause  death,  for  the  Catho- 
lic faith  or  for  the  practice  of  any  Christian 
virtue.  According  to  Tertullian,  St. 
John  the  Evangelist  was  thrown  into  a 
caldron  of  boiling  oil,  by  order  of  the 
Emperor  Domitian,  and  his  life  was  saved 
by  a  miracle,  so  that  he  eventually  died  a 
natural  death ;  but,  nevertheless,  he  is 
honored  as  a  martyr.  Although  the  ordi- 
nary case  of  martyrdom  is  death  for  the 
faith,  still  the  privilege  belongs  to  many 
who  have  died  for  the  sake  of  other  virtues. 
St.  John  of  Nepomuk  died  rather  than  be- 
tray the  secret  of  confession ;  St.  Alphege 
of  Canterbury,  preferred  to  die  by  the 
hands  of  the  Danes,  rather  than  harshly 
exercise  his  legal  rights  and  compel  his 
dependents  to  raise  the  money  demanded 
for  his  ransom;  and  his  successor,  St. 
Thomas,  suffered  in  defense  of  the  liber- 
ties of  the  Church. 

The  essential  character  of  martyrdom  is 
that  death  or  suffering  should  be  incurred 
voluntarily  in  testimony  of  the  truth,  and 
it  is  to  this  that  the  derivation  of  the  word 
points  —  martus  {a  witness).  The  ordinary 
definition  requires  that  the  martyr  should 
suffer  with  patience,  for  otherwise  he  has 
scanty  likeness  to  Christ,  who  was  led  as  a 
sheep  to  the  slaughter  (Is.  liii.  7) ;  and 
Tertullian   expressly  denies  that  soldiers 


Maruthas 


460 


Mary 


who  fall  in  battle  can  be  called  martvrs, 
however  good  the  cause  in  which  they 
fight.  {Contra  Marcion.)  Such  men  are 
popularly  called  martyrs,  and  if  the  case 
arise  of  their  being  proposed  for  canoniza- 
tion,the  question  will  be  discussed  whether 
the  popular  judgment  is  right  or  not.  The 
term  may  be  a  mere  loose  expression,  like 
martyr  of  charity.  But  whether  these 
Christian  heroes  would  be  honored  under 
the  name  of  martyrs  or  under  that  of  con- 
fessors, their  salvation  can  hardly  depend 
upon  their  baptism  of  blood ;  it  rarely 
happens,  that  they  are  without  the  baptism 
of  water,  and,  even  if  this  happen,  they 
will  probably  have  been  justified  by  the 
baptism  of  desire. 

It  is  impossible  to  fix  the  exact  number 
of  Christian  martyrs  that  died  for  the  faith 
in  the  first  three  centuries.  Dodwell,  an 
Anglican  writer  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, and  Gibbon,  endeavored  to  prove 
that  it  was  insignificant,  but  their  opinion 
is  not  shared  by  more  unprejudiced  writers. 
The  computation  of  Bosio,  who  is  justly 
styled  the  *'  Columbus  of  the  Catacombs," 
and  of  other  learned  men,  have  led  to  the 
estimate  that  at  least  five  millions  —  men, 
women,  and  children  —  were  put  to  death 
for  the  faith  during  the  first  three  cen- 
turies of  the  Church.  Some  even  believe 
the  total  number  of  Christians  martyred 
during  this  period  to  be  between  nine  and 
ten  millions. 

Maruthas. —  Bishop  of  Tagrit,  or  Mar- 
tyropolis,  in  Mesopotamia.  Died  about 
420.  He  was  truly  one  of  the  most  learned 
and  illustrious  writers  of  the  Syriac 
Church.  He  was  a  contemporary  and  the 
intimate  friend  of  St.  Chrysostom,  and 
assisted  at  the  Council  of  Constantinople. 
He  converted  a  great  number  of  Persians 
and  extended  the  faith  throughout  Persia. 
Of  his  works  extant  are  Acts  of  the  Per- 
sian Martyrs,  who  suffered  under  Sapor 
n.  and  his  successors,  a  History  of  the 
Council  of  Nice,  and  a  Syriac  Liturgy. 
The  thirty-six  canons  of  the  synod  held  in 
410  at  Seleucia,  in  which  the  Procession 
of  the  Holy  Ghost  from  the  Father  and 
the  Son  is  clearly  expressed,  are  in  part 
his  work. 

Mary  {Brothers  of).    See  Brothers. 

Mary  Immaculate  (  Oblates  of).  —  A 
religious  community  founded  in  1816  by 
Monseigneur  Charles  de  Mazenod,  subse- 
quently bishop  of  Marseilles,  and  approved 


by  Leo  XH.,  in  1826.  After  laboring  for 
many  years  among  the  Indian  tribes  of 
Athabasca- Mackenzie,  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1848,  where  they  have  now  sev- 
eral houses,  mostly  in  Texas  and  Louis- 
iana. 

Mary  {The  Blessed  Virgin  )  (  20  b.  c.- 
SaA.D). —  The  Blessed  Virgin,  Mother  of 
Jesus  Christ,  daughter  of  St.  Joachim  and 
of  St.  Anna,  of  the  tribe  of  Juda  and  of  the 
royal  race  of  David,  was  born  at  Nazareth. 
Predestined  from  all  eternity  to  be  the 
mother  of  the  Saviour  of  men,  she  was  ex- 
empt in  her  conception  from  original  sin. 
Mary  was  consecrated  to  the  Lord,  from 
her  most  tender  youth,  and  was  received 
among  the  number  of  the  virgins  who  ser\'ed 
in  the  Temple  of  Jerusalem.  At  about  the 
age  of  fifteen  years,  she  was  betrothed  to 
St.  Joseph,  who  was  also  of  the  tribe  of 
Juda  and  of  the  rojal  race  of  David.  She 
lived  at  Nazareth  with  her  spouse,  who 
was  only  the  guardian  of  her  virginity. 
Shortly  after  this  marriage,  the  angel  Ga- 
briel appeared  to  Mary,  announced  to  her 
that  she  would  conceive  through  the  power 
of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  that,  without  ceasing 
to  be  a  virgin,  she  would  be  the  mother  of 
Christ,  the  Son  of  God,  whom  she  would 
call  Jesus.  Mary  humbly  answered  to  the 
angel :  "  Behold  the  handmaid  of  the  Lord ; 
be  it  done  to  me  according  to  thy  word." 
An  angel  explained  the  same  mystery  to 
St.  Joseph.  Mary  went  to  visit  her  cousin 
St.  Elizabeth  who  lived  at  Hebron;  the 
latter,  divinely  inspired,  saluted  her  say- 
ing: "Blessed  art  thou  amongst  women, 
and  blessed  is  the  fruit  of  thy  womb." 
Then  Mary,  p)enetrated  with  gratitude  and 
supernatural  light,  praised  God,  by  chant- 
ing her  sublime  canticle,  the  Magnificat. 
In  the  same  year,  the  Roman  Emperor, 
Augustus,  haN-ing  ordered  the  enumeration 
of  his  subjects,  Joseph  and  Mary  went  to 
Bethlehem,  the  native  place  of  their  fam- 
ily, in  order  to  be  recorded.  Here  the 
Blessed  Virgin  Mary  brought  forth  the 
Son  of  God,  the  Redeemer  of  mankind. 
After  ha\nng  presented  Him  in  the  Temple 
of  Jerusalem  on  the  day  of  Purification, 
Mary  and  Joseph  fled  with  the  child  Jesus 
into  Egypt,  because  King  Herod  sought  to 
kill  Him.  Herod  having  died,  the  Holy 
Family  left  Egypt  and  returned  to  dwell 
at  Nazareth,  in  Galilee.  It  was  Mary 
who  recovered  the  child  Jesus  in  the  Tem- 
ple, explaining  the  law  to  the  doctors  and 
astonishing  them   by  the  wisdom  of  His 


Mary 


461 


Mass 


words.  It  was  at  her  request  that  Jesus 
Christ  changed  water  into  wine  at  the 
nuptials  of  Cana.  She  accompanied  her 
divine  Son  during  His  public  life,  fol- 
lowed Him  to  Calvary  and  remained  erect 
at  the  foot  of  the  Cross  with  a  courage 
worthj  of  the  mother  of  God.  Recom- 
mended by  the  dying  Saviour  to  His  well- 
beloved  disciple,  St.  John  the  Evangelist, 
the  latter  took  care  of  her  as  of  his  own 
mother,  and  took  her  with  him  to  Ephesus. 
But,  according  to  tradition,  Mary  died  at 
Jerusalem,  at  the  advanced  age  of  seventy- 
two  years.  Also,  an  ancient  tradition 
teaches  us  that  the  Apostles,  then  dis- 
persed all  over  the  world  for  the  preach- 
ing of  the  Gospel,  miraculously  found 
themselves  assembled  around  her  and  wit- 
nessed her  death.  Her  remains  were  de- 
posited in  a  tomb  at  Gethsemani,  and  this 
tomb,  like  that  of  Jesus,  became  glorious. 
God  glorified  the  body  of  Mary,  who  had 
served  as  tabernacle  to  the  Word,  in  caus- 
ing it  to  be  transported  into  heaven  by  His 
angels.  The  Apostle  St.  Thomas,  the 
hagiographers  tell  us,  who  was  not  present 
at  the  death  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  arrived 
on  the  third  day,  and,  wishing  to  venerate 
that  body  which  had  brought  forth  the 
Saviour,  requested  the  sepulchre  to  be 
opened.  They  no  longer  found  the  sacred 
remains,  but  only  the  winding  sheet  in 
which  it  had  been  wrapped.  The  Apostles 
recognized  and  proclaimed  that  the  body 
of  Mary  was  already  reunited  with  its  soul 
and  had  been  gloriously  raised  into  heaven. 

Mary  {Feasts  of). — The  principal  feasts 
in  honor  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  are:  Im- 
maculate Conception,  Dec.  8th;  Nativity, 
Sept.  8th ;  Betrothal  of  Mary  and  Joseph, 
Jan.  23d;  Annunciation,  March  25th;  Visi- 
tation, July  2d ;  Purification,  Feb.  2d ; 
Assumption,  Aug.  15th.  Only  the  first 
and  last  of  these  feasts  are  of  precept  in  the 
United  States. 

"bHa-Tj  {Prerogatives  of).  —  The  venera- 
tion which  the  Church  renders  to  the 
Blessed  Virgin  Mary  is  founded  upon  the 
same  reasons  and  motives  as  that  which 
she  renders  to  other  saints,  with  the  differ- 
ence that  the  first  is  superior,  although  it 
essentially  differs  from  the  worship  we  owe 
to  God.  In  fact,  when  all  the  saints  can 
intercede  for  us,  and  when  God  is  pleased 
to  listen  to  their  prayers,  with  much  more 
reason  does  she  merit  our  confidence, 
who  was  blessed  among  all  women,  and 
who,  in  consenting  to  become  the  Mother 


of  God,  has  become,  says  St.  Irenaeus,  the 
cause  of  salvation  for  all  mankind.  She  is 
also  the  object  of  a  particular  veneration 
in  the  Church,  which  has  always  regarded 
her  as  our  advocate  with  God,  celebrating 
her  titles,  virtues,  and  glory.  All  the  gen- 
erations have  called  her  and  will  call  her 
blessed,  because  the  Almighty  has  done 
great  things  in  her :  Mary  is  the  Mother  of 
God  and  this  title  elevates  her  above  the 
saints  and  angels,  above  all  creatures. 
She  is  the  Mother  of  God  in  the  full  sense 
of  the  word :  she  conceived  and  brought 
forth,  as  to  the  humanity,  Jesus  Christ,  the 
Son  of  God  made  man ;  in  her  bosom  the 
Word  was  made  flesh.  Mary  in  becoming 
the  Mother  of  God,  never  ceased  to  be  a 
virgin ;  she  was  a  virgin  when  the  angel 
announced  to  her  the  mystery  to  be  oper- 
ated in  her ;  she  remained  a  virgin  in  con- 
ceiving the  one  who  is  holy  far  excellence. 
She  conceived  through  the  operation  of  the 
Holy  Ghost.  She  remained  a  virgin  after 
childbirth,  which,  having  been  done  in  a 
supernatural  manner,  could  not  impair  her 
virginal  integrity.  The  Church  believes 
that  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary  never  com- 
mitted any  sin,  not  even  a  venial  one;  the 
exemption  from  all  actual  sin  is  a  privilege 
which  we  acknowledge  in  Mary,  and  which 
has  never  been  contested  among  Catholics. 
The  Council  of  Trent  declared  that  nobody 
can,  during  his  whole  life,  avoid  all  sin, 
without  a  special  privilege  of  God,  as  the 
Church  believes  in  regard  to  the  Blessed 
Virgin.  It  is  an  article  of  faith  that  Mary 
has  been  even  exempt  from  original  sin. 
By  his  Apostolic  Constitution  of  Dec.  8th, 
1854,  th^  immortal  Pius  IX.  has  solemnly 
defined  and  proclaimed  as  dogma  of  belief 
the  Immaculate  Conception  of  the  glorious 
Virgin  Mary,  Mother  of  God.  Another 
prerogative  of  Mary  is  her  corporal  As- 
sumption into  heaven.  It  is  the  general 
belief  of  the  Church;  that  the  Blessed  Vir- 
gin was  raised  to  life  immediately  after  her 
death,  and  that  she  is  in  heaven  both 
body  and  soul.  This  pious  belief  is  founded 
upon  tradition,  and  on  the  sentiments  of 
piety  which  we  should  have  for  the  Mother 
of  God. 

Maspha.  —  Name  of  several  localities  of 
ancient  Palestine,  among  others  of  a  village 
in  the  tribe  of  Gad.  Residence  of  Samuel ; 
here  the  great  assemblies  of  the  people  took 
place.     To-day  the  village  of  Chafath. 

Mass  (The  Latin  word  missa  is  derived 
from  missis,  which  signifies  a  dismissal  or 


Mass  of  Bolsena 


462  Mass  of  the  Presanctified 


permission  to  depart  as  soon  as  the  sacri- 
fice of  the  Mass  is  completed). —  The  sac- 
rifice of  the  Body  and  Blood  of  Jesus  Christ, 
according  to  the  rite  prescribed. 

The  Eucharist  as  sacrifice  is  designated 
under  different  names  bj  the  ancient 
Fathers ;  but  since  a  long  time  it  is  univer- 
sally called  sacrifice  of  the  Mass.  Mass  is 
the  sacrifice  of  the  New  Law,  by  which  we 
offer  to  God,  through  the  hands  of  the 
priest,  the  Body  and  Blood  of  Jesus  Christ, 
under  the  species  of  bread  and  wine.  The 
sacrifice  is,  by  its  nature,  an  act  of  supreme 
worship  which  is  rendered  to  God  alone, 
and  which  is  called  latria  worship.  Thus 
if  the  Mass  of  a  saint  is  said,  it  must  not 
be  understood  that  we  offer  the  sacrifice  of 
the  Mass  to  this  saint,  but  that  we  make 
commemoration  of  the  saint  and  pray  to 
him  to  intercede  for  us.  The  sacrifice  of 
the  Mass  has  the  same  properties,  the  same 
effects  as  the  sacrifice  of  the  Cross,  from 
which  it  differs  only  in  the  manner  it  is 
offered  on  our  altars.  It  is,  consequently, 
latreutical,  eucharistic,  imprecatory,  and 
propitiatory.  In  regard  to  the  fruits  of  the 
sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  we  distinguish  the 
general  fruit,  which  is  common  to  all  the 
Faithful,  the  living  and  the  dead  retained 
in  purgatory;  the  special  fruit,  which  is 
for  all  those  who  assist  or  take  some  part 
in  the  celebration  of  the  Mass ;  the  more 
special  fruit,  which  is  particularly  for  those 
at  whose  intention  the  Mass  is  said  ;  finally, 
the  personal  fruit,  applied  to  the  priest 
who  says  the  Mass.  The  priests,  and  priests 
alone  can  offer  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass, 
acting  in  the  name  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  with 
Jesus  Christ  Who  renews  and  continues 
upon  our  altars  the  sacrifice  of  the  Cross. 
According  to  the  general  and  constant 
practice  of  the  Church,  the  one  for  whom 
the  priest  especially  offers  the  sacrifice  of 
the  Mass,  partakes  with  greater  abundance 
in  the  merits  of  Jesus  Christ  which  are  ap- 
plied therein.  Hence  the  custom  of  Catho- 
lics to  ask  for  one  or  several  Masses  in 
favor  of  the  living  and  of  the  dead  ;  hence 
the  custom  of  the  foundations  (founded 
Masses)  obliging  to  say  a  certain  number 
of  Masses;  hence,  finally,  the  necessary 
fees  or  stipends  for  the  Masses  to  be  said. 
Every  laborer  is  worthy  of  reward  ;  every 
man  that  ser^-es  the  altar  ought  to  live 
from  the  altar.  The  stipend  of  a  Mass  is 
neither  the  price  of  the  consecration,  nor 
an  alms  properly  speaking;  the  priest  who 
is  rich  may,  as  well  as  the  one  who  is  poor, 
receive  and  even  ask  for  a  stipend  if  re- 


quested to  say  one  or  several  Masses  ac- 
cording to  the  intention  of  one  of  the 
Faithful.  For  the  obligation  of  hearing 
Mass,  see  Commaxdmexts. 

The  ordinary  of  the  Mass  comprises 
the  Introit,  the  Oration  or  Collect,  the 
Epistle,  Gradual,  Gospel,  Preface,  the 
Canon  which  comprises'  Consecration  and 
Elevation,  with  Communion,  and  Post- 
Communion,  the  last  Oration,  the  Bless- 
ing of  those  assisting,  and  the  last  Gospel. 
The  Requiem  Masses  or  Masses  for  the 
dead  are  especially  applied  to  the  Faith- 
ful departed,  although  any  other  Mass 
may  be  said  according  to  this  intention. 
Votive  Mass  we  call  the  Mass  which  the 
particular  devotion  of  somebody  causes  to 
be  said  in  honor  of  a  mystery,  or  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin,  or  of  other  saints.  Votive 
Masses  do  not  correspond  with  the  office 
of  the  day.  On  all  days  except  Sundays, 
feasts  of  double  and  more  than  double 
rank,  and  certain  other  days  especially  ex- 
cepted, a  priest  may  say  a  Votive  Mass, 
instead  of  that  assigned  for  the  day.  See 
Sacrifice  of  the  Mass. 

Mass  of  Bolsena. — Bolsena  is  a  town  of 
Italy.  In  this  place  a  priest,  while  cele- 
brating Mass  in  the  Church  of  St.  Cath- 
arine, which  still  exists,  let  some  drops  of 
the  Precious  Blood  fall  accidentally  on  the 
corporal.  To  remove  the  traces  of  this  oc- 
currence, he  folded  and  refolded  the  sacred 
linen  in  such  a  way  as  to  absorb  the  Ador- 
able Blood.  The  corporal  was  afterwards 
opened,  and  it  was  found  that  the  Blood 
had  penetrated  all  the  folds  and  left  every- 
where a  figure  of  the  Sacred  Host,  per- 
fectly drawn,  in  the  color  of  blood.  The 
rumor  of  what  had  happened  arrived  in  a 
few  hours  at  Orvieto,  a  small  town  about 
sixty  miles  from  Rome,  near  Bolsena,  and 
where  Pope  Urban  IV.  was  just  stopping. 
By  the  command  of  the  sovereign  Pontiff, 
the  miraculous  linen  was  brought  to  his 
town.  The  miracle  was  proved,  and  the 
corporal  inclosed  in  a  reliquary,  one  of  the 
masterpieces  of  the  Middle  Ages,  —  and  is 
kept  to  this  day  in  the  cathedral  of  Orvieto. 
Moved  by  the  miracle  of  Bolsena,  and  by 
the  desire  to  promote  the  devotion  to  the 
Blessed  Eucharist,  Urban  IV.,  in  1264, 
commanded  the  celebration  of  the  Festival 
of  Corpus  Christi  throughout  the  Church. 
See  Corpus  Christi. 


Mass  of  the  Presanctified. 
Friday. 


See  Good 


Massilians 


463 


Materialism 


Massilians.  —  Name  given  to  the  semi- 
Pelagians,  from  the  city  of  Marseilles, 
where  they  were  most  numerous.  See 
Semi-Pelagians. 

Massillon  (Jean  Baptiste)  (1663-1743). 
—  Prelate  and  preacher  of  the  Order  of  the 
Oratory,  born  at  Hyeres,  died  at  Cler- 
mont. He  lived  for  many  years  in  a 
monastery  (  Sept-Fonts  );  and  in  1696  was 
called  to  Paris,  where  he  became  director 
of  the  seminary  of  St.  Magloire  and,  in 
1704,  court  preacher,  attaining  great  celeb- 
rity as  a  public  orator.  In  1717  he  was 
made  bishop  of  Clermont,  and  became  an 
Academician  in  1719-  His  works  (  includ- 
ing sermons,  funeral  orations,  etc.)  were 
published  in  15  volumes,  1745-1748. 

Massorah  or  Masora. — The  tradition  by 
which  Jewish  scholars  endeavored  to  fix 
the  correct  text  of  the  Old  Testament,  so 
as  to  preserve  it  from  all  corruption.  The 
Masora  dates  from  the  ninth  century. 
There  is  a  two-fold  Masora,  a  Babylonian 
or  Eastern,  and  a  Palestinian  or  Western; 
the  former  being  the  most  important.  The 
Masora  not  only  takes  account  of  various 
readings,  but  also  contains  notes  of  a  gram- 
matical and  lexicographical  character,  in- 
cluding the  system  of  Hebrew  vowel-points 
first  established  by  it.  With  much  that  is 
valueless,  it  contains  all  the  material  from 
which  a  critical  revision  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment text  can  now  be  derived. 

Materialism  (system  of  those  who  believe 
that  all  is  matter).  —  Materialism  is  repre- 
sented in  antiquity  by  the  Atomistic  and 
Epicurian  Schools.  Atomistic  School. — 
All  the  bodies  are  composed  of  material, 
eternal,  and  self-moving  atoms.  The  move- 
ment by  which  they  operate  their  diflFerent 
combinations  is  proper  to  them.  The 
diversity  of  the  bodies  results  from  the  di- 
versity of  the  atoms.  The  soul,  like  all  other 
earthly  bodies  is  an  aggregation  of  atoms. 
It  distinguishes  itself  from  the  other  bodies 
only  by  the  roundness,  subtility,  and  swift- 
ness of  the  atoms  which  constitute  it.  The 
material  soul  becomes  decomposed  at  the 
moment  of  death  into  its  constituent  atoms 
and  ceases  to  exist.  The  physics  of  Epi- 
curus are  those  of  Democritus.  The  soul 
is  composed  of  atoms,  fire,  air,  and  light, 
which  diflfer  from  those  of  the  body  by  a 
greater  degree  of  mobility  and  subtility. 
The  only  source  of  knowledge  is  the  sensi- 
ble impression  produced,  in  contact  with 
our  organs,  by  the  images  continually  dis- 


engaging themselves  from  the  bodies  by  a 
perpetual  emission  of  the  atoms  which 
compose  them.  Sensible  ideas  are  obtained 
from  general  ideas.  Such  is,  in  general, 
the  teaching  of  Materialism.  In  modern 
times,  Materialism,  as  a  doctrine,  has 
been  taught  by  Hobbes,  Gassendi,  Hel- 
vetius,  Lamettrie,  Broussais ;  hidden  under 
various  names,  it  is  true,  Sensualism 
arrives  at  the  same  result :  the  negation 
of  the  immaterial  soul.  According  to 
Hobbes,  nothing  exists  except  matter; 
the  soul  is  material  like  all  other  sub- 
stances ;  all  our  ideas  are  derived  from  sen- 
sation. There  is  no  justice;  each  one  has 
no  other  rule  but  his  own  interest  and  pas- 
sion. Materialism,  under  the  name  of 
Sensualism,  has  been  taught  by  Condillac. 
Condillac  starts  from  the  empiric  doctrine 
of  Locke,  but  he  reduces  it  to  a  material- 
istic sensualism.  Locke  distinguished  two 
sources  of  our  ideas :  reflection,  active 
principle  which  adds  to  sensation  the  pas- 
sive principle;  he  admitted  the  activity  of 
the  soul  and  acknowledged  the  necessity 
of  this  activity  in  the  formation  of  our 
ideas.  Condillac,  on  the  contrary  in  his 
Traits  des  Sensations,  denies  this  activity, 
claiming  the  derivation  of  all  the  faculties 
and  reflection  itself,  from  the  sole  prin- 
ciple of  sensation.  Attention,  according 
to  him,  is  only  a  sensation,  which  by  its 
liveliness,  absorbs  the  soul  and  carries  it 
away  over  all  other  sensations ;  hence  it 
is  a  simple  transformation  of  sensation. 
Attention  proceeds  from  sensation,  and 
from  the  attention  proceed  all  the  other 
intellectual  faculties ;  comparison  and 
judgment  are  only  a  double  attention ; 
reasoning  is  only  a  result  of  judgments. 
Thus  all  the  intellectual  faculties  are  trans- 
formations of  the  attention,  which  itself 
is  only  a  transformation  of  sensation.  It 
is  the  same  with  the  moral  faculties  that 
constitute  the  will.  The  Ego  does  not  ex- 
ist apart  from  the  sensations;  it  is  only  the 
collection  of  its  sensations.  Helvetius, 
Saint-Lambert,  Volney,  Lamettrie,  push- 
ing to  the  extreme  the  consequences  of 
this  system  which  pretends  to  explain  man 
through  sensation,  have  ended  in  material- 
ism and  set  up  self-interest  and  pleasure  as 
the  supreme  moral  good,  as  the  only  rule 
between  good  and  evil.  While  Condillac 
had  taught  only  a  sensualism  which  virtu- 
ally contains  materialism,  Helvetius  in  his 
Esprit,  and  Lamettrie  in  his  Homme  Ma- 
chine maintain  that  the  soul  is  material,  re- 
duce all  our  faculties  to  physical  sensibility. 


Math  A 


464 


Matrimony 


and  acknowledge  between  man  and  beast 
only  the  differences  introduced  by  the  dif- 
ference of  conformation.  Certain  savants  of 
our  day,  supporting  themselves  upon  cer- 
tain physiological  relations  of  the  brain 
and  thought,  claim  that  the  laws  of  matter 
are  sufficient  to  explain  life  and  thought. 
In  support  of  their  system  they  appeal  to 
the  most  recent  discoveries  of  science: 
transformation  of  forces ;  mechanical  the- 
ory of  heat  and  light;  but  if  the  movement 
converts  itself  into  heat,  why  does  it  not 
convert  itself  into  thought.?  We  do  not 
deny  the  progress  of  science,  but  it  always 
remains  true  that  the  dynamists  and  ma- 
terialists found  their  theory  upon  a  con- 
tradictory hypothesis ;  for  movement  and 
thought  are  not  of  the  same  order  as  ideas. 
Movement  is  a  mode  accessible  to  the 
senses;  thought,  on  the  contrary,  is  known 
only  through  conscience ;  it  is  essentially 
simple  and  indivisible.  The  one  is  not  the 
other,  and  it  is  repugnant  to  common  sense 
and  to  reason  to  say  that  the  one  becomes 
the  other.  It  is  true  that  there  are  certain 
relations  between  our  soul  and  our  organs, 
but  to  conclude  from  this  that  the  soul  and 
organism  are  identical,  is  committing  a 
real  sophism. 

Matha  (St.  John  of).      See  Trixita- 

RIAXS. 

Mathew  (Theobald). — Apostle  of  tem- 
perance in  Ireland  ;  bom  at  Thomastown, 
five  miles  west  of  Cashel,  Oct.  loth,  1790; 
died  at  Queenstown,  Dec.  8th,  1856.  He 
was  educated  at  Maynooth  and  Dublin ; 
ordained  priest  in  1814;  entered  the  Ca- 
puchin Order,  and  was  soon  stationed  at 
Cork.  In  April,  1838,  he  began  a  crusade 
against  intemperance,  which  attained  won- 
derful success,  owing  to  his  winning  per- 
sonal qualities ;  200,000  signed  the  pledge 
in  less  than  a  year.  He  traveled  over  Ire- 
land, visited  England  (1844),  and  America 
(1849-1851),  winning  numerous  recruits 
everywhere.  He  was  a  bad  financier,  and 
became  heavily  involved  in  debt,  from 
which  a  pension  of  £300,  granted  in  1847, 
partially  relieved  him. 

Mathurins.     See  Mercy  {Order  of). 

Matins. — The  first  part  of  the  divine  of- 
fice.    See  Breviary. 

Matrimony. —  Matrimony  or  marriage 
V..S  instituted  at  the  beginning  of  the 
world,  when  God  joined  together  our  first 
parents,    Adam    and    Eve    (Gen.    ii.    25). 


Marriage  was  elevated  to  the  dignity  of  a 
sacrament  by  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  to 
sanctify  the  union  of  the  sexes.  Marriage 
is  the  legitimate  alliance  of  man  and 
woman,  by  their  mutual  and  free  consent, 
contracted  according  to  the  laws  of  the 
Church.  It  is  a  sacrament  by  the  contract 
of  the  two  parties  in  holy  union,  which  is  the 
outward  sign  productive  of  grace.  St.  Paul 
speaks  of  it  as  being  "a  great  sacrament" 
(Ephes.  V.  32).  Husbands  and  wives  are 
recommended  to  love  each  other  in  matri- 
mony "  as  Christ  also  loved  the  Church, 
and  delivered  Himself  up  for  it,  that  He 
might  sanctify  it,  cleansing  it  by  the  laver 
of  water  in  the  word  of  life"  (Ephes.  v. 
25,  26).  Marriage  is  defined,  as  an  article 
of  faith  by  the  Church,  to  be  a  sacrament. 

When  our  Lord  instituted  the  sacrament 
of  matrimony,  is  not  exactly  expressed  in 
Scripture,  but  possibly,  when  He  restored 
marriage  to  its  original  institution,  He 
conferred  upon  it  the  dignity  and  grace  of 
a  sacrament. 

The  Church  exacts  a  publication  of  mat- 
rimonial banns  before  celebrating  the 
nuptial  rites,  in  order  that  obstacles,  if 
there  be  any,  may  be  discovered.  It  is  the 
duty  of  every  one  who  is  cognizant  of  an 
impediment  to  make  it  known  to  ecclesi- 
astical authority.  Christians,  free  of  all 
impediments,  and  having  attained  the  age 
specified  by  the  Church,  can  receive  this 
sacrament ;  but  those  finding  themselves 
bound  by  restrictions  before  entering  the 
matrimonial  state,  can  only  be  released  by 
special  dispensation  proceeding  from  eccle- 
siastical authority.  Prohibitive  impedi- 
ments render  a  marriage  illicit  and  sinful, 
but  not  void;  diriment  impediments,  how- 
ever, nullify  a  marriage.  The  principal 
prohibitive  impediments  are :  solemnizing 
marriage  at  certain  times  of  the  year  for- 
bidden by  the  Church,  that  is  to  say,  dur- 
ing Advent  and  Lent ;  diflference  of  religion 
between  Catholics  and  heretics;  a  simple 
vow  of  chastity,  etc.  The  principal  diri- 
ment impediments  are :  clandestine  mar- 
riage, that  is,  without  the  presence  of  the 
authorized  priest  and  two  witnesses  —  al- 
though in  the  United  States,  except  in  a 
few  places,  clandestine  marriages  are  ad- 
mitted as  valid ;  lack  of  reason  or  proper 
age,  the  solemn  vow  of  chastity  implicitly 
contained  in  the  reception  of  the  subdiac- 
onate,  diaconate,  and  priesthood,  and  taken 
by  members  of  religious  orders;  proximity 
of  relationship;  disparity  of  religion  be- 
tween a  Catholic  and  an  infidel ;  absence  of 


Matrimony 


465 


Matrimony 


free  consent,  that  is,  when  marriage  is 
forced  on  anyone  by  violence  or  unjust 
menace  of  a  serious  nature,  fraud,  error, 
etc.  Those  persons  who  are  married  only 
by  civil  law,  and  not  before  God,  in  presence 
of  the  proper  pastor  of  the  parish,  or  other 
priest  deputed  to  replace  him,  and  two 
witnesses,  wherever  the  decree  Tameisi 
of  the  Council  of  Trent  is  published,  are 
declared  by  the  Church  to  be  living  in  mor- 
tal sin,  and  their  marriage  is  void,  by  virtue 
of  the  right  our  Lord  gave  His  Church, 
in  the  promise  He  made  to  His  ministers : 
"Whatsoever  you  shall  bind  upon  earth, 
shall  be  bound  also  in  heaven  ;  and  whatso- 
ever you  shall  loose  upon  earth,  shall  be 
loosed  also  in  heaven  "  (Matt,  xviii.  18). 

For  the  right  reception  of  the  sacrament 
of  matrimony,  we  must  be  in  a  state  of 
grace,  having  so  disposed  our  souls  by 
pious  participation  in  the  sacraments  of 
penance  and  the  Holy  Eucharist,  that  we 
may  obtain  the  graces  so  necessary  for  the 
just  fulfillment  of  obligations,  and  patient 
bearing  of  trials  incidental  to,  or  neces- 
sarily accompanying,  the  matrimonial 
state.  Confession  is  strongly  recom- 
mended before  marriage,  but  is  not  obli- 
gatory if  the  contracting  persons  are  in  a 
state  of  grace.  Those  who,  in  mortal  sin, 
present  themselves  for  the  reception  of 
this  sacrament,  not  only  do  not  receive  the 
grace  of  the  sacrament,  but  are  guilty  of  a 
sacrilegious  sin,  and  expose  themselves  to 
the  malediction  of  heaven.  Moreover,  it  is 
written  :  "  Every  best  gift,  and  every  per- 
fect gift,  is  from  above,  coming  down 
from  the  Father  of  lights"  (Jas.  i.  17). 
Those  who  marry  should,  therefore,  pray  to 
God  for  the  gift  of  understanding  in  the 
choice  of  that  person  to  whom  they  are  to 
be  united  until  death,  and  upon  whom 
their  happiness  in  this  world  shall  so 
much  depend.  They  should  consult  their 
parents  and  their  confessor;  they  should 
take  every  possible  precaution  to  know 
correctly  the  person's  heart,  mind,  reli- 
gious principles,  and  character;  having, 
also,  a  care  as  to  suitability  of  age,  condi- 
tion, and  fortune.  For  disproportionate 
alliances  of  any  kind  are  often  unhappy 
ones.  They  should  approach  the  holy 
state  of  matrimony  with  a  firm  intention 
to  regard  sacredly  those  reasons  for  which 
God  established  it,  and  pass  the  marriage 
day  in  a  sinless  manner.  They  should 
give  mutual  protection  and  companionship 
through  the  trials  and  sufferings  of  life, 
supporting,    comforting,    and    sanctifying 

30 


each  other,  by  the  supernatural  influence 
of  this  sacrament;  working  together  in 
unity  of  spirit  for  eternal  salvation ;  loving 
one  another  with  an  attachment  subordi- 
nate only  to  their  love  for  God,  and  bring- 
ing to  Him,  through  baptism  in  the 
Church,  the  children  He  has  committed 
to  their  charge,  educating  them  in  a 
Christian  manner  to  love  and  serve  Him 
faithfully  and  obtain  everlasting  life.  See 
Bigamy;  Celibacy;  Divorce. 

Matrimony  ( Unity  of)  or  Marriage. — 
By  the  unity  of  marriage  is  meant  the  rule 
by  which  polygamy  is  forbidden  to  Chris- 
tians. This  unity  may  be  regarded  as  pe- 
culiarly characteristic  of  the  Christian  law, 
for  among  all  peoples  where  civilization  is 
not  based  on  Christianity,  we  may  expect 
to  meet  with  the  recognition  of  polygamy, 
or  perhaps  polyandry.  Probably  no  sect 
that  claimed  to  be  called  Christian  has 
ever  held  polygamy  to  be  justifiable  as  a 
general  practice,  although  there  are  some 
cases  where  persons  professing  to  be  Chris- 
tian ministers  have  permitted,  or  at  least 
connived  at  it,  in  peculiar  cases.  The 
American  Latter  Day  Saints,  or  Mormons, 
are  not  an  exception,  for  they  have  slender 
claims  to  be  called  Christian.  We  have 
proof  of  the  disastrous  effect  of  polygamy 
upon  society  in  the  fact  that  bigamy  is 
punished  as  a  crime  in  all  states  whose  civ- 
ilization has  been  derived  from  the  Gospel, 
however  little  inclined  their  governments 
may  now  be  influenced  by  religious  consid- 
erations. Unity  of  marriage  is  part  of  the 
original  institution.  This  follows  from 
the  accounts  of  Genesis,  where  we  read 
that:  "  they  shall  be  two  in  one  flesh,  not 
three  or  more."  This  law  was  in  some 
sense  relaxed  in  favor  of  the  Patriarchs 
and  those  that  came  after  them  (Gen.  iv. 
19,  etc.).  The  doctrine  follows  clearly  from 
the  words  of  Christ,  citing  the  passage 
from  Genesis  (Matt.  xix.  5)  and  from  the 
express  teaching  of  St.  Paul  (I.  Cor.  vii. 
2-5).  Also  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  xxiv. 
can.  2)  defines,  that  it  is  unlawful  for 
Christians  to  have  more  than  one  wife  at  a 
time.  The  Christian  law  does  not  forbid 
successive  marriages,  when  after  the  death 
of  one  spouse,  the  other  contracts  a  new 
alliance.  But  a  certain  stigma  attaches  to 
conduct  which  has  some  appearance  of  in- 
ordinateness;  and  St.  Paul  (L  Cor.  vii.  39, 
40)  uses  language  which  certainly  discour- 
ages the  second  marriage  of  a  widow.  See 
Marriage  {Civil);  Marriage  {Mixed). 


Matthew 


466 


McCloskey 


Matthew  (St.).  —  Apostle  and  Evangel- 
ist. St.  Matthew  is  the  same  as  Levi, 
mentioned  in  the  Gospel  of  St.  Luke  (v.  27). 
Son  of  Alpheus,  born  near  Capharnaum ; 
collector  of  the  taxes  which  the  Jews  had 
to  pay  to  the  Romans.  Tradition  relates 
that  he  labored  for  some  time  in  Palestine, 
after  the  Ascension  of  Christ,  and  then 
preached  the  Gospel  in  Syria,  Persia, 
Parthia,  and  Ethiopia.  In  the  last-named 
country,  he  is  said  to  have  ended  his 
course  by  martyrdom.  Matthew  was  the 
first  of  the  Evangelists  who  wrote  a  Gos- 
pel, which  appeared  between  the  years  64 
and  67,  or,  according  to  others,  in  the 
year  42,  about  the  time  of  the  dispersion 
of  the  Apostles.  He  wrote  in  Hebrew  or 
Syro-Chaldaic,  the  language  spoken  in 
Palestine  at  that  time.  The  original  is  no 
longer  extant,  but  the  Greek  version,  even 
in  the  time  of  the  Apostles,  was  of  equal 
authority.     F.  Sept.  21st. 

Matthias  (St.).  —  Apostle,  died  in  the 
year  63.  Was  elected  to  fill  the  place  of 
the  traitor  Judas  ;  according  to  Nicephorus, 
after  having  preached  in  Judea,  evangel- 
ized Ethiopia,  where  he  ended  his  apostolic 
career  on  the  cross.  According  to  another 
tradition,  he  returned  to  Judea  and  there 
■was  stoned  and  beheaded.    F.  Feb.  25th. 

Maundy  Thursday.  See  Thursday 
KHoly). 

Maurice  (St.).     See  Legion  (  Tkebcan). 

Maurists.  —  Members  of  a  reformed  re- 
ligious congregation  established  in  France 
in  1618,  with  the  view  of  reviving  the 
pristine  austerity  of  the  Rule  of  St.  Bene- 
dict, and  for  the  advancement  of  literature 
and  learning.  In  the  sphere  of  ecclesias- 
tical history,  of  patristic  lore,  and  of 
archaeology,  the  Maurists  have  earned  im- 
mortal honors,  especially  by  their  critical 
editions  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Church,  and 
by  learned  treatises  and  historico-polem- 
ical  writings. 

Maximus  (St.). — Bishop  of  Jerusalem 
and  confessor,  died  in  350.  Condemned  to 
the  mines  by  Maximian  Galerus,  assisted, 
covered  with  noble  scars  for  the  faith,  at 
the  Councils  of  Nice  (325),  and  of  Tyre 
(335) ;  held  a  Council  at  Jerusalem  (349) ; 
defended  St.  Athanasius  and  vigorously 
combated  the  Arians  who  drove  him  away 
from  his  see.     F.  May  5th. 

Maximus  (St.)  (sumamed  "The  Con- 
fessor"; 580-662). — Greek  monk,  born  at 


Constantinople.  He  was  a  scion  of  a  noble 
family  and  was  secretary  to  Emperor  Her- 
aclius ;  but  resigning  his  office  at  court,  he 
retired  to  a  monastery  near  Constantinople, 
of  which  he  became  abbot.  In  645  he  held 
a  public  Conference  at  Carthage  with  the 
Monothelite  Patriarch  Pyrrhus  of  Con- 
stantinople, whom  he  induced  to  abjure  his 
errors.  Under  Emperor  Constans  II.,  Max- 
imus was  cruelly  persecuted  for  refusing  to 
sign  the  "Typos  "  ;  he  was  deprived  of  his 
tongue  and  right  hand,  and  sent  into  exile, 
where  he  died.  Of  the  many  works  of  this 
Father  are  to  be  mentioned  his  commen- 
taries on  divers  books  of  Scripture,  and  on 
the  works  attributed  to  Dionysius  the  Are- 
opagite,  besides  a  number  of  smaller  trea- 
tises and  polemic  discourses  against  the 
Monothelites.     F.  Aug.  13th. 

Maximus  of  Turin  (St.)  . — Born  at  Ver- 
celli ;  died  in  466.  Bishop  of  Turin ;  cele- 
brated as  a  Christian  orator  and  for  his 
zeal  in  preaching,  for  which  function  he 
qualified  himself  by  the  study  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures  and  the  writings  of  St.  Ambrose. 
Maximus  acted  a  prominent  part  in  the 
Council  of  Milan  in  451,  which  subscribed 
to  the  "Dogmatical  Epistle"  of  Leo  the 
Great  to  Flavian,  and  at  the  Council  of 
Rome  in  465,  to  which  he  subscribed,  first, 
after  Pope  Hilary,  on  account  of  his  sen- 
iority. The  works  of  Maximus  consist  of 
116  sermons,  three  treatises  on  baptism, 
two  treatises  respectively  entitled  Contra 
Paganos,  and  Contra  ^udtsos,  besides  a 
collection  of  expositions,  De  Capitulis 
Evangeliorum . 

McCloskey  (John). — An  American  car- 
dinal ;  born  in  Brooklyn,  New  York,  March 
2oth,  1810.  He  was  educated  at  St.  Mary's 
College,  Emmittsburg,  Maryland,  and  in 
1834  was  ordained  priest.  He  studied  in 
Rome  for  two  years,  and  in  1837  was  ap- 
pointed pastor  of  St.  Joseph's  Church,  New 
York  city.  In  1841,  he  became  the  first 
president  of  Fordham  College,  New  York, 
but  held  the  post  only  a  year.  In  1844  he 
was  consecrated  bishop,  and  made  coadju- 
tor of  the  Diocese  of  New  York.  In  1847 
he  was  appointed  bishop  of  the  new  see  of 
Albany,  and  while  there  he  founded  the 
theological  seminary  at  Troy.  In  1864  he 
was  named  archbishop  of  New  York  to 
succeed  Archbishop  Hughes,  and  in  1875 
was  created  cardinal,  being  the  first  of  that 
rank  in  the  American  Church.  He  died 
in  New  York  city,  Oct.  loth,  1885. 


McGlynn 


467 


Meletius 


McGlynn.  (Edward).  —  An  American 
clergyman  ;  born  in  New  York  city,  Sept. 
27th,  1837.  In  i860  he  was  ordained  priest, 
and  in  1866  became  pastor  of  St.  Stephen's 
Church  in  New  York  city.  In  1886,  on 
account  of  his  ignoring  the  papal  demands 
to  appear  at  the  Vatican  on  a  charge  of 
supporting  Henry  George's  single-tax  the- 
ories and  opposing  the  establishment  of 
parochial  schools,  he  was  excommunicated. 
In  1887  l^i"-  McGlynn  became  president  of 
the  Anti- Poverty  Society,  and  in  behalf  of 
his  economic  opinions  he  lectured  in  nearly 
all  the  principal  cities  of  the  United  States. 
In  the  latter  part  of  1893  he  was  reinstated 
in  his  clerical  functions.  Died  Jan.  7th, 
1900. 

Measures.     See  Weights. 

Mechitarists.  —  An  order  of  Armenian 
monks  in  communion  with  the  Holy  See, 
under  a  rule  resembling  the  Benedictine, 
founded  by  Peter  Mechitar  at  Constanti- 
nople in  1701,  and  finally  settled  on  the  is- 
land of  St.  Lazzaro,  near  Venice,  in  1717. 
Confirmed  by  the  Pope  in  1712.  St.  Laz- 
zaro is  still  their  chief  seat,  while  they 
have  an  independent  monastery  at  Vienna, 
and  branches  in  Russia,  France,  Italy, 
Turkey,  etc.  The  Mechitarists  are  devoted 
to  the  religious  and  literary  interests  of 
the  Armenian  race  wherever  found,  and 
have  published  many  ancient  Armenian 
manuscripts  as  well  as  original  works. 
Their  society  is  also  organized  as  a  Liter- 
ary Academy  which  confers  honorary  mem- 
bership without  regard  to  race  or  religion. 

Media.  —  Vast  country  of  ancient  Asia ; 
capital  Ecbatanea.  Arbaces  was  its  first 
l^ing  (759  B.  c).  Cyrus  united  it  to  the 
kingdom  of  the  Persians,  in  560  b.  c. 

Meditation.     See  Prayer. 

Melanchthon  (Philip).  —  Grecized from 
Schwarzerd,  /.  e.,  Blackearth  (1497-1560). 
Strong  and  zealous  fellow-laborer  of  Lu- 
ther. Was  the  grandnephew  of  the  famous 
scholar  Reuchlin,  on  whose  recommenda- 
tion he  was  appointed  professor  of  Greek 
in  the  University  of  Wittenberg,  and  thus 
became  the  colleague,  and  soon  an  ardent 
admirer  of  Luther.  More  moderate  and 
prudent  than  Luther,  he  was  an  invaluable 
aid  to  the  latter,  who  was  not  unfrequently 
guided  by  his  counsels.  Melanchthon  thus 
played  a  prominent  part  in  the  Lutheran 
movement,  aiding  him  by  his  talents  and 
his   writings.      He   attended   the   Leipzig 


disputation,  and,  disregarding  the  promise 
made  to  Dr.  Eck,  published  a  partial  and 
untruthful  account  of  the  discussion.  In 
1521,  he  wrote  in  defense  of  his  master  the 
Oration  for  Luther,  and  a  Protest  against 
the  Decision  of  the  Paris  University. 

Melania  (  St.  )  (surnamed  the  * '  Younger," 
388-439).  —  Roman  lady,  married  to  Pini- 
anus,  son  of  a  Roman  prefect,  left,  together 
with  her  husband,  their  home  at  Rome  and 
went  to  Jerusalem.  After  having  lived  in 
the  observances  of  a  religious  life,  Melania, 
together  with  other  ladies,  consecrated 
herself  to  God.  Pinianus  also  entered  a 
male  monastery,  and  they  both  died  in  the 
odor  of  sanctity.  Melania  the  Elder  (343- 
410).  —  Grandmother  of  the  preceding; 
was  a  relative  of  St.  Paulinus  of  Nola.  She 
is  also  honored  as  a  saint,  although  her 
name  does  not  figure  in  the  Martyrologies. 

Melchiades  (  St.  ).  See  Miltiades. 

Melchisedech  (Hebr.  king  of  justice). — 
King  of  Salem,  poetic  name  of  Jerusalem. 
Abraham,  returning  from  his  pursuit  of 
Chodorlahomor,  was  blessed  by  him,  and  in 
return  received  the  tenth  part  of  the  spoils. 
The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (vi.  20;  vii. 
4-21 )  represents  him  as  a  prototype  of 
Christ ;  his  charge  would  have  been  supe- 
rior to  the  priesthood  of  that  of  Aaron's 
family. 

Melchisedechians. —  Heretics  of  the  third 
century,  whose  founder  was  a  certain 
Theodotus,  surnamed  the  "  Banker,"  and 
who  taught  that  Melchisdech  was  greater 
than  Christ. 

Melchites.  —  i.  Name  which  certain 
heretics  gave  to  the  orthodox  Christians 
of  the  East  who  had  followed  the  prescrip- 
tions of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  sanc- 
tioned by  the  Emperor  Marcian.  2.  Chris- 
tians who,  without  belonging  to  the  Greek 
communion,  have  adopted,  in  great  part, 
the  doctrines  and  rites  of  that  Church. 
A  large  number  of  Syrian  and  Egyptian 
Melchites  are  at  present  in  communion 
with  the  Holy  See;  they  number  upward 
of  35,000  members.  See  Oriental  Rites. 

Meletius. —  Bishop  of  Sebaste,  Patriarch 
of  Antioch,  in  361.  Was  exiled  and  de- 
posed from  his  see  several  times  by  Con- 
stantius  and  Valens.  He'  presided  over 
the  Council  at  Antioch  where  they  con- 
demned the  errors  of  ApoUinaris.  He  died 
during  the  Council  of  Constantinople,  in 
381. 


Meletius 


468 


Mennonites 


Meletius.  —  Heresiarch,  died  in  326. 
Bishop  of  Lycopolis,  was  condemned  bj? 
the  Council  of  Alexandria ;  hy  the  Coun- 
cil of  Nice  (325) ;  allied  himself  with  the 
Arians  to  combat  St.  Athanasius.  Meletius 
became  the  author  of  a  schism  which  for 
about  sixty  years  was  the  cause  of  much 
confusion  and  great  disturbance  in  the 
Egyptian  Church.  Usurping  the  author- 
ity of  his  metropolitan,  Peter  of  Alexan- 
dria, he  set  at  naught  the  remonstrances 
of  his  fellow-bishops,  and  undertook  to 
exercise  full  episcopal  jurisdiction  in  their 
dioceses.  On  this  occount,  he  was  deposed 
and  excommunicated  by  the  above  men- 
tioned Councils. 

Melita.  —  An  island  south  of  Sicily,  on 
which  St.  Paul  was  shipwrecked  during 
his  voyage  to  Rome  (Acts  xxviii.). 

Melito  (St.).  —  Apologist,  and  Bishop 
of  Sardes.  He  ranks  among  the  most  bril- 
liant lights  of  the  Eastern  Church  of  the 
second  century,  and  the  most  learned  men 
of  that  age.  His  literary  labors  extended 
to  all  the  great  ecclesiastical  questions 
that  agitated  his  time.  Unfortunately,  we 
only  possess  fragments  of  one  or  the  other 
of  his  numerous  literary  works,  among 
which  the  Eclogce  (extracts  from  Sacred 
Scripture  in  six  books)  was  the  most  im- 
portant, while  his  Apology,  presented  to 
the  Emperor  Marcus  Aurelius,  A.  d.  170  or 
171,  was  the  last  in  point  of  time.  His 
doctrine  was  not  free  from  Anthropomor- 
phism, nor  from  Chiliastic  views.  He  died 
between  171  and  180.  Eusebius  calls  him 
"  a  man  who  administered  all  things  in 
the  Holy  Ghost." 

Memento. — They  have  designated,  under 
this  Latin  word,  that  part  of  the  Mass 
where  the  priest  makes  commemoration  of 
the  Living  and  the  Dead,  In  the  Memento 
for  the  Living,  the  priest  prays  for  the  liv- 
ing members  of  the  Church,  naming  those 
for  whom  he  wishes  to  offer  special  suppli- 
cation. In  the  Memento  for  the  Dead,  he 
implores  the  deliverance  of  the  souls  from 
purgatory,  of  those  who  have  gone  before 
us  with  profession  of  the  faith,  and  sleep 
the  "sleep  of  peace." 

Menander. —  Gnostic  of  the  first  century, 
disciple  of  Simon  the  Magician.  He  bap- 
tized in  his  name,  and  pretended,  accord- 
ing to  St.  Irenaeus,  that  he  was  the  "  Great 
Power "  sent  by  the  angels  to  save  the 
world.  His  baptism,  he  claimed,  rendered 
immortal,  in  this  life,  those  who  received  it. 


Mendicant  Orders  are  those  religious 
orders  which  originally  depended  for  sup- 
port on  the  alms  they  received.  The  prin- 
cipal mendicant  orders  are  the  Francis- 
cans, the  Dominicans,  the  Carmelites,  and 
the  Augustinians. 

Mennonites.— A  Protestant  sect.  The 
Anabaptists,  the  everlasting  reproach  of 
the  Reformation,  subsequently  became 
known  under  the  name  of  "Mennonites." 
Menno  Simonis,  a  native  of  Friesland,  and 
an  apostate  priest,  joined  the  sect  in  1536, 
and  assuming  their  leadership,  succeeded 
in  appeasing  their  frenzy,  and  organized 
them  into  a  community.  He  drew  up  a 
system  of  doctrine  and  discipline  of  a  much 
more  moderate  nature  than  that  of  the  ear- 
lier Anabaptists.  The  Mennonites  reject 
infant  baptism  as  useless ;  they  believe  in 
the  Millennium  and  assert  the  prohibition 
of  oaths,  the  abolition  of  wars,  and  that  it 
is  unlawful  for  Christians  to  hold  public 
offices ;  on  the  other  hand,  they  enjoin 
obedience  to  the  civil  authorities  as  a 
religious  duty.  Menno  died  in  1561. 
Members  of  the  sect  are  found  in  the 
Netherlands,  Germany,  Russia,  etc.,  and 
especially  in  the  United  States. 

There  are  twelve  branches  of  Menno- 
nites in  the  United  States.  The  '*  Men- 
nonite  Church";  the  "Amish "  or 
followers  of  Jacob  Amen,  who  separated 
on  account  of  a  dispute  on  Church  discip- 
line and  were  often  called  "Hookers" 
because  o'  their  refusal  to  wear  but- 
tons on  their  clothing;  the  "  Bruderhof 
Mennonites,"  founded  by  Jacob  Hunter  in 
1536,  and  who  are  "  communists  "  ;  the 
"  Old  Amish,"  or  strict  adherents  to  an- 
cient customs;  the  "  Apostolic,"  a  branch 
of  the  Amish;  the  "Reformed  Menno- 
nites," separatists  under  Jacob  Herr  in 
1812 ;  "  General  Conference  Mennonites," 
who  originated  in  1848  under  John  Ober- 
holzer,  believe  in  an  educated  ministry 
and  in  worldly  conformity,  and  who,  in 
1895.  had  100  ministers,  5  churches,  and 
6,000  members,  and  support  an  orphans' 
home  at  BlufTton,  Ohio ;  "  Church  of  God 
in  Christ,"  or  "  Quaker"  Mennonites,  who 
originated  in  1859;  "Old  (Wisler)  Men- 
nonites," originated  in  Elkhart  county, 
Indiana,  about  1870;  "  Bundes  Conferenz 
der  Bruder-Gemeinde,"  who  originated  in 
Russia,  and  are  immersionists ;  "  Defense- 
less Mennonites,"  another  branch  of  the 
Amish;  and  "  Mennonite  Brethren  in 
Christ,"  who  originated    about  1879,  are 


Menologium 


469 


Mesa 


Methodistic  in  discipline,  have  open  com- 
munion and  optional  forms  of  baptism. 
They  number  about  4,000  communicants, 
sustain  an  orphans'  home  at  Berlin,  On- 
tario, and  a  foreign  mission  at  Wuhu, 
China.  In  1895  these  12  branches  reported 
an  aggregate  of  950  ministers,  600  churches, 
and  47,669  communicants.  The  largest 
were  the  Mennonite  Church,  with  18,378 
members,  and  the  Amish,  with  10,700  mem- 
bers. A  close  affiliation  exists  between 
these  two  branches. 

Menologium,  in  the  Greek  Church,  is 
the  name  for  martyrologium  of  the  Latin 
Church. 

Mercy  (  Order  of). — A  religious  order 
founded  by  St.  Peter  Nolasco,  in  I2i8,  for 
the  redemption  of  captives.  It  was  insti- 
tuted with  the  co-operation  of  the  king  of 
Aragon  and  of  St.  Rymond  of  Pennafort, 
and  was  approved  by  Gregory  IX.,  in  1230. 
These  religious,  who  adhered  to  the  Rule 
of  St.  Augustine,  are  often  called  "Ma- 
thurins"  from  their  house  at  Paris  which 
was  situated  near  the  chapel  of  St.  Matu- 
rin.  Between  the  years  1492  and  1691,  this 
order,  alone,  rescued  nearly  17,000  Chris- 
tian captives. 

Mercy  (Sisters  of), — A  religious  order 
founded  in  Dublin  by  Miss  Catharine  Mc- 
Auley  in  1834.  It  was  formally  confirmed 
by  Gregory  XVI.  in  1840.  Its  members 
devote  themselves  to  the  aid  and  rescue  of 
suffering  and  tempted  women.  It  spread 
rapidly  throughout  the  English-speaking 
world.  In  the  United  States  the  first  house 
was  established  at  Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania, 
in  1843. 

Merit  (that  which  renders  us  worthy  of 
esteem). — We  distinguish  two  kinds  of 
merit ;  merit  properly  speaking,  which  we 
call  condign  merit,  and  merit  improperly 
speaking,  or  congruous  merit.  The  first 
kind  is  founded  upon  a  promise  from  the 
part  of  God,  and  the  reward  is  so  to  say  an 
act  of  justice.  In  regard  to  the  second,  as 
there  has  been  no  promise,  the  reward,  if 
we  may  call  it  thus,  is  only  an  act  of  good- 
ness and  mercy ;  it  is  a  gratuitous  gift  in 
every  respect.  It  is  of  faith  that,  with  the 
grace  of  God,  the  just  can  really  merit 
both  an  increase  of  grace  and  eternal  life 
and  even  an  increase  of  heavenly  glory. 
By  admitting  the  merits  of  the  just,  do  we 
not  commit  an  injury  to  the  merits  of  Jesus 
Christ?  No,  because,  according  to  Catho- 
lic  dogma,  our  merits  draw   their  whole 


value  from  the  merits  of  Christ.  In  order 
to  merit,  both  the  condign  and  congruous 
merit,  man  must  be  still  alive ;  one  cannot 
merit  either  in  hell,  or  in  purgatory,  not 
even  in  the  sojourn  of  glory;  the  act  must 
be  good  in  every  respect,  and  must  have 
a  supernatural  goodness.  An  action,  al- 
though morally  good,  if  it  is  this  only  nat- 
urally, has  neither  any  proportion  with 
merit,  nor  with  eternal  life,  whose  object 
it  is ;  the  act  must  be  voluntary  and  abso- 
lutely free.  The  contrary  proposition  has 
been  condemned  as  heretical.  These  dif- 
ferent conditions  are  indispensable  for 
merit  in  general,  but  they  are  not  suffi- 
cient, except  for  the  congruous  merit, 
which  is  not  a  merit  properly  speaking. 
For  the  condign  merit,  there  is  needed, 
besides,  that  man  is  in  the  state  of  grace; 
that  God  has  promised  to  grant  us  some- 
thing as  a  reward  for  our  works ;  He  can 
become,  so  to  say,  our  debtor,  only  in  vir- 
tue of  the  engagements  which  He  was 
pleased  to  make  with  men.     See  Grack. 

Merodach-Baladan. — King  of  Babylon. 
He  sent  presents  to  Ezechias,  king  of  Juda, 
about  720  B.C.  He  is  named  in  the  Khor- 
sabad  inscriptions  as  having  been  twice 
defeated  and  exiled  by  Sennacherib. 

Merom  (  Waters  of) . — A  lake  in  Pales- 
tine, ten  and  one-half  miles  north  of  the 
Sea  of  Galilee,  traversed  by  the  Jordan ; 
the  modern  Bahr-el-Hulch,  and  the  Seme- 
chonitis  Lake  of  Josephus.  Length,  four 
miles.  It  was  the  scene  of  a  great  victory 
of  Josue  over  Jabin,  king  of  Azor. 

Mesa. — A  king  of  Moab  about  890  b.  c. 
He  is  mentioned  in  IV.  Ki.  iii.  as  having 
been  subject  to  the  kings  of  Israel,  but 
after  Achab's  death  he  fell  away.  Here- 
upon Joram,  king  of  Israel,  in  alliance  with 
Josaphat,  king  of  Juda,  undertook  an  expe- 
dition against  him,  and  shut  him  up  in 
Kir-Haresbeth,  situated  a  little  to  the  east 
of  the  Dead  Sea.  In  this  emergency  Mesa 
sacrificed  his  firstborn  to  Chemosh.  The 
Israelites  thereupon  departed  to  their  land. 
In  1866  a  stele  was  discovered  near  Dibon, 
the  ancient  capital  of  Moab,  on  which 
Mesa  had  recorded  this  event.  It  is  writ- 
ten in  the  Moabite  dialect,  which  differs 
only  slightly  from  Hebrew,  with  the  ancient 
Hebrew  character,  the  so-called  Samaritan 
or  Phoenician,  and  it  is  the  oldest  Semitic 
monument  known.  The  stone,  badly  dam- 
aged, is  now  in  the  Louvre  at  Paris. 


Mesopotamia 


470 


Methodism 


Mesopotamia  (Hebr.  between  the  rivers). 
— TheGreeknameof  the  tract  lyingbetween 
the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  called  by  the  He- 
brews Aram-naharaim  {Syria  of  the  two 
rivers).  It  extended  from  Mount  Taurus 
to  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  was  about  800 
miles  long  and  360  miles  broad.  Its  plains, 
once  fertile,  are  now  barren  for  lack  of  ir- 
rigation. It  was  the  home  of  the  Patri- 
archs who  preceded  Abraham,  and  of  the 
wives  of  Isaac  and  Jacob.  When  the  Am- 
inonites  were  at  war  with  David,  they  hired 
chariots  and  horsemen  from  Mesopotamia. 
The  country  furnished  a  delegation  of  Jews 
and  proselytes  to  attend  the  Passover  at 
Jerusalem  (Acts  ii.  9). 

Mesraim  or  Misraim. — Name  given  to 
Egypt  in  the  Bible. 

Mesrop  (St.). —  Apostle  of  Armenia. 
Trained  from  his  youth  in  Greek  literature, 
became  secretary  first  to  the  Armenian 
patriarch,  Nerses  the  Great,  and  after- 
ward to  King  Weramshapuh.  He  re- 
nounced the  pleasures  of  the  royal  court 
and  retired  to  a  monastery,  where  he  led  a 
very  strict  ascetical  life  and  attained  to  an 
eminent  degree  of  Christian  knowledge 
and  perfection.  In  order  to  widen  the 
circle  of  his  influence,  he  left  his  solitude 
and  founded  schools  for  the  education  of 
youth.  He  traversed  Greater  and  Lesser 
Armenia,  and  other  neighboring  provinces 
in  company  with  some  of  his  disciples, 
with  a  view  to  stamp  out  the  remains  of 
paganism,  to  extirpate  and  preventheresy,  to 
diffuse  Christian  knowledge,  and  to  further 
the  monastic  life.  He  invented  the  Arme- 
nian alphabet  and  translated,  with  the  help 
of  other  learned  men,  the  Bible  into  that 
language  (408-410).  His  great  services  to 
the  Church  and  his  country  earned  for  him 
the  title  of  the  "  Apostle  of  Armenia."  He 
died  in  the  odor  of  sanctity  in  441. 

Besides  his  translation  of  the  Bible,  he 
composed  penitential  hymns  for  Lent,  as 
well  as  a  number  of  simple,  popular  ex- 
hortations, redolent  with  Gosple  flavor; 
these  discourses  were  formely  ascribed  to 
St.  Gregory  Illuminator.  In  his  literary 
labors,  Mesrop  looked  to  the  subject-matter 
rather  than  to  the  style  and  form,  so  that, 
while  his  homilies  abound  in  deep  thoughts 
and  impressive  admonitions,  the  style  is 
monotonous  and  commonplace. 

Messalians   or    Massalians.     See    Eu- 

CHITKS. 


Messias  (from  the  Hebr.  niesha,  to 
anoint).  —  The  Christ  promised  by  God  in 
the  Old  Testament.  The  Redeemer  of 
mankind  promised  since  the  beginning  of 
the  world  and  whom  God  sent  upon  earth 
after  having  announced  Him  through  His 
prophets.  The  Messias,  who  is  Jesus 
Christ,  had  been  promised  to  our  first 
parents  immediately  after  their  fall,  when 
God  said  to  the  serpent  that  He  would  put 
enmity  between  him  and  the  woman,  be- 
tween his  seed  and  her  seed,  and  that  the 
woman,  or,  according  to  the  Hebrew  text, 
the  Son  of  the  woman  would  crush  his 
head  (Gen.  iii.).  The  same  promise  was 
renewed  to  Abraham  in  more  express 
terms,  with  the  assurance  that  all  the  na- 
tions would  be  blessed  in  his  seed,  that  the 
Messias,  the  Saviour  would  go  forth  from 
it,  and,  particularly,  from  the  tribe  of  Juda 
(xvi.,  xxviii.,  xlix.).  Finally,  the  Messias 
has  been  announced  during  four  thousand 
years  by  a  long  series  of  prophets.  The 
Messias  has  always  been  the  object  of  the 
most  ardent  desires  of  the  holy  patriarchs. 
Most  of  them  had  been  destined  by  God 
to  represent  some  particular  trait  of  his 
life  and  ministry.  Melchisadech  prefigured 
His  priesthood,  Abraham  His  quality  as 
chief  and  father  of  the  Faithful,  Isaac  His 
sacrifice.  Job  His  persecutions,  Josue  His 
triumphant  entry  into  the  land  of  the  liv- 
ing, etc.  The  entire  Jewish  nation  ex- 
pected the  rise  of  a  great  king  in  the  tribe 
of  Juda.  Although  the  Messias  arrived 
eighteen  hundred  years  ago,  in  the  person 
of  Jesus  Christ,  the  Jews,  dispersed  all 
over  the  world  for  having  disowned  and 
putting  Him  to  death,  are  still  longing  for 
the  Messias. 

Methodism. —  Anglican  sect.  John  Wes- 
ley, an  Anglican  clergyman,  is  the  recog- 
nized founder  and  legislator  of  Methodism. 
While  a  student  at  Oxford,  he  formed, 
with  his  brother  Charles  and  a  few  other 
scholars,  among  whom  the  eloquent  White- 
field  soon  became  eminent,  a  little  society 
for  their  mutual  edification  as  well  as  for 
their  literary  improvment.  In  their  meet- 
ings, the  members  of  the  association  read, 
besides  the  classical  authors,  including, 
among  other  Catholic  books,  the  Imitation 
of  Christ.  From  the  strict  observance  of 
a  pious  method,  or  rule  of  life,  the  associa- 
tion obtained  the  name  of  Methodists, 
which  afterwards  remained  attached  to 
them.  Such  was  the  beginning  of  a  reli- 
gious movement  which,  taking  its  rise  in 


Methodist  Church 


471 


Methodist  Church 


1734,  extended  itself  into  all  parts  of  Eng- 
land and  Wales,  made  some  progress  in 
Scotland,  and  crossed  the  ocean  into  the 
New  World.  Retaining  the  liturgy  and 
constitution  of  the  Anglican  Church,  Wes- 
ley and  his  associates,  at  first,  propagated 
only  their  religious  practices,  their  hours 
of  prayer  and  Bible  reading,  and  their  fasts 
and  frequent  communions.  The  energy 
and  enthusiasm  with  which  they  preached 
attracted  everywhere  great  crowds.  En- 
couraged by  their  success,  they  began 
preaching  in  public  places  and  open  fields. 
In  1774,  Methodism  claimed  already  30,000 
members.  From  the  Herrnhuters,  with 
whom  he  had  become  acquainted,  Wesley 
adopted  the  doctrine  that  "  the  remission 
of  sin  and  the  presence  of  divine  grace  in 
the  soul  is  accompanied  by  a  heavenly  in- 
ward peace,  manifesting  itself  externally 
in  exalted  bodily  excitement,  such  as  con- 
vulsive fits."  Attacks  of  this  kind  were 
called  "  outward  signs  of  grace,"  and  were 
held  to  be  miraculous.  The  preaching  of 
Whitefield  was  especially  successful  in 
bringing  about  sudden  conversion,  which 
were  usually  accompanied  with  such  con- 
vulsive attacks.  Wesley  at  first  disavowed 
all  intention  of  separating  from  the  Angli- 
can Church  and  maintained  the  necessity 
of  loyalty  to  that  Establishment  and  of  her 
orders  for  lawful  preaching  and  ministry. 
Subsequently,  however,  he  satisfied  him- 
self that  bishops  and  presbyters,  were  one 
and  the  same  order  in  the  Church  of  Christ 
and  consequently  had  the  same  right  to 
ordain.  He  accordingly  assumed  episco- 
pal character  and  conferred  orders  and  even 
consecrated  bishops. 

A  pretended  Greek  bishop,  called  Eras- 
mus, then  residing  in  England,  was  also 
solicited  to  impart  holy  orders.  The  sep- 
aration of  the  Methodists  from  the  Angli- 
can Church  was  thus  formerly  established. 
During  the  war  of  the  Revolution  the 
Methodist  societies  in  America  were  left 
almost  wholly  without  ministers ;  the  lat- 
ter siding  with  England  against  the  Col- 
onies, had  gone  into  British  dominion. 
Wesley  addressed  a  pamphlet  to  the  Ameri- 
cans condemning  their  conduct  and  taking 
sides  with  the  English  cabinet.  "  No 
government  under  heaven,"  said  he,  "is 
so  despotic  as  the  republican;  no  subjects 
are  governed  in  so  arbitrary  a  manner  as 
those  of  a  commonwealth."  After  the  war 
was  over,  Wesley  proceeded  to  organize 
an  independent  "Methodist  Church  in 
America.     He  ordained  Dr.  Coke  and  Mr. 


Francis  superintendents,  or  bishops,  in 
1783,  and  sent  them  to  ordain  elders  in  the 
New  World.  He  also  prepared  a  liturgy, 
differing  little  from  that  of  the  Church 
of  England.  The  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  in  America  was  thus  created  with 
bishops,  presbyters,  and  deacons,  a  liturgy, 
and  a  creed.  The  Articles  of  Religion 
which  Wesley  prepared  for  his  Methodist 
societies  are  substantially  an  abridgment  of 
the  Thirty-nine  Articles  of  the  Anglican 
Church.  In  abridging  the  Articles,  some 
were  changed  others  were  wholly  omitted. 
Wesley  and  Whitefield  could  not  agree  on 
the  questions  of  predestination  and  grace. 
The  latter  was  a  partisan  of  the  most  rigid 
predestinarianism,  which  Wesley,  who 
was  more  inclined  to  Arminianism,  classed 
among  the  most  abominable  opinions  that 
had  ever  sprung  up  in  a  human  head. 
The  doctrinal  difference  between  the  two 
was  the  cause  of  their  separation.  White- 
field  organized  what  is  known  as  the  Cal- 
vinistic  Churchy  while  the  partisans  of  Wes- 
ley were  called  after  him  Wesleyans  or 
Wesleyan  Methodists.  From  these  parties 
again  many  secessions  followed,  so  that 
there  is  quite  a  number  of  denominations 
that  adhere  more  or  less  to  the  doctrinal 
principles  of  Wesley  or  Whitefield. 

Methodist  Church  in  the  United  States. 

— There  are  a  number  of  branches  thereof. 
The  "Methodist  Episcopal  Church"  is 
the  oldest  and  largest  Methodist  Church 
in  the  United  States.  From  1766,  when 
the  first  society  was  formed  in  New  York 
city,  to  1773,  when  the  first  conference 
was  held  in  Philadelphia,  the  Churches 
were  scattered  organizations  in  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  Virginia,  and  other  States; 
and  the  preachers  were  itinerants,  nearly 
all  of  English  descent.  According  to  the 
official  records  the  growth  of  this  Church 
for  the  past  one  hundred  years  is  as  fol- 
lows :  In  1796  there  were  293  preachers  and 
56,664  members.  At  the  beginning  of  1896 
there  were  140  annual  organizations;  31,- 
922  ministers  and  local  preachers ;  2,766,656 
members  and  probationers ;  30,264  Sun- 
day schools,  having  344,844  officers  and 
teachers,  and  2,580,973  scholars;  25,384 
parsonages,  valued  at  .$16,649,392.  For 
benevolent  society  purposes  there  was 
contributed,  in  1895,  $2,105,020;  for  min- 
isterial support,  $10,385,948;  for  buildings 
and  improvements,  $4,379,307 ;  and  for  cur- 
rent expenses,  $3,680,698.  The  number  of 
theological  institutions,  colleges  and  uni- 


Methodius 


472 


Methodius 


versities,  classical  seminaries,  foreign  mis- 
sion schools,  Bible  training  schools,  etc., 
in  1895,  controlled  wholly  or  in  part  by 
this  Church,  was  219,  the  value  of  whose 
grounds  and  buildings  was  $14,644,525,  the 
number  of  professors  and  teachers  2,792, 
and  the  number  of  students  43,320. 

The  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South. 
— The  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  be- 
came divided  on  the  question  of  slavery 
in  1844.  May  ist,  1845,  the  slaveholding 
conferences  met  in  Louisville,  Kentucky, 
and  organized  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  South.  By  official  reports  in  1895 
this  church  has  5,868  traveling  and  6,724 
local  preachers ;  the  white  members  num- 
ber 1 ,382,765,  and  colored  and  Indian,  5,058 ; 
Sunday  schools,  13,873,  teachers,  99,338, 
scholars,  811,579;  church  edifices,  13,581, 
value,  $21,093,918 ;  parsonages,  3,282,  value, 
$3,780,149;  contributions  for  foreign  mis- 
sions, $215,815,  domestic  missions,  $130,919, 
total,  $347,654 ;  appropriations  for  presid- 
ing elders,  $281,080,  for  preachers  in  charge, 
$2,019,551,  for  bishops,  $36,843 ;  chapters  of 
Epworth  League,  1,950,  members,  87,750. 

African  Methodist  Church. — Total  itin- 
erant ministers,  local  preachers,  and  ex- 
horters,  20,250;  total  of  members,  599,141 ; 
church  edifices,  4,575;  value,  $8,650,155; 
universities,  colleges,  and  schools,  41 ; 
value,  $756,475;  expense  (1894-1895)  for 
preachers,  publication,  church  extension, 
Sunday  schools,  missions,  etc.,  $1,370,127; 
for  education,  professors  and  teachers, 
books,  etc.,  $978,870. 

African  Methodist  Episcopal  Zion 
Church. — Traveling  and  local  preachers 
and  exhorters,  2,397;  membership,  394,- 
562;  Sunday  schools,  2,175;  officers  and 
teachers,  13,145;  scholars,  108,820;  church 
edifices,  1,605 !  value  of  church  property 
and  parsonages,  $3,019,084. 

African  Union  Methodist  Protestant 
Church. — Traveling  and  local  preachers, 
1,550;  total  membership,  7,000;  Sunday 
schools,  350;  officers  and  teachers,  900; 
scholars,  2,770;  church  edifices,  700;  value 
of  church  property,  $60,000. 

Colored  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in 
America. — Traveling  and  local  preachers, 
4,083;  membership,  7,098;  scholars,  79,876; 
church  edifices,  4,004 ;  schools,  6 ;  students, 
907  ;  value  of  school  prop>erty,  $98,000. 

Congregational  Methodist. — M  ember- 
ship,  12,500;  ministers,  204;  church  edi- 
fices, 238. 

Congregational  Methodist  (Colored). — 
Ministers,  5 ;  churches,  5 ;  members,  319. 


Evangelist  Mission . — M  i  n  i  s  t  e  r  s  and 
local  preachers,  114;  membership,  4,600; 
churches,  13 ;  Sunday  school  scholars, 
1,200;  value  of  church  property,  $25,000. 

Eree  Alethodist. — Traveling  and  local 
preachers,  1,660;  members  (1894),  26,140; 
Sunday  schools,  942 ;  scholars,  32,552 ; 
value  of  church  property,  $1,069,074. 

Independent  Methodist. — Ministers,  8; 
churches,  15  ;  members,  2,569. 

Methodist  Protestant. —  Ministers  and 
local  preachers,  1,965;  membership,  166,- 
032;  churches,  2,042;  parsonages,  460; 
value  of  churches  and  parsonages,  $4,602,- 
243;  Sunday  schools,  1,844;  officers  and 
teachers,  16,235;  scholars,  105^314;  pas- 
tors' salaries,  $296,974. 

Neiv  Congregational  Methodist. — 
Churches,  35;  membership,  1,200;  Sun- 
day schools,  25 ;  value  of  church  property, 
$5,000. 

Primitive  Methodist. — Traveling  and 
local  preachers,  208;  members,  6,340; 
Sunday  schools,  108;  scholars,  11,750; 
churches,  100;  parsonages,  41;  value  of 
property,  $416,143. 

Union  American  Methodist  Episcopal. — 
Ministers,  115;  churches,  115;  communi- 
cants, 7,031. 

Weslevan  Methodist.  —  Membership, 
18,141;  Sunday  schools,  465;  scholars, 
18,344;  value  of  church  property,  includ- 
ing churches,  parsonages,  and  publishing 
house,  $580,472. 

Zion  Union  Apostolic. — Ministers,  30; 
churches,  32  ;  communicants,  2,346. 

The  latest  revised  returns  for  all  the  re- 
ligious denominations  of  the  United  States 
for  1895  show  a  grand  total  of  125,503  min- 
isters, of  which  the  Methodists  had  32,369, 
or  more  than  25  per  cent. ;  grand  total 
number  of  churches,  178,754,  Methodist 
53,537,  or  nearly  30  per  cent. ;  grand  total 
of  communicants,  23,614,443,  Methodist 
5,124,636,  or  more  than  21  per  cent.  With 
the  exception  of  the  Catholic  Church, 
which  counts  about  12,000,000  members, 
the  Methodist  denominations  of  the  United 
States  outrank  any  other  in  number  of 
churches,  ministers,  and  communicants. 

Methodius(surnamed  "The  Confessor"). 
—  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  born  at 
Syracuse,  died  in  846.  By  the  suavity  of 
his  manners,  he  converted  many  icono- 
clasts to  the  Catholic  doctrine. 

Methodius  (St.).  —  Bishop  of  Olympus. 
The  particulars  of  his  life  are  unknown. 
He   was   one   of   the   many   opponents  of 


Methodius 


473 


Millennium 


Origen,  both  during  his  lifetime  and  after 
his  death.  He  is  described  by  contempo- 
rary writers  as  a  man  of  great  penetration 
of  mind,  of  high  education,  and  profound 
learning.  He  died  the  death  of  a  martyr 
under  Maximus  Daja,  in  the  Diocletian 
persecution,  about  312.  Methodius  has 
left  several  works,  in  which  he  defends 
celibacy,  opposes  the  errors  of  Origen, 
impugns  heathenism,  and  comments  upon 
the  texts  of  Holy  Scripture.  Chief  of  his 
works,  still  preserved  in  the  original  text, 
is  the  Convivitim  decern  Virginum,sive  de 
virginitate. 

Methodius  (St.).  See  Cyril  and 
Methodius. 

Metrophanes.  —  Greek  theologian  and 
prelate  of  the  ninth  century.  One  of  the 
most  ardent  adversaries  of  Photius,  who 
caused  him  to  be  deposed  and  imprisoned. 
Basil  I.  restored  him  to  his  see  of  which 
he  was  again  dispossessed  in  879. 

Metropolitan  is  the  bishop  of  a  me- 
tropolis or  chief  city  of  a  province,  who 
presides  over  an  entire  province.  Metro- 
politans are  also  named  archbishops,  al- 
though, strictly  speaking,  the  former  are 
those  who  have  suffragan  bishops,  while 
the  latter  may  not  have  any.  Every  met- 
ropolitan, therefore,  is  rightly  called  an 
archbishop ;  but  not  every  archbishop  is  a 
metropolitan.     See  Archbishop. 

Mexico  ( The  Church  in) .    See  Missions. 

Mezzofanti  (Joseph)  (1774-1849). — 
Learned  prelate  and  polyglot,  born  at  Bo- 
logna, died  in  Rome.  Ordained  priest  in 
1797.  He  taught  Greek  and  the  Oriental 
languages  at  Bologna.  He  was  called  to 
Rome  by  Pope  Gregory  XVI.,  who  cre- 
ated him  Cardinal  in  1838.  He  was  a  phe- 
nomenal linguist,  speaking  over  50  divers 
tongues,  and  having  some  acquaintance 
with  as  many  more. 

Michael  (St.)  {Michael,  i.e.,ivho  is  like 
to  God). —  The  Prophet  David  calls  the 
holy  angel  Michael  "  the  prince  of  the  an- 
gels "  (x.  13) ;  and  the  Apostle  Judas  Thad- 
deus  names  him  an  archangel,  and  John, 
in  the  Apocalypse,  describes  the  contest 
between  him  and  Lucifer,  in  which  St. 
Michael  drove  the  latter  out  of  heaven. 
Several  miraculous  visions  of  this  holy 
archangel  on  Mount  Gargano  in  Italy  and 
at  Tuba  in  France,  and  many  wonderful 
graces  which  God  granted  through  his  in- 
tercession, gave   special   occasion,  in   the 


sixth  and  seventh  centuries,  to  his  public 
veneration  and  to  the  institution  of  festi- 
vals in  his  honor.     F.  Sept.  29th. 

Michael  Cerularius.     See  Cerularivs. 

Micheas.— I.  Micheas  the  Ancient.  — Jew- 
ish Prophet ;  announced  to  Josaphat,  king 
of  Juda,  that  his  ally  Achab  would  perish 
in  his  expedition  against  the  Syrians.  In 
punishment  for  a  prophecy  that  was  so 
contrary  to  him,  Achab  imprisoned  him. 
2.  Micheas  the  Younger  (740-690  B.C.  )  — 
Born  at  Morasthi  (Juda).  One  of  the 
twelve  minor  Prophets.  He  has  left  a  book 
divided  into  seven  chapters,  in  which  he 
announces  the  captivity  of  the  Jews  and 
the  coming  of  a  Saviour  of  the  world. 

Michol. —  Daughter  of  Saul,  wife  of 
David,  whose  life  she  saved,  but  having 
beheld  him  dancing  before  the  Ark,  she 
sneered  at  him  and  in  punishment  thereof 
became  barren. 

Miletus. —  An  ancient  city,  capital  of 
Ionia,  36  miles  south  of  Ephesus,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Maeander ;  the  parent  of  many 
colonies.  St.  Paul  on  his  return  from  the 
third  tour  stopped  here  (  Acts  xx.)  and  re- 
visited the  place  with  Trophimus  ( II.  Tim. 
iv.  20). 

Millennium. —  An  opinion  has  in  all  ages 
been  widely  spread  among  Christians  that 
before  the  consummation  of  the  world,  a 
considerable  period  is  to  elapse  during 
which  the  Church  on  earth  will  enjoy  great 
prosperity.  A  thousand  years  is  generally 
assigned  for  the  duration  of  this  period, 
which  circumstance  has  led  to  the  follow- 
ers of  the  opinion  being  called  Chiliasts 
or  Millennarians,  the  Greek  and  Latin 
words  signifying  Thousand  Tear  Men. 
The  main  foundation  for  the  opinion  is 
read  in  the  Apocalypse  (  xx.  4,  5),  and  the 
passage  certainly  seems  at  first  sight  to  be 
sufficiently  clear.  But  we  know  how  much 
obscurity  there  is  in  almost  all  prophecy, 
and  assuredly  the  Apocalypse  is  no  excep- 
tion to  the  rule :  there  is  scarcely  a  single 
prophetical  passage  in  this  book  concern- 
ing the  meaning  of  which  there  is  agree- 
ment. In  particular,  the  upholders  of  the 
Millennium  differ  most  widely  among 
themselves  as  to  the  details  and  order  of 
the  events  and  the  result  of  their  discord 
is  that  most  students  are  convinced  of  the 
impossibility  of  arranging  any  millennial 
scheme  which  shall  not  clash  with  some 
points  of  assured  doctrine.  Thus  some 
think  no  more  is  meant  than  that  a  long 


MiLNER 


474 


MiNucius  Felix 


period  of  peace  and  prosperity  awaits  the 
Church  Militant,  either  before  or  after  the 
struggle  in  which  Antichrist  will  be  over- 
thrown ;  but  this  view  is  scarcely  consis- 
tent with  the  univeral  declaration  that  all 
who  will  live  godly  lives  in  Christ  Jesus 
shall  suffer  persecution  ( II.  Tim.  iii.  12). 
Besides  which,  it  is  far  from  what  seems  to 
be  indicated  in  the  Apocalypse ;  and  what- 
ever is  the  external  state  of  affairs,  each  in- 
dividual man  will  never  be  free  from  that 
concupiscence,  which  is  inherent  in  his  ma- 
terial nature,  and  which  will  always  be  his 
chief  spiritual  enemy. 

Most  Chiliastic  systems  assert  a  double 
resurrection,  one  of  the  just  alone,  the 
other  of  the  rest  of  mankind.  As  to  the 
nature  of  millennial  happiness,  some  Chris- 
tian or  half-Christian  sects  of  ancient  times 
did  not  hesitate  to  hold  out  a  prospect  of 
pleasure  of  the  lowest,  most  sensual  kind, 
such  as  is  read  of  in  the  Talmud  and  the 
Koran ;  other  Chiliasts  talk  of  a  personal 
reign  of  Christ  on  earth,  but  they  are  far 
from  agreeing  as  to  its  nature,  and  in  fact 
the  subject  affords  scope  for  the  freest  ex- 
ercise of  fancy.  In  the  early  days  of  the 
Church,  Chiliastic  notions  were  widely 
prevalent  among  Catholics,  and  it  has  even 
been  maintained  that  they  were  universally 
held  to  be  a  part  of  the  revealed  faith. 
This  is  an  exaggeration.  For  many  years 
no  approved  Catholic  writer  has  looked 
forward  to  a  millennium,  and  weighty  au- 
thorities believe  that  it  would  be  heresy  to 
do  so.  It  is  remarkable  that  the  theory 
which  we  are  considering  has  always  found 
special  favor  among  those  sects  which  are 
most  bitterly  opposed  to  Rome.  These 
delight  in  pointing  out  that  the  woman 
who  sits  on  seven  hills  (Apoc.  xvii.  11)  is 
the  city  called  Babylon  (xiv.  8;  xviii.  2), 
which  is  the  seat  of  wickedness  and  doomed 
to  fall ;  they  quote  correctly  from  the 
Fathers  to  show  that  this  city  is  no  other 
than  Rome ;  whence  they  conclude  that 
the  downfall  of  the  Papacy  is  declared  by 
prophecy.  They  are  wrong,  for  they  fail  to 
observe  that  the  Rome  of  the  Fathers  was 
the  pagan  power  which  was  to  tread  down 
the  Holy  City  for  a  while  (Apoc.  xi.  2), 
and  shed  the  blood  of  the  saints  (xvi.  6). 

Milner  (Johk)  (1752-1826).  —  English 
Catholic  writer,  born  at  London.  Priest, 
pastor  at  Winchester  in  1779.  Bishop  of 
Castabala  and  vicar  apostolic  of  the  Mid- 
land district  in  1803.  Author  of  the  well- 
known  End  of  Controversy. 


Miltiades  (St.).  — Pope  from  311  to  314. 
Born  in  Africa,  presided  over  the  Council 
of  Rome  (313)  and  condemned  the  Dona- 
tists.     F.  Dec.  loth. 

Miltiades. — Apologist.  Miltiades  whom 
Tertullian  calls  *^  Sophista  ecc/esiarutn," 
i.e.,  "Advocate  of  the  Christians,"  com- 
posed, besides  controversial  works  against 
the  heathen,  Jews  and  Montanists,  a  sepa- 
rate treatise  in  defense  of  the  divinity  of 
Christ,  and  a  Christian  Apologv  addressed 
to  the  civil  power.  From  the  few  frag- 
ments preserved  by  Eusebius  we  may  dis- 
cern the  ability  of  the  entire  composition, 
as  well  as  the  other  writings  of  the  author. 
St.  Jerome  says  of  him  :  "  Serif  sit  et  con- 
tra gentes  volumen  egregium  .  .  .  ut 
nescias,  quid  in  illo  primu/n  mirari  debeas, 
eruditionem  sceculi,  an  scieniiam  Scriptur- 
arum"  {Epist.  70  ad  Magnum). 

Minims.  —  This  name  is  commonly  given 
to  the  religious  of  the  order  of  Minim-Her- 
mits, founded  by  St.  Francis  of  Paola, 
about  the  year  1436.  The  rule  of  this 
order  surpasses  in  austerity,  even  that  of 
the  Minorites,  or  Franciscans ;  to  the 
usual  three  monastic  vows,  St.  Francis 
added  as  a  fourth,  perpetual  Lent  and  ab- 
stinence, not  only  from  meat,  but  also  from 
eggs  and  milk.  In  1473,  Pope  Sixtus  IV. 
gave  his  sanction  to  the  new  congregation, 
and  named  Francis  its  first  superior  general. 
In  1495,  Pope  Alexander  VI.  formally 
confirmed  the  community  as  a  mendi- 
cant order  under  the  title  of  "  Minim- 
Hermits,"  giving  it  all  the  privileges 
possessed  by  the  Mendicant  Friars.  Not- 
withstanding its  extreme  severity,  the 
order  spread  rapidly  through  Italy,  France, 
and  Spain ;  within  a  few  years  it  numbered 
four  hundred  and  fifty  convents  for  men, 
and  fourteen  for  women.  St  Francis, 
who  died  in  1507,  was  canonized  in  1519 
by  Leo  X. 

Minor  Orders.     See  Orders. 

Minucius  Felix.  —  A  Latin  apologist. 
Nothing  certain  is  known  of  him,  but  that 
he  was  a  distinguished  causidicus,  or  ad- 
vocate in  Rome,  which  occupation  he 
pursued  after  his  conversion  to  Christian- 
ity. He  was  a  native  of  Africa,  some  say 
of  Asia,  and  flourished  in  the  first  half  of 
the  third  century.  His  apology  entitled 
Octavius  is  a  dialogue  demonstrating  the 
existence  of  one  God  only,  and  defending 
the  Christians  from  calumnies  then  in  cir- 
culation against  them.     St.  Jerome   men- 


Miracle 


475 


Miracle 


tions  another  work,  now  lost,  entitled  De 
Fato  vel  Contra  Mathematicos,  which  was 
at  the  time  ascribed  to  Minucius. 

Miracle. —  A  miracle  is  an  act  of  divine 
power,  contrary  to  the  known  laws  of 
nature.  According  to  Rationalists,  no 
doctrine  has  the  right  to  impose  itself 
upon  the  human  mind  as  revealed  or  as 
inspired  by  God,  since  there  is  none  that 
has  been  confirmed  by  the  authority  of 
real  miracles.  The  basis  of  this  system  is, 
then,  the  absence  of  miracles.  "  If  mira- 
cles have  some  reality,"  says  Renan,  "  our 
method  is  detestable,  and  my  book  is  but  a 
tissue  of  errors." 

The  consequences  of  these  principles  in 
regard  to  Holy  Scripture,  especially  the 
New  Testament,  are  manifest.  Not  only 
does  the  Sacred  Scripture  contain  no  real 
miracle ;  but  in  truth  there  is  no  Holy 
Scripture  or  Inspired  Book.  "  Inspira- 
tion," says  the  same  writer,  "implying  a 
miracle,  cannot  be  maintained."  The 
Bible  is  only  a  book  of  human  origin, 
wherein  the  true  is  mingled  with  the 
false,  and  prudence  and  judgment  are  re- 
quired to  prevent  our  being  deceived 
therewith. 

It  is  true  that  all  Rationalists  do  not  ex- 
press their  views  in  such  a  clear  manner. 
A  great  number  of  them  continue  to  speak 
of  the  Bible  as  of  divine  origin,  and  quote 
its  teachings  as  the  word  of  God ;  but  this 
they  do  through  habit  or  on  account  of 
their  official  position,  as  many  of  those 
who  occupy  themselves  with  Holy  Scrip- 
ture are  ministers  of  the  Gospel  or  profes- 
sors of  Christian  theology,  and  cannot  act 
or  talk  otherwise  without  great  personal 
inconvenience.  This  inconsistency  does 
not  prevent  them  from  inculcating  their 
doctrine,  teaching  that  Scripture  is  in  it- 
self truth,  but  truthful  under  conditions 
and  which  it  does  not  shock  what  they  term 
a  "  reasonable  sense,"  or  does  not  compel 
the  mind  or  conscience  to  adhere  to  it.  By 
means  of  this  cunning  shift  they  manage 
to  avoid  the  scandal  of  a  radical  negation, 
and  to  eliminate  as  fabulous  all  truths 
which  require  an  act  of  faith  or  the  subjec- 
tion of  man  to  God's  teaching. 

Wherein  does  the  fault  of  this  system 
lie,  and  in  what  does  it  consist.?  This  is  to 
be  seen  at  its  starting  point.  It  consists  in 
affirming  gratuitously,  and  in  asking  us  to 
accept  without  proof,  that  which  requires 
demonstration,  namely:  that  nothing 
supernatural  ever  took  place,  and  that  all 


so-called  miracles,  however  much  accred- 
ited, must  be  regarded  as  illusions  and  im- 
postures. 

No  one  has  the  right  to  set  up  as  an  ax- 
iom, or  as  an  intuitive  truth  a  principle 
opposed  to  the  common  opinion  of  the 
most  enlightened  and  most  sincere  men  of 
all  times  and  places.  Such,  however,  is 
the  pretense  of  the  Rationalists  in  regard 
to  miracles.  In  vain  may  we  ask  for  proofs 
of  their  principle,  or  look  for  them  in  their 
writings.  From  neither  do  we  receive  any 
satisfaction.  They  will  deny  or  combat 
according  to  the  occasion  such  or  such  a 
miracle;  but  the  reality  or  the  possibility 
of  miracles  in  general  they  always  abstain 
from  attacking,  alleging  that  this  would 
be  a  useless  task;  and  instead  of  establish- 
ing their  principle,  they  limit  themselves 
to  a  repetition,  in  various  ways,  of  their 
unproved  and  improbable  assertions  as  if 
such  were  indisputable,  unquestionable, 
and  universally  accepted  truths. 

"  Miracles,"  they  boldly  assert,  "  do  not 
belong  to  history,  but  to  legendary  lore. 
To  accept  a  miracle  is  to  accept  an  expla- 
nation which  has  no  scientific  basis.  The 
entire  negation  of  the  supernatural  is  the 
very  essence  of  their  criticism.  No  one 
has  the  science  or  knowledge  of  history  as 
long  as  he  does  not  acknowledge  the  im- 
possibility of  miracles  Every  account, 
according  to  the  opponents  of  miracles, 
connected  with  a  supernatural  element 
necessarily  implies  credulity  or  imposture. 
The  existence  of  miracles  is  impossible  to 
maintain  in  the  presence  of  received  ideas 
of  good,  modern  sense.  The  negation  of 
the  supernatural  has  become  for  every  cul- 
tivated mind  an  absolute  dogma." 

Such  assertions,  although  repeated  with 
so  much  assurance,  do  not  form  any  proof. 
That  there  are  to-day  more  or  less  infidels 
among  the  literary  and  cultivated  classes 
is  not  here  questioned.  Right  does  not 
depend  on  numbers ;  moreover,  even  here, 
numbers  are  lacking.  To  the  empty  ne- 
gation and  dismal  doubts  of  the  Rational- 
ists, we  can  triumphantly  and  truthfully 
oppose  the  unvarying  belief  of  all  the 
Faithful,  that  of  the  converts  of  all  times, 
many  of  whom  were  giants  of  intellect  and 
sanctity,  and  especially  the  tried  faith  of 
the  early  Christians,  who  died,  not  for  a 
fable  or  an  opinion,  but  in  attestation  of  se- 
rious and  solemn  faith.  Most  undoubtedly, 
these  faithful  Christians,  martyrs,  confes- 
sors, converts,  and  doctors,  believed  in  the 
Gospel,  in  its  miracles,  especially  the  resur- 


Miracle 


476 


Miracle 


rection  of  the  Saviour.  No  one  can  ques- 
tion the  sincerity  of  their  conviction ;  in 
this  they  are  above  all  suspicion.  And  as 
to  the  intelligence  or  mental  power  of  these 
hosts  of  witnesses,  who  has  the  right  to 
place  it  below  that  of  infidels  and  skeptics? 
Are  the  latter  the  only  enlightened  ones,  or 
alone  worthy  of  belief.?  The  first  Chris- 
tians lived  with  Jesus  Christ  and  His  Apos- 
tles. What  was  wanting  to  them  that  they 
should  not  be  proper  witnesses  to  the  truth 
of  facts  which  came  under  their  own  per- 
sonal observation  ?  Did  they  not  see  and 
hear,  or  had  they  any  self-interest  to  influ- 
ence them  to  be  deceived  ?  Those  who 
came  after  them  had  not  less  decisive  rea- 
sons in  order  to  believe.  To  speak  only 
of  those  motives  which  were  alike,  com- 
mon to  all,  did  they  not  witness  in  the 
fulfillment  of  the  prophecies,  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Church,  in  the  dispersion 
of  the  Jews  and  the  conversion  of  the  Gen- 
tiles, incontestable  miracles  enounced  long 
before.?  Finally,  in  all  epochs  and  in  all 
countries,  even  in  our  own  times,  we  find 
not  only  sensible,  learned,  and  virtuous 
men  who  believe  in  miracles  and  prophe- 
cies, but  we  can  name  a  large  number  who 
testify  to  having  witnessed  such  miracles 
and  who  saw  the  fulfillment  of  prophecies, 
and  who,  if  needs  be,  can  testify  that  such 
miracles  were  effected  by  the  power  of 
God.  Moreover,  those  who  can  thus  tes- 
tify are  such  as  are  deserving  of  the  high- 
est esteem  and  who  enjoy  the  greatest 
confidence  of  all  who  know  them.  Ration- 
alists cannot  convince  us  that  these  men 
were  deceived,  or  that  these  facts  do  not 
come  under  the  law  of  science  or  credibil- 
ity. They  simply  assert  that  these  facts 
are  contrary  to  the  usages  of  historic  criti- 
cism as  understood  and  professed  by  them- 
selves. 

This  would  be  sufficient  to  show  our  ad- 
versaries that  the  impossibility  of  miracles 
is  not  a  first  principle,  or  self-evident 
truth,  as  they  boldly  assert.  But  there  is 
yet  stronger  proof  to  invalidate  their  as- 
sumptions, namely,  the  reality  of  miracles 
as  such.  Indeed  the  existence  and  cer- 
tainty of  miracles  have  always  been  and 
are  still  held  as  unquestionable  by  all 
minds  that  have  not  repudiated  the  clearest 
demonstrations  of  science  and  reason. 

What  do  we  really  understand  by  a  mir- 
acle? It  is  a  fact  which  is  above  and  be- 
yond the  laws  of  nature,  which  is  produced 
or  effected  outside  of  them  by  an  action  or 
power  which  these  natural  laws  are  unable 


to  account  for.  But  are  there  not  thou- 
sands of  facts  of  this  kind,  whose  reality 
nature  attests,  and  whose  existence  and 
character  learned  men  point  out? 

1.  The  creation  of  the  world  is  a  living, 
present  fact.  It  exists  and  is  before  us. 
When  did  it  begin  to  exist?  To  whom 
does  it  owe  its  existence?  Not  to  the  laws 
of  nature,  which  are  subsequent  to  it,  but 
to  an  action  which  is  above  and  bevond 
them,  to  the  action  of  an  Almighty  Will, 
in  other  words,  to  a  miracle. 

2.  The  production  of  life  upon  earth. 
All  savants  acknowledge  that  at  a  certain 
epoch  the  earth  was  only  a  mineral  mass, 
from  which  all  life  was  absent.  They  are 
also  agreed  that  according  to  the  laws  of 
nature  a  living  being  can  only  come  from 
another  living  being.  How,  then,  did  life 
appear  upon  earth,  if  not  by  a  miraculous 
intervention  ? 

3.  The  different  vegetable  and  animal 
species.  Science  equally  attests  that  these 
species  are  irreducible,  and  that  when  in- 
di\-iduals  come  from  individuals,  the  species 
cannot  arise  from  other  species.  There- 
fore, the  first  individual  of  each  species, 
the  first  man,  the  first  woman,  must  have 
been  created,  brought  forth  from  nothing 
by  a  miracle. 

We  do  not  mean  to  affirm  the  absolute 
immutability  of  species.  It  is  known  that 
under  certain  conditions  and  circum- 
stances, or  influences,  they  produce  varie- 
ties and  races.  Neither  do  we  assert  that 
all  the  species  admitted  by  scientists  are 
real  or  primitive  species ;  but  we  do  as- 
sert, and  natural  science  agrees  with  us, 
that  there  always  have  been  in  the  animal 
order  as  well  as  in  the  vegetable  order,  di- 
versity of  species,  or  that  all  species  never 
could  and  never  can  be  identical  with  any 
single,  particular  one.  Hence  they  could 
have  been  produced  only  in  a  miraculous 
manner.  We  have  before  our  eyes  as 
many  sensible  proofs  of  the  reality  of  mi- 
raculous actions  as  we  behold  in  nature 
different  species  of  animals  or  vegetables. 

Thus  in  the  physical  order  as  in  the 
spiritual  order,  much  of  what  we  see  is 
based  on  miracle.  Far  from  the  possibility 
of  a  miracle  being  a  scientific  dogma  of 
men  of  good  sense ;  the  reality,  certainty, 
and  indefinite  number  of  miraculous  facts 
are  to-day  a  dogma  of  truth  professed  by 
scientists.  All  nature  is,  as  it  were,  an  ever 
present  miracle,  implying  and  revealing 
an  infinity  of  others.  Perhaps  it  may  be 
said  that  there  is  no  question  about  the 


Miriam 


477 


Missions 


origin  of  things;  that  Rationalists  only 
deny  the  continuation  of  miracles  in  na- 
ture, as  such  admission  would  be  deroga- 
tory to  the  laws  of  nature,  established  by 
the  Creator,  But  this  mode  of  reasoning 
has  no  force  although  seemingly  well 
founded,  for  all  its  force  of  argument  rests 
on  human  reason  making  this  fallible  rea- 
son the  judge  and  superior  of  that  which  is 
beyond  and  above  reason.  For,  evidently, 
it  is  not  contrary  to  reason  to  believe  that 
what  God  did  in  the  beginning.  He  can  do 
again  in  the  course  of  time,  and  no  one 
can  rightfully  refuse  or  deny  this  to  Him. 
Having  formed  the  material  world  in  a 
miraculous  manner,  why  could  He  not 
likewise  form  the  spiritual  world .?  When 
He,  the  Almighty,  wrought  an  infinity  of 
miracles  in  order  to  spread  throughout  na- 
ture, with  a  bounteous  hand,  both  life  and 
movement,  why  could  He  not  also  work  a 
certain  number  of  miracles  in  the  Church, 
His  spiritual  kingdom,  in  order  that  faith 
and  sanctity  might  flourish  therein  ?  When 
He  could  create  at  will,  independently  of 
all  rule,  in  the  beginning  of  time  in  order 
to  manifest  His  existence,  goodness,  lib- 
erty, and  essential  perfections,  why  could 
He  not  act  in  the  same  manner,  later  on? 
Why  should  He  not  in  our  time  still  do  so, 
in  order  to  show  forth  His  essential  liberty, 
to  make  known  His  designs,  to  reveal  His 
blessed  will,  to  move  His  rational  crea- 
tures to  know  and  serve  Him  ?  Finally,  is 
it  reasonable  to  deny  His  free  action  of 
power  when  plainly  revealing  itself  to  us  in 
the  physical  order,  as  well  as  when  the 
same  almighty  power  reveals  itself  in  the 
spiritual  order  by  the  less  palpable  evi- 
dence of  certainty? 

Therefore,  the  Christain  principle  of  ad- 
mitting miracles  is  not  contrary  to  right 
reason,  but  in  reality  the  negation  of  this 
admission,  as  rationalism  does,  is  plainly 
contrary  to  the  dictates  of  reason.  Noth- 
ing, indeed,  is  more  contrary  to  a  rational 
mind,  than  to  refuse  the  free  action  of  God 
in  the  formation  of  the  world,  or  to  be  un- 
willing to  admit  His  free  action  of  infinite 
power,  exercised  in  a  miraculous  manner, 
in  the  establishment  and  government  of 
His  Church. 

Miriam.  —  Sister  of  Moses  and  eldest  of 
the  family.  She  is  first  mentioned  as 
watching  her  brother's  cradle  in  the  sedges 
by  the  river's  brink.  After  the  crossing  of 
the  Red  Sea  she  becomes  "Miriam  the 
Prophetess  " ;  takes  the  lead  with  Aaron, 


in  the  complaint  against  Moses  for  his 
marriage  with  a  Cushite,  and  for  this  was 
stricken  with  leprosy.  This  curse  was  re- 
moved, and  she  died  toward  the  close  of 
the  wandering  in  the  desert,  being  buried 
at  Cadesh. 

Missal.  —  An  appellation  given  to  the 
volume  which  contains  the  liturgy  of  the 
Mass,  together  with  the  whole  order  of 
divine  service  to  be  celebrated  on  Sundays, 
festivals,  and  saints'  days  throughout  the 
year.  The  different  Masses  of  the  year 
were  collected  for  the  first  time  in  the 
fourth  century  by  Pope  Gelasius.  The 
collection,  entitled  Sacramentary  was  later 
on  revised  by  Pope  Gregory  the  Great.  It 
had  for  the  offices  four  different  books : 
the  Gospels,  the  Sacramentary  or  Bishop's 
Missal  and  Priest's  Missal,  the  Lectionary 
or  Epistolary  and  Antiphonary.  The  "Full 
Missals  "  contained  all  the  books.  Several 
bishops  caused  particular  missals  to  be 
drawn  up.  Each  religious  order  had  also 
its  own  missal,  with  the  office  of  its  saints. 

Mission(charge,power  given  to  a  specified 
agent  to  go  and  accomplish  ^ome  particular 
undertaking). —  Applies  itself  collectively 
to  priests,  secular  or  regular,  employed  in 
some  countries,  either  for  the  conversion 
of  infidels,  or  for  the  inst'ruction  of  Chris- 
tians. Series  of  sermons,  catechetical  in- 
structions, conferences  which  missionaries 
make  in  some  place,  either  for  the  conver- 
sion of  infidels  and  heretics,  or  for  the  in- 
struction of  Christians.  Priests  of  the 
Foreign  Missions.  Secular  priests  who  live 
in  community  under  a  superior  general, 
and  whose  object  is  to  preach  the  Gospel. 

Missions  and  Missionary  Institutes. — 
Obedient  to  the  injunction  of  our  Lord  to 
preach  the  Gospel  to  all  nations  and  to 
every  creature,  the  Catholic  Church  has 
in  all  ages  sent  her  missionaries  into  every 
part  of  the  inhabited  globe.  Since  the 
rise  of  Protestantism,  and  notably  since 
the  defection  of  the  great  maritime  powers 
from  the  Church,  two  classes  of  mission- 
aries have  unhappily  come  face  to  face  in 
nearly  every  country  of  the  world,  mutu- 
ally opposed  to  each  other,  and  the  one 
not  unfrequently  undoing  the  work  of  the 
other.  But,  in  the  face  of  every  obstacle, 
the  Catholic  religion  has  gone  steadily 
forward,  gaining  triumph  after  triumph, 
until  at  last  there  is  not  a  corner  of  the 
earth  in  which  its  teachings  are  not  pro- 
claimed   and    professed.     In    the   present 


Missions 


478 


Missions 


century  the  glorious  field  of  missionary 
work,  in  which  the  great  St.  Francis 
Xavier  was  the  first  to  labor  in  modern 
times,  has  been  cultivated  with  encourag- 
ing success. 

Catholic  missions  may  be  conveniently 
distributed  into  the  following  five  geograph- 
ical divisions:  i.  The  Eastern  Missions, 
comprising  the  Crimean  Peninsula,  the 
Grecian  Archipelago,  Constantinople, 
Syria,  Armenia,  Persia,  Arabia,  Egypt, 
Nubia,  and  Abyssinia.  2.  The  India  Mis- 
sions, extending  as  far  as  the  Philippine 
islands.  3.  The  Missions  of  China,  in- 
cluding Siam,  Cochin-China,  Tung-King, 
and  Japan.  4.  The  American  Missions, 
which,  starting  at  Hudson  bay,  include 
the  Canadas,  British  America,  the  Indian 
Territory,  the  country  along  the  Rocky 
mountains,  and  the  Antilles,  ending  at 
Paraguay.  5.  The  Missions  of  Oceania, 
including  Australia. 

These  missions,  though  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Propaganda  (see  this  word)  at 
Rome,  are  mainly  supported  by  the  Society 
for  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith,  founded 
at  Lyons  in  1822  (see  Confraternities)  ; 
by  the  Association  of  the  Holy  Childhood 
of  Jesus,  founded  at  Paris  in  1844 ;  by  the 
Leopoldine  Association  of  Austria ;  by  the 
Association  of  King  Louis  of  Bavaria ;  and 
by  the  St.  Francis  Xavier  Association,  in 
the  archdiocese  of  Cologne.  There  is  also 
a  number  of  institutions  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  especially  devoted  to  the 
work  of  training  missionaries,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, the  College  of  the  Propaganda  at 
Rome,  the  most  famous  missionary  estab- 
lishment in  the  world;  the  Hungarian- 
Germanic  College;  the  Greek  College; 
the  English  College ;  the  Scotch  College ; 
the  Irish  College ;  the  College  of  St.  Peter 
in  Montorio ;  the  College  of  St.  Bartholo- 
mew ;  the  College  of  St.  Isidore ;  the  Col- 
lege of  St.  Anthony  of  Padua ;  the  College 
of  the  Capuchins;  the  College  of  St.  Greg- 
ory, the  '*  Illuminator  "  for  the  Armenias. 
The  Mechitarists,  the  Maronites  of  Libanon, 
the  Abyssinians,  and  Copts,  also  have  mis- 
sionary institutions  at  Rome.  Outside  of 
Rome  we  may  mention  :  the  Greek  Semi- 
nary at  Palermo ;  the  College  of  the  Greeks 
of  St.  Benedict  at  Ullano;  the  Chinese 
College  at  Naples ;  the  Seminary  for  the 
Missions  of  Central  Africa  at  Verona ;  the 
College  of  All-Hallows,  near  Dublin,  Ire- 
land ;  St.  Joseph's  College  at  Mill  Hill,  near 
London,  England,  exclusively  devoted  to 
missionary  work  among  the  negroes ;  the 


Illyrain  College  at  Loretto ;  the  Swiss  Col- 
lege at  Milan ;  the  Seminary  of  Louvain, 
Belgium ;  the  Seminary  of  the  Marists  at 
Lyons,  France;  the  College  of  Melun, 
France ;  the  Seminary  of  Foreign  Missions ; 
the  Seminary  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  the 
Irish  Seminary,  in  Paris;  and  the  Semi- 
nary of  St.  Charles  at  Buenos  Ayres.  This 
list  is  not  absolutely  complete,  but  indicates 
the  principal  missionary  establishments, 
and  sufficiently  proves  the  prodigious  ex- 
tent of  the  Catholic  missions  all  over  the 
globe.  The  missionaries  are  ^e  advance- 
guard  of  the  explorers  and  the  pioneers  of 
civilization.  The  Edifying  Letters,  and 
the  Annals  of  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith, 
furnish  the  best  elementary  accounts  of 
geographical  science. 

Missions  {Protestant). —  Only  since  the 
niaeteenth  century  has  it  entered  the 
minds  of  Protestants  to  apply  themselves, 
in  a  larger  measure,  to  the  conversion  of 
infidels.  It  was  not  the  government  of 
Protestant  countries  that  first  interested 
themselves  in  the  conversion  of  pagans  — 
England  even  favored  idolatry  in  East 
India  —  but  private  societies.  The  most 
active  among  them  were  the  Lutherans, 
then  the  Anglicans,  and  especially  the 
Methodists.  But,  here  again,  controver- 
sies were  not  wanting  among  the  different 
sects.  Since  1846,  societies  of  German 
missions  have  united  themselves  into  peri- 
odic assembles  in  different  localities.  The 
married  missionaries,  obliged  to  care  for 
their  wives  and  children,  smitten  often 
with  the  passion  of  gain,  generally  showed 
themselves  much  below  their  task,  and 
their  success  was  not  proportionate  to  the 
immense  sums  expended.  Catholic  mis- 
sionaries, with  very  inadequate  resources, 
obtained  quite  diflFerent  results,  and  several 
Protestants  have  openly  admitted  the  ste- 
rility and  ill  success  of  Protestant  missions. 
Neophytes,  often  gained  through  presents, 
showed  little  perseverance. 

Protestants  tried,  especially,  to  act 
through  Bible  societies.  A  corporation 
formed  itself  in  London  in  1804,  under  the 
name  of  Britannic  and  Foreign  Bible  So- 
ciety, and  was  definitely  constituted  on 
March  7th,  1805.  Its  end  was  to  spread 
among  all  the  nations  and  in  the  different 
languages,  either  for  a  nominal  sum,  or 
gratuitously,  the  text  of  the  Bible  without 
any  explanation.  In  1844,  it  counted  al- 
ready 7,000  branch  establishments ;  it  diS' 
tributed  sixteen  millions  of  Bibles  during 


Missions 


479 


Missions 


forty  years.  Translations,  of  which  some 
were  very  defective,  were  made  in  nearly 
two  hundred  languages.  A  great  Bible 
Society  was  also  created  in  Berlin  in  1814; 
another  in  1818  in  the  United  States.  The 
success,  if  compared  with  this  immense 
display  of  resources,  was  extremely  mea- 
ger. A  great  many  countries  made  use  of 
the  Bibles,  which  they  received  as  a  pres- 
ent, for  all  kinds  of  purposes,  and  conver- 
sions were  very  rare.  As  they  spread,  also, 
among  the  Catholics,  falsified  and  muti- 
lated translations  of  the  Bible ;  and  as  these 
translations  were  recommended  by  polem- 
ical treatises  which  they  distributed,  the 
Holy  See  had  necessarily  to  condemn  these 
Bible  Societies  and  their  work,  and  warn 
the  Faithful  against  the  seduction. 

Many  Protestant  missionaries  have 
chosen  Catholic  countries  for  the  sphere 
of  their  labors.  Before  all  they  try  to 
"evangelize"  Italy.  Since  1870,  Protes- 
tants have  been  permitted  to  erect  public 
houses  of  worship  in  Rome  itself;  they 
were  favored  by  the  government,  while 
the  religion  acknowledged  by  the  State, 
had  not  the  liberty  of  its  movements.  Also, 
in  Spain  and  Portugal,  they  endeavor  to 
convert  Catholics  to  Protestantism.  But 
so  far  their  labors  have  remained  fruitless. 

Missions  in  India,  China,  Japan,  Africa, 
and  Oceania.  —  The  apostolic  labors  of 
the  missionaries  among  the  heathen  were 
blessed  with  remarkable  success.  Of  all 
the  religious  orders,  none  played  a  more 
heroic  or  zealous  part  than  the  Society  of 
Jesus.  After  the  suppression  of  the  Society 
the  missionary  work  was  carried  on  with 
great  energy  by  the  Seminary  of  Paris,  es- 
tablished for  foreign  missions  in  1663.  St. 
Francis  Xavier  (died  in  1552),  became  the 
"Apostle"  of  the  Hindoos.  The  disinter- 
ested zeal  of  this  saint  knew  no  bounds, 
and  soon  gained  favor,  even  with  the  most 
dissolute  men.  Walking  through  the 
streets  he  carried  a  little  bell  by  means  of 
which  he  called  the  people  to  his  instruc- 
tions. God  assisted  him  in  his  great  work 
by  granting  him  the  gift  of  miracles  and  of 
languages.  So  great  was  the  number  of 
those  desiring  baptism,  that  the  saint's 
arms  became  lame  from  the  exertion  ac- 
companying the  administration  of  the 
sacrament.  In  the  Portuguese  Indies,  es- 
pecially in  Goa,  Francis  labored  with 
wonderful  success,  and  though  at  the  same 
time  he  suffered  great  physical  pain  and 
agony,  his  only  utterance  was  ^^Amplius!" 


{still  more).  Francis  desired  to  carry  the 
light  of  faith  to  China,  but  he  died  on  the 
way  to  the  island  of  San  Chan,  in  the  sight 
of  the  mainland. 

During  his  missionary  labors  he  bap- 
tized with  his  own  hands  more  than  1,000,- 
000  heathens.  His  work  was  continued 
by  other  Jesuits.  Difficulties  having  arisen 
from  the  Hindoo  castes,  it  became  neces- 
sary to  appoint  special  missionaries  for 
nobles  and  the  pariahs  or  lowest  classes. 
In  the  nineteenth  century  the  Society  of 
Lyons  has  done  much  to  rekindle  the  faith 
in  India.  Of  late  years  the  missions  have 
been  carried  on  with  considerable  success. 
There  are  more  than  1,000,000  Catholics 
in  British  India  and  Siam.  Flourishing 
congregations  were  founded  by  the  Jesuits 
in  Tonquin  and  Cochin-China,  which  con- 
tinue to  exist,  despite  the  violent  persecu- 
tions that  took  place  in  after  years.  The 
Jesuits  also  succeeded  in  entering  the 
Chinese  empire.  Among  the  missionaries 
who  went  to  China,  were  Father  Ricci, 
who  made  watches,  maps,  etc.,  and  Father 
Schall,  a  distinguished  astronomer.  By 
their  literary  and  scientific  abilities,  these 
men  gained  such  consideration  with  the 
emperor  that  they  began  to  preach  the 
Gospel,  converting  many  of  the  lower 
classes  and  even  some  of  the  princes. 
Catholic  churches  were  erected  in  Peking 
(1606)  and  Nanking  (1611).  Persecutions 
broke  out  at  various  times,  but  fortunately, 
they  were  of  short  duration. 

In  1692  the  penal  laws  against  the  Chris- 
tians were  abolished  and  the  missionaries 
were  authorized  by  law  to  preach  the  Gos- 
pel. But  in  the  eighteenth  century,  fierce 
persecutions  were  carried  on  ;  many  Chris- 
tians suffered  martyrdom,  among  them  be- 
ing several  relatives  of  the  emperor.  In 
1855  a  treaty  was  effected  by  which  Chris- 
tian missionaries  were  freely  permitted  to 
enter  the  empire.  The  Society  of  the 
Holy  Childhood,  established  in  France 
(1843),  has  done  a  great  deal  of  good  for 
the  Faithful  in  China. 

The  first  labors  of  the  missionaries  in 
Japan  proved  very  successful,  and  more 
than  200,000  heathens  entered  the  Church. 
But  as  early  as  1587,  a  cruel  persecution 
broke  out,  during  which  many  Christians 
suffered  martyrdom.  A  persecution,  still 
more  severe  followed  in  1612.  The  Dutch 
traders,  being  jealous  of  the  Spanish  com- 
merce, accused  the  Japanese  Christians  of 
being  in  conspiracy  with  the  Portuguese 
against  the  life  of  the  emperor.     In  conse- 


Missions 


480 


Missions 


quence  of  this  accusation  all  foreigners 
were  forbidden  to  enter  Japan ;  the  Dutch, 
alone,  could  carry  on  the  trade  if  they 
were  willing  to  trample  the  crucifix  under 
their  feet  and  renounce  the  faith.  They 
bombarded  the  fortress  Simabara,  which 
sheltered  30,000  Japanese  Christians,  all 
of  whom  perished.  Among  the  martyrs 
were  150  Jesuits.  In  1649  Christianity 
seemed  to  have  died  out,  but  it  lived  in 
secret;  prayers  and  baptisms  were  handed 
down  from  generation  to  generation  until 
the  present  day.  The  Christians  are  still 
exposed  to  the  oppressions  and  persecu- 
tions of  the  imperial  officers. 

Christianity  spread  rapidly  in  the  Por- 
tuguese settlement  of  Africa.  The  labors 
of  the  missionaries  were  rendered  very  dif- 
ficult by  the  unhealthy  climate  and  the 
barbarous  manners  of  the  natives.  Through 
the  influence  of  Cardinal  Lavigerie  the 
African  missions  have  received  a  fresh  im- 
pulse. 

On  the  continent  of  Oceania  the  missions 
are  prospering.  Since  1874  t^o  ecclesias- 
tical provinces,  Sidney  and  Melbourne, 
have  been  established  in  Australia.  The 
Australian  Plenary  Council  was  held  at 
Sidney  in  1885  and  presided  over  by  his 
eminence,  Cardinal  Moran.  See  Aus- 
tralia. 

Missions  in  South  America.  See  Chris- 
tianity IX  America  and  Hierarchy. 

Missions  {Early)  in  the  United  States 
and  Canada. — The  hostility  of  the  Indians 
and  the  bigotry  of  the  English  colonists 
were  the  great  obstacles  to  the  spread  of 
Christianity  in  the  United  States.  The 
early  explorers  of  the  coast,  Cabot,  Ver- 
razzani,  Gomez,  were  Catholics.  The  first 
missionaries  to  set  foot  on  the  territory 
now  included  in  the  United  States,  were 
Rev.  John  Juarez  and  his  companions,  who 
were  brought  over  in  the  expedition  of 
Ponce  de  Leon,  in  15 12.  They  touched 
the  shores  of  Florida  in  1528,  but  most  of 
them  died  the  same  year,  either  from  hun- 
ger or  from  the  hostility  of  the  Indians. 
Father  Louis  Cancer,  the  leader  of  the 
small  band  of  Dominicans,  who  came  to 
Florida  in  1549,  was  killed  by  an  Indian. 
St.  Augustine,  the  oldest  town,  and  con- 
taining the  oldest  church  in  America,  was 
laid  out  by  Melandez,  a  Spanish  admiral, 
in  1565.  The  cession  of  Florida  by  the 
Spanish  to  England,  by  the  Treaty  of  Paris 
in  1763,  destroyed  the  missions. 


Mark  of  Nice,  a  Franciscan,  penetrated 
the  country  to  New  Mexico,  in  1540. 
Father  Padilla,  O.  S.  F.,  who  first  attempted 
to  preach  the  Gospel  within  the  territory 
of  the  present  diocese  of  Santa  Fe,  received 
a  martyr's  crown.  Later,  the  missions  of 
Santa  Fe  became  very  successful.  Texas 
was  visited  in  1544  by  the  Spaniard  Andrew 
de  Olmos,  but  no  permanent  mission  was 
established  until  1688.  As  early  as  1601 
Mass  was  celebrated  in  California  by  a 
Franciscan,  but  the  real  apostle  of  the 
state  was  Father  Junipero  Serra,  who  ac- 
companied the  expedition  to  Galvez,  1769. 
The  first  mission  was  established  at  San 
Diego.  The  Jesuit  fathers,  Salvatierra 
and  Francis  Keuhne,  sowed  the  seed  of 
Christianity  in  Old  California  in  1697. 

Father  Segura  and  eight  Jesuits  per- 
ished in  the  present  state  of  Maryland  in 
1570,  through  the  treachery  of  a.  young 
Indian.  The  first  settlement  in  the  state 
was  made  at  St.  Mary's  by  the  Catholics 
in  1634.  Fathers  White  and  Altham,  who 
accompanied  these  pioneers,  were  the  first 
English  priests  on  this  continent.  Lord 
Baltimore,  a  Catholic  nobleman,  was  at  the 
head  of  the  colony.  Its  charter  was  re- 
markable for  its  liberality,  granting  free- 
dom of  worship  to  all.  The  flourishing 
mission  of  Maryland  was  destroyed  by 
Claybourne  and  his  band  of  Puritr-.n  fanat- 
ics, who  expelled  the  Catholic  governor 
and  carried  off  priests  into  slavery. 

In  the  year  1609  the  Jesuit  fathers, 
Biard  and  Masse,  established  a  mission  in 
Maine  on  Neutral  island,  from  whence  it 
was  removed  in  161 2,  to  Mount  Desert 
island  in  the  present  diocese  of  Portland. 

The  English,  under  the  command  of 
Argall,  a  furious  bigot,  destroyed  the 
mission  in  Canada  about  1611.  Notwith- 
standing the  rigorous  climate  and  the  hos- 
tility of  the  Indians,  they  soon  placed  it  on 
a  permanent  basis.  Father  Druillettes,  S. 
J.,  went  from  Canada  to  convert  the 
Abnaki  of  Maine,  where  he  established  a 
second  mission  in  1646.  The  whole  Ab- 
naki tribe  was  converted  to  Christianity 
and  clung  to  the  faith  amid  all  sorts  of 
trials  and  persecutions,  caused  by  the  Eng- 
lish settlers  of  Massachusetts.  The  mis- 
sion was  destroyed  and  the  sainty  Jesuit, 
Sebastian  Rale,  was  barbarously  mur- 
dered. 

Fathers  Jogues  and  Lalande  were  the 
first  missionaries  in  what  is  now  known  as 
the  state  of  New  York.  They  entered  the 
territory  from  Quebec  in  1646  to  convert 


Mission  Work 


481 


Among  the  Indians 


the  Mohawks.  Both  fathers  were  mur- 
dered by  the  Indians  the  same  year  near 
the  present  city  of  Schenectady.  Father 
Brebuef,  apostle  of  the  Hurons,  and  his 
companion,  Lalemant,  were  captured  by 
the  Iroquois  and  put  to  death.  Fathers  Le 
Moyne,  Dablon,  and  Bressani  labored 
among  the  Onondagos  and  Mohawks. 
Afterwards  they  were  obliged  to  flee  to 
Canada.  The  early  missions  of  New  York 
were  broken  up  by  the  English  in  1713. 

Father  Jogues,  w^ose  name  has  already 
been  mentioned,  and  Father  Raymbault 
were  the  first  to  establish  Christianity  in 
the  Lake  country  in  1641.  They  were 
succeeded  by  Father  Menard,  who  at- 
tempted to  establish  a  mission  west  of 
Sault  Ste.  Marie.  Father  Allouez  founded 
a  mission  on  the  western  extremity  of  Lake 
Superior  in  1665.  In  the  year  1673  the 
Jesuit,  Father  Marquette,  discovered  the 
"Great  River"  or  "Father  of  Waters," 
and,  in  company  with   other   Jesuits,  ex- 


plored it  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Arkan- 
sas, announcing  the  Gospel  to  the  inhabit- 
ants of  that  territory.  Marquette  and 
Allouez  preached  the  Gospel  to  the  Indians. 
Poisson  and  Souel  suffered  martyrdom  at 
the  hands  of  the  Natches  Indians  in  the 
Mississippi  valley. 

The  most  important  mission  in  Canada 
was  Quebec.  The  Church  of  that  country 
was  for  the  first  fifty  years,  under  the  jur- 
isdiction of  the  Archbishop  of  Rouen, 
France.  A  see  was  at  last  established  at 
Quebec  and  Francis  Laval  was  consecrated 
bishop  in  1675.  The  vast  diocese  embraced 
the  whole  vaHey  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  of 
the  Mississippi,  and  of  the  Great  Lakes. 
The  English  government  wrested  Canada 
from  France  in  1673,  and,  though  hostile  to 
the  Church  at  home  and  in  the  United 
States,  it  tolerated  Catholicity  in  Canada. 
Bishop  Laval  founded  a  seminary  in  Que- 
bec, encouraged  the  missionaries,  and 
strengthened  the  faith  of  his  flock. 


Mission  Work  {Sfatt'stics  of  1898)  Among  the  Indians. 


Dioceses  or 
Vicariates 
Apostolic 


c-5 
.52  rt 


S^ 


•6 


Tucson 

Boise  City 

Brownsville. . . . 

Cheyenne 

Grand  Rapids. 

Green  Bay 

Helena 


Indian  Territory. 


La  Crosse. 


Lincoln  (istrep.). 

Marquette 

Natchez 

Nesqually 


■Oregon  City 

San  Francisco. . . 
Portland,  Maine. 

Vancouver 

Los  Angeles 

South  Dakota 


Total. 


3,000 
4,000 

43,000 

1,900 
2,500 


10,000 
9,800 


340 
5.000 
3,000 


8,000 
1,800 


5.000 
4,000 


225 
1,200 


200 
2,000 

1,500 
6,000 
2,660 

2,100 

140 
2,500 

589 
3,000 

i>5i4 


2,600 

3,000 

500 


29 

105 
54 

379 
123 

136 


170 
26 


26 

"140 
194 


74,468 


273 


398 


140 
65 
383 


160 
120 

385 
50 


St.  Joseph 

Providence 
f  Incarnate  Word 
\  Ursulines 

St.  Francis 

Notre  Dame 

St.  Francis 

St.  Joseph 

Ursulines 

Providence 
("St.  Francis 
<  St.  Joseph 
(  Mercy 

fSt.  Francis 
1  Notre  Dame 


St.  Joseph 

Mercy 
fSt.  Francis 
(  Providence 
/St.  Benedict 
1  St.  Francis 


Mercy 


St.  Joseph 


5,077 


S.J. 


S.J. 
O.F.M. 

O.F.M. 

;s.j. 

O.S.B. 
O.F.M. 


S.J. 

S.J. 
S.J. 


*  Adults  and  Children. 
31 


Mission  Work 


482 


Among  the  Negroes 


Mission  Work  (Siaiistics  of  1898)  Among  the  Negroes. 


Dioceses  or 
Vicariates 
Apostolic 


bCes 


Baltimore. 


Charleston. 
Chicago 


Covington 

Galveston 

Indian  Territory. 

I<eavenworth 

I<ouisville < . . . 


Natchez. 


Natchitoches  . 
St.  lyouis 


New  Orleans^ . 


Mobile 

New  York. . . 
Philadelphia. 

Pittsburgh . . . 

Richmond  . . . 
Savannah.. . . 


St.  Augnistine. 
San  Antonio. . 
Wilmington  . . 
St.  Paul 


Total. 


690,000 


80,000 

250,000 

20,000 

31,000 

?I2,0OO 

800,000 
150,000 


280,000 


636,000 


45,000 

60,000 


60,000 


650,000 


900,000 


142,480 
20,000 


37,000 


150 
650 
250 

350 
6,000 

2,061 
8,000 


75.000 


3.425 
3.000 
1.500 

1,600 


1,200 
300 


125 


200 

41 


3.479 


180 

47 
31 

13 

76 
15 


12,000 


400 


"5 


385 


5,288,480 


144,186 


38 


43 


5.286 


890 


1,600 


'  Mission 
Helpers 
Notre  Dame 
Col.  Oblates 
St.  Francis 
Charity 

.  Holy  Cross 


200 
210 
295 
94 
356 

383 


385 
120 


•«.458 


309 
180 
53 


/St.  Dominic 
\  Charity 

Incarnate  Word 

f  St.  Benedict 
\  Providence 

f  Charity 
\  Loretto 

i  Nazareth 
I,oretto 
St.  Francis 
St.  Joseph 
■{  Mercy 

Perpetual 
[  Adoration 
Providence 
Providence 
St.  Francis 
Mercy 
Perpetual 
Adoration 
Marianites 
Holy  Family 
Good  Shepherd 
Notre  Dame 
St.  Joseph 
Mercv 


7(i)t 
I  (2)+ 


2  (3)t 


•(4)t 


5  (5)t 


225 


399 
200 
200 
50 


Notre  Dame 

f  Mercy 

t  St.  Francis 

St.  Francis 

f  St.  Joseph 
( Holy  Name 

St.  Joseph 
Holy  Ghost 


m 


St.  Joseph 


I  (9)t 


7.969 


♦  The  fig^ires  showing  the  Negro  Population  and  the  number  of  Catholic  Negroes  are  for  the  most 
part  approximative. 

1 1.  St.  Joseph's  Seminary,  Epiphany  Apostolic  College,  St.  Francis'  Academy,  St.  Francis'  Orphan- 
age, St.  Elizabeth's  Orphanage,  Convent  of  Mission  Helpers,  House  of  the  Good  Shepherd.  2.  St. 
Francis  Xavier's  Infirmary.  3.  St.  Elizabeth's  Hospital,  St.  Joseph's  Hospital.  4.  Orphanage.  5.  Boys' 
Asylum,  Girls'  Asylum,  Old  Folks'  Home,  House  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  Asylum  for  Deaf  Mutes.  6.  Or- 
phanage.    7.  Orphanage,  Magdalen  Asylum.     8.  Orphanage.     9.  St.  Joseph's  House,  Industrial  School. 


Mitre 


483 


Mohammedanism 


Mitre. —  The  head-dress  worn  in  solemn 
Church  services  by  bishops,  abbots,  and 
certain  other  prelates  of  the  Catholic 
Church.  The  name,  as  probably  the  orna- 
ment itself,  is  borrowed  from  the  Orientals. 
The  Western  Mitre  is  a  tall,  tongue-shaped 
cap,  terminating  in  a  two-fold  point,  which 
is  supposed  to  symbolize  the  "  cloven 
tongues "  in  the  form  of  which  the  Holy 
Ghost  was  imparted  to  the  Apostles,  and 
is  furnished  with  two  flaps,  which  fall 
backwards  over  the  shoulders.  Opinion 
is  much  divided  as  to  the  date  at  which  the 
mitre  was  first  introduced.  From  the  ninth 
century  it  is  found  in  use,  although  not 
universally;  and  instances  are  recorded 
in  which  the  Popes  granted  permission  to 
certain  bishops  to  wear  the  mitre.  The 
mitre  as  an  ornament,  seems  to  have  de- 
scended in  the  earliest  times,  from  bishop 
to  bishop. 

Mitylene. —  Capital  of  Lesbos,  the  sea- 
port at  which  St.  Paul  touched  on  his  way 
from  Greece  to  Jerusalem  (Acts  xx.  14). 
It  was  an  important  maritime  power  of 
the  vEolian  Greeks.  Present  population, 
20,000. 

Mixed  Marriages.     See  Marriage. 

Mizraim.     See  Mesraim. 

Moab. —  A  Semitic  tribe  settled  at  the 
southeastern  end  of  the  Dead  Sea  (the 
modern  district  of  Kerah).  In  Genesis 
(xix.)  Moab  and  Ammon  are  represented 
as  descendants  of  Lot,  and  their  names  are 
explained  from  their  incestuous  origin. 
The  Moabites  appear  to  have  been  a  war- 
like tribe,  and  the  Israelites  during  their 
wanderings  through  the  desert,  tried  to 
avoid  any  encounter  with  them.  During 
the  period  of  the  Judges  they  opposed  the 
Israelites  until  they  were  routed  by  Aod 
(Judg.  iii.).  Saul  and  David,  whose  an- 
cestress, Ruth,  was  a  Moabitess,  subju- 
gated them.  After  Solomon's  death,  Moab 
fell  to  the  northern  kingdom.  After 
Achab's  death.  Mesa  refused  to  pay  trib- 
ute. They  were  afterwards,  according  to 
the  cuneiform  inscriptions,  subjected  to 
Assyria.  They  participated  in  the  fall  of 
Jerusalem,  through  the  Babylonians.  At 
the  return  from  captivity,  the  Moabites 
and  Ammonites  tried  to  prevent  the  re- 
building of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem.  Ac- 
cording to  the  history  of  Josephus,  they 
later  on  became  confounded  with  the 
Arabs.  Moloch  was  the  god  of  the  Mo- 
abites.    See  Mesa. 


Mohammedanism  (belief  in  or  adherence 
to  the  teachings  of  Mohammed).  —  Before 
the  appearance  of  Mohammed,  paganism 
was  the  prevailing  religion  in  Arabia. 
The  national  sanctuary  was  the  Kaaba  of 
Mecca,  which  was  surrounded  with  360 
idols.  Mohammed,  born  at  Mecca  in  the 
year  570,  was  in  his  early  youth  subject  to 
epileptic  fits.  His  address,  though  devoid 
of  any  literary  accomplishments,  was  af- 
fable and  condescending.  Having  passed 
a  long  and  mysterious  retreat  in  a  cave 
near  Mecca  he  began  to  preach  religion, 
declaring  that  he  had  received  from  God, 
through  the  angel  Gabriel  the  commission 
to  re-establish  the  religion  of  Abraham : 
Islam,  /.  e.,  submission  to  God.  At  first 
he  met  with  great  opposition.  In  a  tumult 
at  Mecca  he  was  compelled  to  flee  to 
Medina  in  622.  This  event  is  called  the 
Hegira  or  Flight  and  is  the  beginning  of 
the  era  of  the  Musselmans.  Mohammed 
then  declared  that  the  new  religion  was  to 
be  established  by  the  sword.  His  disci- 
ples, acknowledging  him  as  their  temporal 
and  spiritual  ruler,  soon  began  to  ravage 
the  country.  They  forced  Medina  and 
Arabia  into  subjection.  Mohammed  died 
in  632.  His  successors,  the  caliphs,  con- 
tinued his  work.  Mohammedanism,  being 
well  adapted  to  the  passions  and  tempera- 
ments of  the  Arabs,  spread  rapidly,  reach- 
ing Syria,  Palestine,  Egypt,  Persia,  Sicily, 
Spain,  and  North  Africa,  where  it  com- 
pletely destroyed  the  once  flourishing 
Church.  In  Spain,  th6  Mohammedans 
gained  a  battle  fought  near  Xeres  de  la 
Frontera  (711) ;  Mohammedanism  received 
a  fatal  check  in  France  in  the  battle  near 
Tours  and  Poitiers  fought  in  732,  under 
the  leadership  of  Charles  Martel.  Con- 
stantinople was  twice  threatened  but  es- 
caped by  means  of  the  "  Greek  Fire." 

The  character  of  Mohammed  presents 
some  striking  contrasts.  He  was  ardent 
and  enthusiastic  and  had  lofty  aims,  while 
at  the  same  time  he  manifested  a  low  self- 
ishness, duplicity  and  perfidy.  At  first  he 
appeared  to  be  a  fanatic,  but  later  it  be- 
came evident  that  he  was  a  lewd  impostor. 
The  doctrine  of  Islamism  is  contained  in 
the  Koran  collected  by  Abubakir,  father- 
in-law  of  Mohammed.  It  is  a  mixture  of 
Parseism,  Judaism,  and  Christianity.  The 
prophet  holds  the  unity  of  God  :  **  God  is 
God  and  Mohammed  is  His  Prophet." 
He  denied  the  free  will  of  man,  taught 
fatalism,  denied  redemption,  justification 
and  grace.     He  promised  his  followers  a 


MOHLER 


484 


MONASTICISM 


sensual  paradise.  The  precepts  of  Mo- 
hammed extend  only  to  exterior  actions. 
They  prescribe  prayer,  fasting,  alms,  pil- 
grimages to  Mecca,  warfare  with  unbe- 
lievers, while  they  permit  polygamy  and 
revenge  by  blood.  Friday  was  the  day  set 
apart  for  religious  ser%ice. 

Mohler  (John  Adam)  (1796-1838). — 
German  Catholic  theologian,  born  at 
Igersheim,  Wurtemberg.  Ordained  priest 
in  1819,  professor  of  Church  History  in  the 
University  of  Tubingen,  then  in  that  of 
Munich ;  dean  of  the  Chapter  of  Wurz- 
burg.  His  principal  work  is  Symbolism, 
or  Tie  Doctrinal  Differences  betTveen 
Catholics  and  Protestants,  of  which  there 
is  an  English  translation. 

Molinistn.  —  Doctrine  of  Louis  Molina 
(1535-^601),  a  famous  Spanish  Jesuit,  on 
grace.  This  writer  held  the  view  that  God 
in  His  scientia  media  (the  knowledge  which 
God  has  of  future  conditionals)  knows 
what  will  or  would  be  the  conduct  of  His 
free  creature  in  every  combination  of  cir- 
cumstances, and,  therefore  having  decreed 
what  grace  He  will  give  to  a  particular 
man  on  a  particular  occasion,  He  knows 
whether  that  man  will  use  the  grace  or 
whether  he  vdW  reject  it.  In  cases  where 
the  man  rejects  the  grace  and  sins,  he  has 
by  his  free  rejection  made  the  grace  which 
was  truly  sufficient  inefficacious;  if  he  had 
freely  chosen  to  use  it,  he  would  have 
made  this  same  grace  efficacious.  In  case 
the  grace  is  rejected,  God  knows  that  there 
is  a  certain  higher  degree  of  grace  which 
that  same  man  in  the  same  circumstances 
would  have  used  ;  why  this  higher  degree 
is  not  given  in  every  instance  is  a  part  of 
the  unfathomed  mystery  of  the  inequality 
with  which  God  distributes  His  gratuitous 
favors.     See  Grack. 

Molinos  (MicHAKL  of)  (1640-1696). — A 
Spanish  priest ;  advocated  a  system  of  piety, 
which  obtained  the  name  of  "Quietism." 
In  his  work  entitled  Spiritual  Guide,  Mo- 
linos maintained  that  Christian  perfection 
consists  in  a  state  of  perfect  rest  and  quiet, 
in  which  the  soul,  remaining  wholly  pas- 
sive under  the  influence  of  God's  Spirit, 
neither  forms  any  acts  nor  is  moved  by  the 
fear  of  hell  or  a  desire  for  heaven.  In 
1685,  Pope  Innocent  XI.  condemned  sixty- 
eight  propositions  of  Molinos ;  the  author 
himself  was  confined  in  a  convent  at  Rome, 
where,  after  recanting  his  errors,  he  died, 
reconciled  to  the  Church. 


Monarchians. — Name  given  in  the  first 
and  second  centuries  to  a  body  of  Anti- 
Trinitarians.  While  acknowledging  the 
divinity  of  Christ,  they  denied  the  personal 
distinction  of  the  Father  and  the  Son. 
They  asserted  an  absolute  oneness  or  per- 
sonal unity  of  God,  in  support  of  which 
view  they  referred  to  the  words  of  Christ : 
"I  and  the  Father  are  one"  (John  x.  30), 
which  they  understood,  not  of  unity  in 
essence  only,  but  of  unity  of  person.  This, 
consequently,  led  them  to  say  that  the 
Father  assumed  flesh  in  Mary,  and  suffered 
and  died,  whence  they  were  also  called 
*•  Patripassians." 

Monastery  (convent,  abode  inhabited 
by  monks  or  religious  in  general). — The 
Council  of  Trent  ordained  that  bishops 
visit  the  monasteries,  exempt  or  not  ex- 
empt, with  the  difference  that  they  ought 
to  make  the  visit  of  the  exempt  monas- 
teries, auctoritate  apostolica,  and  that  of 
nonexempt  monasteries,  auctoritate  pro- 
pria. 

Monasticistn  (That  which  concerns 
monks.  Religious  belonging  to  some  or- 
der whose  members  live  under  one  -com- 
mon rule,  and  separated  from  the  world, 
like  the  Benedictines,  Bernardins,  and 
Carthusians). — According  to  the  common 
opinion,  monastic  life  took  rise  only  in  the 
third  century,  the  epoch  in  which  St.  Ni- 
con,  Bishop  of  Cyzic,  suffered  martyrdom 
with  199  monks  whom  he  governed.  Dur- 
ing the  persecution  of  Decius,  a  great 
number  of  Christians  fled  into  the  desert, 
and,  delighted  with  the  solitary  life,  never 
left  the  desert  again.  Living  the  soli- 
tary life  of  separation  from  one  another 
had  already  commenced  in  the  East.  About 
the  year  270,  however,  many  solitaries  still 
lived  near  the  towns  in  Egypt,  when  the 
fame  and  virtues  of  St.  Anthony  drew  them 
further  into  the  desert,  where  St.  Paul  of 
Thebes  had  preceded  St.  Anthony.  Here 
they  lived  in  isolated  cells,  occupied  with 
meditation  and  prayer,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  St.  Anthony,  then  of  St.  Ammo- 
nius  and  St.  Macarius  the  Ancient,  who 
founded  communities  of  monks  on  tlie  Ni- 
trian  mountain  and  in  the  desert  of  Scete. 
These  monastic  residences  soon  became 
famous  throughout  the  World.  The  desert 
of  Sinai,  the  desert  of  Gaza,  different  iso- 
lated places  of  Syria,  Mesopotamia,  Ar- 
menia, and  Persia,  became  peopled  with 
monks.  St.  Pachomius,  who  instituted  for 
the  monks  the  common  or  cenobitic  life 


Monk 


485 


MONOPHYSITES 


and  wrote  a  rule,  had  not  less  than  7,000 
monks  placed  under  his  care.  However, 
monastic  life  was  hardly  known  or  prac- 
ticed in  the  West,  until  toward  the  middle 
of  the  fourth  century.  About  the  year  550, 
St.  Eusebius  of  Verceil,  established  a  mo- 
nastic order  in  his  cathedral,  and  St.  Am- 
brose nourished  a  community  of  solitaries 
who  lived  near  Milan.  Finally,  about  the 
year  560,  St.  Martin  came  to  France,  after 
having  practiced  the  monastic  life  in  Italy. 
He  built  the  monastery  of  Liguge,  in  the 
diocese  of  Poitiers,  then  that  of  Marmou- 
tiers,  near  the  city  of  Tours. 

There  were  formerly  three  kinds  of 
monks  :  the  cenobites,  the  anchorites,  and 
the  sarabites.  The  first  lived  in  commu- 
nity under  a  rule  and  under  an  abbot  or 
superior;  the  second,  also  called  hermits, 
lived  alone  in  the  deserts ;  finally,  the 
sarabites  lived  in  cells,  two  or  three  to- 
gether. In  the  East  to-day  there  are  only 
cenobites  and  hermits,  and  all  observe  the 
Rule  of  St.  Basil,  whom  they  regard  as 
their  spiritual  father.  It  was  only  toward 
the  seventh  century  that  the  Rule  of 
St.  Benedict  came  into  use  in  the  monas- 
teries of  France,  Italy,  and  England,  and 
the  Council  of  Autun,  held  about  the  year 
655,  ordained  that  the  monks  and  abbots 
conform  themselves  according  to  this  rule. 
About  the  tenth  century,  the  religious  of 
St.  Benedict  being  generally  raised  to 
clerkship  and  holy  orders,  a  distinction  be- 
gan to  be  made  in  the  monasteries  between 
two  kinds  of  religious.  One  class,  destined 
for  the  choir  and  priesthood,  were  called 
lettered  or  crowned  clerics,  because  they 
studied  and  wore  the  clerical  crown  or 
tonsure ;  and  the  others,  employed  at 
manual  labors,  were  called  converts,  lay 
brothers,  or  nonlettered.  From  whatever 
point  of  view  we  may  look  upon  monastic 
life,  we  cannot  help  acknowledging  that  it 
has  rendered,  and  still  renders,  to  the 
world  extraordinary  services,  and  that  the 
various  enemies  who  attack  it  are  a  prey 
to  prejudices  which  cannot  be  justified. 
In  the  Middle  Ages  the  monasteries  were 
the  refuge  of  liberty  and  learning. 

Monk.     See  Monasticism. 

Monogram  (Two  or  more  of  the  letters 
of  a  name  or  word,  or  of  the  initial  of  sev- 
eral names  or  words,  so  combined  as  to 
form  or  appear  to  form  a  single  character). 
— The  most  ancient  form  of  monograms  >^-, 
is  that  of  Christ.  This  monogram  ^ 
may  almost  invariably  be  discerned  upon 


the  greater  part  of  the  monuments  of 
Christian  antiquity  which  have  descended 
to  us.  Its  appearance  upon  the  marbles, 
mortuary  tiles,  and  lamps  extracted  from 
the  Catacombs,  and  exhibiting  the  sepul- 
chral inscriptions  of  the  martyrs  and  early 
believers  in  the  Gospel  who  were  buried 
there,  must  be  familiar  to  everyone  who  is 
at  all  conversant  with  Christian  archae- 
ology. It  is  composed  of  two  Greek  charT 
acters  V  and  D  the  two  letters  with 
which  the  name   of  Christ   com- 

mences in  Greek  {Kristos).  With  the  palm 
branch,  it  was  inserted  in  the  inscription 
over  the  tomb  of  Pope  St.  Caius,  who  suf- 
fered martyrdom  during  the  reign  of  Diocle- 
tian, and  may  be  observed,  together  with  the 
same  emblem  of  victory,  in  the  sepulchral 
epitaphs  of  the  martyrs  Sts.  Alexander  and 
Marius,  the  first  of  whom  was  martyred 
under  the  Emperor  Antoninus,  the  latter 
under  Hadrian.  The  assertion  of  the  Prot- 
estant Basnage,  that  no  monogram  of  a  date 
anterior  to  the  reign  of  Constantine  the 
Great  could  be  produced  from  the  Cata- 
combs, is  now  completely  exploded.  It  was 
for  sometime  a  favorite  but  totally  un- 
founded hypothesis  with  several  Protestant 
writers,  that  this  cruciform  monogram  of 
Christ  was  the  invention  of  the  first  Chris- 
tian emperor,  who,  by  ordering  it  to  be 
inscribed  upon  the  standard  called  the 
labarum,  and  affixed,  instead  of  the  eagle 
and  thunderbolts  of  Jove,  upon  the  shields 
and  helmets  of  the  Roman  legions,  first 
gave  rise  to  its  adoption  by  the  Faithful  as 
a  symbol  of  belief  in  Jesus. 

Monophysites  (Heretics  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury).—  The  Monophysites  acknowledged 
in  Jesus  Christ  only  one  nature,  and  not 
the  divine  and  human  natures  united  into 
one  sole  Person.  Eutyches  was  the  author 
of  this  doctrine.  (See  Eutychians.)  Cited 
before  the  Council  of  Constantinople,  in 
448,  he  was  excommunicated  and  deposed. 
Dioscorus,  Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  took 
his  part,  and,  in  a  synod  of  449,  declared 
him  restored  in  his  sacerdotal  and  abbatial 
dignity;  the  synod  of  449  is  known  in 
Church  history  under  the  name  of  "  Brig- 
andage of  Ephesus."  The  Letter  to 
Flavian,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
formulated  the  orthodox  doctrine,  which 
was  proclaimed  by  the  Fourth  Ecumenical 
Council  of  Chalcedon.  This  doctrine  de- 
fined that  there  are  "two  natures  —  one 
divine,  the  other  human  —  without  mix- 
ture or  alteration,  united  in  one  Person, 


MONOTHELITES 


486 


MONTANISTS 


and  Hypostasis,  so  that  Christ  is  not  parted 
nor  divided  into  two  persons,  but  is  one 
and  the  same  God  and  Only-begotten,  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ."  The  monks  of  Pales- 
tine, to  the  number  of  more  than  10,000, 
rejected  both  the  doctrine  of  the  Council 
of  Chalcedon  and  the  error  of  Eutyches, 
by  retaining  the  doctrine  of  one  nature.- 
The  doctrine  of  the  Monophysites  also 
spread  in  Egypt,  and  in  our  day  we  find 
adherents  thereof  in  Syria,  Mesopotamia, 
Asia  Minor,  on  the  island  of  Cyprus,  and 
in  Armenia.  In  Egypt,  its  followers  are 
called  "  Copts."     See  this  word. 

Monothelites  (Heretics  in  the  early 
Church). — The  Monothelites  taught  that, 
in  Christ,  there  were  two  distinct  natures 
in  the  one  Person  of  the  Word ;  but  that 
the  human  nature  was  without  initiative, 
so  that  all  will  and  action  came  from  the 
divine  nature;  the  human  nature  yielding 
a  merely  passive  concurrence ;  so  that  the 
acts  of  Christ  were  in  no  true  sense  the 
acts  of  a  man.  This  error,  which  was  a 
remnant  of  that  of  Eutyches,  was  taught 
about  the  year  620  by  Theodore,  Bishop  of 
Pharan.  It  was  condemned  by  Pope  John 
IV.  and  by  the  bishops  of  Africa.  In  648, 
the  Emperor  Constans  published  another 
edict  or  formulary  called  "Typos,"  which 
forbade  all  further  discussion  of  one  or 
two  operations  and  wills  in  Christ.  While 
the  Eastern  bishops,  in  regard  to  the  Em- 
peror's "  Ecthesis,"  submitted  to  the  im- 
perial dictation,  the  Western  bishops,  in 
the  Lateran  Synod  of  649,  under  Pope 
Martin  I.,  condemned  both  the  Monothe- 
lite  heresy  and  the  two  imperial  edicts,  the 
"Ecthesis"  and  the  "Typos." 

Monseigneur. — Honorary  title,  equiva- 
lent to  "  My  lord,"  given  to  princes,  bishops, 
and  other  dignitaries  of  the  Church  or 
court.  In  the  Middle  Ages  the  title  of 
Monseigneur  was  given  to  all  the  saints, 
by  invoking  them,  and  also  to  every  Knight. 
In  the  year  1789  it  was  granted  to  royal 
princes  and  to  bishops. 

Monstrance  (also  called  "  Ostenso- 
rium"). — A  sacred  article  employed  in  the 
Church  for  the  purpose  of  presenting  the 
consecrated  Host  for  the  adoration  of 
the  people,  while  it  is  carried  in  proces- 
sion as  well  as  when  it  is  exposed  upon  the 
altar  for  benediction.  We  see  monstrances 
of  every  shape  and  size.  Many  represent 
a  turret  bored  through.  They  used  for- 
merly to  be  of  gold,  gilt,  or  silver,  sometimes 


enriched  with  precious  stones.  Nowadays, 
the  glory  at  least  should  be  of  silver,  and 
the  crescent  or  circle,  holding  the  sacred 
Host,  of  gilt. 

Montalembert  (Charles  Forbes  de 
Tryox,  de,)  Count  (1810-1870). —  French 
writer  and  politician,  son  of  an  English 
colonel,  who  was  created  peer  of  France, 
and  was  ambassador  at  Stockholm ;  was 
born  in  London,  but  educated  chiefly  in 
Paris.  He  became  one  of  the  followers  of 
Lamennais,  and  first  attracted  notice  by  a 
speech  in  the  Chamber  (1831)  in  favor  of 
Catholic  free  schools.  Having  visited 
England  and  the  East,  he  became  a  leader 
of  the  Catholic  party.  His  chief  works 
are:  Life  of  St.  Elisabeth  of  Hungary; 
The  Monks  of  the  West;  Vandalism  and 
Catholicity  in  Art;  The  Free  Church  in  a 
Free  State.  The  first  and  second  of  these 
works  are  translated  into  English. 

Montanists. — Heretics  of  the  second  cen- 
tury. Their  founder  was  a  certain  Mon- 
tanus,  a  native  of  Arabia,  in  Mysia.  He 
alleged  that  he  received  divine  inspiration 
in  the  frantic  ecstasies  to  which  he  was 
subject,  and  announced  himself  as  the  or- 
gan of  the  Paraclete.  From  the  words  of 
Christ  "I  have  yet  many  things  to  say  to 
you,  but  you  cannot  bear  them  now.  But 
the  Spirit  of  Truth  shall  come  and  teach 
you  all  truth"  (John  xvi.  12-13),  Monta- 
nus  inferred  that  the  existing  revelation 
was  not  complete  and  ascribed  to  the  Par- 
aclete the  mission  of  bringing  the  Church 
to  completion  and  to  her  full  age ;  while 
to  himself  he  arrogated  the  mission  of  a 
reformer.  He  was  joined  by  Priscilla  and 
Maximilla,  two  women  of  distinction,  who 
had  the  like  pretended  raptures,  and  hence- 
forth figured  as  the  prophetesses  of  the 
eccentric  party.  Calling  themselves  the 
last  prophets,  Montanus  and  his  prophet- 
esses announced  the  near  approach  of  the 
end  of  the  world,  which  demanded  a  more 
holy  and  austere  life.  By  the  coming  of 
the  Paraclete,  they  said.  Christian  life  and 
discipline  should  be  improved.  This  im- 
provement was  to  consist:  i.  In  the  pro- 
hibitation  of  second  marriages ,  2.  In  the 
observing  of  .longer  and  more  rigorous 
fasts.  (  The  Montanists,  according  to  St. 
Jerome,  kept  three  Lents,  each  of  forty 
days.)  3.  In  forbidding  flight  from  perse- 
cution ami  in  prohibiting  Christians  from 
following  any  literary  pursuits ,  4.  In  ab- 
solutely jefusing  absolution  to  all  who, 
after  baptism,  became  guilty  to  apostasy, 


Month 


487 


Moravian  Brethren 


murder,  unchastity,  and  similar  great  sins. 
They  denied  to  the  Church  the  power  of  re- 
mitting such  sins.  The  Montanists  obtained 
a  zealous  and  gifted  advocate  in  TertuUian, 
who,  between  the  years  200  and  203,  be- 
came himself  the  author  of  a  new  Monta- 
nist  party,  called  after  him  Tertullianists. 
In  the  time  of  St.  Augustine,  the  Mon- 
tanists had  about  disappeared  from  Africa. 
They  were  also  called  "  Cataphrygians  " 
and  "  Pepuzians,"  from  Pepuza,  a  small 
town  in  Phrygia  which  they  called  their 
"  Jerusalem." 

Month  {Hebre-w) . — The  Hebrew  months 
were  lunar,  that  is,  extending  from  one 
new  moon  to  another;  but  as  12  lunar 
months  made  but  354  days  and  6  hours,  the 
Jewish  year  fell  short  of  the  solar  year 
nearly  11  days.  To  compensate  for  this 
difference,  every  three  years  a  thirteenth 
month  was  intercalated,  called  Vedar,  the 
second  Adar.  At  the  exodus  from  Egypt 
God  ordained  that  the  month — the  seventh 
of  the  civil  year  —  should  be  the  first  of 
the  sacred -year,  by  which  the  religious 
festivals  were  to  be  reckoned.  The  months 
were  usually  designated  as  first,  second, 
etc.,  and  the  names  by  which  they  are  now 
known  seem  to  have  been  adopted  during 
the  captivity. 


CIVIL 


SACRED 


CORRESPONDING 
WITH 

VII I.  Nisan  or  Abib. .  .March  or  April.  Neh. 

ii.  I. 
VIII ...  .II.  Zif  or  Ziv April  or  May.    III.  Ki. 

vi.  I. 
IX III.  Sivan May   or    June.     Esth. 

viii.  g. 

X IV.  Tamtnuz June  or  July. 

XI V.  Ab July  or  August. 

XII VI.  Elul August  or  September. 

Neh.  vi.  15. 

I VII.  Ethanim  or 

Tishri September  or  October. 

III.  Ki.  viii.  2. 
II VIII.  Bui October  or  November. 

III.  Ki.  vi.  38. 
Ill IX.  Chisleu November  or  Decem- 
ber. Neh.  i.  I. 
IV X.  Tebeth December  or  January. 

Esth.  ii.  16. 
V XI.  Shebat January  or  February. 

Ezech.  i.  17. 
VI XII.  Adar February    or    March. 

Esth.  iii.  7. 

Morality  of  Human  Actions. — Human 
actions  are  morally  good  or  evil  according 
as  they  agree  or  disagree  with  the  divine 
commandments.  Holy  Scripture  charac- 
terizes our  actions  as  good  or  bad  according 
to  their  agreement  with  the  divine  will.  It 
insists  that  the  fulfillment  of  God's  com- 


mands, i.e.,  the  conformity  to  the  divinewill, 
is  the  cause  of  the  divine  complacence,  and 
consequently,  of  our  salvation ;  while  the 
transgression  of  them,  i.  e.,  the  disagree- 
ment with  the  divine  will,  is  the  cause  of 
God's  displeasure  and  of  eternal  damnation 
(Matt.  vii.  21;  xix.  17;  John  viii.  29).  As 
a  wise  and  bountiful  Creator,  God  ap- 
pointed to  every  creature,  and  to  man  in 
particular,  a  suitable  end.  Man's  end  is 
eternal  happiness.  The  attainment  of  this 
end  is,  therefore,  what  God  requires  of 
man — the  fulfillment  of  the  divine  will. 
Every  action,  therefore,  which  brings  us 
nearer  this  end,  and  is,  therefore,  conform- 
able to  God's  will,  is  morally  good ;  for  it 
puts  us  in  the  right  and  God-intended  rela- 
tion to  our  last  end.  Every  action,  on  the 
other  hand,  which  withdraws  us  from  this 
end,  is,  for  that  reason,  contrary  to  the 
divine  will,  for  it  brings  us  into  a  false  re- 
lation to  God,  our  Creator.  In  short,  an 
action  is  in  accordance  with  the  God-  , 
intended  order  of  things,  or  morally  good, 
when  it  is  conformable  to  the  divine  will, 
and  contrary  to  order,  or  morally  evil, 
when  it  is  repugnant  to  the  divine  will. 

Moravian  Brethren  (also  called  "  Herrn- 
hutters")  (see  this  word).  —  The  American 
Moravians  consider  themselves  legitimate 
successors  of  the  "  Unitas  Fratrum "  | 
{Untied  Brethren).  They  claim  an  un- 
broken succession  of  bishops  from  the 
apostles,  through  an  Austrian  branch  of 
the  Waldenses.  The  first  settlement  of 
Moravian  Brethren  in  America  was  at 
Savannah,  Georgia,  in  1735,  but  was  aban- 
doned five  years  later,  and  a  new  coloniza- 
tion begun  at  Bethlehem,  in  the  Lehigh 
valley  of  Pennsylvania.  The  last  named 
place  is  their  headquarters  and  the  seat  of 
their  theological  seminary  and  college. 
They  also  founded  Lititz  and  Nazareth,  in 
the  same  state,  and  Salem,  in  North  Caro- 
lina, all  of  which  were  at  first  exclusive 
communal  towns,  similar  to  those  founded 
by  the  renewed  Unitas  Fratrum  in  Ger- 
many and  Great  Britain.  The  principle 
of  exclusivism,  which  is  dying  out  in  Eu- 
rope, was  entirely  abandoned  in  America, 
the  last  vestige  of  it  disappearing  in  1856. 
The  American  province  of  the  Moravian 
Church  has  two  divisions,  a  northern  and 
a  southern,  each  with  its  own  provincial 
synod.  The  northern  division  is  divided 
into  five  districts,  covering  convenient  ter- 
ritorial limits,  delegates  from  which  com- 
pose the  synod.     All  the  important  acts  of 


More 


488 


MOSAISM 


the  synod,  however,  are  subject  to  the  rati- 
fication of  the  Unity's  Elders'  Conference, 
including  the  selection  of  bishops.  Elec- 
tion by  "apostolic  lot"  is  no  more  prac- 
ticed,except  occasionally  by  special  request, 
in  the  selection  of  bishops.  Marriages  by 
"  lot "  were  abolished  by  the  General 
Synod  in  1818.  In  1895,  the  northern  pro- 
vince comprised  80  congregations,  with  a 
total  membership  of  16,329;  contributed 
$111,276  for  Church  support,  and  $23,343 
for  missions,  pensions,  etc.  The  southern 
province  reported  a  total  membership  of 
3,548.  The  synods  meet  once  in  five  years. 
The  missionary  work  of  the  Church,  in 
proportion  to  its  numerical  strength,  is 
very  extensive.  The  American  province, 
aided  by  the  Unity's  Elders  'Conference,  sus- 
tains missions  in  Greenland,  Labrador,  and 
among  the  North  American  Indians  in  cen- 
tral and  southern  America  and  in  Alaska, 
the  latter  including  9  stations,  12  mission- 
^  aries,  14  native  assistants  and  some  400 
converts.  The  general  missionary  work 
controlled  by  the  parent  Church  in  Ger- 
many extends  to  nearly  all  quarters  of  the 
globe.  The  theological  school  at  Bethle- 
hem has  an  endowment  of  $75,000,  a  six- 
year's  course  of  study,  and  an  average 
enrollment  of  about  fifty  students.  Four 
general  schools  are  located  at  Bethlehem, 
Lititz  and  Nazareth,  Pennsylvania,  and  at 
Salem,  North  Carolina,  respectively.  Two 
weekly  papers  and  a  Sunday-school  paper 
are  issued  from  the  publishing  house  at 
Bethlehem,  and  also  an  American  edition 
of  the  Text-Book,  the  official  year-book  of 
the  denomination. 

More  (Sir  Thomas)  (1478-1535). — 
Born  in  London.  An  English  statesman 
and  author.  Succeeded  Wolsey  as  chan- 
cellor of  England  in  1529.  He  opposed 
the  reforms  passed  by  parliament  Nov.  3d, 
1529,  and  the  projected  divorce  of  the 
king  from  Catharine  of  Aragon,  and  re-^ 
signed  May  13th,  1532.  By  act  of  parlia- 
ment in  March,  1534,  an  oath  of  adherence 
to  the  act  which  vested  the  succession  in 
the  issue  of  Anne  Boleyn,  and  of  renuncia- 
tion of  the  Pope,  was  imposed.  This  oath 
More  refused  to  take,  and  he  was  com- 
mitted to  the  tower  April  17th,  1535.  On 
July  ist,  1535,  he  was  indicted  for  high 
treason,  and  was  executed  July  6th,  1533. 
More  was  beatified  by  Pope  Leo  XIII. 
Dec.  9th,  1886. 

Moria.  —  A  hill  in  Jerusalem,  the  site  of 
Solomon's  Temple.     Tradition  has  often 


identified  this,  but  on  insufficient  grounds, 
with  the  hill  of  Isaac's  sacrifice  in  the  "  land 
of  Moria"  (Gen.  xxii.). 

Mormons. — The  Mormons  or  "Latter 
Day  Saints,"  were  founded  in  North 
America  by  Joseph  Smith  (died,  1844).  He 
was  born  in  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century,  in  the  state  of  Vermont,  of  dis- 
reputable parents,  and  was  always  a  vision- 
ary. In  1830  he  proclaimed  that  in  Sep- 
tember, 1827,  he  had  received  from  an 
angel  the  record  of  the  earliest  inhabitants 
of  America,  engraven  on  golden  plates ; 
this  record  he  affirmed  was  once  written 
by  the  prophet  Mormon,  who  buried  the 
plates  in  the  earth.  The  document  has 
been  proved  to  be  a  nearly  literal  tran- 
script of  an  unprinted  romance  written  by 
Solomon  Spalding  at  the  beginning  of 
this  century.  After  several  wanderings. 
Smith's  adherents,  who  from  a  small  be- 
ginning have  increased  to  considerable 
numbers,  settled  in  1847  on  the  shores  of 
Salt  Lake,  in  the  present  state  of  Utah,  and 
under  Smith's  successor,  Brigham  Young 
(died,  1877),  founded  the  New  Jerusalem,  a 
theo-democracy,  of  which  Brigham  Young 
became  president.  They  have  introduced 
polygamy  as  a  distinctive  institution,  and 
also  have  a  partial  community  of  goods. 
The  sect  is  very  similar  to  Mohammedan- 
ism. From  Utah  they  sent  out  mission- 
aries to  every  part  of  the  world  to  make 
converts.  The  territory  they  inhabited 
was  created  a  state  by  Congress  in  1892 ; 
the  number  of  inhabitants  in  1880  was  143,- 
936,  most  of  whom  were  emigrants  from 
Great  Britain  and  from  the  European  Con- 
tinent. In  1871  action  was  taken  in  the 
courts  of  the  United  States  against 
polygamy  as  a  criminal  offense,  and  in 
1891,  Congress  passed  a  law  for  the  entire 
suppression  of  Mormonism. 

Mortal  Sin.     See  Sm. 

Mosaic  Cosmogony.  See  Cosmog- 
ony. 

Mosaism  (law  of  Moses). —  Mosaism 
comprises  the  beliefs,  writings,  and  pre- 
cepts which  form  the  Mosaic  system.  The 
capital  work  of  Moses,  was  the  founding 
of  a  religious  and  political  government  un- 
der divine  inspiration,  and  in  accordance 
with  the  truths  revealed.  Anti-Catholic 
exegesis  has  contested  that  Monotheism 
was  the  primitive  religion  of  the  Hebrews, 
and  strove  to  date  its  beginning  in  the  time 
of  the  Prophets.     They  then  opposed  to 


Moses 


489 


Mozart 


the  sole  God  Jahve  or  Javeh  (Jehova),  par- 
ticular God  of  Israel,  the  Elohim  of  the 
patriarchal  time,  a  multitude  of  genii  act- 
ing in  common,  to  form  in  appearance 
only  one  sole  power,  and  thus,  according 
to  infidelity,  Elohism  produced  Monothe- 
ism, the  latter  ending  by  becoming  the  ex- 
clusive belief  of  the  Jews.  According  to 
Renan,  the  monotheistic  religion  of  the 
Prophets  was  a  return  to  primitive  Elo- 
hism and  the  result  of  an  evolution  tending 
to  give  to  Jahve  the  traits  of  Elohim.  M. 
Renan  admits,  however,  that  in  the  time 
of  the  patriarchs,  Jahve  and  Elohim  were 
synonyms.  True  exegesis,  founded  on 
faith  and  science,  rejects  these  impious  er- 
rors. It  proves  that  we  must  not  behold 
in  the  Pentateuch  the  fusion  of  two  ac- 
counts, the  one  Jehovistic  the  other  Elo- 
histic,  which  would  rob  Moses  of  the 
composition  of  the  Biblical  books  bearing 
his  name.  The  precepts  of  Moses  concern 
not  only  the  religious  life  of  the  people  of 
Israel  but  their  national  life  as  well.  He 
did  not  limit  himself  to  transmit  to  them 
the  Decalogue ;  in  the  name  of  God, 
he  gave  to  them  a  number  of  legal  and 
ceremonial  precepts  :  all  his  laws  grouped 
themselves  around  the  fundamental  idea 
of  God's  kingdom,  whose  people  Israel 
was.  Moses  constructed  the  Ark  of  the 
Covenant ;  founded  the  priesthood ;  de- 
termined the  religious  festival  days,  the 
greatest  of  which  was  the  Pasch ;  and  regu- 
lated all  that  concerned  the  blessings, 
the  purifications,  and  expiations.  Aaron, 
brother  of  Moses,  became  the  high-priest 
of  the  Jews.  The  whole  national  life 
became  figurative,  and  there  is  not  one 
single  detail  that  does  not  remind  us  of 
the  Messias. 

Moses.  — Son  of  Amram  and  Jochabed, 
of  the  tribe  of  Levi,  born  in  Egypt  in  a 
time  when  an  edict  of  the  king  ordered  the 
Hebrews  to  throw  all  their  male  children 
into  the  river  Nile.  He  was  saved  by  the 
daughter  of  the  Pharao  and  educated  by  her. 
He  was  instructed  in  the  wisdom  or  science 
of  the  Egyptians;  but  when  he  killed  an 
Egyptian  whom  he  saw  illtreating  a  He- 
brew, he  fled  into  the  country  of  Madian, 
where  the  priest  Jethro,  whose  flocks  he 
watched,  gave  him  his  daughter  in  mar- 
riage. Admonished  by  a  vision  from  the 
"burning  bush"  on  Mount  Horeb,  and 
instructed  by  the  orders  of  God,  he  re- 
turned into  Egypt  to  deliver  the  people  of 
Israel  from  bondage  and  associated  Aaron, 


his  brother,  in  his  mission.  He  struck 
Egypt  with  ten  plagues  to  coerce  the 
Pharao  to  permit  the  departure  of  the  de- 
scendants of  Abraham  and  Jacob  from 
Egypt,  who  then  formed  a  great  people. 
After  having  crossed  the  Red  Sea,  the  Is- 
raelites received  God's  law  from  the  hands 
of  Moses  on  Mount  Sinai,  and  they  wan- 
dered during  forty  years  in  the  desert. 
Moses  had  often  to  check  the  revolts  of  the 
people  nourished  with  manna.  He  con- 
firmed the  political  union  of  the  nation 
and  made  them  the  people  of  God.  He 
gave  them  laws  and  prescribed  rules  for 
the  divine  worship.  But  it  was  Josue,  his 
successor,  who  as  guide  and  chief  of  the 
people,  led  them  into  the  Promised  Land. 
Moses  died  on  Mount  Abarim  or  Nebo, 
whence  he  beheld  the  country  which  he 
himself  was  not  permitted  to  enter. 

Mozarabic  Liturgfy  (Mozarabic  rite).  — 
Under  the  Mohammedan  dominion,  the 
Mozarabs, —  name  given  to  Christians  of 
Spain  who  descended  from  the  Moors  and 
Arabs, —  continued  to  follow  the  Visigoth 
ritual,  which  finally  took  their  name.  This 
liturgy,  established  by  St.  Leander,  arch- 
bishop of  Seville,  completed  by  St.  Isidore, 
his  brother  and  successor,  approved  in  633 
by  the  Council  of  Toledo,  was  in  use  until 
the  eleventh  century  in  all  Spain.  The 
Roman  Liturgy  having  gradually  replaced 
it.  Cardinal  Ximenes  granted  to  the  Moz- 
arabic rite,  a  chapel  in  the  cathedral  of 
Toledo,  and  caused  the  publication  of  a 
Mozarabic  Missal  (1500)  and  Breviary 
(1502). 

Mozart  (Wolfgang  Amadeus)  (1756- 
1791). — Born  at  Salzburg,  Austria ;  died  at 
Vienna.  A  celebrated  Austrian  composer. 
He  possessed  the  most  precocious,  the 
richest,  the  most  extraordinary  musical 
talent  the  world  ever  saw.  When  between 
five  and  six  years  of  age,  he  played  the 
harpsichord  with  great  skill  and  composed 
little  pieces  which  his  father  wrote.  In 
1762  his  father  took  him  with  his  sister 
Marianne  on  a  concert  tour  to  Munich,  Vi- 
enna, and  other  places,  and  in  the  next 
year  to  Paris,  where  they,  especially  Wolf- 
gang, excited  great  enthusiasm.  At  Lon- 
don the  next  year,  they  were  equally 
successful,  and  remained  in  England  till 
August,  1765.  At  the  age  of  twelve  years, 
he  composed  his  first  opera:  La  Tinta 
Simplice.  Between  1770  and  1775  he  com- 
posed a  number  of  other  works,  which 
were  well  received,  but  he  derived  from 


MURATORI 


490 


Music 


them  so  little  pecuniary  benefit  that  he 
was  obliged  to  accept  the  place  as  organist 
at  the  court  of  the  prince-bishop  of  Salz- 
burg (1779).  In  1791  he  wrote  his  three 
great  symphonies  and  the  Magic  Flute, 
and  in  this  year  received  the  famous  com- 
mission from  a  mysterious  stranger  (after- 
wards known  to  be  the  steward  of  Count 
Walsegg)  to  write  a  requiem  Mass  to  be 
finished  within  a  month.  His  enfeebled 
health  and  various  circumstances  connected 
with  the  commission  produced  a  serious 
eflfect  on  his  already  troubled  brain,  and 
he  imagined  it  to  be  a  summons  from  the 
other  world.  He  began  the  Mass,  how- 
ever, and  said  that  it  was  for  his  own  fu- 
neral. As  he  was  already  dying,  he  was 
not  able  to  supervise  the  rehearsal  of  the 
finished  part.  He  died  of  malignant 
typhus  fever.  Mozart  left  over  600  com- 
positions, which  include  more  than  40 
symphonies,  a  number  of  masses,  sonatas, 
quartets,  etc. 

Muratori  (Ludovico  Antonio)  (1672- 
1750). — Born  at  Vignola,  Italy;  died  at 
Modena.  A  celebrated  Italian  antiquary, 
director  of  the  Ambrosian  College  and 
Library  at  Milan,  and  later,  librarian  of 
the  Duke  of  Modena.  His  chief  works 
are:  Rerum  Italicarum  Scriptores;  An- 
tiquitates  ItaliccE  Medii  yEi'i;  Annali 
cf  Italia. 

Muratorian  Fragment  on  the  Canon  of 
Holy  Scripture  is  the  name  which  has  been 
given  to  a  Latin  fragment  discovered  by 
the  above  Italian  scholar,  Muratori,  in  the 
Ambrosian  Library  at  Milan,  in  a  manu- 
script bearing  the  marks  of  great  antiquity. 
Its  date  is  determined  by  its  reference  to 
the  shepherd  of  Hermas,  which,  says  the 
Fragment,  Hermas  "wrote  very  recently 
in  our  times,  while  the  Bishop  Pius,  his 
brother,  occupied  the  Chair  of  the  Church 
at  Rome."  The  latter  of  the  two  dates 
given  for  the  death  of  Pius  is  A.  d.  157. 
The  composition  of  the  Fragment  must 
have  followed  soon  afterwards.  Though 
mutilated  at  the  beginning,  as  well  as  the 
end,  its  testimony  to  the  existence  of  the 
four  canonical  Gospels  is  decisive. 

Murder.  —  By  the  fifth  commandment 
we  are  forbidden  to  take  away  the  life  of 
any  human  being,  either  directly  by  volun- 
tarily committing  murder,  or  indirectly  by 
willingly  allowing  a  death  to  occur,  which 
is  in  our  power  to  prevent,  or  by  permit- 
ting anything   that  might  lead  to  a  like 


crime.  "  Whosoever  shall  kill  shall  be  in 
danger  of  the  judgment  "(Matt.  v.  21).  Con- 
sequently, not  only  homicide,  and  suicide, 
but  duelling,  and  all  injury  and  abuse  of 
others,  frequently  leading  to  violence  and 
loss  of  life,  is  against  the  fifth  command- 
ment ;  these  being  most  sinful  acts  of  crim- 
inal injustice  against  the  Creator  and  the 
created.  To  kill  is  a  sin  against  God,  as 
supreme  and  only  master  of  the  giving  or 
taking  of  life ;  for,  "  the  Lord  killeth  and 
maketh  alive.  He  bringeth  down  to  hell 
and  bringeth  back  again"  (I.  Kings  ii.  6). 
And  to  kill  is  a  sin  against  man,  whose 
right  to  live  is  bestowed  by  his  Creator, 
and  whose  murder  will  be  avenged  by  God. 
"Whosoever  shall  shed  man's  blood,  his 
blood  shall  be  shed  :  for  man  was  made  to 
the  image  of  God  "  (Gen.  ix.  6). 

Putting  to  death  is  lawful,  in  case  of 
sentence  of  condemnation  by  legitimate 
authority,  this  being  a  power  admitted  by 
all  people,  as  necessary  for  the  public 
good,  and  recognized  also  as  legal  and 
right  by  the  Church.  The  ruler  of  a  coun- 
try is  "  an  avenger  to  execute  wrath  upon 
him  that  doth  evil"  (Rom.  xiii.  4),  To 
slay  is  permitted  in  war,  because  although 
war  in  itself  is  deplorable,  and  must  in- 
evitably cause  bitter  consequences  to  so 
many,  a  just  war  is  regarded  as  excusable 
and  sometimes  indispensable,  and  has  been 
waged  as  such  in  all  countries  and  all  ages, 
uncondemned  by  the  Church.  Homicide 
is  also  admissible  for  legitimate  defense  of 
ourselves  or  our  neighbor,  when  it  is  in- 
dispensable for  the  saving  of  life,  or  very 
valuable  property,  against  the  aggressor. 
See  Duel  and  Suicide. 

Music  {Sacred). —  From  the  time  of  the 
apostles  to  the  present  day  the  Church,  in 
the  performance  of  her  sacred  rites  and  es- 
pecially in  the  solemn  sacrifice  of  the  Mass, 
has  always  employed  music  for  the  pur- 
pose of  more  easily  turning  men's  thoughts 
to  God,  and  of  worshipping  God  in  a  man- 
ner more  befitting  His  majesty.  For,  as 
St.  John  Chrysostom  remarks  "there  is 
nothing  better  suited  to  rouse  the  soul  of 
man,  to  raise  it,  as  it  were,  above  the  things 
of  earth  and  free  it  from  the  bonds  of  flesh, 
to  inspire  it  with  love  of  wisdom  or  fill  it 
with  contempt  for  all  worldly  beings  than 
singing,  and  the  rhythm  of  sacred  hymns  " 
(  Ps.  41.  n.  i.). 

These  advantages,  however,  are  to  be 
derived  only  from  that  kind  of  music  which 
most  faithfully  serves  the  purpose  of  reli- 


Mysia 


491 


Myth 


gion  and  is  entirely  consonant  with  the 
holiness  of  the  object  to  which  it  is  united. 
The  use  of  such  music  is  sanctioned  by 
the  Church;  such  she  has  always  used  in 
her  solemn  services,  and  such  she  recom- 
mends and  prescribes  for  future  use.  She 
has  always  not  only  most  carefully  ex- 
cluded from  her  sacred  rites  such  secular 
compositions  and  voluptuous  singing  as 
are  calculated  to  distract  the  mind  and  fill 
it  with  thoughts  of  worldly  pleasure,  but 
she  has  ever  abhorred  and  denounced  them 
as  being  most  hurtful  to  religion  and  posi- 
tively injurious  to  souls.  Guided  by  the  pre- 
scriptions and  admonitions  of  the  Fathers 
and  sovereign  PontiflFs,  the  Second  Plen- 
ary Council  of  Baltimore  decrees  and  di- 
rects that  all  priests  labor  assiduously  to 
correct  whatever  abuses  may  have  crept 
into  the  vocal  and  instrumental  music  in 
their  Chufches.  Hence  it  is  a  duty  incum- 
bent upon  priests  to  personally  superintend 
the  selection  of  music  for  their  Churches 
and  never  permit  the  house  of  God  to  be 
profaned  by  secular  music,  and  to  allow  in 
it  only  such  airs  as  are  grave,  devotional 
and  truly  religious.  Also  it  is  a  duty  of 
the  priest  to  exclude  from  the  Mass,  all 
singing  which  mutilates  the  words  of  the 
Liturgy  as  well  as  that  which  abounds  in 
too  frequent  repetitions,  or  so  transposes 
the  words  as  to  change  or  totally  destroy 
their  meaning.  Also  the  singing  ought 
to  be  so  regulated  as  not  to  interrupt  the 
Mass  in  places  where  interruptions  are  not 
permitted  by  the  rubrics;  that,  if  possible 
the  music  be  made  to  accord  with  the  sea- 
sons of  the  year  and  the  classes  of  the  re- 
ligious feasts,  and  that  in  those  places 
where  the  Vesper  service  is  held,  the  entire 
Vespers,  that  is,  the  Psalms  without  mutila- 
tion or  abridgment,  be  sung.  See  Plain 
Chant. 

Mysia. — A  province  in  the  northwest 
corner  of  Asia  Minor,  which  was  traversed 
by  the  Apostle  St.  Paul  on  his  first  journey 
to  Europe  (Acts  xvi.  7,  8). 

Mystery. — The  word  *'  mystery  "  is  used 
in  the  Christian  doctrine  to  express  the 
truths  which  God  has  revealed  and  which 
we  must  believe,  albeit  we  cannot  com- 
pletely explain  or  comprehend  them.  Be- 
cause a  thing  is  not  within  the  grasp  of 
our  intellect,  is  no  reason  why  it  should 
not  exist ;  for  how  numerous  are  the  secrets 
of  nature,  inexplicable,  and,  in  their  own 
way,  even  mysterious,  and  withal  accepted 
as   undoubted  facts !     It   is   fitting,  there- 


fore, we  should  believe,  and  that  most 
firmly,  mysteries  of  the  Christian  doctrine 
revealed  to  us  by  God,  and  which  oblige 
us  to  recognize  His  almighty  dominion 
over  our  intelligence.  It  is  only  reason- 
able that  we  should  receive  with  faith  the 
teachings  of  God,  whose  perfection  and 
omnipotence  are  unlimited  and  infallible, 
instead  of  refusing  to  accept  mysteries  of 
the  Christian  religion  simply  because  we 
cannot  fathom  them.  Such  refusal,  in  the 
case  of  many,  even  of  the  most  highly 
gifted,  arises  undoubtedly  from  prejudice, 
insufficient  knowledge,  hasty  conclusions, 
egotism,  or  personal  motives  in  accepting 
what  is  contrary  to  the  precepts  of  our 
holy  religion. 

Mysticism.  —  Doctrine,  disposition  of 
those  who  lead  a  contemplative  life,  and 
hidden,  so  to  speak,  in  God.  It  is  a  super- 
natural state  of  passive  prayer  in  which  a 
soul,  that  has  crucified  in  itself  all  earthly 
affections,  that  has  disengaged  itself  from 
all  visible  things  and  accustomed  itself  to 
converse  in  heaven,  is  so  elevated  by  God, 
that  its  faculties  are  solely  fixed  upon  Him 
without  reasoning  and  without  corporal 
images  represented  by  the  imagination. 
In  this  state,  by  quiet,  but  fervent  medita- 
tion, and  by  an  inner  life  of  the  mind,  the 
soul  beholds  God  as  an  immense  eternal 
light,  and,  ravished  in  ecstasy,  it  con- 
templates His  infinite  beauty.  His  love 
without  limits,  and  His  other  adorable 
perfections.  By  this  operation,  all  the 
soul's  affections  and  faculties  seem  to  be 
transformed  in  God  through  love,  where 
it  rests  quietly  in  meditation  of  pure  faith ; 
where  it  employs  all  its  affections  to  bring 
forth  acts  enflamed  with  praise,  adoration, 
etc.  St.  Francis  of  Sales,  St.  Theresa,  St. 
John  of  the  Cross,  and  all  other  authors  of 
spiritual  life  who  wrote  on  mysticism,  tell 
us  about  the  same  thing. 

Myth  (story,  legend).  —  Many  critics 
have  maintained  that  there  are  myths  in 
both  the  Old  and  New  Testament.  But  it 
is  easy  to  show  the  falseness  of  this  asser- 
tion by  the  following  considerations:  i. 
The  early  Christians,  the  most  competent 
judges  of  the  subject,  far  from  having 
recognized  myths  in  the  Old  Testament, 
beheld  therein  only  a  pure  and  simple  his- 
tory of  positive  and  real  events.  2.  In  the 
history  of  the  ancient  Hebrews,  altogether 
unlike  all  the  other  nations  of  antiquity, 
there  never  have  been  obscure,  uncertain, 
and     fabulous     times,    and     consequently. 


Naama 


492 


Nadab 


favorable  to  the  introduction  of  myths.  3. 
The  stories  of  the  Old  Testament  offer 
nothing  revolting  or  shocking  to  the  en- 
lightened critic  free  from  all  prejudice. 
4.  The  Biblical  traditions  could  easily 
keep  themselves  free  from  myths  on  ac- 
count of  their  nature  and  manner  in 
which  they  have  been  drawn  up.  On  the 
the  other  hand,  it  is  equally  false  to  pre- 
tend that  there  are  myths  in  the  New 
Testament.  The  reason  which  our  ad- 
versaries allege  in  favor  of  their  opinion 
reduces    itself  in  telling  us  that  myste- 


ries and  miracles  being  impossible,  all  those 
related  in  the  New  Testament  must  nec- 
essarily be  considered  as  simple  myths. 
But  this  pretended  impossibility  is  a  pure 
illusion  (see  Miracle,  Mystery).  The 
writings  of  the  New  Testament  are  the 
work  of  authors  who  were  eyewitnesses 
or  contemporaries,  and  who  were  closely 
connected  with  the  events  and  the  time 
the  facts  of  which  they  relate.  Now, 
among  these  conditions,  it  is  absolutely 
impossible  that  the  facts  related  in  the 
New  Testament  are  mythical  accounts. 


N 


Naama.  —  Ammonite  woman,  wife  of 
Solomon  and  mother  of  Roboam. 

Naaman.  —  General  of  the  army  of 
Benadad,  king  of  Syria ;  was  healed  from 
leprosy,  in  bathing  himself  in  the  river 
Jordan,  by  order  of  Eliseus. 

Naas.  —  King  of  the  Ammonites  who, 
having  besieged  Jabes,  was  conquered  and 
killed  in  the  combat  by  Saul,  who  came  to 
assist  the  Jabeans. 

Nabal.  —  A  rich,  but  churlish  man  of 
the  tribe  of  Juda,  and  race  of  Caleb,  who 
dwelt  in  the  south  of  Juda,  and  who  had  a 
very  numerous  flock  on  Carmel,  but  re- 
fused to  give  David  and  his  followers,  in 
their  distress,  any  provisions,  though 
modestly  requested  to  do  so.  David, 
resenting  this  harsh  treatment,  so  contrary 
to  the  eastern  hospitality,  armed  400  of 
his  people  and  resolved  to  put  Nabal  and 
his  family  to  the  sword.  From  this,  how- 
ever, he  was  dissuaded,  by  the  address  of 
Abigail,  Nabal's  wife;  but  Nabal,  on 
learning  this,  was  so  struck  with  terror 
and  astonishment,  that  he  died  ten  days 
after.     David  afterwards  married  Abigail, 

Nabataneans.  —  An  Arab  people  dwell- 
ing in  ancient  times  on  the  east  and  south- 
east of  Palestine,  descended  from  Nabak 
or  Nabaieth,  son  of  Ismael.  Victoriously 
resisted  to  Jonathas  Nacehabe  and 
CElius  Gallus.  Petra  was  their  capital. 
Later  on  they  took  the  name  of  Saracens. 

Nabopolassar. —  King  of  Babylon  (626- 
605  B.  c),  conqueror  of  Ninive,  and,  from 
this  fact,  the  founder  of  the  new  Assyrio- 
Babylonian  empire.  He  ruled,  it  seems, 
first  over  Babylonia  as  viceroy  of  Assyria. 


Naboth.  —  Inhabitant  of  Jezrael,  Judea; 
refused  to  sell  his  vineyard  to  King  Achab. 
Queen  Jezabel,  irritated  on  this  account 
caused  him  to  be  stoned,  on  a  false  accusa- 
tion of  having  blasphemed  against  God  and 
against  the  king.     (899  b.  c.) 

Nabuchodonosor  I. —  King  of  Ninive 
(667-647  B.  c),  conquered  and  killed  with 
his  own  hand  (655)  Phraorte,  king  of  the 
Medes,  and,  wishing  to  subdue  all  the 
neighboring  nations,  sent  against  Judea, 
his  general  Holofernes.  He  himself  per- 
ished, in  defending  Ninive  against  Cy- 
axares  and  against  Nabopolassar. 

Nabuchodonosor  II. —  Surnamed  the 
"  Great."  King  of  Babylon  and  of  Ninive 
(605-562  B.  c),  son  and  successor  of  Na- 
bopolassar, and  one  of  the  most  famous 
princes  of  Chaldea;  took  Jerusalem  twice, 
led  away  its  inhabitants  into  captivity  to 
Babylon  (597  and  586  b.  c),  took  Tyre 
after  a  siege  of  thirteen  years  (573),  con- 
quered Egypt,  and  carried  his  arms  into 
Spain.  Proud  of  his  success,  he  wished 
to  be  adored  as  a  god ;  was  struck  with 
insanity,  believed  himself  changed  into 
an  ox  and  lived  during  seven  years  on 
herbs  from  the  fields.  Queen  Nitocris 
governed  the  kingdom  during  his  aberra- 
tion. Nabuchodonosor  recovered  his  rea- 
son one  year  before  his  death,  and  had  for 
his  successor  his  son  Evil-Merodach. 

Nadab. —  King  of  Israel  (943-941  b.  c), 
son  and  successor  of  Jeroboam ;  imitated 
the  impiety  of  his  father,  and  was  assas- 
sinated by  Baasa,  who  usurped  the  king- 
dom. Scripture  says  Nadab  did  evil  in 
the  eyes  of  the  Lord  (III.  Ki.  xv.  25-36). 


Nahum 


493 


Neale 


Nahum. —  The  seventh  of  the  twelve 
minor  Prophets,  lived  in  the  time  of  King 
Ezechias  (eighth  century  b.  c).  His  proph- 
ecy, in  three  chapters,  forms  one  sole  dis- 
course, wherein  he  announces  the  second 
destruction  of  Ninive  by  Cyaxares  and 
Nabopolassar. 

Nairn  (the  modern  Nain) . — Town  of  an- 
cient Palestine ;  in  the  tribe  of  Issachar,  in 
Galilee,  south  of  and  near  Mount  Thabor 
and  the  stream  Cison.  Here  our  Saviour 
raised  to  life  again  the  only  son  of  a  widow. 

Nantes  {Edict  of). — An  edict  issued  by 
Henry  IV.  of  France,  April  15th,  1598.  It 
ended  the  religious  wars  of  the  country. 
The  Huguenots  were  put  on  an  equality 
with  the  Catholics  in  political  rights. 

Nathan. — Israelitish  prophet  of  the  elev- 
enth century  B.C.  He  declared  to  David  that 
his  son  would  build  the  Temple,  reproached 
him  for  the  crime  of  which  he  had  rendered 
himself  guilty  by  killing  Uri,  in  order  to 
possess  his  wife,  Bethsabee,  and  advised 
him  to  acknowledge  Solomon  for  his  suc- 
cessor. The  Paralipomena  teach  us  that 
Gad  and  Nathan  had  written  a  history  of 
David  and  regulated  the  order  and  dispo- 
sition of  the  ministers  of  the  temple,  and 
that  Nathan  and  Abias  of  Silo  had  written 
the  history  of  Solomon. 

Nathinites. — Given  or  consecrated,  i.e., 
servants  dedicated  to  the  service  of  the 
tabernacle  and  temple,  to  perform  the  most 
laborious  offices ;  as  carrying  wood  and 
water.  At  first  the  Gabaonites  were  des- 
tined to  this  station ;  afterwards  the  Cha- 
naanites  who  surrendered  themselves,  and 
whose  lives  were  spared.  We  read  in 
I.  Esdras  viii.  20,  that  the  Nathinites  were 
slaves  devoted  by  David,  and  other  princes, 
to  the  service  of  the  temple ;  and  in  I. 
Esdras  ii.  58,  that  they  were  servants  given 
by  Solomon.  The  Nathinites  were  carried 
into  captivity  with  the  tribe  of  Juda,  and 
great  numbers  were  placed  not  far  from 
the  Caspian  sea,  whence  Esdras  brought 
220  of  them  into  Judea  (viii.  17). 

Nativity  (birth-day) .  —  A  term  which  is 
especially  employed  in  speaking  of  our 
Lord,  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and  of  some 
saints.  The  Nativity  of  our  Lord,  that 
of  the  Blessed  Virgin  and  that  of  St. 
John  the  Baptist  are  the  only  ones  that 
are  celebrated  in  the  Church.  The  feast 
of  the  Nativity  of  Jesus  Christ  is  cele- 
brated by  the  Church  .on  December  25th. 


See  Christmas.  The  feast  of  the  Na- 
tivity of  the  Blessed  Virgin  is  celebrated 
on  September  8th.  This  festival  was  ap- 
pointed by  Pope  Innocent  XL,  that  the 
Faithful  may  be  called  upon  in  a  particular 
manner  to  recommend  to  God,  through 
the  intercession  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  the 
necessities  of  His  Church,  and  to  return 
Him  thanks  for  His  gracious  protection 
and  numberless  mercies.  What  gave  oc- 
casion to  the  institution  of  this  feast  was  a 
solemn  thanksgiving  for  the  relief  of 
Vienna  when  it  was  besieged  by  the  Turks 
in  1683.  The  Nativity  of  St.  John  the 
Baptist  is  celebrated  on  June  24th. 

Nazarenes.  —  Heretics  of  the  first  cen- 
tury of  the  Church.  They  held  to  the  law  of 
Moses,  but  did  not  insist  on  its  observance 
as  essential  to  salvation.  They  believed 
in  the  divinity  of  Christ,  His  Incarnation, 
and  supernatural  birth  of  the  Virgin  Mary, 
and  also  recognized  St.  Paul  as  the  Apostle 
of  the  Gentiles.  The  Nazarenes  disap- 
peared from  history  about  the  middle  of 
the  fifth  century. 

Nazareth  (the  modern  En-Nasira). — A 
town  of  Palestine,  in  Galilee.  It  is  cele- 
brated as  the  dwelling-place  of  our  Saviour 
during  His  childhood  and  early  manhood. 
The  Church  of  the  Annunciation  was 
founded  here  by  the  Empress  Helena,  but 
ruined  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  rebuilt 
later.  It  is  well  proportioned  and  while 
much  of  the  architecture  is  new,  it  pre- 
serves interesting  memorials  of  the  past. 
In  the  crypt  is  the  traditional  place  of  the 
Annunciation.    Population  6,000  to  10,000. 

Nazarites. — Among  the  ancient  He- 
brews, religious  devotees,  set  apart  to  the 
Lord  by  a  special  vow  the  terms  of  which 
are  carefully  described  in  Num.  vi.  They 
included  entire  abstinence  from  wine  and 
other  intoxicating  liquors,  from  all  cutting 
of  the  hair,  and  from  all  approach  to  a 
dead  body.  The  vow  might  be  taken 
either  for  a  limited  period  or  for  life. 
They  first  appear  in  the  time  of  the  Philis- 
tine oppression. 

Neale  (Leonard)  (1743-1817).— Amer- 
ican prelate;  born  at  Port  Tobacco,  in 
Maryland,  was  educated  at  St.  Omer's, 
France,  and  joined  the  Society  of  Jesus. 
After  the  suppression  of  said  Society  he 
came  to  America,  and  in  1783  he  took 
charge  of  the  mission  of  Port  Tobacco. 
President  of  Georgetown  College  in  1798 ; 


Neapolis 


494 


Nephtali 


coadjutor  of  Bishop  Carroll  in  1800  and  on 
the  latter's  death  he  succeeded  to  the  met- 
ropolitan see  of  Baltimore  in  1815. 

Neapolis  (the  modern  Naplus). — A  mar- 
itime city  of  Macedonia,  near  the  borders 
of  Thrace,  whither  St.  Paul  came  from  the 
isle  of  Samothracia.  From  Neapolis  he 
went  to  Philippi  (Acts  xvi.  10-12). 

Nebo.  —  The  name  of  a  city,  mountain, 
and  idol.  i.  A  city  of  Ruben  (Num.  xxxii. 
38)  taken  by  the  Moabites,  who  held  it  in 
the  time  of  Jeremias  (Jer.  xlviii.  1).  2.  A 
high  mountain  east  of  the  Jordan,  seven 
miles  northeast  of  the  Dead  Sea,  whence 
Moseshada  viewof  the  Promised  Land,  and 
where  he  died.  It  is  a  summit  (2,242  feet 
in  height)  of  the  range  Abarim,  or  Pisgah, 
over  against  Jericho.  3.  An  idol  of  the 
Babylonians  (Is.  xlvi.  i).  In  the  astrolog- 
ical mythology  of  the  Babylonians,  this 
idol  probably  represented  the  planet  Mer- 
cury. He  was  regarded  as  the  scribe  of 
the  heavens,  who  records  the  succession  of 
celestial  and  terrestrial  events,  and  was  re- 
lated to  the  Egyptian  Hermes  and  Anubis. 
The  extensive  prevalence  of  this  worship, 
among  the  Chaldeans  and  Assyrians,  is 
evident  from  the  many  compound  proper 
names  occurring  in  the  Scriptures,  of  which 
this  word  forms  part;  as  Nebuchadnezzar , 
Nebuzaradan,  Nebushasban;  and  also  in 
the  classics,  as  Nabonid^  Nabonassar,  Na- 
bofolassar,  etc.  He  is  mentioned  with  Bel 
(«.  e.,  Beel-Merodach)  in  Ps.  xlvi.  i. 

Nechao.  —  King  of  Egypt,  carried  his 
arms  to  the  Euphrates,  where  he  conquered 
the  city  of  Carchemish.  He  is  known  not 
only  in  Scripture,  but  in  Herodotus,  who 
says  that  he  was  a  son  of  Psammetichus, 
king  of  Egypt,  and  that,  having  succeeded 
him  in  the  kingdom,  he  raised  great  armies, 
and  sent  out  great  fleets  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean as  well  as  on  the  Red  Sea.  Josias, 
king  of  Juda,  being  tributary  to  the  king 
of  Babylon,  opposed  Nechao,  and  gave  him 
battle  at  Mageddo,  where  he  received  the 
wound  from  which  he  died;  and  Nechao 
passed  forward,  without  making  any  long 
stay  in  Judea.  On  his  return,  he  halted  at 
Reblah,  in  Syria,  and  sending  for  Joachaz, 
king  of  the  Jews,  he  deposed  him,  loaded 
him  with  chains,  and  sent  him  into  Egypt. 
Then  coming  to  Jerusalem,  he  set  up  Eli- 
achim  or  Joakim,  in  his  place,  and  exacted 
the  payment  of  one  hundred  talents  of 
silver  and  one  talent  of  gold.  Jeremias 
tells  us  (xlvi.2),  that  Carchemish  was  re- 


taken by  Nabopolassar,  king  of  Babylon, 
in  the  fourth  year  of  Joakim,  king  of  Juda ; 
so  that  Nechao  did  not  retain  his  conquest 
above  four  years. 

Necrology.     See  Diptychs. 

Necromancy.—  The  pretended  art  of  call- 
ing forth  the  dead  to  obtain  knowledge  of 
the  future  or  of  hidden  things.  Necromancy 
was  practiced  among  the  ancient  Jews,  in 
spite  of  the  defense  of  Moses :  the  Pytho- 
ness of  Endor  evoked  before  Saul  the 
shadow  of  Samuel.  This  custom  passed 
from  the  Orient  into  Greece :  in  Homer, 
Ulysses  calls  up  the  shadow  of  Tiresias. 
There  existed  in  Greece  temples  destined 
for  the  evocation  of  the  dead ;  such  was 
the  temple  of  Thesprotes.  The  Thessalians 
were  looked  upon  as  skillful  necromancers. 
The  necromancers  played  a  great  role  in 
the  Middle  Ages;  at  Toledo,  they  kept 
a  school.  However,  condemned  at  first  to 
exile,  put  to  death  under  Constantine,  they 
were  later  on  sent  to  the  funeral  pile. 

Nectarius.  —  Born  at  Tarsus.  Senator, 
then  patriarch  of  Constantinople  from  381 
to  397,  successor  of  Gregory  Nazianzen. 
He  presided  over  the  Council  wherein 
they  bestowed  upon  the  bishop  of  Constan- 
tinople the  official  title  of  head  of  the 
Eastern  Church  (381),  and  took  part  in  the 
persecutions  of  the  Arians. 

Nehemias.  —  Chief  of  the  people  of 
Israel,  born  at  Babylon,  during  the  cap- 
tivity, died  in  432  b.  c.  Cupbearer  of 
Artaxerxes  Longimanus,  he  obtained  from 
this  prince  the  permission  to  return  into 
Judea  and  to  rebuild  the  temple  and  city 
of  Jerusalem,  an  undertaking  which  ended 
in  454  B.  c.  He  governed  the  Hebrews 
until  his  death. 

Nemesius.  —  Greek  philosopher  and 
theologian  from  whom  we  have  a  valuable 
philosophical  treatise.  He  lived  about  the 
end  of  the  fifth  century  and  was  bishop  of 
Emesa  in  Phoenicia. 

Neophjrtes.  —  Name  given  in  the  early 
Church  to  the  pagans  who  had  shortly  be- 
fore embraced  Christianity,  and  to  those 
who  had  only  recently  entered  ecclesiastical 
orders. 

Nephtali. —  One  of  the  twelve  tribes  of 
Israel,  thus  called  from  Nephtali,  sixth  son 
of  Jacob.  Situated  in  Lower  and  Upper 
Galilee,  It  was  bounded,  on  the  north  by 
the  Libanon,  on  the  east  by  the  Jordan  and 


Nepomuk 


495 


Netherlands 


Lake  Genesareth,  on  the  south  by  the  tribe 
Issachar,  and  on  the  west  by  those  of  Za- 
bulon  and  Aser.  Principal  cities :  Cades, 
Asor,  Hebron,  Capharnaum,  etc. 

Nepomuk  (John  of).  See  John  of 
Nepomuk. 

Nergel. —  One  of  the  gods  of  those 
heathen  who  were  transplanted  into  Pales- 
tine (IV.  Ki.  xvii.  30).  This  idol  probably 
represented  the  planet  Mars,  which  was 
ever  the  emblem  of  bloodshed.  Mars  is 
named  by  the  Zabians  and  Arabians,  "  ill- 
luck,"  "  misfortune."  He  was  repre- 
sented as  grasping  in  one  hand  a  drawn 
sword,  and  in  the  other,  by  the  hair,  a  hu- 
man head  just  cut  off;  his  garments  were 
blood  red,  as  the  light  of  the  planet  is  also 
reddish.  His  temple  among  the  Arabs 
was  painted  red ;  and  they  offered  to  him 
garments  sprinkled  with  blood,  and  also  a 
warrior,  probably  a  prisoner,  who  was  cast 
into  a  pool. 

Neri  (St.  Philip)  (1513-1595)-  — 
Founder  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Ora- 
tory, born  at  Florence,  died  in  Rome. 
Established  (1548)  the  Confraternity  of 
the  Most  Holy  Trinity,  destined  to  take 
care  of  foreign  pilgrims.  Having  been 
ordained  priest  (1551),  he  devoted  himself 
to  the  education  of  children,  and,  for  this 
work,  associated  with  himself  other  eccle- 
siastics, who  were  called  Oratorians.  He 
soon  formed  a  congregation  of  these  asso- 
ciates whose  statutes  were  approved  by 
Gregory  XIII.  in  1575.  F.  May  16th.  See 
Oratorians. 

Nero.     See  Persecutions. 

Nestorianism  (heresy  of  the  followers 
of  Nestorius). —  Nestorius,  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople  (428),  a  vain  orator  with- 
out depth  of  thought  or  piety,  objected  to 
the  title  of  *'  Mother  of  God  "  as  applied  to 
the  Blessed  Virgin.  He  maintained  that  the 
Blessed  Virgin  had  given  birth  to  the  man 
Jesus,  in  whom  the  Son  of  God  dwelt  as  in 
a  temple;  that  there  are  two  persons  in 
Christ  really  distinct,  the  man  Jesus  and 
the  Son  of  God,  and  that  between  them 
there  exists  only  an  external  union.  This 
doctrine  destroys  the  whole  economy  of 
redemption,  for  neither  of  the  two  persons 
could  have  saved  us.  The  chief  adversary 
of  Nestorius  was  Cyril,  Bishop  of  Alex- 
andria. He  defended  the  Catholic  truth 
against  Nestorianism  and  "in  accordance 
with  an  ancient  ecclesiastical  custom  "  ap- 


pealed to  the  Pope,  who  condemned  the 
errors  and  expelled  their  author  from  the 
Church.  The  sentence  of  condemnation 
was  reiterated  by  198  bishops  assembled  in 
the  Third  Ecumenical  Council  of  Ephesus, 
in  431.  Nestorius  died  in  exile.  He  still 
has  followers  in  Persia. 

Netherlands  {Protestantism  in  the). — 
For  the  evangelization  of  the  Netherlands 
see  Belgium.  To  avert  from  the  Nether- 
lands the  evils  which  accompanied  the 
Reformation  in  Germany,  Charles  V., 
himself  a  native  of  that  country,  resolved 
to  adopt  a  severe  policy  of  repression.  He 
had  the  Edict  of  Worms  against  Luther 
strictly  enforced,  and  ordered  the  magis- 
trates to  carry  out  the  existing  laws  against 
heretics.  Henry  Vaes  and  John  Esch,  in 
1523,  were  burned  for  heresy.  But  in 
spite  of  this  rigor,  the  Netherlands  soon 
became  the  scene  of  commotions  and  insur- 
rections excited  by  the  men  of  the  '*  new 
learning."  On  the  accession  of  Philip  II., 
the  Reformation  had  already  made  con- 
siderable progress  in  the  Netherlands. 
The  nobility,  who  coveted  the  possessions 
of  the  Church,  supported  the  movement. 
An  insurrection  of  the  Protestants  broke 
out  in  1566,  during  which  great  ravages 
were  committed  on  churches  and  monas- 
teries. The  excesses  of  the  Dutch  Calvin- 
ists  rivaled  in  atrocity  those  of  the 
Huguenots  in  France.  The  ambitious 
Prince  William  of  Orange  placed  himself 
at  the  head  of  the  reforming  faction,  and 
the  obstinate  contest  which  followed  ended 
in  the  loss  of  the  seven  northern  provinces 
to  the  Spanish  crown.  England,  under 
Elizabeth,  assisted  the  Dutch  Protestants, 
against  their  sovereign,  and  sent  them 
both  money  and  troops.  Neither  the 
severity  of  the  duke  of  Alva,  nor  the 
abilities  of  Don  John  of  Austria,  the  hero 
of  Lepanto,  nor  the  heroic  qualities  of 
Alexander  Farnese,  duke  of  Parma,  could 
re-establish  Spanish  rule  in  the  revolted 
provinces.  Spain,  in  1648,  was  obliged  to 
acknowledge  the  independence  of  the 
"Republic  of  the  United  Provinces." 
William  of  Orange  published  edicts  sus- 
pending Catholic  worship  in  the  General 
States,  as  they  were  called ;  Catholics, 
especially  priests  and  religious,  were 
treated  by  the  Dutch  Calvinists  with  un- 
exampled cruelty.  Two  of  his  officers, 
Sonoy  and  Van  der  Marck,  slew  all  the 
priests  and  religious  on  whom  they  could 
lay  hands.     In    1572,    nineteen   priests  of 


Netherlands 


496 


Newman 


Gorcum  were  cruelly  martyred  by  the 
soldiery  of  Orange.  The  persecution  of  the 
Catholics  was  not  confined  to  Holland ;  it 
extended  itself  to  all  the  Dutch  colonies  in 
the  New  World.  The  Catholic  mission- 
aries were  special  objects  of  hatred.  See 
Holland. 

Netherlands  (  Worship  in). — There  is  no 
State's  religion  in  the  Netherlands  or  Hol- 
land. All  the  religions  are  free.  Catholic 
Holland  is  divided  since  1853  into  five 
dioceses.  Utrecht  is  the  archiepiscopal 
see  of  the  "Old  Catholics"  or  Jansenists. 
There  are  several  Walloonish  and  Presby- 
terian Churches.  According  to  the  census 
of  1879,  there  are  about  2,469,884  Protes- 
tants; 1,439,137 Catholics;  6,000 Jansenists; 
81,603  Jews,  and  16,049  professing  no  re- 
ligion or  belonging  to  other  denomina- 
tions. 

Neumann  (John  Nkpomucene)  (1811- 
1860). — American  prelate;  was  born  at 
Prachatitz,  Bohemia ;  died  in  Philadelphia. 
Came  to  America  in  1836,  was  ordained  in 
New  York  and  sent  to  Williamsville,  in 
the  western  part  of  the  state.  With  the 
consent  of  Bishop  Hughes,  he  joined  the 
Redemptorists  in  1840.  Bishop  of  Phila- 
delphia in  1852 ;  encouraged  the  erection 
of  churches  and  the  establishment  of  paro- 
chial schools.  On  the  5th  of  January  i860, 
he  set  out  to  attend  to  some  business,  but 
was  stricken  suddenly  ill  in  the  street,  and 
sinking  down  on  the  nearest  steps  he  ex- 
pired. Steps  are  made  at  present  for  his 
beatification. 

Newman  (John  Henry)  Cardinal. — A 
leader  of  the  Oxford  Tractarian  movement 
of  1833  in  the  Church  of  England;  was 
born  in  London,  Feb.  21st,  1801.  He  took 
his  degree  at  Oxford  in  1820,  when  he  was 
only  19  years  old.  In  182 1  he  wrote,  jointly 
with  a  friend,  two  cantos  of  a  po^m  on  St. 
Bartholomew's  Eve.  In  1822  he  was  elected 
to  a  fellowship  in  Oriel  College,  and  it  was 
here  that  he  formed  his  close  intimacy  with 
Dr.  Pusey,  and  subsequently  with  Hurrell 
Froude,  brother  of  the  historian,  who  had 
a  great  share  in  originating  the  Tractarian 
movement.  Here,  also,  he  formed  cordial 
relations  with  Dr.  Hawkins,  afterwards  the 
provost  of  the  college,  and  Whately,  sub- 
sequently archbishop  of  Dublin.  Both  of 
them  exercised  great  influence  over  him 
by  teaching  him  to  define  his  thoughts 
clearly.  Newman's  first  book  was  that  on 
ihe  Arians  of  the  Fourth  Century.    It  was 


a  scholarly  production,  intended  to  show 
that  the  Arian  heresy  was  not  of  Alexan- 
drian origin,  but  was  one  of  the  Judaizing 
heresies  which  sprang  up  in  Antioch.  In 
1832,  Newman,  then  in  delicate  health,  ac- 
companied Hurrell  Froude  on  a  Mediter- 
ranean tour,  and  it  was  then  that  the  fire 
was  kindled  which  was  to  bear  fruit  in  the 
Anglican  movement  of  1833,  the  aim  of 
which  was  to  seek  a  basis  for  clerical  au- 
thority independent  of  the  State,  with  per- 
haps a  vision  of  restoring  the  Church  of 
England  to  Catholicity.  Most  of  New- 
man's smaller  poems  were  written  on  this 
voyage,  and  were  published  in  Lyra  Apos- 
tolica,  a  volume  of  verse,  the  object  of 
which  was  to  reassert  for  the  Church  of 
England  her  spiritual  authority  and  mis- 
sion. It  was  on  this  tour  that  Newman 
met  Cardinal  Wiseman,  and  told  him  in 
reply,  to  the  expression  of  a  courteous 
wish  that  Hurrell  Froude  and  he  might 
visit  Rome,  "  We  have  a  work  to  do  in 
England."  At  Rome,  Newman  parted 
from  his  friends  to  go  alone  to  Sicily, 
where  he  fell  ill  of  malarial  fever.  His 
mind  was  deeply  possessed  during  his  ill- 
ness by  spiritual  things.  Becalmed  in  the 
straits  of  Bonifacio,  he  wrote  the  best 
known  of  all  his  poems,  Lead,  Kindly 
Light.  From  Marseilles,  he  proceeded  to 
England,  reaching  home  in  time  to  be 
present  at  Keble's  Oxford  assize  sermon 
on  *'  National  Apostasy,"  which  he  always 
regarded  as  the  date  on  which  the  Tracta- 
rian movement  began.  Into  the  series  of 
Tracts  for  the  Times  Newman  threw  him- 
self with  great  energy,  actuated  by  a  Cath- 
olic theory  of  the  English  Church  which 
had  taken  root  in  his  mind.  In  1837,  in  a 
course  of  lectures,  he  made  an  attempt  to 
disguise  the  Anglican  via  media  from  the 
doctrines  of  the  Church  of  Rome. 

The  famous  Tract  90,  which  came  from 
Newman's  pen,  brought  on  an  explosion 
which  was  the  end  of  the  Tractarian  move- 
ment, and  hastened  many  conversions  to 
Rome.  Newman  struggled  for  two  years 
longer  to  think  his  position  tenable,  but  in 
1843  resigned  the  vicarage  of  St.  Mary's, 
and  withdrew  from  the  English  Church. 
In  October,  I845,  he  was  received  into 
the  Catholic  Church,  and  then  went  to 
Rome  for  a  year  and  a  half.  On  his  re- 
turn in  1848,  he  published  Loss  and  Gain, 
the  story  of  an  Oxford  conversion  very 
different  from  his  own,  but  full  of  happy 
and  delicate  sketches  of  Oxford  life  and 
n.anners.     Shortly  after  he  produced  Cal- 


New  Mexico  Missions 


497 


Nicholas 


lista^  the  story  of  a  martyr  in  Africa  of  the 
third  century. 

In  1849  Newman  established  a  branch  of 
the  Congregation  of  St,  Philip  Neri  in 
England,  and  retired  to  a  suburb  of  Bir- 
mingham, where  he  performed  a  great  deal 
of  hard  work,  devoting  himself  with  the  ut- 
most zeal  to  the  sufferers  from  cholera  in 
1849.  The  lectures  on  Anglican  Difficulties, 
intended  to  show  that  the  Tractarian  princi- 
ples could  only  issue  in  the  submission  to 
Rome,  was  his  first  book  which  drew  pub- 
lic attention  to  Newman's  great  power  of 
irony  and  the  singulur  delicacy  of  his  lit- 
erary style.  These  lectures  were  followed 
by  the  lectures  on  Catholicism  in  England , 
which  gave  occasion  to  Dr.  Achilli's  ac- 
tion for  libel  against  him.  In  1864  a  casual 
remark  by  Canon  Kingsley  led  to  a  corre- 
spondence which  resulted  in  the  publica- 
tion of  the  remarkable  Apologia  pro  Vita 
Sua,  the  most  fresh  and  effective  religious 
autobiography  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
and  perhaps  the  most  fascinating  of  his 
many  works,  as  it  is  the  most  personal.  In 
1865  he  wrote  Tke  Dream,  of  Gerontius,  a 
poem  of  marvelous  subtlety  and  pathos. 
In  1870  he  published  his  Grammar  of  As- 
sent, a  book  on  the  philosophy  of  faith. 
His  other  writings,  besides  a  work  on  the 
Development  of  Christian  Doctrines,  are 
chiefly  a  voluminous  series  of  sermons 
which  are  full  of  the  charm  of  his  sweet 
disposition.  In  1852,  he  was  appointed 
rector  of  the  Catholic  University  of  Dub- 
lin, and,  in  1879,  he  was  made  cardinal  by 
Pope  Leo  XIII.  For  the  last  eleven  years 
of  his  life  Cardinal  Newman,  who  now  lived 
at  his  Edgebaston  Oratory,  seldom  broke 
silence.  He  was  a  man  "  of  the  highest 
moral  and  spiritual  aspirations,  of  rare 
intellectual  gifts,  of  fine  sensibilities,  and 
of  exquisite  culture."  He  died  at  Edge- 
baston, near  Birmingham,  Aug.  nth,  1890. 

New  Mexico  Missions.    See  Missions. 

New  Zealand  {The  Church  in).  See 
Australia. 

Nicanor. — One  of  the  first  seven  deacons, 
who  were  chosen  and  appointed  at  Jerusa- 
lem soon  after  the  descent  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  on  the  occasion  of  a  division  among 
the  Faithful,  into  those  who  spoke  Greek, 
and  those  who  spoke  Hebrew,  or  Syriac 
(Acts  vi.  5)  Nothing  particular  is  known 
of  him. 

Nice  {Councils  of). — Two  general  coun- 
cils were  held  at  Nice,  a  city  in  Bithynia. 
3a 


That  of  325,  the  First  Ecumenical  Council 
of  the  Church,  drew  up  against  Arius  a 
symbol  of  faith  known  under  the  name  of 
"Symbol  of  Nice,"  and  which  still  forms 
to-day  a  part  of  the  liturgy  of  the  Church. 
Also  tlie  Easter  question  was  disposed  of 
by  the  Council  in  fixing  the  celebration  of 
that  feast  on  the  Sunday  after  the  full  moon 
following  the  vernal  equinox ;  and  if  the 
full  moon  happens  on  a  Sunday,  then 
Easter  day  is  to  be  celebrated  on  the  suc- 
ceeding Sunday.  It,  moreover,  devised 
the  means  for  the  healing  of  the  Meletian 
schism,  and  for  the  readmission  into  the 
Church  of  the  Novatians  and  Paulinian- 
ists.  The  Second  General  Council  of  Nice, 
the  Seventh  Ecumenical  Council  of  the 
Church,  took  place  in  the  year  787.  We 
find  in  its  acts,  besides  the  decrees  against 
the  Iconoclasts,  twenty  canons  of  disci- 
pline. 

Nicephorus  (St.)  (758-828). — Patriarch 
of  Constantinople,  Byzantine  historian ; 
born  at  Constantinople.  Secretary  of  the 
Emperor  Constantin  VI.,  raised  to  the  pa- 
triarchal see  in  806,  defended  the  venera- 
tion of  images  against  the  Emperor  Leo 
the  Armenian,  and  was  exiled  by  him  to 
a  convent  of  Propontides,  where  he  died. 

Nicholas  (name  of  five  Popes). — Nicholas 
I.  ( St. ) .—  Pope  from  858  to  867.  A  highly 
gifted  and  energetic  Pope.  His  inflexible 
firmness  in  maintaining  the  rights  of  the 
Holy  See  against  arrogant  metropolitans ; 
his  championship  of  oppressed  innocence 
against  royal  tyranny;  and  his  heroic  char- 
acter and  magnanimity  in  times  of  peril 
and  affliction,  won  Nicholas  the  surname 
of  "  Great."  Three  important  events 
signalized  his  Pontificate :  the  outbreak  of 
the  Greek  schism ;  the  prohibition  of  di- 
vorce of  King  Lothaire  from  Queen  Theut- 
berga;  and  the  successful  assertion  of 
papal  supremacy  over  presumptuous  prel- 
ates. Nicholas  II. —  Pope  from  1059  to 
1061.  A  man  of  great  learning  and  ability. 
His  brief,  but  useful  Pontificate  is  marked 
by  two  events  of  great  importance :  the 
decree  for  the  election  of  the  Pope  b}-  the 
cardinals,  and  the  alliance  with  the  Nor- 
mans, destroying  the  influence  of  the  no- 
bility of  Rome.  Nicholas  III. —  Cardinal 
Cajetan  Orsini.  Pope  from  1277  to  1280. 
He  was  a  man  of  great  ability  and  pru- 
dence, but  favored  his  relatives  somewhat 
too  much  by  raising  members  of  the  Orsini 
family  to  positions  of  honor  and  influence. 
He    forced    King    Charles    of    Naples   to 


Nicholas 


498 


NiLUS 


resign  the  title  of  Roman  Senator,  and  his 
pretended  claims  to  Tuscany.  Nicholas 
TV. —  Pope  from  128S  to  1292.  Under  his 
Pontificate  occurred  the  fall  of  Ptolemais 
(Acre),  the  last  stronghold  of  the  Chris- 
tians in  the  East.  His  efforts  to  organize 
a  new  crusade  for  the  recovery  of  the  lost 
position,  were  unsuccessful.  Nicholas  V. 
—  Pope  from  1447  to  1455.  This  Pope's 
first  care  was  to  give  union  to  the  Church 
and  aid  to  the  tottering  empire  of  the 
East.  The  schism  of  Basle  was  happily 
brought  to  a  close  and  a  new  treaty — the 
"Concordat  of  Vienna,"  concluded  with 
the  Emperor  Frederick  III.,  in  1448, — 
regulated  the  appointments  to  ecclesias- 
tical dignities  in  Germany,  and,  in  many 
points,  modified  the  "Concordat  of  the 
Princes,"  which  Pope  Eugenius  had  been 
constrained  to  sign.  In  1450,  Nicholas 
celebrated  the  General  Jubilee,  and,  in 
1452,  bestowed  the  imperial  crown  on 
Frederick  III.  of  Germany,  the  last  "Ro- 
man Emperor"  who  received  the  crown 
from  the  hands  of  the  Pope  at  Rome. 

Nicholas  (St.). — Bishop  and  confessor, 
born  at  Patara,  Bishop  of  Myra,  in  Lycia, 
died  in  324.  Was  persecuted  under  Lici- 
nius  and  restored  to  his  see  by  Constantine 
the  Great.  His  veneration  is  widely  spread 
in  the  East.  He  is  the  patron  saint  of 
scholars  of  Russia.     F.  Dec.  6th. 

Nicholas  of  Clemanges. — Scholastic  the- 
ologian and  philosopher,  born  at  Cle- 
manges, France,  about  1360,  died  about 
1440.  Rector  of  the  University  in  1393, 
he  was  charged  to  present  to  Charles  VI., 
who  wished  to  refuse  obedience  to  the  an- 
tipope  Benedict  XIII.  (Peter  de  Luna),  a 
statement  on  the  means  of  stopping  the 
schism.  The  king  was  displeased  with  his 
conclusions.  Clemanges  was  sent  into  ex- 
ile ;  after  having  served  as  secretary  to 
Benedict  XIII.,  he  withdrew  to  the  Abbey 
of  Vallombrosa  at  Tuscany,  where  he  wrote 
his  principal  works. 

Nicholas  of  Cusa  (1401-1464). — German 
cardinal  and  philosopher,  born  in  the  dio- 
cese of  Treves.  Son  of  a  poor  fisher,  he 
became  doctor  and  lawyer.  Received  holy 
orders ;  dean  at  Cologne  and  archdeacon 
at  Liege.  Sent  to  the  Council  of  Basle  in 
1431,  he  remained  attached  to  the  religious 
unity  and  to  the  cause  of  the  sovereign 
Pontiff.  Cardinal  in  1454,  bishop  of  Bri- 
xen  in  1459.  Learned,  pious,  and  simple, 
he  had  a  certain  inclination  to  mysticism. 


In  1436,  he  proposed  to  the  Council  of 
Basle  the  reform  of  the  Calendar;  was  the 
forerunner  of  Copernicus  and  of  Galileo 
in  maintaining  the  immobility  of  the  sun 
as  the  center  of  the  planetary  system. 

Nicodemus. —  A  disciple  of  Jesus,  of  Jew- 
ish nationality,  and  member  of  the  sect  of 
the  Pharisees.  He  was  one  of  the  senators 
of  the  Sanhedrin  and  at  first  concealed  his 
belief  in  the  divine  character  of  our  Lord. 
Afterwards,  however,  he  avowed  himself  a 
believer,  when  he  came  with  Joseph  of 
Arimathea  to  pay  the  last  duties  to  the 
body  of  Christ,  which  they  took  down 
from  the  cross,  embalmed,  and  laid  in  the 
sepulchre  (John  xix.  39).  We  have  an 
apocryphal  gospel  bearing  his  name. 

Nicolaitans. —  Heretics  of  the  apostolic 
times.  This  sect  was  remarkable  for  their 
licentious  principles.  They  held  that  the 
eating  of  meats  sacrificed  to  idols,  adultery, 
and  lewdness  were  not  sinful.  Nicholas, 
one  of  the  seven  deacons,  is  falsely  claimed 
by  them  as  their  founder.  The  sect  existed 
at  Ephesus,  and  other  cities  of  Asia 
Minor. 

Nicopolis.  —  The  city  where  St.  Paul 
determined  to  pass  the  winter  (Tit.  iii.  12). 
Many  cities  bore  this  name,  but  the  one 
Paul  meant  was  in  Epirus,  built  by  Augus- 
tus in  honor  of  his  victory  over  Antony  at 
Actium.  Its  extensive  ruins  attest  its 
former  magnificence. 

Nilus  (St.). —  Priest  and  monk  of  the 
fifth  century.  The  dates  of  his  birth  and 
death  are  unknown.  He  sprang  from  a 
wealthy  family  of  Ancyra  in  Galatia.  He 
became  governor  of  Constantinople,  mar- 
ried and  had  two  sons,  but  resolved  to  re- 
nounce the  world.  With  the  consent  of  his 
wife  he  retired  towards  the  close  of  the 
fourth  century  to  the  hermits  of  Mount  Si- 
nai, where  he  devoted  himself  to  a  strictly 
ascetic  life,  in  the  company  of  his  son 
Theodulus.  Here  he  displayed  great 
activity,  writing  letters  of  admonition  and 
warning  to  persons  of  all  ranks,  whether 
clerical  or  lay,  aijd  combating  the  errors 
of  heathen.  Gnostics,  Manicheans,  and 
Arians.  With  noble  freedom,  also,  he 
pleaded  with  the  Emperor  Arcadius  for 
the  banished  St.  John  Chrysostom.  By 
the  incursion  of  theArabs,  in  410,  he  and 
his  son  were  driven  from  their  solitude. 
His  son  having  been  taken  captive  and 
sold,  came  ultimately  into  the  hands  of  the 
Bishop  of  Eleusa  in  Palestine,  from  whom 


Nimbus 


499 


NOE 


both  father  and  son  received  holy  orders, 
and  then  returned  once  more  to  Mount 
Sinai,  where  Nilus  died  in  450.  His  writ- 
ings are  contained  in  Migne,  Pat.  gr. 
LXXIX. 

Nimbus. —  In  art  and  Christian  archaeol- 
ogy, a  halo  or  disk  of  light  with  which 
painters  encircle  the  heads  of  saints.  The 
Nimbus  of  God  the  Father  is  represented 
in  a  triangular  form  with  rays  diverging 
from  it  on  all  sides;  that  of  Christ  con- 
tains a  cross  more  or  less  enriched ;  that 
of  the  Blessed  Virgin  is  a  plain  circle,  or 
occasionally  a  circlet  of  small  stars,  and 
that  of  the  angels  and  saints  a  circle  of 
small  rays.     See  Aureola  Sanctorum. 

Ninian  (St.). —  The  first  apostle  of  the 
Lowland  Scots,  or  Picts,  as  they  were 
termed  from  the  custom  of  painting  their 
bodies,  was  St.  Ninian,  the  son  of  a  Chris- 
tian prince  and  a  native  of  Britain.  Dur- 
ing the  Pontificate  of  Damasus,  he  visited 
Rome,  where  he  remained  some  years, 
devoting  himself  to  study.  He  was  conse- 
crated bishop  by  Pope  Siricius  and  re- 
ceived from  him  a  mission  to  Scotland 
about  the  year  394.  By  his  preaching  all 
the  southern  Picts,  inhabiting  the  country 
south  of  the  Grampian  hills,  embraced  the 
true  faith.  He  built  a  great  monastery  and 
church  at  Witerna,  now  Whithern,  in  Gal- 
loway; here  he  also  established  his  epis- 
copal see,  which  from  the  white  stone  of 
his  cathedral  bore  the  name  of  "  Can- 
dida Casa."  After  nearly  forty  years  of 
apostolic  labor,  St.  Ninian  died  in  432. 

Ninive. — The  metropolis  of  the  Assyrian 
empire,  called  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
"Ninus."  Most  writers  have  located  it 
upon  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Tigris,  above 
Babylon,  while  some  represent  it  as  hav- 
ing stood  on  the  western  bank.  It  may 
very  probably  have  occupied  both.  The 
city  was  of  great  extent  and  very  splendid. 
Diodorus  Siculus  says  it  was  150  stadia  in 
length,  90  stadia  in  breadth,  and  480  stadia 
in  circumference;  that  is  about  21  miles 
long,  9  miles  broad,  and  54  miles  round. 
Its  walls  were  100  feet  high,  and  so  broad, 
that  three  chariots  could  drive  abreast 
upon  them.  Its  towers,  of  which  there 
were  1,500,  were  each  200  feet  high.  At 
the  time  of  Jonas's  mission,  it  was  reckoned 
to  contain  more  than  120,000  persons  "  who 
could  not  distinguish  their  right  hand 
from  the  left."  By  a  computation  founded 
on   this   basis,  there  ought  to  have  been 


then  in  Ninive  more  than  600,000  persons. 
Ninive,  which  had  long  been  mistress  of 
the  East,  was  first  taken  by  Arbaces  and 
Belesis,  under  the  reign  of  Sardanapalus, 
in  the  time  of  Achaz,  king  of  Juda,  about 
the  time  of  the  foundation  of  Rome,  b.  c. 
753.  It  was  taken  a  second  time  by  Cy- 
axares  and  Nabopolassar,  about  b.  c.  632, 
after  which  it  never  recovered  its  former 
splendor.  It  was  entirely  ruined  in  the 
time  of  Lucian  of  Samosata,  who  lived 
under  the  Emperor  Hadrian.  It  was  re- 
built under  the  Persians,  but  was  destroyed 
by  the  Saracens  about  the  seventh  century. 

Nisan. — The  seventh  month  of  the  civil 
year  of  the  Hebrews  and  the  first  of  their 
sacred  year.     See  Abib. 

No. —  In  the  Old  Testament  the  city  of 
Thebes  in  Egypt.  In  the  five  places  men- 
tioned it  is  always  called,  in  the  Latin 
Vulgate,  Alexandria  (Jer.  xlvi.  25;  Ezech. 
XXX.  14,  15,  16;  Nah.  iii.  8).  It  lay  on 
both  sides  of  the  Nile,  500  miles  from  its 
mouth. 

Nobili  (Robert  de)  (1577-1656).  —  Mis- 
sionary and  Jesuit.  Born  at  Montepul- 
ciano.  He  resolved  to  devote  his  life  to 
the  conversion  of  the  Brahmins.  In  1606, 
he  went  to  Madura,  and  imitating  the 
example  of  St.  Paul,  who  became  "  all 
things  to  all  men  to  win  all  to  Christ," 
he  separated  from  his  brethren  and  assumed 
the  habits  and  customs  of  a  Brahmin.  His 
austerities  and  manner  of  life  attracting 
universal  attention,  many  of  the  chief 
and  most  learned  of  the  Brahmins  soon 
asked  to  become  his  disciples.  During  the 
forty  years  of  his  apostolate  in  Madura,  de 
Nobili  is  said  to  have  converted  more  than 
one  hundred  thousand  idolaters,  nearly  all 
of  whom  belonged  to  the  caste  of  Brah- 
mins. 

Nocturn.     See  Breviary, 

Nod.  —  Hebrew  word  which  we  read  in 
Genesis  and  which  has  been  explained  in 
various  ways :  the  Chaldaic  and  Vulgate 
take  it  in  its  literal  sense  of  vagabond, 
fugitive,  and  thus  interpret  the  passage  of 
Genesis:  Habitavit  in  terra  Nod.  He 
(Cain)  lived  upon  earth  as  a  fugitive. 
The  Septuagint,  Josephus,  and  others  have 
taken  it  for  a  proper  noun  of  a  place  and 
read  Naid.  Some  locate  this  country  in 
Hyrcania. 

Noe.  —  The  name  of  the  celebrated 
patriarch,  who  with  his  family,  was  pre- 


NOEMI 


500 


NOVATIAN 


served  by  the  Lord  by  means  of  the  ark, 
through  the  Deluge,  and  thus  became  the 
second  founder  of  the  human  race.  The 
history  of  Noe  and  the  Deluge  is  contained 
in  Gen.  vi.,  vii.,  viii.,  and  ix.    See  Deluge. 

Noetni.  —  Wife  of  Elimelech,  of  the 
tribe  of  Benjamin.  Her  two  sons,  Chelion 
and  Mahalon,  married  Orpha  and  Ruth. 

Noetius.  —  Heresiarch  of  the  third  cen- 
tury, born  at  Smyrna  .or  at  Ephesus, 
teacher  of  Sabellius.  He  openly  declared  : 
"The  same  Divine  Person,  when  con- 
sidered in  different  relations,  is  called 
Father  and  Son,  begotten  and  unbegotten, 
visible  and  invisible.  In  Christ  the 
Father  was  born,  suffered  and  died."  The 
disciples  of  Noetius,  Epigonus,  and  Cleom- 
enes,  disseminated  the  heresy  of  their 
master  at  Rome,  where  the  latter  became 
the  head  of  the  Patripassian  party. 

Nominalism.  —  One  of  the  principal 
doctrines  by  which  the  scholastic  philoso- 
phy was  divided,  and  according  to  which 
the  universals,  that  is,  the  terms  which  ex- 
press general  ideas,  are  mere  denomina- 
tions, corresponding  to  no  reality. 
Nominalism  was  founded  about  the  end  of 
the  eleventh  century  by  Roscelin  of  Com- 
piegne  and  condemned  by  the  Church  in 
the  Council  of  Soissons. 

Nomocanon. —  Collection  of  canons  or 
imperial  laws  which  bear  a  relation  to 
them  or  which  are  conformable  to  them. 
The  most  ancient  nomocanon  is  that  com- 
piled in  the  year  554  or  564  by  John  of  An- 
tioch  or  the  Scholastic.  Photius  published 
another  in  885.  The  most  celebrated  com- 
mentary is  that  of  Balsamon  (1180).  No- 
mocanon is  the  name  also  applied  to  a 
collection  of  the  canons  of  the  Apostles, 
Councils,  and  Fathers,  which  have  no  re- 
lation with  imperial  constitutions.  The 
Greeks  call  nomocanon  certain  penitential 
books,  such  as  the  Penitentials  of  John 
the  Faster. 

Nonconformists  was  the  term  applied  to 
those  ministers  in  England  who  refused  to 
subscribe  to  the  Act  of  Uniformity  passed 
in  1672  demanding  "assent  and  consent" 
to  everything  contained  in  the  Book  of 
Common  Prayer.  The  meaning  of  the 
term  has  been  extended  to  include  all  w^ho 
refuse  to  conform  to  the  order  and  liturgy 
of  the  Church  of  England.  See  Dissent- 
ers. 

None.     See  Breviary. 


Nonjurors  or  Inasserment6s  were  styled 
those  ecclesiastics  in  France  who,  in  the 
epoch  of  the  "  Civil  Constitution  of  the 
Clergy"  (1790),  had  refused  to  take  the  oath 
to  said  constitution,  in  opposition  to  the 
"Jurors  "  or  "  Assermentes."  They  were 
also  called  "  Refractaires." 

Norbert    (  St.).   See  Premonstraten- 

SIANS. 


North-American   Missions. 

SIGNS. 


See   Mis- 


Norway  i^The  Church  tn).  See  Den- 
mark. 

Notker.  —  German  monk,  surnamed  the 
"  Stammerer,"  was  born  about  840,  near 
Thur,  Switzerland ;  died  at  St.  Gall,  April 
6th,  912.  Was  the  author  of  a  Martyro- 
logium,  and  a  number  of  poems  called 
Sequences. 

Notre  Dame  ("  Our  Lady"). —  Name  of 
several  religious  congregations.  See  Sis- 
ters. 

Novatian. —  Antipope  and  schismatic  of 
the  third  century.  Novatian,  opposing 
the  election  of  Cornelius,  whom  he  charged 
with  being  a  "  libellaticus  "  and  as  holding 
religious  communion  with  apostates,  set 
himself  up  as  a  rival  bishop  of  Rome.  In 
a  council  which  Pope  Cornelius  held  at 
Rome,  Novatian  was  excommunicated, 
whereupon  many  of  his  adherents  returned 
to  communion  with  the  lawful  Pontiff. 
To  avert  further  desertions,  Novatian 
made  his  followers  swear  on  the  Holy 
Eucharist  that  they  would  not  desert  him 
to  side  with  Cornelius.  His  writings  that 
remain  to  us  are  On  the  Trinity  and  On 
the  Jevjtsh  Meats.  The  Epistle  of  the 
Roman  Clergy  to  Cyprian,  is  also  from 
his  pen.  They  held  :  i.  That  persons  who 
had  committed  the  more  grievous  sins, 
especially  those  who  had  denied  their 
faith  in  the  persecutions,  could  not  be  re- 
ceived again  into  the  Church.  2.  That  the 
Church  having  compromised  itself  by  re- 
ceiving such  sinners,  had  ceased  to  be  the 
pure  spouse  of  Christ  and  the  true  Church 
of  God.  3.  They  denied  the  validity  of 
Catholic  baptism  and  rebaptized  all  com- 
ing over  to  them.  4.  They  condemned 
second  marriages.  Affecting  a  greater 
strictness  of  discipline,  they  termed  them- 
selves "Cathari"  {Pure).  Novatian 
communities  existed  at  Carthage,  Alex- 
andria in   Phrygia,  Pontus,  Gaul,  Spain, 


NOVATIANS 


501 


Nuncio 


and  in  other  places,  as  well  as  in  Rome. 
The  sect  continued  as  late  as  the  sixth 
century,  when  it  disappeared. 

Novatians.  —  Heretics  of  the  third  cen- 
tury, who  were  founded  by  a  certain  Nova- 
tus,  priest  of  Carthage.  He  robbed  the 
widows  and  orphans,  squandered  the 
revenues  of  the  Church,  and  opposed  St. 
Cyprian,  under  the  pretext  that  he  was  not 
sufficiently  indulgent  toward  those  who 
had  fallen  into  idolatry  during  the  perse- 
cutions. In  251,  he  went  to  Rome,  where 
he  became  the  principal  coadjutor  of  No- 
vatian  in  the  schism  which  the  latter  for- 
mulated against  Pope  Cornelius.  Return- 
ing into  Africa  he  revived  Montanism.  St. 
Cyprian  combated  him,  and  the  Churches, 
both  of  the  East  and  West,  unanimously 
condemned  him  and  his  followers. 

Novena. — Space  of  nine  consecutive  days 
during  which  the  suppliant  delivers  him- 
self to  the  practice  of  devotion  in  honor  of 
a  saint,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining, 
through  the  intercession  of  the  saint,  some 
special  favor.  The  Church  approves  of 
Novenas,  provided  we  have  a  sincere  and 
enlightened  faith,  free  from  all  super- 
stition. 

Novice. —  A  monk  or  nun  who  has  newly 
taken  the  religious  habit  in  a  convent  to 
pass  therein  a  time  of  probation  before 
making  profession. 

Numbers  ( Book  of) . — The  fourth  book 
of  the  Pentateuch.  It  contains  the  history 
of  the  thirty-eight  or  thirty-nine  years 
which  the  Israelites  passed  in  the  desert 
after  the  promulgation  of  the  Decalogue. 
It  is  called  Numbers,  because  the  three 
first  chapters  contain  the  enumeration  of 
the  different  tribes  of  the  people.  The 
chapters  following  contain,  also,  a  great 
number  of  laws  which  Moses  then  passed, 
and  an  account  of  the  wars  which  the 
Israelites  were  compelled  to  sustain  against 
the  Amorites  and  Madianites.     The  Book 


of  Numbers  is  written  in  the  form  of  a 
day-book. 

Nun.  —  A  member  of  a  religious  order 
of  women.  The  name  nun  is  given  in 
general  to  the  sisters  of  all  religious  con- 
gregations of  females  who  live  in  retire- 
ment, and  are  bound  by  rule ;  but  it  is 
primitively  and  properly  applicable  only 
to  sisters  of  the  religious  orders  strictly 
so  called,  who  have  consecrated  themselves 
to  God  by  the  three  vows  of  poverty,  chas- 
tity, and  obedience,  and  bound  themselves 
to  live  in  a  convent  under  a  certain  rule. 
See  Orders  {Regulars). 

Nunc  Dimittis.  —  The  name  given  to  the 
Canticle  of  Simeon  (Luke  ii.  29-32),  which 
forms  part  of  the  Compline  office  of  the 
Breviary. 

Nuncio  (representative  of  the  Pope). 
—  Before  the  Council  of  Trent,  the  nun- 
cios took  knowledge  in  the  first  instance  of 
causes  which  are  of  ecclesiastical  juris- 
diction; since  this  Council,  they  can  be 
only  judges  of  appeal  from  the  judgments 
rendered  by  the  ordinaries  of  the  places 
subject  to  the  discipline  of  the  decretals, 
and  of  the  Council  of  Trent.  In  the  king- 
doms that  are  not  subject  to  these  decretals 
and  Council  of  Trent,  the  nuncios  have  no 
authority  nor  jurisdiction,  and  they  are 
looked  upon  as  simple  ambassadors.  In 
an  answer  to  the  bishops  of  Germany 
(1789),  Pius  VI.  shows  that  the  Holy  See 
has  the  right  to  send  everywhere,  where  it 
is  deemed  proper,  either  ordinary  or  extra- 
ordinary nuncios,  enjoying  a  firm  juris- 
diction; that  no  one  ever  refused  to  the 
Pope  the  right  to  send  nuncios  in  ex- 
traordinary cases ;  that  the  right  to  send 
ordinary  nuncios  enjoying  a  firm  jurisdic- 
tion is  founded  upon  the  primacy  of  the 
Holy  See ;  that  the  Popes  have  always  ex- 
ercised this  right  from  the  beginning  of 
the  Church  to  the  present  day,  and  that 
this  right  has  been  acknowledged  by  the 
councils,  bishops,  and  even  civil  powers. 
See  Legate. 


Gates 


502 


Oblates 


O 


Oates  (Titus)  (1619-1705). — English  ad- 
venturer. Anglican  minister,  condemned 
as  false  witness,  he  went  on  the  Continent, 
embraced  Catholicity,  and  was  expelled 
from  the  seminaries  of  Valladolid  and  of 
St.  Omer.  At  his  return  to  England,  in 
1678,  he  associated  himself  with  two  crim- 
inals, called  Tong  and  Digbey,  to  accuse 
the  English  Catholics  of  conspiracy  against 
the  life  of  King  Charles  II.,  and  of  Prot- 
estants in  general.  In  spite  of  the  proofs 
of  imposture,  a  great  number  of  Catholics, 
among  others  Lord  Stafford  and  some 
Jesuits,  were  put  to  death  on  his  evidence, 
and  he  was  granted  a  pension  of  either 
£600  or  £900.  He  was  convicted  of  per- 
jury at  the  instance  of  James  II.,  in  1685, 
was  heavily  fined,  and  cast  into  prison. 
He  was  pardoned  in  1689  on  the  accession 
of  William  III.,  and  got  a  pension  of  £300. 

Oath. — An  oath  is  a  solemn  affirmation 
in  which  we  invoke  the  name  of  God,  tac- 
itly or  explicitly,  as  witness  to  the  truth  of 
a  statement.  An  oath  is  permissible  in 
justice  and  in  truth,  when  circumstances 
are  of  sufficient  importance.  An  oath 
should  be  taken  "  in  truth,  and  in  judg- 
ment, and  in  justice"  (Jer.  iv.  2) :  that  is 
to  say,  aflSrming  with  adequate  motive  a 
thing  of  which  we  are  morally  certain  or 
promising  what  we  actually  mean  to  per- 
form. Without  these  three  conditions  of 
integrity,  namely,  a  solemn  affirmation  or 
promise,  importance  of  matter,  and  equity 
of  motive,  an  oath  would  unquestionably 
be  disrespectful  to  God,  and  must  there- 
fore be  a  mortal  or  venial  sin,  according  to 
the  gravity  of  the  circumstances,  or  inten- 
tion and  opinion  of  the  person  taking  the 
oath. 

Oblates  (name  of  a  number  of  religious 
communities).  —  i.  Oblates  of  St.  Charles 
or  "Volunteers,"  established  by  St.  Charles 
Borromeo  in  1578,  are  a  congregation  of 
secular  priests.  Their  special  aim  was  to 
give  edification  to  the  diocese,  and  to 
maintain  the  integrity  of  religion  by  the 
purity  of  their  lives,  by  teaching,  and  by 
zealously  discharging  the  duties  committed 
to  them  by  their  bishop.  These  devoted 
ecclesiastics  were  much  beloved  by  St. 
Charles,  who  was  wont  to  call  them  his 
"  children,"  and  was  never  so  happy  as 
when  among  them.     Strange  to  say,  they 


do  not  seem  to  have  been  much  appreciated 
elsewhere. 

2.  Oblates  of  St.  Francis  of  Rome.  —  A 
community  of  religious  women,  bound 
only  by  simple  vows,  established  in  Rome 

in  1433- 

3.  Oblates  of  Italy.  —  An  association  of 
secular  priests  founded  by  some  zealous 
ecclesiastics  at  Turin  in  1816.  They  have 
the  charge  of  the  mission  in  Eastern  Bur- 
mah. 

4.  Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate.  —  A 
society  of  priests  founded  at  Marseilles  in 
1815  by  Charles  Masenod,  afterwards 
bishop  of  the  diocese.  The  Bishop  of 
Marseilles  for  the  time  being  is  their 
superior  general.  Their  numbers  have 
greatly  increased,  and  they  have  been  of 
inestimable  service  by  placing  themselves 
at  the  disposal  of  the  bishops  to  be  em- 
ployed on  the  missions  in  Canada,  Brit- 
ish India,  and  the  United  States.  These 
Oblates  were  introduced  into  the  United 
States  in  1848.  There  are  not  many  in 
this  country,  but  they  have  flourishing 
houses  at  Plattsburg,  New  York,  and  Rio 
Grande  City  and  Brownsville,  Texas. 

5.  Oblate  Sisters  (Colored).  —  With  the 
approval  of  Archbishop  Whitfield,  of 
Baltimore,  this  order  of  colored  nuns  was 
founded  June  5th,  1829,  by  Father  Joubert, 
a  native  of  France,  born  in  1777,  and  who 
emigrated  with  his  family  to  San  Domingo 
in  1801.  He  came  to  Baltimore  in  1804 
and  joined  the  Sulpicians  that  he  might 
overcome  a  feeling  of  revenge  occasioned 
by  the  murder  of  his  parents  by  the  ne- 
groes during  the  revolt  in  San  Domingo. 
This  pious  Sulpician  spent  his  fortune  and 
the  last  years  of  his  life  in  founding  this 
community.  On  Oct.  2d,  1831,  the  Order 
was  approved  by  Gregory  XVI.,  who 
affiliated  it  to  the  Oblates  of  St.  Francis  of 
Rome.  The  first  three  members  were 
natives  of  San  Domingo.  The  object  of  the 
sisterhood  is  the  spiritual  and  temporal 
welfare  of  the  colored  race.  They  en- 
deavor to  promote  this  object  especially  by 
the  education  of  colored  children  and  the 
improvement  of  their  morals.  They  fur- 
nish homes  to  orphans  if  their  means 
allow.  They  also  visit  the  sick,  as  far  as 
rules  and  time  permit.  The  St.  Louis 
branch  was  established  Oct.  12th,  1880, 
by  the  Rev.  Father  Panken,  S.  J.,  with  the 


Oblation 


503 


Oils 


approval  of  the  Most  Rev.  P.  R.  Kenrick, 
Archbishop  of  St.  Louis. 

Oblation  (the  act  of  ofTering). — Specific- 
ally :  I.  The  donation  by  the  laity  of  bread 
and  wine  for  the  Eucharist,  and  of  other 
gifts  or  contributions  in  money  for  the 
maintenance  of  divine  worship  and  for  the 
support  of  the  clergy  and  the  poor.  In  the 
early  Church,  the  bread  and  wine  were 
given  by  members  of  the  congregation  to 
the  deacon  before  Mass,  and  offered  by 
the  priest  on  the  altar;  later  this  custom 
fell  into  disuse,  and  the  other  gifts  were 
presented  at  or  just  before  the  Offertory. 
The  Greek  Church  has  a  special  prepara- 
tion of  the  elements  in  the  office  of  Proth- 
esis  before  the  liturgy.  2.  The  offering 
or  presenting  to  God  upon  the  altar  of  the 
unconsecrated  bread  and  wine;  the  Offer- 
tory. 3.  The  solemn  offering  or  presenta- 
tion in  memorial  before  God  of  the  conse- 
crated elements  as  sacramentally  the  body 
and  blood  of  Christ.  This  is  called  the 
great  oblation,  a  distinction  from  the  lower 
oblation  or  Offertory. 

Occam  or  Ockam  (William).  —  Scho- 
lastic theologian  and  Franciscan ;  was  born 
in  the  county  of  Surrey,  England.  Pupil 
and  opponent  of  Duns  Scotus,  and  the 
champion  of  the  Fratricelli  or  Spiritualists. 
He  defended,  as  an  article  of  faith,  that 
"Christ  and  His  Apostles  never  possessed 
any  property  in  common  or  individually." 
The  proposition  was  condemned  by  Pope 
John  XXn.,  and  Occam  refusing  to  sub- 
mit, fled  to  Germany,  and  there  incited 
Louis  the  Bavarian  against  the  Pope.  See 
Fratricelli. 

Ochozias. —  King  of  Israel  died  in  886 
B.  c.  He  had  withdrawn  himself  from  the 
Hebrew  religion  to  adore  the  Phoenician 
and  Syrian  idols  Baal  and  Astarte.  He 
left  the  throne  to  his  brother  Joram. 

O'Connell  (Daniel)  (1775-1847). — 
Born  near  Cahirciveen,  County  Kerry, 
Ireland,  died  at  Genoa,  Italy.  Famous  poli- 
tician and  orator,  surnamed  "  The  Great 
Agitator  of  Ireland."  He  was  the  leader 
of  the  agitation  in  favor  of  Catholic  eman- 
cipation; fQunded  the  Catholic  Associa- 
tion ;  was  elected  to  parliament  in  1828 ; 
became  the  leader  in  the  "  Repeal  "  agita- 
tion 1841 ;  promoted  the  mass  meetings  of 
1842-1843 ;  and  was  arrested  1843  and  de- 
clared guilty  of  high  treason.  His  sentence 
was  reversed  in  1844,  but  a  division  broke 
out  among  his  own  party  :  Young  and  Old 


Ireland.  Having  been  in  poor  health  for 
some  time,  he  departed  for  Italy  and  died 
in  Genoa. 

Octavarium. —  A  book  which  contains 
what  is  to  be  recited  in  the  office  of  Oc- 
taves. 

Octave. —  The  eight  days  assigned  for 
the  celebration  of  a  feast,  during  which  is 
repeated  every  day  a  part  of  the  office  of 
the  feast,  as  the  hymns,  antiphons,  or  verses, 
with  one  or  several  lessons  referring  to  the 
subject.  On  the  eighth  day,  the  Octave 
properly  speaking,  the  office  is  more 
solemn  than  that  of  the  preceding  days. 
Generally  the  most  solemn  feasts,  like 
Christmas,  Easter,  Pentecost,  Corpus 
Christi,  the  feast  of  the  patron  saint,  are 
accompanied  by  an  Octave. 

CEcolampadius  (John)  (1482-1531). — 
His  true  name  was  Hausschein.  Protes- 
tant, born  at  Weinsberg,  Franconia,  died 
at  Basle.  Religious  of  St.  Bridget,  be- 
came Zwinglian,  left  Germany  and  settled 
at  Basle.  CEcolampadius  was  to  Zwingli, 
what  Melanchthon  had  been  to  Luther. 

CEcumenical  Council  means  a  general 
council,  one  whereby  the  entire  Catholic 
Church  is  represented  in  contradistinction 
to  those  councils  which  only  represent  a 
province  or  diocese.     See  Councils. 

Offertory  is  the  name  given  to  that  por- 
tion of  the  public  liturgy  of  the  Catholic 
Church  with  which  the  Eucharistic  sers'ice, 
strictly  so  called,  commences.  It  owes  its 
name  to  the  practice  which  was  anciently 
observed  in  the  Church  by  the  Faithful, 
who,  at  this  part  of  the  Mass,  presented 
their  offering  of  bread  and  wine  to  be  con- 
secrated at  the  holy  sacrifice,  a  practice 
which  began  to  fall  into  disuse  in  the  elev- 
enth century,  but  was  still  kept  up  in  some 
Churches  on  the  greater  festivals  until  the 
end  of  the  last  century.     See  Agap^. 

Office  (///<?  Divine)  is  the  name  popu- 
larly given  to  the  canonical  hours  pre- 
scribed to  be  read  each  day  by  the  bishops, 
priests,  deacons,  and  subdeacons  of  the 
Catholic  Church.     See  Breviary. 

Og.  —  King  of  Basan,  in  Syria ;  of  gigan- 
tic stature;  he  was  killed  by  Moses.  It 
is  claimed  that  his  iron  bed,  nine  cubits 
long,  is  preserved  at  Rabbath. 

Oils  {Holv).  —  Holy  oils  or  olive  oil 
which  the  Church  employs  in  the  admin- 


Olaf 


504 


Ontology 


istration  of  certain  sacraments,  for  the  or- 
dinations and  consecrations.  They  are : 
I.  Pure,  without  mixture,  such  as  the  oil 
of  the  Catechumens,  for  baptism ;  the  oil 
of  the  sick  for  extreme  unction.  2.  Mixed 
with  balsam,  a  mixture  which  is  called 
"  holy  chrism. "  Holy  chrism  is  employed 
as  an  efficacious  symbol,  like  sacramental 
matter,  in  confirmation,  in  the  ordination 
of  priests,  in  the  consecration  of  a  new 
chalice,  altar  stone,  a  church  ;  in  baptism, 
and  besides,  with  the  oil  of  Catechumens, 
in  the  consecration  of  baptismal  fonts. 
The  consecration  of  all  the  holy  oils  takes 
place,  in  the  Latin  Church,  on  Holy  Thurs- 
day, during  the  celebration  of  the  sacrifice 
of  the  Mass,  by  the  bishop  in  presence  of 
twelve  priests,  seven  deacons,  and  seven 
subdeacons.  The  holy  oils  can  be  used 
only  during  one  year;  if  there  is  any  left 
they  ought  to  be  burned  annually  on  Holy 
Saturday,  at  the  beginning  of  the  cere- 
monies, that  is,  at  the  blessing  of  the  new 
fire.  Each  of  these  oils  must  be  carefully 
kept  in  a  special  vessel  and  preserved 
against  all  accident.  In  the  Greek  Church 
also  the  priests  consecrate  the  holy  oils. 
In  Spain,  the  bishop  formerly  required  a 
certain  tax  for  the  holy  oils.  The  Council 
of  Prague,  held  in  572  (can.  4).  forbade  to 
receive  anything.  The  use  of  holy  oils  is 
very  ancient,  and  even  of  Apostolic  insti- 
tution.    See  Chrism. 

Olaf  (St.). —  King  of  Upsal,  Sweden, 
(1019-1033).  With  the  aid  of  German  and 
English  missionaries,  he  solidly  estab- 
lished Christianity  and  organized  the 
Church  in  Norway.  He  fell  in  a  battle 
against  his  heathen  subjects,  who  had  al- 
lied themselves  with  the  Danes. 

Old  Catholics.     See  Catholics. 

Olier  (jAcquEs).    See  Sulpicians. 

Olives  {Mount  of). — A  ridge  containing 
several  elevations,  situated  east  of  Jerusa- 
lem. It  is  often  mentioned  in  Bible  his- 
tory. Its  highest  summit  is  361  feet  above 
Jerusalem  and  2,725  feet  above  the  sea 
level. 

Olivetans. — Members  of  a  religious  or- 
der founded  in  1313  by  John  Tolemei,  a 
wealthy  nobleman  of  Siena,  in  gratitude 
for  having  regained  his  eyesight  in  a  mi- 
raculous manner.  In  company  with  a  few 
companions,  he  settled  in  a  solitary  olive 
grove  near  Siena.  They  observed  the 
Rule  of  St.  Benedict,  and  were  approved 


by  Pope  John  XXII.,  in  1324,  under  the 
title  of  •'  Congregation  of  Our  Lady  of 
Mount  Olivet." 

Omer  (St.).     See  Belgium. 

Omophorion.    See  Pallium. 

Onkelos. — Jewish  rabbi  of  the  first  cen- 
tury a.  d.  Disciple  of  Gamaliel.  Author 
of  a  Targum  of  the  Old  Testament;  highly 
esteemed  among  the  Jews.  It  is  confined 
to  the  Books  of  Moses,  and  is  so  brief  and 
simple  that  its  genuineness  is  unquestioned. 

Ontology  and  Ontologism. —  The  word 
ontologism,  according  to  its  Greek  ety- 
mology, signifies  a  discussion  concerning 
existence ;  and  the  word  ontology  has  the 
same  origin,  but  the  meaning  is  quite  dif- 
ferent. Ontology  and  ontologism  are 
alike,  in  that  they  are  concerned  with  ex- 
istence, or  with  existing  things  considered 
in  a  highly  abstract  manner,  but  the  man- 
ners of  consideration  are  not  the  same. 
Ontology  is  a  branch  of  philosophy  which 
discusses  what  there  is  that  can  be  affirmed 
or  denied  concerning  all  things,  whether 
actual  or  merely  possible,  as  that  they 
form  a  certain  whole,  finite  or  infinite,  and 
so  on ;  and  this  discussion,  in  a  rightly 
ordered  arrangement,  comes  immediately 
after  the  two  parts  of  Logic,  and  before 
the  treatises  on  the  soul,  on  the  world,  and 
on  God,  which  deal  with  particular  exist- 
ences, and  constitute  special  metaphysics. 
Ontology  is  also  called  general  metaphys- 
ics, or  first  principles.  Some  of  the  ques- 
tions discussed  in  ontology  are  among  the 
deepest  speculations  of  which  the  human 
mind  is  capable,  and  the  student  has 
abundant  opportunities  of  falling  into 
error;  but  the  name  is  not  used  to  denote 
any  particular  school  of  thought. 

The  fundamental  position  of  ontologism 
may  be  thus  described  :  that  God  is  seen 
by  the  mind  directly  and  immediately; 
that  God  is  the  first  object  of  all  our 
knowledge,  and  that  all  else  that  we  know 
is  seen  by  us  as  a  modification  of  this  first 
knowledge.  Among  the  precursors  of  on- 
tologism may  be  reckoned  certain  mystics, 
who  have  held  that  it  is  possible  even  in 
this  life  to  attain  by  ascetic  practices  to  a 
clear  vision  of  God,  such  as  is  in  truth 
reserved  for  the  blessed  in  Heaven,  who 
see  God  in  the  light  of  glory.  Phases  of 
this  doctrine  were  condemned,  at  diflFerent 
times,  especially  at  the  Council  of  Vienna 
in  1311.  The  modern  school  may  be  said 
to   have   originated   with   Descartes,  who 


Ophir 


505 


Optimism 


died  in  1650;  the  doctrine  was  precisely 
formulated  by  Malebranche  (1715),  a  priest 
of  the  French  Oratory;  and  among  its 
followers  may  be  mentioned  Gioberti 
(1852),  Rosmini  (1855),  and  Ubaghs.  It 
is  no  longer  possible  for  a  Catholic  to  up- 
hold the  ontologistic  theory  in  the  fulness 
with  which  it  has  sometimes  been  pro- 
posed, for  there  are  authoritative  utter- 
ances of  the  Holy  See,  to  be  quoted 
immediately,  which  stand  in  the  way ;  but 
the  tendency  of  the  human  mind  which 
gave  birth  to  this  doctrine  still  remains, 
and  will  manifest  itself  in  forms  that  must 
be  discussed  by  the  philosophers  and 
theologians  of  the  future,  whose  labors  will 
winnow  away  whatever  error  there  may  be 
lurking  among  much  that  is  true. 

A  decree  of  the  Congregation  of  the  In- 
quisition, dated  Sept.  i8th,  1861,  declared 
that  seven  propositions  there  set  forth 
could  not  be  safely  taught.  There  is  some 
controversy  as  to  the  precise  force  of  this 
declaration,  but  this  at  least  seems  to  be 
true,  that  no  proposition  which  had  been 
qualified  in  these  terms  has  afterwards 
turned  out  to  be  the  accepted  doctrine  of 
the  Church ;  there  is,  therefore,  strong 
reason  to  believe  that  these  seven  proposi- 
tions are  inadmissible.  Some  of  them 
concern  Universals,  and  belong  to  philos- 
ophy ;  another  has  reference  to  God  as  the 
Creator;  but  there  are  three  that  bear  im- 
mediately on  our  subject.  They  run  as 
follows:  I.  The  immediate  knowledge 
of  God,  at  least  by  way  of  habit,  is  essen- 
tial to  the  intellect  of  man,  so  that  without 
it  the  intellect  is  unable  to  know  anything ; 
for  it  is  itself  the  light  of  the  intellect.  2. 
That  Being  which  we  understand  in  all 
things,  and  without  which  we  understand 
nothing,  is  'the  Being  of  God.  3.  All 
other  ideas  are  nothing  but  modifications 
of  the  idea  by  which  God  is  understood  as 
simply  Being. 

Another  decree  of  the  Inquisition,  dated 
Dec.  14th,  1887,  passes  a  severe  censure 
upon  forty  propositions,  extracted  from 
certain  works  purporting  to  be  written  by 
Rosmini,  but  published  after  his  death. 
These  propositions  are  reprobated,  con- 
demned, and  proscribed  in  the  proper 
sense  of  the  author,  and  the  bishops  of  the 
Catholic  world  are  earnestly  warned  not  to 
allow  them  to  be  taught  in  their  seminaries ; 
and  this  decree  was  approved  and  con- 
firmed by  the  Pope.  All  these  proposi- 
tions show  more  or  less  tendency  towards 
ontologism.     It  will   be   enough   for  our 


purpose  to  quote  the  first  and  the  fifth :  i. 
In  the  sphere  of  creation  there  is  mani- 
fested immediately  to  the  intellect  of  man 
something  Divine  in  itself,  that  is  to  say, 
something  that  belongs  to  the  Divine  na- 
ture. 5.  The  being  of  which  man  has 
intuition  must  necessarily  be  something 
belonging  to  a  being  which  is  necessary 
and  eternal,  the  Cause  that  creates,  deter- 
mines, and  limits  all  contingent  beings : 
this  is  God. 

Ophir. — A  country  to  which  the  vessels 
of  Solomon  traded.  In  the  Old  Testa- 
ment it  is  designated  as  a  country,  whence 
gold,  silver,  precious  stones,  ivory,  sandal- 
wood, apes,  and  peacocks  were  brought. 
It  was  especially  noted  for  its  gold.  The 
fleet  of  Solomon  occupied  three  years  in 
making  the  journey.  It  has  been  variously 
identified  with  India,  Sumatra,  the  coast 
of  Malabar,  the  east  of  Africa,  and  the 
southern  or  southeastern  portion  of  Arabia 
on  the  Persian  Gulf.  The  last  identifica- 
tion has  in  its  favor  the  statement  in  Gen- 
esis (x.  29),  where  Ophir  is  mentioned  as 
the  son  of  Jectan. 

Ophites. —  Members  of  a  Gnostic  sect, 
of  very  early  origin,  especially  prominent 
in  the  second  century,  and  existing  as  late 
as  the  sixth  century.  Its  members  were 
so  called  because  they  held  that  the  ser- 
pent by  which  Eve  was  tempted  was  the 
impersonation  of  divine  wisdom,  the 
great  teacher,  and  civilizer  of  the  human 
race.    They  were  also  called  "  Naassenes." 

Optatus  (St.). —  Bishop  of  Mileve  in 
Numida,  in  the  fourth  century.  Optatus, 
like  St.  Augustine,  was  a  most  strenuous 
opponent  of  the  Donatists.  Augustine 
calls  him  "  a  pastor  of  venerable  memory 
and  an  ornament  of  the  Church."  Ful- 
gentius  puts  him  on  a  level  with  St.  Augus- 
tine and  St.  Ambrose,  and  the  Church 
venerates  him  as  a  saint.  The  particular 
details  of  his  life  are  unknown.  About 
370,  St.  Optatus  wrote  his  famous  work 
De  Schismate  Donatistarum,  in  seven 
books,  against  Parmenianus,  who  had  be- 
come bishop  of  Carthage  after  the  death 
of  Donatus,  and  was  endeavoring  to  spread 
abroad  the  erroneous  doctrine  of  his  pred- 
ecessor. 

Optimism. —  System  of  philosophers  who 
maintain  that  all  that  exists  is  the  best 
possible.  The  Optimists  not  only  main- 
tain that  everything  in  the  world  is  good 
but   that  everything   is   the  best  possible 


Opus  Operatum 


506 


Oratorians 


{optimum),  so  that  God,  with  all  His 
power,  could  not  do  better  than  He  did ; 
that  each  creature  can  be  neither  more 
perfect,  nor  more  happy,  than  it  is,  in  re- 
gard to  the  general  order  of  the  universe. 
This  hypothesis  has  been  imagined  to 
solve  the  great  question  of  the  origin  of 
evil,  and  to  answer  to  the  objections  which 
Bayle  made  as  to  this  subject.  It  has  been 
most  vehemently  maintained  by  several 
English  authors,  by  Jacquelot,  Male- 
branche,  and  Leibnitz.  However,  we  must 
not  confound  the  optimism  of  the  two  lat- 
ter philosophers ;  it  differs  on  two  heads  : 
I.  According  to  Malebranche,  the  creation 
was  entirely  free,  therefore  God  could  ab- 
stain from  it;  according  to  Leibnitz,  on 
the  contrary,  since  God  did  create.  He  did 
so  because  He  had  a  preponderant  reason, 
and  consequently  He  was  infallibly  deter- 
mined to  create.  2.  According  to  the 
opinion  of  Malebranche,  several  worlds  of 
an  infinite  perfection  were  equally  possi- 
ble, and,  consequently,  the  choice  of  the 
creation  of  ours  was  made  freely;  while, 
according  to  the  opinion  of  Leibnitz,  one 
sole  world  of  an  infinite  perfection  was 
possible,  it  follows  that  the  choice  and  the 
creation  of  the  present  one,  although  done 
freely  were  however  required  by  the  attri- 
butes of  God.  The  system  of  Malebranche, 
although  seducing  at  first  sight,  is  never- 
theless a  formal  error,  for  he  robs  God  of 
His  sovereign  liberty,  of  His  absolute  inde- 
pendence, which  supposes  wrong  notions 
of  the  divine  attributes.  Besides,  it  is 
founded  on  the  abuse  of  several  terms  and 
on  suppositions  which  it  is  impossible  to 
prove;  it  is,  moreover,  contrary  to  Holy 
Scripture.  Also  does  it  attack  the  liberty 
of  the  human  actions,  in  supposing  that 
the  moral  order  of  the  universe  is  linked 
with  the  physical  order,  or  at  least  that  the 
first  is  an  infallible  consequence  of  the 
second. 

Opus  Operatum. —  A  famous  phrase 
which  is  employed  to  express  concisely  the 
Catholic  doctrine :  The  sacraments  are 
said  to  work  "  by  the  work  wrought " 
{ex  of  ere  of  era  to).  This  is  opposed  to 
the  doctrine  that  their  effect  comes  about 
"by  the  work  of  the  worker  "  {ex  of  ere 
oferantis). 

Orangemen. —  i.  Irish  Protestants.  The 
name  was  given  about  the  end  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  by  Roman  Catholics  to  the 
Protestants  of  Ireland,  on  account  of  their 


support  of  the  cause  of  William  III.  of 
England,  Prince  of  Orange.  2.  A  secret 
politico-religious  society,  instituted  in  Ire- 
land in  1795.  It  was  organized  for  the  pur- 
pose of  upholding  the  Protestant  religion 
and  ascendency,  and  of  opposing  "  Ro- 
manism "and  the  Roman  Catholic  influ- 
ence in  the  government  of  the  country. 
Orangemen  are  especially  prominent  in 
Ulster,  Ireland,  and  local  branches  called 
"  lodges  "  are  found  all  over  the  British 
empire,  as  well  as  in  many  parts  of  the 
United  States. 

Orarium. — Over  the  stole  and  around  the 
neck,  in  the  primitive  Church,  an  oblong 
piece  of  linen  was  worn,  called  '*  orarium," 
which  sers-ed  the  purpose  of  a  handker- 
chief, and  was  spread  by  women,  in  time 
of  prayer,  over  the  head  and  shoulders, 
falling  around  the  body  like  a  veil.  The 
orarium  worn  by  ecclesiastics  was  bordered 
with  stripes  of  purple,  and  when,  in  the 
course  of  time,  its  dimensions  were  con- 
tracted, those  ornaments  were  retained  as 
marks  of  honor,  while  the  plain  linen  por- 
tions were  cut  away  in  such  a  manner  that 
it  w^as  reduced  to  a  band  which  surrounded 
the  neck  and  fell  down  below  the  knees  on 
both  sides  of  the  body.  The  name  of  or- 
arium was  afterwards  changed  for  that  of 
stole,  by  which  term  it  is  now  known.  See 
Stole. 

Orate  Fratres.  —  Latin  words  which  sig- 
nify: Pray,  Brethren,  and  which,  during 
Mass,  the  priest  pronounces  in  turning  to- 
ward the  people,  after  having  washed  his 
fingers,  and  after  having  said  the  prayer, 
"Suscipe."  This  ceremony  is  referred  to 
Pope  Leo  the  Great. 

Oratorians.  —  Religious  congregation, 
founded  by  St.  Philip  Neri,  in  Italy, 
which  was  approved  by  Pope  Gregory 
XIII.,  in  1574.  Its  members  were  at  first 
composed  of  ecclesiastics  and  laymen, 
who,  however,  took  no  distinctive  vows. 
It  was  St.  Philip's  idea  to  found  a  congre- 
gation in  which  such  as  did  not  feel  them- 
selves called  to  enter  any  of  the  established 
orders  might  enjoy  all  the  benefits  without 
assuming  their  obligations.  Although 
the  avowed  aim  of  the  congregation  was 
the  instruction  of  the  people,  its  members 
from  the  very  beginning  gave  themselves 
up  to  deep  and  serious  study.  Many  of 
them  became  eminent  in  literature.  St. 
Philip  Neri  was  canonized  byPopeGregorj 
XV.,  in  1622. 


Oratory 


507 


Order 


Oratory. —  A  small  chapel  or  place  of 
prayer,  not  having  the  rights  of  services  of 
a  parish  church.     See  Chapel. 

Oratory  (  The)  of  Jesus.  —  Religious 
congregation  established  in  France  by  Car- 
dinal de  Berulle,  in  i6ii,for  the  purpose  of 
reforming  the  clergy.  Its  members  were  of 
two  classes :  incorporated  and  associated, 
neither  taking  vows  of  any  kind.  The 
congregation  was  confirmed  by  Pope  Paul 
v.,  in  1613. 

Ordeals.  —  During  the  Middle  Ages,  the 
Church  had  to  wage  war  not  only  with  the 
feudal  strifes,  but  also  with  the  ordeals,  or 
so-called  '*  Judgments  of  God."  The  or- 
deals or  trials  were  originally  a  Ger- 
man pagan  practice,  interwoven  with  their 
whole  constitution  and  not  wholly  repre- 
hensible in  themselves.  The  Church  at 
first  exerted  her  influence  and  authority  to 
abolish  such  of  the  ordeals  as  could  not 
be  practiced  without  imminent  danger  to 
the  life  of  the  contestants,  by  substituting 
the  oath  in  their  stead  wherever  possible. 
The  ceremony  of  taking  the  oath  was  sur- 
rounded with  circumstances  at  once  im- 
pressive and  solemn.  It  was  performed  in 
the  church  and  accompanied  with  religious 
rites;  and  the  innocence  of  the  person  on 
trial  was  attested  by  seven  sworn  wit- 
nesses or  "  compurgators,"  taken  from 
his  immediate  neighbors  and  bearing  repu- 
tations of  unimpeachable  honesty. 

Order  {Holy).  —  Holy  order  is  a  sacra- 
ment which  confers,  with  the  grace,  the 
power  to  consecrate  the  Body  and  Blood 
of  Jesus  Christ,  to  administer  the  sacra- 
ments, to  preach  the  Gospel,  and  to  exer- 
cise the  functions  which  have  relation  to 
divine  worship.  It  is  of  faith  that  holy 
order  or  the  ordination  is  a  sacrament. 
This  can  be  proved  by  Holy  Scripture,  by 
the  constant  tradition  of  the  Church,  by 
the  teaching  of  the  holy  Fathers,  by  the 
decisions  of  the  sovereign  Pontiffs,  and  by 
the  decrees  of  the  councils,  especially 
by  the  Council  of  Trent.  This  Council 
counts  seven  orders  :  the  priesthood,  which 
comprises  the  presbyterate  and  the  episco- 
pate which  is  the  plenitude  of  the  latter; 
the  deaconate,  the  subdeaconate,  and  the 
orders  of  acolyte,  exorcist,  lector,  and 
doorkeeper.  The  priesthood,  deaconate, 
and  subdeaconate  are  called  major  or  sacred 
orders ;  the  other  four  orders  are  called 
minor  orders.  Although  specifically  dis- 
tinct, these  different  orders  constitute  only 


one  sacrament,  because  they  all  tend  to- 
ward the  priesthood,  whose  principal  end 
is  the  offering  of  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass, 
toward  which  they  all  concur  according  to 
the  measure  of  power  attributed  to  them. 
Tonsure  is  no  order  properly  speaking, 
but  a  preparation  for  the  orders.  When 
we  say  that  it  is  of  faith  that  holy  order  is 
a  sacrament,  we  do  not  pretend  to  say  this 
of  all  the  orders.  It  is  more  probable  that 
we  can  regard  as  sacramental  neither  the 
subdeaconate  nor  the  minor  orders.  The 
most  of  the  Doctors  regard  the  imposition 
of  hands  as  the  only  sacramental  matter  of 
the  deaconate,  of  the  priesthood  and  epis- 
copate ;  and  the  prayer  which  accompanies 
this  imposition,  as  the  only  sacramental 
form.  Others  add  the  presentation,  which 
is  made  to  the  one  who  is  ordained,  of  the 
instruments  with  which  he  is  to  exercise 
his  functions,  and  the  words  of  which  the 
bishop  makes  use  in  presenting  them.  The 
principal  effects  of  the  sacrament  of  holy 
order  are  the  grace  and  the  character.  It 
is  of  faith  that  this  sacrament  communi- 
cates to  us  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  imprints 
upon  us  an  indelible  character,  which  pro- 
hibits the  reconference  of  this  sacrament. 
Although  this  sacrament  is  principally  for 
the  good  and  advantage  of  the  Church,  it 
is  certain  that  it  produces  in  the  soul  of 
the  one  who  receives  it  the  sanctifying 
grace,  '''■  gratiam  sancftficationis,^'  says  the 
Catechism  of  the  Council  of  Trent.  The 
bishops  alone  are  the  ordinary  ministers  of 
the  sacrament  of  holy  order.  Such  is  the 
doctrine  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  founded 
upon  the  general  and  constant  tradition  of 
the  Church,  as  well  as  upon  the  authority 
of  Holy  Scripture,  where  we  see  that  no 
ordination  was  made  except  by  the  Apos- 
tles, of  whom  the  bishops  are  the  succes- 
sors. They  are  even  the  necessary  ministers 
of  the  deaconate,  priesthood,  and  episco- 
pate. The  bishops  alone  can  ordain  the 
bishops,  priests,  and  deacons.  As  to 
the  subdeaconate,  it  is  generally  be- 
lieved that  the  sovereign  Pontiff  can 
delegate  a  simple  priest  to  confer  this 
order.  It  is  the  same,  with  greater 
reason,  for  the  minor  orders,  and  tonsure, 
which  is  no  order  properly  speaking.  Also 
the  abbots  have  the  right  to  confer  tonsure, 
and  the  minor  orders  upon  the  regulars 
subject  to  their  jurisdiction.  But  it  is  not 
less  true  to  say  that  the  bishop  alone  is  the 
ordinary  minister,  even  of  the  minor  or- 
ders. Men  alone  can  receive  the  sacra- 
ment of  holy  order ;  women  are  absolutely 


Order 


508 


Order 


incapable  of  all  ordination ;  a  man  can  be 
validly  ordained  only  after  having  received 
baptism,  and  even  the  ordination  of  a 
catechumen  would  be  null  and  void.  To 
be  licitly  admitted  to  ordination,  the  can- 
didate must  have  the  use  of  reason  and  the 
vocation,  he  must  be  called  by  God ;  the 
necessity  of  a  divine  vocation  cannot  be 
contested.  The  example  of  the  high- 
priests  of  the  Old  Law,  of  the  Apostles,  of 
Jesus  Christ  Himself  who  entered  into  pos- 
session of  priesthood  only  by  the  will  of 
His  Father;  the  doctrine  of  all  the  centu- 
ries of  the  Church,  her  constant  discipline, 
and  her  attention  in  the  choice  of  her  min- 
isters, proves  that  it  is  not  permitted  to 
introduce  ourselves  into  the  ministry  of 
the  altars  without  the  order  of  the  Lord. 
The  marks  of  a  true  vocation  are :  the  in- 
clination, the  purity  of  intention,  holiness, 
the  ecclesiastical  spirit,  science,  and  the 
call  of  the  bishop  joined  with  the  consent 
of  the  Faithful.  The  Church  has  regu- 
lated what  pertains  to  the  age  of  those  to 
be  ordained,  to  the  time  and  place  of  the 
ordinations,  to  the  order  that  must  be  ob- 
served, and  to  the  means  assuring  an  honest 
living  to  the  clerics.  For  the  subdeacon- 
ate  the  candidate  must  be  of  the  age  of 
twenty-two  years  commenced  or  twenty- 
one  years  completed ;  for  the  deaconate, 
twenty-three  years  commenced  or  twenty- 
two  completed ;  for  the  priesthood, 
twenty-five  years  commenced  or  twenty- 
four  years  completed.  In  regard  to  the 
episcopate,  the  canonical  age  is  thirty 
years.  Only  the  sovereign  Pontiff  can 
dispense  from  the  age  prescribed  for  the 
sacred  orders.  The  holy  orders  must  be 
conferred  publicly  at  the  time  ordained 
by  canon  law,  and  in  the  cathedral  church, 
in  the  presence  of  the  canons  (wherever 
there  are  any),  or,  if  this  cannot  be  done,  in 
the  principal  church,  whither  the  clergy 
of  the  place  is  invited.  In  the  United  States 
the  bishops  have  faculties  allowing  them 
to  confer  holy  orders  in  any^  church  or 
chapel.  Each  candidate  is  to  be  ordained  by 
his  own  bishop,  or,  if  he  is  ordained  by 
another  bishop,  the  latter  must  have  the 
permission  of  the  ordinary  to  whom  the 
candidate  belongs.  Otherwise,  the  bishop 
who  ordained  him  will  be  suspended  for 
one  year  from  conferring  holy  orders,  and 
the  one  who  is  ordained  will  also  be  sus- 
pended from  the  function  of  the  orders,  as 
long  as  his  proper  ordinary  thinks  fit.  The 
different  orders  of  which  we  have  spoken 
namely:    the    priesthood,    of    which    the 


episcopate  is  the  plenitude;  the  deacon- 
ate,  the  subdeaconate,  and  the  minor  or- 
ders, the  order  in  which  they  are  given 
indicating  the  one  superior  to  the  others, 
in  commencing  with  the  episcopate,  form 
what  we  call  the  ecclesiastical  hierarchy. 
The  Bishop  of  Rome,  successor  of  St. 
Peter,  has  the  primacy  (see  this  word), 
not  only  of  honor  and  precedence,  but  also 
of  authority  and  of  jurisdiction  over  all 
the  bishops.  The  bishops  are  also  by  di- 
vine right  above  simple  priests,  the  priests 
above  deacons,  etc. 

Although  there  are  plausible  grounds 
for  holding  that  "bishop"  and  "pres- 
byter "  are  synonymous  terms  in  the  New 
Testament,  yet  we  have  clear  traces  of  a 
real  distinction  recognized  between  them 
in  Apostolic  times.  St.  James  the  Less 
was  beyond  doubt  Bishop  of  Jerusalem,  as 
is  clear  from  the  relations  of  St.  Peter 
and  St.  Paul  with  him  (Acts  xii.  17;  xv. 
I3sq. ;  xxi.  18;  Gal.  i.  19),  and  from  the 
belief  universally  existing  as  early  as  the 
middle  of  the  second  century.  Moreover, 
St.  Paul  gives  Titus  (i.  5),  power  to  or- 
dain presbyters;  and  to  Timothy  (I.  Tim. 
V.  19)  he  lays  down  instructions  regarding 
the  judgment  of  presbyters.  Hence  both 
Timothy  and  Titus  were  superior  in  office 
to  these  presbyters.  An  argument  may 
also  be  drawn  from  the  Apocalypse  (i.-iii.) 
where  the  "Angels  of  the  Churches"  are 
plainly  those  officials  to  whom  the  care  of 
each  of  these  Churches  or  dioceses  has 
been  entrusted ;  in  other  words,  they  are 
the  bishops  of  these  dioceses. 

The  Fathers  in  sub-Apostolic  times 
insist  on  the  distinction  between  the  office 
of  bishop  and  the  office  of  presbyter.  St. 
Polycarp,  the  disciple  of  St.  John,  writes  as 
a  bishop,  and  distinguishes  himself  from 
his  presbyters.  "  I  exhort  you,"  says  St. 
Ignatius  (Ad  Magnes.,  n.  6),  "  that  ye 
study  to  do  all  things  in  a  divine  una- 
nimity—  the  bishop  holding  presidency  in 
the  place  of  God ;  and  the  presbyters  in 
the  place  of  the  Apostles ;  and  the  deacons 
most  dear  to  me  entrusted  with  the  service 
of  Jesus  Christ.  .  .  .  Be  ye  made  one 
with  the  bishop,  and  with  those  who  pre- 
side for  a  pattern  and  lesson  of  incorrup- 
tion."  See  also.  Ad  Trail.,  nn.  2,  3,  7; 
Ad  Philad.,  n.  7;  Ad  Smyrn.,  n.  8;  Ad 
Polycarp,  n.  6.  St.  Irenaeus,  speaking  of 
Acts  XX.  lysq.,  says,  "  For  as  Miletus, 
having  convoked  the  bishops  and  the  pres- 
byters," etc.,  thereby  showing  that  he 
does  not  recognize  the  two  as  synonymous. 


Order 


509 


Orders 


"The  degrees  in  the  Church  on  earth  of 
bishops,  presbyters,  deacons,  are,  in  my 
opinion,  imitations  of  the  angelic  glory, 
and  of  that  dispensation  which  is  said  in 
Scripture  to  await  all  who,  walking  in  tlie 
steps  of  the  Apostles,  live  in  perfect  right- 
eousness according  to  the  Gospel  "  (Clem. 
Alex.,  Strom.,  lib.  VI.  n.  13).  See  also, 
Tertullian,  De  Baft.,  n.  17;  Origen,  De 
Oratione,  n.  28;  Horn,  ii.,  iti  Ntinier.,  n. 
I, and  many  other  places;  St.  Hippolytus, 
De  Char  ism.  We  say  nothing  of  later 
Fathers,  for  by  the  fourth  century  it  is 
admitted  as  a  settled  maxim  that  bishops 
only  could  ordain ;  and  Epiphanius  goes  so 
far  as  to  say  of  -^rius,  the  presbyterian, 
"  His  doctrines  were,  beyond  all  human 
conception,  replete  with  madness,"  {Adv. 
HcBres.,  75). 

Order  (  Third)  (name  of  the  third  branch 
in  most  of  the  religious  orders). —  The 
Third  Order  is  an  order  under  the  same 
rule  and  form  of  life,  in  proportion  to  the 
two  others  previously  instituted.  The 
third  orders  were  not  originally  religious 
orders,  but  pious  association  of  secular 
and  even  married  persons  who  conformed 
themselves,  as  much  as  their  state  of  life 
permitted,  to  the  object  in  view,  to  the 
spirit  and  rules  of  the  religious  order  which 
associates  and  instructs  them.  However 
there  are  third  orders  whose  members  take 
solemn  vows  and  who  are  really  religious, 
such  are  the  Third  Order  of  Penitents  of 
St.  Francis,  and  that  of  the  Religious  of 
St.  Dominic.  Consequently,  we  must  dis- 
tinguish between  the  third  orders  that  are 
religious  and  those  that  are  not.  The 
latter  are  orders,  that  is,  associations  and 
congregations  of  persons  united  together 
by  a  certain  mode  of  living,  and  certain 
rules  and  ceremonies  practiced  by  those 
who  belong  to  these  orders,  and  approved 
by  the  sovereign  Pontiffs.  The  Third 
Order  of  St.  Francis  has  been  especially 
recommended  by  Pope  Leo  XHI.  This 
Pope  considerably  mitigated  the  rule,  in 
1883,  and  adapted  it  to  the  requirements  of 
the  times.  This  order  has  counted  many 
crowned  heads,  saints,  and  servants  of  God 
among  its  members.  Our  holy  Father  Leo 
XIII.  is,  and  his  predecessor  in  the  Chair 
of  St.  Peter  was,  a  tertiary  of  the  Order  of 
St.  Francis  of  Assisi. 

Orders  {Anglican). — Anglican  orders 
were  declared  "absolutely  null  and  ut- 
terly void,"  on  account  of  defect  of  form 
in  the  rite,  and  defect  of  intention  in  the 


minister,  by  the  Bull  ^'■Apostolicce  Sedis,"  in 
1898.  "The  Church,"  says  Pope  Leo  XIII., 
"  does  not  judge  about  the  mind  or  inten- 
tion in  so  far  as  it  is  something  by  its  na- 
ture internal ;  but,  in  so  far  as  it  is 
manifested  externally,  she  is  bound  to  judge 
concerning  it.  When  anyone  has  rightly 
and  seriously  made  use  of  the  due  form 
and  the  matter  requisite  for  affecting  or 
conferring  the  sacrament,  he  is  considered 
by  the  very  fact  to  do  what  the  Church 
does.  On  this  principle  rests  the  doc- 
trine that  a  sacrament  is  truly  conferred 
by  the  ministry  of  one  who  is  a  heretic  or 
unbaptized,  provided  the  Catholic  rite  be 
employed.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  right 
be  changed  with  the  manifest  intention  of 
introducing'another  rite  not  approved  by 
the  Church  and  of  rejecting  what  the 
Church  does,  and  what  by  the  institution 
of  Christ  belongs  to  the  nature  of  the  sac- 
rament, then  it  is  clear  that  not  only  is 
the  necessary  intention  wanting  to  the 
sacrament,  but  that  the  intention  is  ad- 
verse to  and  destructive  of  the  sacrament." 
"  From  the  Anglican  rite,"  Pope  Leo 
XIII.  continues,  "  has  been  deliberately 
removed  whatever  sets  forth  the  dignity 
and  office  of  the  priesthood  in  the  Catho- 
lic rite.  That  form  consequently  cannot 
be  considered  apt  or  sufficient  for  the  sac- 
rament which  omits  what  it  ought  essen- 
tially to  signify.  .  .  .  As  the  sacrament 
of  order,  and  the  true  sacerdotium  of 
Christ  were  eliminated  from  the  Anglican 
rite,  and  hence  the  sacerdotium  is  in  no 
wise  conferred  truly  and  validly  in  the 
episcopal  consecration  of  the  same  rite; 
for  the  like  reason,  therefore,  the  episco- 
pate can  in  no  wise  be  truly  and  validly 
conferred  by  it;  and  this  the  more  so  be- 
cause among  the  first  duties  of  the  episco- 
pate is  that  of  ordaining  ministers  for  the 
holy  Eucharist  and  sacrifice." 

Orders  {Military).     See  Knights, 

Orders  {Minor). — Minor  orders  is  a 
term  used  to  designate  the  order  of  Door- 
keeper {ostiarius),  Reader  {lector),  Exor- 
cist, and  Acolyte.  (See  these  subjects.)  The 
Roman  Pontifical  says:  "Those  who  are 
to  be  promoted  to  minor  orders  shall 
have  a  good  testimonial  from  their  parish 
priest,  and  from  the  master  of  the  school 
in  which  they  were  educated. 
The  minor  orders  shall  not  be  given  but 
to  such  as  understand  the  Latin  language 
at  least,  observing  the  appointed  inter- 
stices of   time,  unless   their   bishop   shall 


Orders 


510 


Organ 


think  it  expedient  to  act  otherwise ;  that 
so,  they  may  be  more  accurately  taught 
how  great  is  the  obligation  of  this  their 
state  of  life,  and  may  exercise  themselves 
in  each  office,  agreeably  to  the  appoint- 
ment of  the  bishop,  .  .  .  and  may 
thus  ascend  step  by  step,  that  so,  with  in- 
creasing age  they  may  grow  in  worthiness 
of  life  and  in  learning,  of  which  they  will 
give  proof  especially  by  the  example  of 
their  good  conduct,  by  their  assiduous 
service  in  the  Church,  greater  reverence 
toward  priests  and  the  superior  orders,  and 
by  a  more  frequent  communion  than  here- 
tofore of  the  Body  of  Christ.  And  whereas 
from  these  orders  is  the  entrance  into  the 
higher  orders,  and  to  the  most  sacred 
mysteries,  no  one  shall  be  admitted  there- 
unto, whom  the  promise  of  knowledge 
does  not  point  out  as  worthy  of  the  greater 
orders." 

Orders  {Monastic  or  Religious). — The 
life  of  the  solitaries  of  the  East,  in  Egypt, 
quite  early  made  room  for  the  life  in  com- 
mon or  cenobitic  life,  thanks  to  the  Rule 
of  St.  Pachomius.  But  convents  existed  a 
long  time  in  the  Church  before  forming 
orders.  The  orders  commenced  in  the 
tenth  and  eleventh  centuries,  through  the 
association  of  convents  that  acknowledged  : 
First,  a  mother-house,  and  secondly,  an  ab- 
bot of  the  mother-house  as  superior  of  the 
order.  Monachism,  which  is  the  more 
general  term,  is  often  confounded  with  the 
religious  orders,  which  are  the  more  recent 
form.  The  convents  and  monks  living  in 
these  convents  have  preserved  literature 
and  the  sciences,  have  propagated  the 
light  of  Christianity  and  repelled  barbar- 
ity, they  gave  fruitfulness  to  the  soil  and 
raised  mankind  to  a  high  degree  of  civ- 
ilization. The  orders  have  continued  their 
work,  but  with  a  new  power,  on  account  of 
the  strength  of  association  and  of  the 
special  ends  in  view.  The  teaching  orders 
act  in  society  with  the  energy  of  a  corpo- 
ration, and  in  like  manner  the  orders  which 
take  care  of  the  sick,  those  that  vow  them- 
selves to  missions,  and  to  the  redemption  of 
captives,  all  of  which  have  united  the  pe- 
culiarity of  object  with  the  idea  of  group- 
ing or  association  of  wills.  The  Rule  of 
St.  Benedict  is  the  first  that  regulated  the 
external  relations  of  convents  with  the 
social  surroundings  in  which  they  live,  and 
from  that  time  the  religious  orders  have 
had  a  double  tendency :  First,  the  indi- 
vidual perfection  of  its  members  and,  sec- 


ondly, the  realization  of  a  Christian  society 
and  civilization.     See  Convknts  ;  Monas- 

TICISM. 

Ordinary.  —  One  possessing  immediate 
jurisdiction  in  his  own  right  and  not  by 
special  deputation.  Specificalh',  a  bishop, 
archbishop,  or  other  ecclesiastic  or  his 
deputy,  in  his  capacity  as  an  ex  officio  ec- 
clesiastical judge;  also  a  bishop's  deputy 
in  other  ecclesiastical  matters  formerly  in- 
cluding the  administration  of  estates. 

Ordination.     See  Order  {Holy). 

Organ. —  Adescription  of  this  instrument 
cannot  be  excepted  from  us  here.  Numer- 
ous volumes  would  be  insufficient  for  this ; 
we  can  say  only  a  few  words  about  its  his- 
tory, its  introduction  into  our  churches, 
and  its  use  in  relation  with  the  Liturgy. 
We  know  no  more  about  the  origin  of  the 
organ,  than  of  the  clock.  Polydore  Vergil 
said  that  already  in  his  time  (book  IV, 
chap,  viii.)  it  was  certain  that  the  ancients 
knew  not  only  of  the  hydraulic  organ,  but 
also  of  the  pneumatic  organ,  as  can  be  seen 
from  an  epigram  of  the  Emperor  Julian. 
In  the  villa  of  Mattei,  at  Rome,  a  bas-relief 
can  be  seen  which  represents  a  cabinet  of 
organs  whose  bellows  are  similar  to  those 
we  use  in  kindling  the  fire  and  are  put  into 
action  by  a  man  behind  the  cabinet.  The 
keyboard  is  touched  by  a  woman.  In  the 
88th  Letter  of  St.  Jerome,  written  to  Dar- 
danus,  he  describes  an  organ  which  had 
twelve  bellows  and  fifteen  pipes,  and  the 
drawer  (air-box)  was  made  from  two  ele- 
phant skins.  He  adds  that  this  organ  made 
a  thundering  noise  and  could  be  heard  a 
thousand  steps  away.  He  also  said  that 
there  was  one  at  Jerusalem  which  could  be 
heard  on  the  Mount  of  Olives.  Muratori 
tells  us  that  there  were  organs  in  Italy  and 
France  in  the  seventh  century.  About  the 
tenth  century,  organs  were  found  in  Ger- 
many, especially  in  the  monasteries ;  but 
the  form  and  mechanism  thereof  remained 
very  imperfect  for  a  long  time.  About  this 
epoch  all  the  wind  instruments,  and  among 
others  the  organs,  were  permitted  in  the 
divine  office.  But  about  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury organs  were  improved,  especially  by 
the  monks,  several  of  whom  built  organs. 
Then  the  Germans  made  great  progress  in 
the  art  of  manufacturing  organs. 

With  the  introduction  of  organs  into 
the  Churches  in  the  course  of  the  eleventh 
century,  we  cannot  determine  in  what  part 
of  the  offices  its  use  was  permitted.     The 


Ordo 


5" 


Oriental  Rites 


provincial  Synod  of  Treves,  in  1547,  ex- 
pressly forbids  the  playing  of  organs  during 
the  Elevation  and  until  the  Ag-nus  Dei. 
The  Council  of  Rheims,  in  1564,  inter- 
dicted its  use  during  the  Gloria  in  excelsis, 
the  Credo  and  the  Sanctus.  However, 
during  this  time,  we  cannot  establish  any- 
thing positive  about  the  moments  when 
the  organ  was  played  during  divine  office. 
The  custom  varies  according  to  the  dioceses, 
the  diverse  churches,  etc.  The  most  com- 
mon usage  was  to  play  the  organ  when 
processions  returned  to  the  choir,  during 
the  Kyrie,  the  Gloria  in  excelsis,  the 
Sequentia,  the  Sanctus,  the  Agnus  Dei, 
and  when  leaving  the  church. 

For  some  years  the  custom  has  been  to 
play  an  accompaniment  on  the  organ  dur- 
ing the  singing  of  the  Preface  and  Pater 
Noster,  but  without  good  >eflFect.  These 
two  recitatives  are  so  beautiful  in  them- 
selves as  to  require  no  ornament.  The 
organ  ought  never  to  be  played  alone 
during  the  Credo.  It  must  only  accom- 
pany the  words  chanted  by  the  choir  or 
during  a  solo.  It  would  be  very  unbecom- 
ing to  replace  this  august  profession  of 
faith  by  the  chords  of  a  musical  instru- 
ment. 

Ordo  (Latin  word  signifying  o^£/<?r). — 
Little  book  which  is  made  anew  every 
year,  to  indicate  to  the  ecclesiastics  the 
manner  in  which  they  should  say  the 
office  every  day. 

Origen  (185-5253). — Theologian,  born 
at  Alexandria,  died  at  Tyre.  His  father, 
Leonidas,  being  a  man  of  great  piety  and 
culture,  gave  him  an  excellent  education ; 
under  his  tuition  and  that  of  Pantsenus 
and  Clement,  Origen  applied  himself  to 
the  study  of  philosophy  and  theology. 
While  a  catechist,  he  attended  the  lectures 
of  the  Neo-Platonist  Ammonius  Saccas. 
His  father  having  died  a  martyr  in  202, 
when  Origen  was  not  yet  eighteen  years 
of  age,  he  supported  his  mother,  his 
brothers,  and  sisters  by  teaching.  Soon 
after,  Bishop  Demetrius  appointed  him 
head  of  the  Catechetical  School,  which, 
by  the  flight  of  Clement,  was  left  without 
a  teacher.  His  fame  attracted  a  crowd  of 
students,  including  several  distinguished 
pagan  philosophers  and  heretics,  many  of 
whom  he  converted  to  the  faith.  Of  his 
pupils  many  suffered  martyrdom.  The 
number  of  his  scholars  having  greatly  in- 
creased, Origen  relinquished  part  of  his 
duties   to   his   disciple,  Heraclas,  and  de- 


voted himself  to  instructing  the  more 
advanced  students.  At  the  age  of  twenty- 
five,  Origen  applied  himself  to  the  study 
of  Hebrew  and  then  commenced  his  great 
Biblical  work,  the  Hexapla.  The  munifi- 
cence of  his  wealthy  friend  Ambrose 
(whom  he  had  converted  from  Gnosti- 
cism) furnished  him  with  rare  manu- 
scripts, with  scribes  and  copyists,  and 
enabled  him  to  carry  on  his  learned 
researches  and  publish  a  really  marvelous 
number  of  works.  St.  Epiphanius  de- 
clared that  they  exceeded  6,000.  In  213 
Origen  visited  Rome,  and  in  215  he  went 
to  Arabia  to  instruct  a  governor  of  that 
country.  To  his  prodigious  learning  and 
labors,  Origen  united  great  austerity  and 
sanctity  of  life.  He  was  called  the 
"Adamantine"  and  "Brazen-brained," 
both  on  account  of  his  unwearied  dili- 
gence and  asceticism.  Interpreting  too 
literally  the  passage  in  Matthew  (xix.  12) 
he  secretly  emasculated  himself,  though, 
afterwards,  in  his  commentary  on  St. 
Matthew,  he  condemned  so  false  an  inter- 
pretation. This  act,  as  well  as  his  ordina- 
tion which  he  received  at  Caesarea,  in  228, 
at  the  hands  of  his  friends,  the  bishops 
Theoctistus  of  Caesarea  and  Alexander  of 
Jerusalem,  but  without  the  consent  of  his 
ordinary,  caused  Demetrius  to  convene  a 
synod,  which,  in  231,  deposed  and  excom- 
municated Origen.  The  great  scholar, 
therefore,  withdrew  to  Caesarea  of  Pales- 
tine, where  the  most  of  his  after  life  was 
spent  and  where  he  opened  a  second 
school,  which  became  the  center  of  a 
learned  circle.  It  was  at  Caesarea,  that 
Origen  completed  his  most  famous  works, 
his  commentaries  and  homilies,  his  Hexa- 
pla  and  the  work  against  Celsus.  Having 
suffered  cruel  treatment  in  the  Decian  per- 
secution, Origen  died,  in  252,  at  Tyre, 
where  his  grave  was  yet  to  be  seen  in  the 
time  of  the  Crusades.  The  writings  of 
Origen  were  of  many  kinds,  philosoph- 
ical, exegetical,  polemical,  and  practical. 
Most  of  them  are  lost.  His  works  that 
have  come  to  us  can  be  found  in  Migne 
{Pai.gr.  XI-XVII). 

Oriental  Rites  and  Churches  in  Com- 
munion with  the  Holy  See.  —  The  Oriental 
Churches  in  communion  with  the  Holy 
See,  holding  the  same  faith  and  the  same 
principle  of  authority  as  the  Latin  Church, 
have  their  own  special  rites,  discipline, 
and  liturgical  language.  The  various  rites 
are  the  Armenian,  Coptic,  Ethiopic,  and 


Oriental  Rites 


512 


Oriental  Rites 


Abyssinian ;  Greek,  with  Grseco-Rouma- 
nian,  Grgeco-Ruthenian,  Graeco-Bulga- 
rian,  Grseco-Melchite  subdivisions ;  Syrian, 
with  Syro-Chaldean,  Syro-Maronite,  Syro- 
Malabaric  subdivisions.  In  the  Western  or 
Latin  Church,  the  liturgy,  or  the  word- 
form  of  the  Mass,  is  that  used  by  the 
Roman  Church.  To-day  the  only  excep- 
tions are  the  Ambrosian  liturgy,  peculiar 
to  the  Cathedral  of  Milan,  and  the  Moz- 
arabic,  confined  to  the  city  of  Toledo 
in  Spain.  In  the  East,  to-day,  the  chief 
liturgies,  or  word-forms  of  the  Mass,  in 
general  use  are  those  prepared  by  St. 
John  Chrysostom  and  by  St.  Basil  the 
Great.  These  liturgies  are  used  by  both 
Catholics  and  Schismatics.  Both  these 
forms  for  saying  Mass  were  originally 
written  in  Greek.  Other  Eastern  liturgies 
are  those  ascribed  to  St.  James  the  Apostle, 
afterwards  modified  by  St.  Cyril  of  Jeru- 
salem, and  to  Sf.  Mark,  formerly  used 
throughout  the  patriarchate  of  Alexan- 
dria; but  the  latter  is  scarcely  used  at 
the  present  day,  and  the  former  only 
among  the  Syrians  and  Copts,  with  con- 
siderable changes.  (See  Liturgy.)  There 
are,  then,  in  general  use,  in  the  Catholic 
Church,  four  principal  liturgies,  or  word- 
forms  of  the  Mass.  However,  Mass  is 
said  in  nine  different  languages,  viz.,  in 
Latin,  Greek,  Syriac,  Chaldaic,  Slavonic, 
Wallachian,  Armenian,  Coptic,  and  Ethi- 
opic.  These  languages,  as  they  appear  in 
liturgy,  are  quite  different  from  the  same 
languages  as  spoken  to-day. 

The  Armenians  in  communication  with 
the  Holy  See  are  allowed  to  use  the  Ar- 
menian language  in  their  liturgy,  and  also 
to  have  special  rites.  Unlike  all  other 
Christians  of  the  East  save  the  Maronites, 
they  use  unleavened  bread  in  the  holy 
Eucharist,  as  do  the  Latins.  The  hereti- 
cal Armenians  are  Monophysites,  /.  e., 
believers  in  but  one  nature,  the  divine,  in 
Jesus  Christ.  The  Chaldaic  Armenians 
are  found  in  Armenia,  Asia  Minor,  Syria, 
Palestine,  Turkey,  Georgia,  Greece, 
Egypt,  Italy,  Austria,  and  Russia.  They 
number  about  one  hundred  and  fifty 
thousand,  and  are  governed  by  a  patriarch 
styled  "Patriarch  of  Cilicia  of  the  Ar- 
menians." He  resides  at  Constantinople. 
Besides  the  patriarch,  there  are  two  arch- 
bishops and  sixteen  bishops.  They  have 
a  college  in  Rome  and  a  seminary  at 
Begourmar,  in  Mount  Libanon.  On  the 
island  of  San  Lagaro,  at  Venice,  they  have 
a  monastery  which  is   famous  all  over  the 


world  for  its  printing-presses.  Here  most 
of  the  Armenian  ecclesiastical  books  are 
printed. 

The  Copts  in  communion  with  the  Holy 
See  were  formerly  governed  by  a  vicar 
apostolic  residing  at  Cairo,  but  in  Novem- 
ber, 1895,  Pope  Leo  XIII.  constituted  for 
them  a  regular  hierarchy,  with  a  patriarch 
styled  *'  Patriarch  of  Alexandria  of  the 
Copts."  Besides  the  patriarch  they  have 
two  bishops.  They  number  about  30,000. 
The  heretical  Copts,  of  whom  there  are 
150,000,  are  Monophysites.  The  Copts 
use  three  different  liturgies  in  the  celebra- 
tion of  Mass,  those  of  St.  Basil,  St.  Greg- 
ory and  St.  Cyril.  They  have  as  many  as 
twelve  liturgies,  but  these  three  are  the 
chief  ones  now  used.  The  Coptic  or  an- 
cient Egyptian  language,  is  used  in  cele- 
brating their  Church  services,  but  the 
rubrics  are  given  in  Arabic. 

The  Ethiopic  or  Abyssinian  rite  differs 
little  from  that  of  the  Copts,  either  in 
discipline  or  church  customs.  The 
Catholic  Abyssinians  now  number  about 
25,000.  They  are  governed  by  a  Latin 
vicar  apostolic.  The  schismatic  or  hereti- 
cal Abyssinians,  of  whom  there  are  3,000,- 
000,  are  Monophysites.  The  Church 
language  is  old  Ethiopic,  which  is  quite 
similar  to  the  Hebrew. 

In  Greek,  Mass  is  said  to-day  by  the 
Uniate  or  Melchite  Catholics.  They  are 
to  be  found  in  Syria,  Jerusalem,  Russia, 
Greece,  Italy,  and  in  several  other  places 
in  Europe.  There  are  some  also  in  Amer- 
ica. They  are  called  Melchite,  from  malko, 
the  Syriac  for  king,  because  they  retained 
the  faith  and  supported  the  Emperor  Mar- 
cian  against  the  Monophysite  heretics  at 
the  time  of  the  Council  of-  Chalcedon 
(A.  D.  451).  These  Catholics  are  allowed 
by  the  Holy  See  to  retain  all  their  ancient 
rites,  such  as  consecrating  the  holy  Eucha- 
rist in  leavened  bread,  giving  communion 
in  both  kinds,  saying  the  Creed  without 
the  "  Filioque,"  and  putting  warm  water 
into  the  chalice  after  consecration.  The 
lower  orders  of  the  clergy  are  allowed  to 
marry,  and  when  promoted  to  subdeacon- 
ship,  deaconship,  and  priesthood,  they  may 
retain  their  wives.  But  after  receiving  the 
higher  orders  they  cannot  marry.  Bishops 
must  all  be  single  men.  The  Greek  Cath- 
olics have  three  different  liturgies  for  cele- 
brating Mass.  The  first,  that  of  St.  John 
Chrysostom,  which  is  used  ordinarily;  the 
second,  that  of  St.  Basil,  which  is, used  on 
all  Sundays  in  Lent  except  Palm  Sunday, 


Oriental  Rites 


513 


Oriental  Rites 


on  holy  Thursday,  on  holy  Saturday,  the 
vigils  of  Christmas  and  Epiphany,  and  the 
feast  of  St.  Basil,  January  ist.  The  third 
liturgy  is  called  the  *'  Presanctified,"  and 
is  used  during  Lent,  except  on  Sundays. 
The  Graeco-Melchite  Catholics,  of  whom 
there  are  about  1,100,000,  are  governed  by 
a  patriarch,  who  is  styled  "  Patriarch  of 
Antioch  of  the  Greek  Melchites,"  but  who 
lives  in  Damascus.  They  have,  also,  three 
archbishops  and  nine  bishops. 

In  the  Slavonic  language  the  Grceco- 
Bulgarians  and  the  GrcEco-Rutlienians  in 
communion  with  Rome  celebrate  Ma«s  ac- 
cording to  the  Greek  liturgies.  The  same 
liturgy  and  language  are  used,  also,  by  the 
schismatic  Church  of  Russia.  TheGraeco- 
Bulgarian  Catholics,  in  number  about  33,- 
000,  have  one  archbishop  administrator 
apostolic  for  the  Bulgarians  of  Constanti- 
nople, and  two  bishops,  one  for  Thrace,  the 
other  for  Macedonia.  A  large  number  of 
Bulgarians  follow  the  Roman  instead  of 
Greek  rite. 

The  GrcBco-Ruthenian  Catholics  are 
found  chiefly  in  Galicia,  Poland,  and  Hun- 
gary. They  have  one  archbishop  and 
eight  bishops,  governing  about  4,000,000 
adherents.  Many  Ruthenians  use  the 
Roman  liturgy  in  the  Slavonic  tongue. 
The  right  to  use  the  Slavonic  language  in 
celebrating  Mass  was  accorded  in  the 
ninth  century  by  Pope  Adrain  IL,  when 
St.  Methodius  and  St.  Cyril  converted  the 
Slavs  to  the  faith.  Since  the  seventeenth 
century,  when  a  great  number  of  them 
came  into  the  Church,  the  Wallachians.with 
the  tacit  consent  of  the  Holy  See,  have  been 
saying  Mass  in  their  native  tongue,  which, 
however,  is  the  old  classic  language  no 
longer  in  daily  use.     The  liturgy  is  Greek. 

The  Grceco-Roumanian  Catholics  which 
term  includes  the  Wallachians,  in  a  great 
national  .synod  held  in  1700  at  Fogaras, 
"  freely  and  spontaneously,  by  the  impulse 
of  God,"  concluded  a  union  with  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church.  On  that  day 
about  1,000,000  people  were  united  to 
Rome.  In  1854,  Pope  Pius  IX.,  erected 
into  an  ecclesiastical  province  the  United 
Roumanian  Church,  with  an  archbishop 
and  three  bishops.  The  United  Catholics 
are  chiefly  in  Transylvania  and  Hungary, 
and  number  about  1,500,000.  They  have 
two  native  seminaries,  besides  several 
places  in  the  Greek  College  in  Rome 
given  them  by  Pius  IX, 

The  Syriac  rite,  like  the  Greek,  has 
several    subdivisions.     These     are     Pure- 

33 


Syrian,  Syro-Chaldean,  Syro-Maronite, 
and  Syro-Malabaric.  Syrian  is  the  litur- 
gical language  of  those  places  where  the 
liturgy  of  St.  James  is  used  in  celebrating 
Mass.  It  is  claimed  to  be  the  same  lan- 
guage as  that  used  by  Christ  and  His 
Apostles.  The  Pure-Syrians  have  a  pa- 
triarch who  resides  in  Mardin,  but  is 
styled  "  Patriarch  of  Antioch  of  the 
Syrians."  They  have,  also,  three  arch- 
bishops and  six  bishops.  About  52,000 
Catholics  use  the  rite.  They  are  rem- 
nants of  the  primitive  Syrian  Church, 
which  never  separated  from  the  Holy  See. 

The  Syro-Chaldaic  is  a  language  pe- 
culiar to  Babylonian  Catholics,  who  are 
chiefly  converts  from  Nestorianism,  and 
dwell  in  Mesopotamia,  Armenia,  and  Kur- 
distan. They  have  a  patriarch  entitled 
"  Patriarch  of  Babylonia  of  the  Chaldees," 
but  who  resides  at  Mosul  and  Bagdad. 
They  have,  also,  two  archbishops  and  ten 
bishops.  About  50,000  Catholics  belong 
to  the  Syro-Chaldaic  rite.  All  the  litur- 
gical books  of  these  people  are  written  in 
the  Chaldaic,  in  that  peculiar  character 
known  as  the  "  Estrangelo" ;  for  the  Chal- 
daic, it  may  be  remarked,  has  18  different 
alphabets. 

The  Syro-Maronites  use  unleavened 
bread  for  confecting  the  holy  Eucharist; 
and,  like  the  rest  of  the  Orientals  com- 
municate the  laity  under  both  kinds,  ex- 
cept that  in  administering  communion  to 
the  sick  only  the  form  of  bread  is  used. 
They  use  incense  at  low  as  well  as  at  high 
Mass,  and  read  the  Gospel  in  Arabic  after 
it  has  been  read  in  Syriac,  Arabic  being 
the  vulgar  language  in  those  countries 
where  this  rite  prevails.  Their  secular 
clergy  number  about  1,000,  and  their  regu- 
lar clergy,  or  monks,  about  1,400.  The 
monks  are  not  married.  The  greater  num- 
ber of  Maronites  are  in  Libanon,  where 
their  patriarch  resides,  though  he  is  styled 
"Patriarch  of  Antioch  of  the  Maronites." 
Maronites  are  found,  also,  in  Syria,  Egypt, 
Tripoli,  and  Cyprus.  Besides  the  patri- 
arch, they  have  six  archbishops  and  three 
bishops.  About  500,000  Catholics  follow 
the  Maronite  rite.  One  peculiarity  of 
their  government  is  that  the  people  elect 
the  patriarch,  who,  however,  must  await 
the  confirmation  of  the  Pope  before  he  is 
installed  in  office. 

The  Syro-Malabaric  rite  had  until  lately 
no  regular  hierarchy,  though  the  Catholics 
number  about  300,000.  They  depended  on 
two  Latin  vicars  apostolic,  one  living  in 


Original  Sin 


5H 


Otho 


Trichoor,  the  other  in  Cottayan.  Their 
priests,  however,  used  their  own  liturgy, 
not  the  Latin  one.  In  1896,  Pope  Leo  XIIL 
gave  them  a  hierarchy.  Catholics  of  the 
rite  are  found  chiefly  in  Malabar,  on  the 
west  coast  of  India. 

The  Oriental  rites  exist  side  by  side,  and 
not  infrequently  cover  the  same  territory. 
In  several  instances  bishops  of  different 
rites  reside  in  the  same  city,  both  being  in 
communion  with  Rome.  The  same  may 
be  said  of  the  Latin  and  the  Oriental  rites, 
both  mutually  giving  respect  and  avoiding 
interference.  There  is  a  movement  at  pres- 
ent for  a  reunion  of  other  Churches  with 
that  of  Rome;  and  the  better  to  examine 
matters  connected  therewith,  and  promote 
this  desirable  object,  a  special  "  Congrega- 
tion or  Commission  for  the  Reunion  of 
Dissident  Churches"  was  established  in 
Rome  in  1895,  by  Pope  Leo  XIII. 

Original  Sin.     See  Sin. 

Orosius  (Paul).  —  Famous  historian, 
born  at  Tarragon,  Spain,  about  the  end  of 
the  fourth  century.  Disciple  of  St. 
Augustine  and  of  St.  Jerome,  displayed  a 
great  zeal  against  the  Pelagians,  whom  he 
tried  to  have  condemned  in  a  synod  at 
Jerusalem. 

Osee.  —  The  first  of  the  twelve  minor 
prophets,  lived  in  the  eighth  century  b.  c. 
at  Samaria.  He  commenced  his  ministry 
under  Roboam  II.,  king  of  Israel  and  con- 
tinued the  same  under  his  successors,  in 
the  time  when  Jonathan,  Achaz,  and  Eze- 
chias  reigned  over  Juda.  His  prophecies 
chiefly  regarded  the  kingdom  of  Israel. 
He  reproached  the  Israelites  for  their 
crimes,  idolatries,  rebellions,  and  perju- 
ries, and  at  the  same  time,  he  announced 
the  transportation  of  the  Jews  to  Babylon, 
their  return  into  Judea,  the  duration  of 
the  true  worship,  and  the  vocation  of  the 
Gentiles. 

Osee. — Last  king  of  Israel  (726-718  b.  c.  ), 
obtained  the  throne  through  the  assassina- 
tion of  Phacee.  Salmanasar  conquered 
him  and  led  him  away  into  captivity  to 
Babylon,  with  all  his  people. 

Osiander  (Andreas)  (1498-1552). — 
Famous  Protestant  theologian,  born  near 
Nuremberg,  was  one  of  the  first  preachers 
of  Luther's  doctrines,  assisted  at  the 
colloquium  of  Marburg  and  at  the  Diet  of 
Augsburg.  But  he  was  not  in  accord 
with   Luther  in   everything  and   claimed 


that  Jesus  Christ  has  been  mediator  in  the 
quality  of  God  only,  and  that  man  is  not 
justified  personally  either  by  faith,  or  by 
grace,  or  by  imputing  the  justice  of  Christ, 
as  Luther  and  Calvin  maintained,  but 
through  the  essential  justice  of  God, 
through  the  divine  nature  communicated 
to  the  justified  man.  All  his  works  are  on 
the  Index. 

Ostiary  (Lat.  osttarius).  —  In  the  early 
Church,  the  doorkeeper  or  janitor  of  a 
church.  The  office  of  ostiary  is  the  lowest 
of  minor  orders.  It  is  as  old  as  the  third 
century  in  the  Western  Church,  and  as  the 
fourth  in  the  Eastern  Church.  In  the 
primitive  Church  the  duties  of  this  office 
seem  to  have  been  discharged  by  deacons. 

The  office  of  the  ostiary  is  indicated  by 
the  words  spoken  by  the  bishop  in  his  or- 
dination. "Dearest  children  (or  child), 
who  are  about  to  receive  the  office  of 
doorkeeper,  observe  what  you  must  do  in 
the  house  of  God.  It  is  the  duty  of  the 
doorkeeper  to  strike  the  cymbal  and  ring 
the  bell,  to  open  the  church  and  the 
sanctuary,  and  the  book  for  him  who 
preaches.  Be  on  your  guard  therefore, 
lest  through  your  negligence  anything  in 
the  church  be  destroyed,  open  the  house 
of  God  at  certain  hours,  for  the  Faithful, 
and  always  close  it  to  infidels."  In  pre- 
senting them  the  keys  of  the  church,  the 
symbol  of  their  office,  which  they  touch 
with  their  hand,  the  bishop  says:  "Con- 
duct yourselves  as  having  to  render  an  ac- 
count to  God  for  those  things  which  are 
kept  under  these  keys." 

Os-wald  (St.).  — English  prelate.  Bishop 
of  Worcester,  died  in  922.  When  quite 
young  he  joined  the  Benedictines  and 
founded  the  monasteries  of  Westberg, 
Ramsay,  and  Worcester.  Anxious  to  in- 
troduce a  reform  in  his  diocese,  but  una- 
ble to  displace  the  corrupt  clergy  who 
occupied  the  old  cathedral  church,  he 
built  another  at  a  short  distance  from  it, 
which  was  served  by  the  regular  clergy, 
and  where  he  himself  said  Mass.  Many 
of  the  canons  attached  to  the  old  cathe- 
dral, seeing  themselves  abandoned  by  the 
people,  became  monks,  and  after  a  time 
the  church  reverted  to  the  bishop,  who 
handed  it  over  to  the  Benedictines. 

Otho  (St.)  — Bishop  of  Bamberg  in 
1 100.  Appointed  papal  legate  by  Pope 
Calixtus  II.    Otho,  in  1124,  entered  Pom- 


Othoniel 


SI5 


Paganism 


erania,  where  he  was  well  received,  and 
vast  numbers  were  baptized  in  the  cities 
of  Camin,  Julin,  and  Stettin.  He  returned 
to  Bamberg,  where  he  died  in  1139. 

Othoniel.  —  The  first  of  the  Judges  of 
Israel,  died  in  the  year  1065  b.  c.  Took 
from  the  Chanaanites  the  city  of  Kiryat- 


Sepher,  defeated  Chusai-Rischataim,  king 
of  Mesopotamia,  who  had  oppressed  the 
Israelites  during  eight  years.  This  victory 
assured  to  Israel  forty  years  of  peace,  dur- 
ing which  he  was  the  supreme  head  of 
the  people. 

Ozias.     See  Azarias. 


Pacca  (Bartholomew)  (1752-1844). — 
Prelate  and  statesman,  born  at  Benevent, 
died  in  Rome.  Archbishop  of  Damietta 
in  1785,  and  apostolic  nuncio  in  Cologne, 
1786;  cardinal  in  1801 ;  prosecretary  of 
State  in  1808.  Concurred  energetically  in 
the  protestation  of  the  Pope  against  the 
sacrilegious  act  which  robbed  him  of  his 
states  and  followed  Pius  VII.  into  France ; 
was  confined  at  Fenestrella  until  1813. 

Paccanarists.  —  Name  adopted  by  the 
Jesuits  or  "Fathers  of  the  Faith,"  re- 
organized about  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
century  by  Paccanari,  a  Tyrolian  priest. 

Pachomius  (St.). — The  founder  of 
Monasticism.  A  disciple  of  the  holy 
hermit  Palemon,  was  the  first  who  drew 
up  a  rule  for  monks,  and  became  the 
founder  of  the  first  monasteries.  The 
pious  recluses  living  under  his  direction 
went  by  the  name  of  monks,  that  is,  soli- 
taries, and  their  secluded  habitations  were 
denominated  monasteries,  or  mansions  of 
the  solitaries.  About  the  year  340,  he 
founded  a  monastery  on  the  island  of 
Tabennae  in  the  Nile,  in  which  his  monks 
lived  under  the  same  roof  and  after  the 
same  rule.  His  disciples  becoming  very 
numerous,  he  founded  eight  other  monas- 
teries—  seven  for  men,  and  one,  under  the 
directioit  of  his  sister,  for  women  —  all 
recognizing  a  common  superior,  called 
abbot  or  archimandrite.  At  his  death,  in 
348,  the  order  founded  by  him  numbered 
7,000  monks,  and  in  the  fifth  century  it 
counted  as  many  as  50,000.  The  Rule  of 
St.  Pachomius  was  translated  into  Latin 
by  St.  Jerome. 

Pacianus  (St.).  —  Bishop  of  Barcelona, 
died  in  391.  Father  of  the  Church,  fa- 
mous through  the  power  of  his  word,  com- 
bated the  error  of  the  Novatians.  His 
works  are  inserted  in  the  Library  of  the 
Fathers.     F.  March  9th. 


Paganism  (idolatry,  religion  of  the  pa- 
gans).—  Paganism,  which  constituted  the 
religion  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  was 
nothing  else  but  a  corruption,  and  disfig- 
uration of  the  primitive  religion.  St.  Paul 
gives,  as  the  starting  point  of  paganism, 
the  positive  knowledge  of  the  true  God 
(Rom.  i.  21),  knowledge  which  became 
more  and  more  darkened  in  the  course  of 
ages.  "  Of  what  antiquity,"  says  Bossuet, 
*'  could  paganism  boast,  which  could  not 
read  its  annals  without  finding  therein  the 
origin,  not  only  of  its  own  history,  but 
also  of  its  gods."  In  fact,  this  knowledge 
of  God  becoming  insensibly  effaced,  men 
turned  their  regard  toward  the  object  that 
struck  them  the  most  forcibly  and  offered 
to  the  objects  their  incense  and  prayers  as 
to  deities  :  the  sun,  the  moon,  fire,  thunder, 
and  lightning,  were  the  first  objects  of  their 
worship ;  then  the  great  men,  the  founders 
of  empires  and  kingdoms,  received  divine 
honors  in  their  turn.  Finally,  the  error 
continually  increasing,  they  ended  by  ren- 
dering worship  to  animals  and  plants ;  so 
that,  as  Bossuet  says,  "  everything  was  God, 
except  God  himself."  Indeed,  the  pagans 
had  completely  disfigured  the  image  of  the 
Deity.  They  made  gods  for  themselves, 
according  to  their  caprice,  as  the  god  Pri- 
ape,  which  an  artisan  made  out  of  a  piece 
of  wood,  intending  originally,  to  make  a 
table  thereof :  "  oli7n  truncus  eram  "  (Hor. 
I.  I,  Sat.  viii.).  In  all  the  religions  of  an- 
tiquity, says  the  Abb6  Gainet,  we  find 
some  fragments  of  the  primitive  and 
revealed  truth,  disfigured,  it  is  true, 
but  whose  origin  we  can  easily  recognize. 
All  parts  of  the  world  contain  precious 
fragments  agreeing  with  the  Bible ;  until 
under  the  veil  of  fable,  wherein  certain 
facts  are  disfigured,  others  perfectly  recog- 
nizable, we  recover  the  idea  of  the  Deity. 
However  altered  the  religious  idea  might 
have  been  in  paganism,  we  cannot  help 
recognizing,    that,    through    its    develop- 


Painting 


516 


Palestine 


ment  shines  a  remainder  of  truths  derived 
from  the  primitive  knowledge  of  revela- 
tion. Undoubtedly  these  truths  have  been 
mingled  with  false  and  superstitious  ideas ; 
however,  a  remainder  of  primitive  truth 
was  always  contained  in  the  coarse  bark  of 
error.  Especially  have  the  Fathers  of  the 
School  of  Alexandria  recognized  the  reflec- 
tions of  revelation  in  paganism  and  have 
attributed  them  to  the  universal  action  of 
the  Word  :  '•'■Krat  lux  vera  qucB  illuininat 
omnem  hominem  "  (John  i.  9).  We  find  in 
the  sacred  books  of  the  Persians  the  his- 
tory of  the  original  fall  in  terms  almost 
identical  with  those  of  the  Bible:  "The 
first  human  pair  was  originally  pure  and 
subject  to  Ormudz,  their  creator;  but 
Arhiman,  jealous  of  their  happiness,  pre- 
sented himself  to  them  under  the  form  of  an 
adder  and  offered  fruits  to  them,  and  made 
himself  to  be  adored  by  them ;  since  that 
time  nature  had  become  corrupt  and  all 
posterity  was  infected  by  it."  The  ancient 
Chaldeans  believed,  also,  in  a  fallen  man. 
Paganism  appears  to  us  under  three  prin- 
cipal forms :  the  lowest  degree  was  fetich- 
ism,  which  consists  in  the  simple  senti- 
ment of  a  blind  power  upon  which  man 
depends,  and  which  resides  indistinctly  in 
such  or  such  an  object  of  exterior  nature ; 
a  more  elevated  degree  was  polytheism, 
which  places  this  blind  power  in  the  great 
phenomena  of  nature,  which  are,  in  fact, 
divinities  themselves ;  finally,  the  third 
form  is  pantheism,  which  deifies  all  nature. 
The  historj'  of  paganism  is  mingled  with 
the  different  nations  that  have  practiced  it. 
But  since  the  light  of  Christianity  has  been 
shining  upon  the  world,  paganism  has  dis- 
appeared more  and  more,  just  like  the  stars 
at  the  approach  of  the  sun. 

Painting  (ancient  use  of)  in  Churches. 
—  In  those  ages  when  printing  was  un- 
known, the  pastors  of  the  Church  availed 
themselves  of  the  arts  to  represent  to  the 
people,  by  means  of  fresco-painting, 
mosaic-work,  and  sculpture,  executed  on 
the  walls  of  the  churches,  the  Scripture 
history,  and  the  truths  of  our  holy 
religion.  The  reason  was  obvious:  to 
the  Faithful,  these  were  instructive 
volumes,  written  in  intelligible  and  self- 
speaking  characters.  But  as  their  reli- 
gious instructors  justly  conceived  that  the 
guardians  of  the  faith  were  the  best  ex- 
pounders of  its  mysteries,  instead  of  per- 
mitting the  artist  to  select  and  treat  the 
subject  according  to  his  own  imagination, 


they  rather  employed  his  pencil  to  inscribe 
in  colors  what  they  dictated  to  him ;  and 
it  is  a  well  attested  fact  that,  in  the  first 
twelve  centuries  of  the  Church,  painters  and 
those  who  wrought  in  mosaic,  and  artists 
in  general,  were,  in  the  execution  of  their 
works,  permitted  to  exercise  their  own 
liberty  and  invention  no  further  than  in 
the  drawing  of  their  pieces.  The  bishop 
or  pastor  of  the  edifice  which  was  to  be 
ornamented,  not  merely  fixed  upon  the 
subjects,  but  invariably  prescribed  the  pre- 
cise manner  in  which  each  one  should  be 
treated  in  all  its  several,  and  even  its 
minutest  parts.  Nor  did  they  permit 
themselves  to  be  directed  by  their  own 
caprice,  while  guiding  the  labors  of  the 
painter  or  the  sculptor;  but  most  reli- 
giously adhered  to  the  traditions  which  had 
been  handed  down  to  them.  We  may, 
therefore,  rest  assured,  that  these  ancient 
monuments  are  faithful  and  authentic 
records,  not  of  the  opinion  of  laymen  and 
private  individuals,  but  of  the  public  doc- 
trine of  the  Church  at  the  period  when 
they  were  executed.     See  Art;  Images. 

Palamites. —  The  followers  of  Gregorius 
Palamas,  a  monk  of  Mount  Athos  in  the 
fourteenth  centurj*.  Simeon,  abbot  of  a 
monastery  at  Constantinople  in  the  elev- 
enth century,  taught,  that  by  fasting, 
prayer,  and  contemplation,  with  concen- 
tration of  thought  on  the  navel,  the  heart 
and  spirit  would  be  seen  within,  luminous 
with  a  visible  light.  This  light  was  be- 
lieved to  be  uncreated,  and  the  same  which 
was  seen  at  Christ's  transfiguration,  and  is 
known  accordingly  as  the  "  uncreated  light 
of  Mount  Thabor."  The  doctrine  was 
more  carefully  formulated  and  defended 
by  Palamas,  who  taught  that  there  exists 
a  divine  light,  eternal  and  uncreated,  which 
is  not  the  substance  or  essence  of  the 
Deity,  but  God's  activity  or  operation. 
The  Palamites  were  favored  by  the  Em- 
peror Joannes  Cantacuzenus,  and  their 
doctrine  was  confirmed  by  a  council  at 
Constantinople  in  1351.  They  were  called 
by  their  opponents  "Euchites  "  and  "  Mas- 
salians,"  also  "  Hesychasts  "  and  "  Umbili- 
cianians." 

Palestine. —  The  country  of  the  He- 
brews, a  territory  in  tlie  southern  part  of 
Syria.  Chief  city,  Jerusalem.  The  name 
is  ocoasionally  restricted  to  the  coast  re- 
gion of  the  Philistines,  but  is  usually  re- 
garded as  indicating  the  region  bounded 
by  the  Mediterranean  on  the  west  and  the 


Palestrina 


517 


Pallium 


desert  on  the  east,  and  on  the  south  by  an 
indefinite  line  extending  westward  from 
the  southern  extremity  of  the  Dead  Sea. 
On  the  north  it  is  regarded  as  bounded 
(  somewhat  indefinitely  )  by  the  region  of 
PhcEnicia,  Libanon,  and  Anti-Libanon. 
The  ancient  inhabitants  of  Palestine  were 
the  Chanaanites,  who  were  conquered 
later,  and  more  or  less  assimilated  with 
the  Israelites,  under  whom  the  country 
was  portioned  out  in  the  tribal  divisions 
of  the  children  of  Jacob.  The  divisions 
west  of  the  Jordan  in  the  time  of  Christ 
were  Judea  in  the  south,  Samaria  in  the 
center,  and  Galilee  in  the  north.  The 
country,  after  being  subject  for  a  time  to 
the  Romans,  passed  under  Mohammedan 
rule ;  was  held  by  the  Christians  tempora- 
rily during  the  Crusades;  and  since  1516- 
1517  has  been  in  the  possession  of  the 
Turkish  government.  Area  estimated 
10,000-11,000  square  miles.  Population 
somewhat  over  400,000. 

Palestrina  (Giovanni  Pierluigi  da) 
(1524-1594).  —  Born  at  Palestrina,  near 
Rome ;  died  at  Rome.  A  celebrated  Italian 
musician,  surnamed  "  Princeps  Musicae  " 
{Prince  of  Music).  He  was  chapel-master 
at  the  Lateran,  Vatican,  and  Santa  Maria 
Maggiore  in  Rome.  In  accordance  with 
resolutions  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  he 
composed  three  masses  in  1565,  setting  the 
standard  of  ecclesiastical  music.  For  this 
he  was  appointed  by  Pope  Julius  III.  com- 
poser to  the  Pontifical  choir.  He  is  con- 
sidered the  first  composer  who  united  art 
with  the  science  of  music,  and  his  works, 
all  sacred,  except  two  volumes  of  madrigals, 
mark  an  important  epoch  in  the  annals  of 
music.  He  left  between  90  and  100  masses, 
hymns  for  the  year,  about  60  motets,  and 
a  number  of  lamentations,  litanies,  etc. 

Pall  (Lat.  falla,  a  cloak). — A  small 
cloth  of  linen  used  to  cover  the  chalice  at 
Mass,  and  usually  stiffened  with  cardboard. 
The  pall  must  be  of  united  linen  cloth,  at 
least  as  to  the  part  which  touches  the  chal- 
ice. .  Before  using,  it  must  be  blessed. 
This  blessing  is  reserved  to  the  bishop  or 
to  a  priest  having  special  faculties.  The 
use  of  the  pall  appears  to  have  been  intro- 
duced into  the  Church  only  about  the 
eleventh  century,  when  the  people  ceased 
to  communicate  in  great  numbers  and 
when  the  unleavened  bread  was  reduced  to 
the  dimension  of  a  piece  of  coin.  Inno- 
cent III.  reports  that,  in  his  time,  they 
made  use  of  two  palls,  called  palla  domina 


and  falla  corf  oralis.,  the  latter  to  cover  the 
altar,  and  the  former  to  cover  the  chalice. 
The  ancient  custom  consisted  in  covering 
the  chalice  simply  with  the  corporal :  and 
this  custom  continued  to  exist  in  France 
until  the  twelfth  century.  The  corporal 
and  pall  symbolize  the  linen  cloth  bought 
by  Joseph  of  Arimathea  to  enfold  the  body 
of  the  Lord.     See  Corporal. 

Pall. —  Name  given  to  a  piece  of  cloth 
which  serves  to  cover  the  coffin  of  the 
dead  or  the  catafalque.  There  is  gener- 
ally a  figure  of  the  cross  on  it.  The  pall 
is  black  for  married  people;  white  for 
young  and  unmarried  people. 

Palladius  (St.).  —  Little  is  known  of 
the  early  career  of  St.  Palladius.  He  held 
the  high  office  of  deacon  of  the  Roman 
Church  under  Pope  Celestine,  by  whom 
he  was  consecrated  bishop  and  sent  to 
preach  the  Gospel  "  to  the  Scots,"  as  the 
Irish  were  then  called.  In  company  with 
four  other  missionaries,  St.  Palladius,  in 
the  year  431,  entered  upon  his  mission  in 
Ireland.  His  preaching,  however,  was  not 
destined  to  bear  much  fruit  or  gather  the 
Irish  into  the  fold  of  Christ.  Meeting 
with  opposition  from  the  Druids  and  local 
chiefs,  he  sailed  away  the  following  year 
to  the  north,  and,  landing  in  modern 
Scotland,  became  the  apostle  of  the  Picts. 
Here  he  preached  with  great  zeal  and 
formed  in  the  Lowlands  a  considerable 
Church.  After  an  apostolate  of  nearly 
twenty  years,  St.  Palladius  died  in  450. 

Palladius  of  Galatia  (368-430). —  Bishop 
of  Hellenopolis.  He  wrote  a  history  of 
the  monks  and  anchorets  of  both  sexes 
living  in  his  time. 

Pallavicini  (Piktro  Sforza)  (1607- 
1667) .  —  The  celebrated  historian  of  the 
Council  of  Trent,  born  and  died  at  Rome ; 
after  having  been  governor  of  several 
cities  he  joined  the  Jesuits;  was  charged 
by  Innocent  X.  with  important  affairs. 
Cardinal  in  1657. 

Pallium. — The  name  given  by  the  Cath- 
olic Church  to  one  of  the  ecclesiastical 
ornaments  worn  by  the  Pope,  patriarchs 
and  archbishops.  The  pallium  is  made 
of  white  wool  obtained  from  the  first  fleece 
of  two  lambs  which,  each  year,  are  blessed 
in  the  Church  of  St.  Agnes,  on  that  saint's 
feast  day,  and  then  entrusted  to  religious 
who  take  care  of  them  until  the  shearing 
time.     The  palliums,  having  been  blessed 


Palm  Sunday 


518 


Pantaenus 


by  the  Pope,  are  sent  to  metropolitans,  as 
a  symbol  of  ecclesiastical  union.  Worn 
about  the  shoulders,  they  symbolize  the 
lost  sheep  which  has  been  found  and  is  now 
borne  back  on  the  shoulders  of  the  good 
shepherd.  The  origin  of  the  pallium  is 
very  ancient,  but  uncertain.  Some  authors 
believe  that  this  vestment  is  nothing  else 
than  the  cloak  presented  by  the  emperors 
of  Constantinople  to  the  Roman  Pontiffs 
and  patriarchs,  as  an  emblem  of  their  dig- 
nity. In  the  sixth  century,  the  Popes, 
when  they  granted  the  pallium  to  bishops 
who  were  not  subjects  to  the  Greek  em- 
pire,were  in  the  habit  of  asking  first  the  per- 
mission of  the  emperor.  The  latter,  besides, 
claimed  the  right  to  grant  it  directly.  In 
the  seventh  century,  Maurus,  archbishop 
of  Ravenna,  requested  it  from  the  Emperor 
Constans  II.,  and  obtained  it.  On  the 
other  hand,  we  see  that  most  of  the  authors 
have  regarded  the  pallium  as  a  sacred  vest- 
ment and  the  symbol  of  a  holy  thing. 
They  considered  it  as  a  relic,  as  a  sort  of  a 
cloak  of  St.  Peter.  Before  sending  it  to 
the  person  appointed,  they  deposited  the 
same,  during  one  night,  in  the  sanctuary 
of  the  confession,  right  on  the  tomb  of  the 
Apostle  St.  Peter.  Hence  the  idea  of  a 
sort  of  transmission  of  power,  like  that 
which  was  symbolized  by  the  cloak  of 
Elias,  bequeathed  to  his  successor,  Eliseus. 
Baronius  quotes  a  Constitution  of  Pope  St. 
Mark,  which  gives  to  the  bishop  of  Ostia 
the  right  to  wear  the  pallium  when  he 
fulfills  the  office  devolved  on  him  of  con- 
secrating bishop  the  one  elected  to  the 
dignity  of  sovereign  Pontiff,  if  he  is  not 
this  already.  In  the  first  centuries  the  pal- 
lium had  probably  a  more  ample  form. 

Palm  Sunday. — The  last  Sunday  of  Lent, 
is  so  called  from  the  custom  of  blessing 
branches  of  the  palm  tree,  or  of  other  trees 
substituted  in  those  countries  in  which 
palms  cannot  be  procured,  and  of  carrying 
the  blessed  branches  in  procession,  in  com- 
memoration of  the  triumphant  entry  of  our 
Lord  into  Jerusalem.  The  date  of  this 
ceremony  is  uncertain,  but  though  it  has 
been  in  use  in  the  East  since  the  fifth  cen- 
tury, there  is  no  evident  proof  that  it  was 
established  in  the  Western  Church  before 
the  sixth  century. 

Palmyra  or  Tadmor.  —  A  city  founded 
by  Solomon  in  the  desert  of  Syria,  on  the 
borders  of  Arabia  Deserta,  near  the 
Euphrates.     The  Greeks  called  it  Palmyra. 


Its  situation  was  remote  from  human  habi- 
tations, in  the  midst  of  a  dreary  wilder- 
ness; and  it  is  probable  that  Solomon 
built  it  to  facilitate  his  commerce  with  the 
East,  as  it  afforded  a  supply  of  water,  a 
thing  of  the  utmost  importance  in  an  Ara- 
bian desert.  It  is  one  day's  journey  from 
the  Euphrates,  two  from  Upper  Syria,  and 
six  from  Babylon.  It  submitted  to  the 
Romans  about  the  year  130  a.  d.,  and  con- 
tinued in  alliance  with  them  during  a 
period  of  150  years.  When  the  Saracens 
triumphed  in  the  East,  they  acquired  pos- 
session of  this  city,  and  restored  its  ancient 
name  of  Tadmor. 

Pamphylia.  —  A  province  of  Asia  Minor, 
having  Cilica  east,  Lycia  west,  Pisidia 
north,  and  the  Mediterranean  south.  It  is 
opposite  to  Cyprus  and  the  sea  between 
the  coast  and  the  island  is  called  the  "  Sea 
of  Pamphylia."  The  chief  city  of  Pam- 
phylia was  Perga,  where  St.  Paul  and  St. 
Barnabas  preached  (Acts  xiii,  13). 

Pamphylus  (St.). — Born  in  Berytus  and  a 
presbyter  of  Csesarea  in  Palestine.  Wrote 
an  Apology  for  Origen  in  six  books,  of 
which  only  a  portion  remains  in  a  transla- 
tion by  Rufinus.  He  was  the  founder  of 
the  celebrated  library  at  Caesarea.  To  him 
also  is  ascribed  the  division  of  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles  into  chapters.  He  suffered 
martyrdom  at  Caesarea  in  309. 

Pange  Lingua.  —  One  of  the  most  re- 
markable hymns  of  the  Roman  Breviary, 
and  like  its  kindred  hymn,  Lauda  Sion,  a 
most  characteristic  example  as  well  of  the 
mediaeval  Latin  versification  as  of  that 
union  of  theology  with  asceticism  which  a 
large  class  of  these  hymns  present.  The 
Pange  Lingua  is  a  hymn  in  honor  of  the 
Eucharist,  and  belongs  to  the  service  of 
the  festival  of  Corpus  Christi.  It  is  from 
the  pen  of  the  great  angelic  Doctor, 
Thomas  Aquinas.     See  Hymns. 

Pantaenus  (St.)  (155-214). — Doctor  of 
the  Church  and  apostle  of  the  Hindoos, 
born  in  Sicily.  Stoic  philosopher,  was 
converted  by  one  of  the  disciples  of  the 
Apostles  and  was  appointed  master  of  the 
Catechetical  School  at  Alexandria,  Egypt, 
by  Bishop  Julian,  about  the  year  179.  The 
school,  which  was  originally  intended 
solely  for  converts,  was,  under  Pantasnus 
developed  on  a  wider  basis  and  open  to 
all.  Besides  expounding  the  Sacred 
Scriptures,    Pantaenus    also    lectured    on 


Pantheism 


519 


Pantheism 


philosophy.  His  teachings  were  chiefly 
oral.  He  wrote  valued  commentaries  on 
the  Holy  Scriptures,  of  which  only  a  few 
scanty  specimens  remain. 

Pantheism  (System  of  those  who  admit 
no  other  God  but  an  infinite  substance  of 
which  all  the  beings  are  modes).  —  System 
which  teaches  that  God  is  only  one  and  the 
same  thing  with  the  universality  of  beings. 
It  manifests  itself  under  two  forms  :  i.  God 
absorbing  the  universe :  God  in  all  (Spi- 
noza). 2.  The  universe  absorbing  God  :  all 
in  God  (Hegel).  Origin. — Pantheism 
had  representatives  at  all  times.  We  find 
it  in  India  among  the  Brahmans,  the  Veda, 
the  code  of  Manu;  in  Greece  with  the 
Eleatic  philosophers ;  in  Alexandria  with 
Plotinus ;  in  the  Middle  Ages  with  Aver- 
roes  and  David  of  Dinand ;  later  on,  in 
Holland  with  Spinoza;  in  Germany  in  the 
criticism  of  Kant,  from  which  went  forth 
the  modern  pantheism  of  Fichte,  Schelling, 
Hegel ;  in  France,  the  Eclectism.  Spinoza, 
starting  with  a  badly  understood  idea  of 
Descartes,  admits  only  one  substance  and, 
outside  of  it,  simple  manifestations,  the 
idea  and  the  extent.  Leibnitz,  in  his  the- 
ory of  monadology,  touched  lightly  on 
pantheism,  for,  in  the  series  of  monads,  we 
have  to  admit  a  last  term,  but,  if  this  last 
term, this  supreme  monad,  monas  monadum, 
continues  the  series,  this  is  pantheism. 
The  adherents  of  Leibnitz,  Wolff,  and 
others,  have  escaped  this  consequence  only 
in  acknowledging  that  it  is  necessary  to 
place  the  last  term  outside  the  series. 
Only  under  this  condition  is  the  dogma  of 
creation  maintained.  Modern  pantheists 
have  taken  a  step  backward :  instead  of 
the  substance  and  its  two  modes,  they  have 
put  the  real  and  ideal,  as  the  poles  of  the 
same  Being  of  the  great  All  which  they 
also  call  the  Absolute.  We  will  not  speak 
of  the  utopice  of  Saint-Simon  de  Fourier, 
and  others,  derived  from  the  doctrines  of 
Hegel,  theories  which  never  had  any  scien- 
tific claims.  Division.  —  There  are  two 
theories  of  pantheism  :  r.  Some  admit  one 
sole  infinite  substance,  with  modifications 
of  a  finite  mode,  a  substance  which  mani- 
fests itself  by  means  of  immanent  opera- 
tions. 2.  Others  admit  an  infinite  substance 
which,  by  an  exterior  and  passing  act, 
draws,  from  itself,  from  the  infinite  beings, 
permanent  operations,  which  manifest  it 
by  means  of  an  indefinite  progress.  All 
the  theories  of  pantheism  are  founded 
upon  a  false  principle,  in  regard  to  sub- 


stance and  the  infinite.  What  is  that  sub- 
stance .?  What  reason  have  they  to  sacrifice 
to  it  the  personal,  intelligent,  and  free 
Being?  And  what  becomes  of  our  per- 
sonality, of  our  liberty  in  the  midst  of 
these  shateeless  ideas,  which  confound 
the  universe  with  the  divine  essence, 
the  Creator  with  the  creature?  Science, 
better  enlightened,  and  supported  upon 
reason  and  revelation,  has  done  justice  to 
the  hypothesis,  which  constitutes  the  basis 
of  pantheism.  St.  Thomas  had  already 
answered  all  these  aberrations  of  the  hu- 
man mind  in  refuting  Averroism,  that  is, 
one  of  the  most  perfidious  and  most  ac- 
credited forms  of  pantheism.  Besides,  he 
refutes  the  error  of  David  of  Dinand, 
which  confounded  (like  our  modern  pan- 
theists) God  with  first  matter;  the  holy 
Doctor  remarks  "  that  there  is  confusion 
in  the  terms,  that  if  we  can  say  that  in  God 
and  in  primitive  matter,  there  are  similar 
qualities,  as,  for  instance,  substance,  it 
does  not  follow  that  it  is  one  and  the  same 
thing,  and  that,  if  we  cannot  strictly  say 
that  God  and  primitive  matter  are  different 
things,  we  can  say,  at  least,  that  they  are 
diverse."  In  the  question  following,  St. 
Thomas,  answering  the  first  objection, 
says  "  that  the  things  may  be,  all  at  once, 
similar  and  dissimilar  to  God ;  similar  be- 
cause they  imitate  Him;  dissimilar  because 
they  are  inferior  to  their  cause,  not  only 
in  degree,  but  also  as  to  kind  and  spe- 
cies." One  cannot  establish  more  clearly 
the  infinite  distance  which  exists  between 
God  and  the  creature  !  St.  Thomas  had, 
therefore,  solved  all  the  questions  possible 
about  substance.  By  his  strict  and  inflex- 
ible logic,  the  great  Doctor  had  overthrown 
the  monster,  that  is,  the  great  heresy.  We 
can  say,  that  by  restoring  the  true  concep- 
tion of  a  God  essentially  distinct  from  the 
creatures,  he  had  raised  Catholic  reason  to 
its  highest  power.  Remarkable  thing !  all 
those  who  wished  to  deviate  from  the  doc- 
trine of  St.  Thomas  have  generally  fallen 
into  the  pit.  Modern  heresies,  Jansenism 
Qixietism,  are,  under  appearances  of  a 
false  mysticism,  only  a  disguised  panthe- 
ism. Revolution  and  radicalism,  which 
have  begotten  Socialism  and  Nihilism  and 
all  the  social  heresies,  are  only  the  natural 
fruit  of  Pantheism.  Now,  if  we  have  to 
judge  the  tree  by  its  fruit.  Pantheism  is, 
therefore,  the  great  plague  of  our  time,  the 
fatal  and  fecund  error  which  the  Vatican 
Council  has  justly  struck  with  its  anath- 
ema. 


Pantheon 


520 


Paracleticon 


Pantheon  (temple  consecrated  to  all  the 
gods) .  —  The  Pantheon  of  Rome  is  a  build- 
ing constructed  under  Augustus  at  the 
expense  of  Agrippa  (26  b.  c.)-  Burned 
under  Titus  and  Trajan,  restored  by  Had- 
rian and  Severus,  then  sacked  by  the  Bar- 
barians, in  1610,  Pope  Boniface  IV. 
turned  it  into  a  Christian  Church,  dedi- 
cated it  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  and  all  the 
saints,  whence  its  present  name  "  Sancta 
Maria  ad  Martyres,"  or  more  commonly 
called  "  Santa  Maria  Rotunda,"  on  account 
of  its  circular  form.  The  interior  diameter 
is  1423^  feet,  and  the  height  to  the  apex  is 
the  same.  The  lighting  of  the  interior 
comes  solely  from  an  open  circle,  28  feet  in 
diameter,  at  the  summit  of  the  dome. 
Raphael,  Annibali  Caracci,  and  Victor 
Emmuel  II.,  are  buried  in  the  Pantheon. 

Papa.     See  Popk. 

Papal  States.  —  A  name  formerly  given 
to  a  territory,  or  rather  group  of  states,  in 
Central  Italv,  once  united  under  one  sov- 
ereignty, with  the  Pope  for  its  head.  It 
was  an  expansive  area,  irregular  in  form, 
resembling  the  letter  Z,  the  upper  portion 
lying  to  the  east  of  the  Apennines,  the 
lower  to  the  west  of  that  range,  these  two 
being  connected  by  a  third  strip,  which 
crossed  the  peninsula  from  east  to  west. 
The  Papal  states  were  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  Po,  on  the  south  by  Naples, 
on  the  east  by  the  Gulf  of  Venice  and 
Naples,  and  on  the  west  by  Modena,  Tus- 
cany, and  the  Tyrrhene  sea.  Detached 
portions,  as  Benevento  and  Pontecorvo, 
lay  within  the  Neapolitan  territory. 
Nearly  all  the  territory  was  annexed  to 
Italy  in  i860;  and  the  remainder  in  1870. 
See  Pepin  the  Short  and  Charlemagne. 

Papebroch  (Daniel)  (1628-1714).— 
Jesuit  and  BoUandist,  born  at  Antwerp. 
Labored  at  the  Acta  Sanctorum;  drew  up 
the  months  of  March,  April,  May,  and 
June;  was  condemned  by  the  Spanish  In- 
quisition for  having  questioned  the  founda- 
tion of  the  Carmelites  by  the  Prophet 
Elias. 

Paphnutius  (St.).  —  Monk  and  bishop  of 
the  Thebaid,  born  in  Egypt,  died  about 
350.  Combated  Arianism  at  Nice,  in  325, 
and  suffered  martyrdom  during  the  tenth 
persecution.     F.  Sept.  nth. 

Paphos. — The  name  of  two  cities  in 
Cyprus ;  here  is  question  of  the  maritime 
city  on  the  western  extremity  of  the  isle. 


It  had  a  tolerable  harbor,  and  was  the  sta- 
tion of  a  Roman  proconsul.  About  sixty 
stadia  or  nearly  eight  miles  from  the  city 
was  the  celebrated  temple  of  Venus,  who 
was  hence  often  called  the  "  Paphian  god- 
dess "     (Acts  xiii.  6,  13). 

Papias  (St.).  —  Bishop  of  Hierapolis. 
He  is  often  mentioned  with  distinction  by 
Christian  antiquity,  and  is  said  by  St. 
Irenaeus  to  have  been  a  disciple  of  St.  John 
the  E^•angelist  and  a  friend  of  St.  Polycarp. 
He  was  a  man  of  great  erudition  and  Bib- 
lical knowledge,  and  took  special  care  to 
collect  the  oral  traditions  concerning  the 
life  and  discourses  of  our  Saviour.  But  he 
was  rather  deficient  in  critical  judgment 
and  method,  often  taking  figurative  expres- 
sions in  the  literal  sense.  This,  of  course, 
proved  a  fruitful  source  of  other  errors 
and  mistaken  ideas.  Whether  he  ended 
his  pious  and  zealous  life  by  a  martyr's 
death  is  uncertain.  He  is  supposed  to 
have  lived  between  80-160.  Of  the  work 
which  he  composed  between  130-150,  un- 
der the  name  of  Books  of  Explanation  of 
the  Lord's  Sayings,  and  which  was  still  in 
existence  in  the  thirteenth  century,  there 
are  but  ten  fragments  preserved  to  us  by 
Irenaeus,  Eusebius,  and  others.  They  con- 
tain notices  of  his  studies,  researches  into 
the  miracles  of  his  time,  and  observations 
on  the  Gospels  of  St.  Mark  and  St.  Luke, 
and  on  the  four  Maries  mentioned  in  the 
Gospels. 

Parable,  was  originally  the  name  given 
by  the  Greek  rhetoricians  to  an  illustration, 
avowedly  introduced  as  such.  In  Hellen- 
istic and  the  New  Greek  Testament,  it 
came  to  signify  an  independent,  fictitious 
narrative,  employed  for  the  illustration  of 
a  moral  rule  or  principle.  This  kind  of  il- 
lustration is  of  eastern  origin ;  and  admira- 
ble examples  are  to  be  found  in  both  the 
Old  and  New  Testament,  particularly  in 
the  discourses  of  our  Lord. 

Parabolani.  —  In  the  early  Church,  in 
the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  centuries,  a 
class  of  lay  assistants  to  the  clergy,  whose 
special  function  was  nursing  the  sick. 
The  name  is  generally  ascribed  to  the  fact 
of  their  reckless  bravery  in  nursing  pa- 
tients suffering  from  infectious  diseases. 

Paraclete.  —  Comforter,  name  given  to 
the  Holy  Ghost. 

Paracleticon.  —  A  liturgical  book  of  the 
Greek  Church,  in  which  are  found  consol- 
ing discourses. 


Paradise 


521 


Paradise 


Paradise  {Earthly).  —  In  Holy  Scrip- 
ture, the  word  paradise  properly  speaking 
signifies  an  orchard ;  sometimes  it  means  a 
grove.  The  Septuagint  employed  this 
term  in  speaking  of  the  Garden  of  Eden. 
In  the  New  Testament  the  word  paradise 
means  a  place  of  delight,  where  the 
blessed  enjoy  eternal  beatitude.  (See 
Heaven.)  The  traditions  which  the  Bi- 
ble has  bequeathed  to  us,  relative  to  the 
cradle  of  humanity,  have  been  at  all  times 
the  object  of  attacks  by.  the  enemies  of 
faith.  We  do  not  need  to  discuss  here  the 
objections  made  to  the  history  of  Eden  in 
the  name  of  rationalistic  philosophy, 
which  rejects  both  the  possibility  of  the 
miracle  and  the  idea  of   an  original   Fall. 

We  will  keep  strictly  to  the  Biblical 
point  of  view,  to  refute  another  objection 
conceived  in  the  following  terms:  *'The 
Bible  gives,  on  the  situation  of  Eden,  quite 
precise  geographical  indications.  Now, 
when  we  attempt,  according  to  these  ac- 
counts, to  fix  the  site  of  Paradise,  we  find 
ourselves  faced  with  all  kinds  of  "impossi- 
bilities; but  if  the  Bible  is  deceived  about 
the  site  of  Eden  it  may  also  be  deceived  on 
its  very  existence." 

To  show  the  little  value  of  this  objection 
let  us  inquire  first  about  the  indications 
contained  in  Genesis  :  '*  A  river  went  out 
of  the  place  of  pleasure  to  water  paradise, 
which  from  thence  is  divided  into  four 
heads.  The  name  of  the  one  is  Phison; 
that  is  it  which  compasseth  all  the  land  of 
Havilah,  where  gold  groweth,  and  the  gold 
of  that  land  is  very  good;  there  also  is 
found  bdellium  and  the  onyx  ( soham ) 
stone.  And  the  name  of  the  second  river 
is  Gehon ;  the  same  is  it  that  compasseth  all 
the  land  of  Ethiopia  (  Kusch  ).  And  the 
name  of  the  third  river  is  Tigris  (  Hidde- 
kel ) ;  the  same  passeth  along  by  Assyria. 
And  the  fourth  river  is  Euphrates  "  (  Gen. 
ii.  10-14).  Even  if,  after  these  indications, 
it  should  be  impossible  to-day  to  assign  a 
place  to  the  earthly  paradise,  even  if  sev- 
eral systems  imagined  in  regard  to  this 
subject  are  clearly  erroneous,  as  appears  to 
be  the  case,  for  instance,  the  hypothesis 
which  places  Eden  in  India,  it  would  not 
follow  that  the  Biblical  account  is  forged. 
We  do  not  know  the  ancient  geography 
well  enough,  especially  that  of  so  remote 
times,  to  have  the  right  to  be  so  assertive 
and  to  regard  as  false  what  we  do  not  un- 
derstand. But,  indeed,  several  hypotheses 
imagined  as  to  the  site  of  Eden  are  pos- 
sible, although   more  or  less  improbable, 


and  it  is  sufficient  that  they  are  plausible 
for  the  refutation  of  the  objections  raised 
by  the  critics.  Following  is  a  concise  re- 
view of  these  various  systems :  — 

I.  Henry  Rawlinson  places  Eden  in 
Babylonia,  and  for  this  he  relies  upon  in- 
digenous documents  which  call  Babylonia 
Gan  Duniyas  {the  inclosure  of  the  God 
Duniyas),  a  name  which  resembles  Gan- 
Eden  (Garden  of  Eden)  of  Genesis.  Raw- 
linson, being  still  more  precise,  indicates 
the  city  of  Eridu  as  the  site  of  paradise. 
Indeed,  we  find  in  Chaldean  hymns,  pas- 
sages like  this:  "In  Eridu  a  dark  pine 
grew,  in  an  illustrious  place  it  was 
planted;  its  fruit  was  of  white  crystal. 
.  In  Eridu  fruitful  abundance  of  its 
plenitude;  its  seat  is  the  (central)  place 
of  the  earth."  In  this  theory  there  is  no 
difficulty  in  identifying  the  Tigris  and 
Euphrates,  two  well-known  rivers  water- 
ing the  plain  of  Babylon.  As  to  the 
Gehon,  it  is  the  yuha  that  waters  Eridu. 
Finally,  the  Phison,  it  is  the  stream  called 
Ugne.  This  hypothesis,  which  is  a  re- 
vival of  that  of  the  learned  Huet,  has 
hardly  any  probability  in  its  favor,  as  can 
be  seen  by  the  following  theory;  but,  rig- 
orously speaking,  it  is  possible,  and  this  is 
sufficient  to  show  that  the  veracity  of 
Genesis  as  to  this  point  is  scientifically 
unassailable. 

Z.  Fr.  Delitzsch  also  places  the  Eden  in 
Babylonia,  and  he  sees  it  in  the  center  of 
Babylon,  called  very  anciently  Tintira 
{grove  of  life).  How  does  the  learned 
Orientalist  arrive  at  this  result?  For  him, 
the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  named  by  Genesis 
are  the  two  rivers  of  this  name  which  water 
Babylonia.  As  to  the  Gehon  and  Phison, 
to  succeed  in  identifying  them,  Delitzsch 
at  first  tries  to  identify  the  two  countries 
which  they  water,  Kusch  and  Havilah. 
Kusch  is  the  Sumerian-Elamitic  power 
which,  three  thousand  years  before  Christ, 
dominated  in  central  Babylonia;  its  name 
was  Kassi  or  Kaschi,  hence  the  ancient 
name  of  the  Chaldeans,  Kasda.  As  to 
Havilah,  whose  name  signifies  sandy  land, 
it  is  that  portion  of  the  Syrian  desert  which 
limits  the  Euphrates :  indeed,  we  find  in 
this  place  the  products  mentioned  by  Gen- 
esis. Thus  Havilah  is  on  the  western  shore 
of  the  Euphrates  and  Kusch  is  on  the  east- 
ern shore.  Therefore,  Eden  can  be  only 
that  plain  which  forms,  so  to  say,  a  garden 
around  Babylon.  As  to  the  Phison  and 
Gehon,  they  are  two  of  the  canals  surround- 
ing Babylon,  and  probably  two  of  the  most 


Paradise 


522 


Paradise 


important,  the  Pallacopas  and  the  Schatt 
on  the  Nile.  The  latter  canal  was  called 
in  Sumerian,  Ka-hanna;  now  the  sign 
which  expresses  Ka  may  also  be  translated 
by  Gu;  therefore,  we  can  read  instead  of 
Kahan,  Guhan,  a  name  which  sufficiently 
approaches  Gehon.  As  to  the  Phison, 
neither  Pallacopas  nor  any  other  canal  has 
ever  carried  a  name  that  resembles  that  of 
Phison;  but  canal  in  the  Sumerian  lan- 
guage is  called  pisan,  and  it  may  be  that 
the  Babylonians  did  pre-eminently  call  the 
Pallacopas  canal,  pisan  (Phison).  Finally, 
the  word  Eden  is  derived  from  the  Sume- 
rian edin,  desert,  which  originally  signified 
depression  of  ground. 

This  theory  might  be  true  without  giv- 
ing any  one  the  right  to  conclude  there- 
from, with  its  author,  that  the  account 
of  Genesis  is  only  a  myth  of  Babylonian 
origin.  But,  in  fact,  it  seems,  if  not  im- 
possible, at  least  very  difficult  to  see  in  the 
Babylonian  plain  the  Eden  of  Genesis:  (i) 
When  Genesis  speaks  of  this  plain,  it  calls 
it  Sennaar  and  not  Eden.  (2)  The  indig- 
enous documents  give  to  the  Babylonian 
plain  neither  the  name  of  Eden  nor  any 
other  that  approaches  it.  (3)  We  see  (Gen. 
xi.)  that  mankind  after  the  Deluge  finds  a 
plain  in  the  land  of  Sennaar,  where  they 
establish  themselves;  this  fact  seems  to 
indicate  that  the  plain  of  Sennaar  had  been 
unknown  to  men  until  after  the  Deluge. 

(4)  In  the  Bible,  the  Phison  and  Gehon 
are  the  two  most  important  rivers ;  in  the 
theory  of  Delitzsch  they  hold  only  a  sec- 
ondary place  and  consist  of  simple  canals. 

(5)  If  the  word  Eden  in  the  Sumerian 
language  signifies  plain,  it  is  in  the  sense 
of  a  dry  plain  or  plateau  and  not  a  fruitful 
plain. 

3.  The  most  probable  hypothesis  is  that 
which  seeks  the  site  of  Eden  at  the  sources 
of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  that  is,  in 
Armenia.  Therefore,  "the  Phison  is," 
says  Vigouroux,  "  either  the  Phase  of  the 
ancients,  which  flows  from  east  to  west 
and  empties  into  the  Dead  Sea,  or  the  Kur, 
the  Cyrus  of  the  ancients,  which  takes  its 
source  in  the  neighborhood  of  Kars,  not 
far  from  the  western  source  of  the  Euphra- 
tes, and  then  empties  into  the  Caspian 
sea,  after  having  mingled  its  water  with 
that  of  the  Araxes.  Havilah,  which  the 
Phison  waters,  is  Colchis,  the  country  of 
precious  metals,  whither  the  Argonauts 
went  to  seek  the  golden  fleece.  As  to  the 
Gehon,  it  is  the  Aras  of  to-day,  the  an- 
cient Araxes,  called  by  the  Arabs  Djaichum 


(or  Gehon)  er  Ras,  which  rises  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  eastern  source  of  the 
Euphrates,  and  together  with  the  Kur  emp- 
ties into  the  Caspian  sea.  The  land  of 
Kusch  through  which  it  passes,  according 
to  Genesis,  is  the  country  of  the  Kosseans, 
Cassiotis.''  One  can  allege  nothing  against 
this  hypothesis,  defended  especially  by 
Calmet;  be  it  as  it  may,  it  is  sufficient 
that  it  will  ably  cut  short  all  attacks 
on  the  veracity  of  Genesis.  Besides,  the 
best  constructed  theory  as  to  the  subject  of 
the  site  of  Eden  will,  probably,  alwajs  re- 
main a  hypothesis.  Since  the  creation  of 
man,  certain  portions  of  the  earth  have 
been  overthrown,  either  by  the  Deluge  or 
by  other  revolutions,  and  undoubtedly  it 
entered  the  designs  of  divine  Providence 
that  the  earthly  paradise  should  be  com- 
prised among  these  destructions  :  first,  God 
caused  it  to  be  guarded  by  Cherubim ; 
then  He  took  care  that  His  sentence  was 
executed  by  a  still  more  radical  measure, 
namely,  by  rendering  its  site  unrecogniza- 
ble. Henceforth,  men  should  pass  the 
places  where  formerly  the  Garden  of  Eden 
was  situated,  without  being  aware  of  do- 
ing so. 

The  traditions  of  the  earthly  paradise 
have  been  preserved  among  many  nations. 
Several  of  them  locate  the  cradle  of  hu- 
manity among  the  high  mountains  of 
Central  Asia,  where  the  great  Asiatic  riv- 
ers have  their  sources.  According  to  the 
Hindoos,  the  four  or  five  great  rivers  rose 
toward  the  north  of  the  sacred  mountain, 
the  Meru  (Himalaya)  or  Pamir,  to  direct 
themselves  toward  different  points  of  the 
world.  The  ancient  Iranians  placed  it  in 
the  North,  on  Mount  Hukairya,  one  of  the 
peaks  of  the  sacred  mountain,  Hara- 
Baerezaiti,  also  called  Albordji,  whose 
summits  reached  unto  heaven,  to  the 
revivifying  waters  of  Ardvi-Cure,  which 
had  their  source  in  heaven  itself,  thus  ob- 
taining the  power  to  fructify  the  earth. 
The  Chinese  describe  the  cradle  of  man- 
kind thus:  "It  is  a  mountain  situated 
in  the  middle  of  the  central  plateau  of 
Asia,  forming  part  of  the  mountainous  re- 
gion of  Kuen-Lun.  In  the  midst  of  this 
mountain  there  is  a  garden  where  con- 
stantly a  tender  zephyr  breathes  and 
moves  the  leaves  of  the  beautiful  Tong. 
This  delightful  garden  is  situated  close  to 
the  gates  of  heaven.  The  waters  which 
furrow  it  proceed  from  a  beautiful  yellow 
source,  called  the  source  of  immortality ; 
those  who  drink  thereof  will  never  die.    It 


Paralipomena 


523 


Parents 


branches  off  into  four  rivers  flowing 
toward  the  north,  west,  south,  and  east. 
(Cf.  Liicken,  Uberlieferungen,  Vol.  I,  p. 
100. 

Paralipomena. — Name  which  the  Sep- 
tuagint  have  given  to  the  two  Books  fol- 
lowing those  of  Kings.  They  form  a  sort 
of  supplement  to  the  history  of  the  Israel- 
ites, from  almost  the  creation  of  the  world 
to  the  return  of  the  Israelites  from  the 
Babylonian  captivity.  St.  Jerome  assures 
us  that  these  two  Books  contain  very  im- 
portant things  for  the  explanation  of  Holy 
Scripture,  that  the  tradition  of  Sacred 
Writ  is  contained  therein,  and  that  we  find 
in  them  quite  a  number  of  questions  fully 
solved  in  regard  to  the  Gospel.  Very 
probably  the  author  of  the  Paralipomena 
was  no  other  than  Esdras. 

Parasceve.  —  Name  given  by  the  Jews 
to  the  day  of  Friday,  the  eve  of  the  Sab- 
bath. Because  it  was  not  permitted  to 
prepare  anything  to  eat  on  the  day  of  the 
Sabbath,  they  prepared  their  nourishment 
the  evening  before.  St.  John  tells  us  that 
the  Friday,  the  day  on  which  Jesus  Christ 
suffered  death,  was  the  Parasceve  of  the 
Pasch,  and  it  can  be  seen,  in  the  Gospels, 
that  they  hastened  to  take  down  from  the 
Cross  the  body  of  Christ,  because  it  was  on 
the  evening  of  the  Parasceve,  and  the  Sab- 
bath soon  began.  The  Church  has  pre- 
served the  name  Parasceve  in  the  Missal 
for  Good  Friday. 

Parents  {Duties  of  Children  toward 
Their). — Children  must  love,  honor,  and 
respect  their  parents,  because  they  are  the 
secondary  authors  of  their  existence,  and 
the  natural  representatives  of  God's  author- 
ity. To  honor  our  parents  we  should  re- 
spect them  in  our  hearts,  with  a  senti- 
ment of  veneration;  and  in  our  manner 
and  words,  by  the  consideration  and  at- 
tention which  it  is  our  unquestionable 
duty  to  evince.  We  should  love  them 
with  that  instinct  of  affection,  which  shows 
itself  spontaneously  in  all  nature,  however 
inferior  to  our  own.  How  greatly,  there- 
fore, ought  we  to  cultivate  this  tenderness 
of  feeling,  and  assiduously  practice  its 
dictates  for  the  comfort  and  benefit  of  our 
parents.  It  is  our  duty  to  administer  to 
their  spiritual  and  temporal  requirements; 
to  help  them  in  distress,  or  poverty;  to 
attend  them  in  illness ;  to  comfort  them  in 
affliction  ;  to  see  that  they  receive  the  con- 
solation and  support  of  religion  in  their 


last  moments ;  to  pray  for  the  repose  of 
their  souls  after  death ;  and  to  acquit  our- 
selves with  punctuality  and  exactness  of 
the  obligations  with  which  they  have 
charged  us,  either  by  writing  or  word  of 
mouth.  We  are  taught  obedience  to  our 
parents  by  the  example  of  submission  our 
Saviour  showed  toward  His  sacred  Mother 
and  St.  Joseph,  when  He  was  "subject  to 
them"  (Luke  ii.  51),  during  His  hidden 
life ;  and  by  several  passages  in  Scripture, 
among  which  is  the  clearly  expressed  in- 
junction of  St.  Paul:  "Children,  obey 
your  parents  in  the  Lord,  for  this  is  just" 
(Ephes.  vi.  i). 

Parents  [Duties  of,  to  Their  Children). — 
Parents  should  love  their  children :  "  If  a 
man  have  not  care  of  his  own,  and  espe- 
cially of  those  of  his  house,  he  hath  denied 
the  faith,  and  is  worse  than  an  infidel  "  ( I. 
Tim.  V.  8).  Parents  should  love  their 
children,  not  merely  from  natural  motives, 
and  for  their  own  pleasure,  but  from  a 
Christian  point  of  view,  and  for  the  eternal 
salvation  of  the  souls  God  has  intrusted  to 
their  keeping ;  children  are  created,  not 
for  them,  but  for  Himself;  and  not  for  the 
purely  natural  satisfaction  of  their  parents, 
but  for  the  supernatural  object  and  end  of 
their  own  temporal  existence.  Parents 
fail  in  this  duty  of  love  for  their  children, 
by  the  absence  of  any  of  those  duties  we 
owe  one  to  another  in  charity  toward  our 
neighbor;  or  by  unjust  antipathy  to  or 
special  fondness  for  one  among  several, 
without  a  reasonable  motive. 

The  particular  duties  of  parents,  for  the 
spiritual  and  corporal  well-being  of  their 
children,  are,  that  they  should  watch  over 
their  health ;  preserving  them  from  danger, 
moral  and  physical ;  tending  them  in  sick- 
ness ;  and  educating  them  as  fully  as  their 
means  permit,  and  position  demands.  They 
should  give  them  religious  instruction, 
teaching  them,  at  an  early  age,  the  rules  of 
morality,  and  the  Commandments  of  God 
and  of  the  Church,  that,  being  responsible 
for  them,  they  may  not  in  after  years  have 
reason  to  reproach  themselves  for  neglect 
of  their  duty  toward  their  children.  They 
should  watch  over  them  with  vigilant  care 
by  studying  their  characters,  and  separa- 
ting them  from  people  and  things  that 
might  have  an  injurious  or  dangerous 
influence  on  them ;  for  "  he  that  toucheth 
pitch,  shall  be  defiled  with  it:  and  he  that 
hath  fellowship  with  the  proud,  shall  put 
on  pride"  (Ecclus.  xiii.  i).     They  should 


Parish 


524 


Paschal 


correct  them  in  all  things  detrimental  to 
their  souls  or  bodies,  in  their  own  interest 
as  well  as  that  of  their  children  :  "  he  that 
spareth  the  rod,  hateth  his  son;  but  he 
that  loveth  him,  correcteth  him  betimes  " 
(Prov.  xiii.  24) ;  tempering,  by  gentleness 
and  justice,  the  adequate  chastisement.  It 
is  written  by  St.  Paul :  "  Provoke  not  your 
children  to  anger;  but  bring  them  up  in 
the  discipline  and  correction  of  the  Lord  " 
(Ephes.  vi.  4).  Parents  should  afford  their 
children  good  example  in  words  and  ac- 
tions, for  from  whom  would  a  child 
naturally  take  the  impress  of  good  or  evil, 
if  not  from  those  in  nearest  relationship 
and  closest  contact.?  Example  given  in 
tender  years  remains  almost  indelible, 
more  especially  if  evil  example,  because  of 
the  usually  corrupt  inclination  of  our 
nature.  Parents  should  procure  for  their 
children,  as  far  as  they  are  able,  a  situation 
or  occupation  in  life  suitable  to  their 
tastes,  dispositions,  and  capabilities ;  di- 
recting, advising,  and  consulting  with 
them  on  the  selection,  with  every  care  and 
consideration;  but  not  opposing  them  in 
the  choice  of  a  "vocation,"  when  there  is 
full  reason  for  feeling  convinced  that  they 
have  found  their  calling  in  life.  Such 
opposition  would  be  unjust  toward  God, 
toward  their  children,  and  toward  them- 
selves ;  because  we  ought  all  to  follow  that 
way,  which  God  has  marked  out  to  lead  us 
to  Himself,  more  especially  when  there  is 
question  of  a  person  called  in  a  special 
manner  to  His  service.  There  must 
always  be  one  occupation,  for  which  we 
have  more  taste,  and  aptitude,  and  in 
V(hich  are  provided  the  particular  graces 
necessary  for  the  better  fulfillment  of  our 
duties,  and  the  leading  of  a  worthy  life. 
In  resisting  the  will  of  God  in  such  mat- 
ters, parents  compromise  the  happiness  of 
their  children  in  this  world  and  in  the 
next,  and  assume,  by  so  doing,  an  im- 
mense responsibility,  involving  their  own 
temporal  and  eternal  peace. 

Parish  and  Parish  Priest.  —  Gerson 
chancellor  of  the  Sorbonne,  was  the  first 
who,  in  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, maintained  that  parish  priests  were 
instituted  by  Christ  Himself.  This  is  er- 
roneous; for  in  the  first  three  centuries  of 
the  Church  there  were  no  parishes  or  par- 
ish priests  in  any  part  of  the  world.  There 
was,  in  fact,  but  one  church  in  the  princi- 
pal city  of  the  diocese,  that  is,  in  the  city 
where  the  bishop  resided.     To  this  church 


all  the  Faithful,  not  merely  of  the  city  it- 
self, but  also  of  the  neighboring  villages, 
went  on  Sundays  to  assist  at  Mass  and  re- 
ceive the  sacraments.  To  the  absent,  holy 
communion  was  brought  by  the  deacons. 
When  the  Faithful  became  more  numer- 
ous, other  churches  were  indeed  built, 
even  in  the  episcopal  city ;  but  services 
were  performed  there  by  priests  from  the 
cathedral,  not  by  parish  priests,  that  is, 
not  by  priests  permanently  appointed  to 
exercise  the  cura  animarum  over  determi- 
nate congregations.  Hence,  there  was 
but  one  parish  in  each  diocese,  namely, 
the  cathedral.  The  bishop  was,  so  to 
speak,  the  parish  priest  of,  and  exercised 
the  cura  throughout,  the  whole  diocese, 
either  personally  or  assisted  by  his 
priests.  It  was  only  after  the  third  cen- 
tury that  parishes  were  established,  and 
that,  at  first,  in  rural  districts  only,  and 
later  on,  that  is,  after  the  year  1000,  in 
cities.  Hence,  parish  priests  are  merely 
of  ecclesiastical,  not  of  divine,  institution. 
Nor  is  the  contrary  provable  from  Sacred 
Scripture.  For  the  word  presbyteri, 
as  mentioned  in  the  texts  quoted  by  our 
opponents,  does  not  necessarily  refer  to 
parish  priests,  since,  in  the  first  ages, 
bishops  were  also  called  presbyteri.  See 
Bishops. 

Parker  (Matthew)  (1504-1575).  —  In- 
truded archbishop,  born  at  Norwick. 
Chaplain  of  Queen  Anne  Boleyn  and  of 
Henry  VIII.;  banished  by  Mary  Tudor 
and  called  back  by  Elizabeth,  was  raised 
by  her  to  the  episcopate  and  appointed  to 
the  see  of  Canterbury;  persecuted  both 
the  Puritans  and  Catholics. 

Parsism.     See  Zoroastrianism. 

Parthia.  —  In  ancient  geography,  a  coun- 
try in  western  Asia,  situated  east  of  Media 
and  south  of  Hyrcania.  It  was  the  nucleus 
of  the  Parthian  empire.  Jews  from  Par- 
thia were  present  at  Jerusalem  at  the  Pen- 
tecost (Acts  ii.  9). 

Paschal  (name  of  two  Popes) .  —  Paschal 
I.  —  Pope  from  817  to  824.  Successor  of 
Stephen  IV.  Crowned  Lothaire  emperor 
of  the  West  in  823 ;  established  at  Rome  a 
house  of  refuge  for  the  persecuted  Greeks. 
Paschal  II.  —  Pope  from  1099  to  11 18. 
Successor  of  Urban  II.  Formerly  Cardinal 
Rainer,  and  monk  of  Cluny.  He,  indeed, 
pursued  the  same  policy  as  Gregory  VII., 
but  did  not  possess  the  same  firmness  of 
character  and  knowledge  of  the  world.    In 


Paschal  Candle 


525 


Passion  Sunday 


the  Lateran  Synod  of  the  year  1102,  he  re- 
newed the  prohibition  of  lay  investiture 
and  the  ban  against  Henry  IV.  of  Ger- 
many. There  were  two  antipopes  by  the 
name  of  Paschal :  in  694  and  1168. 

Paschal  Candle.     See  Candle. 

Paschal  Precept.     See  Communion. 

Paschasius     Radbertus.      See     R  a  d- 

BERTUS. 

Passionists.  —  A  religious  congregation 
of  priests,  the  object  of  whose  institute,  in- 
dicated by  their  name,  is  to  preach  "  Jesus 
Christ  and  Him  crucified."  The  founder, 
St.  Paul  of  the  Cross,  was  born  in  1694, 
near  Genoa,  obtained  the  sanction  of  his 
community  by  Pope  Benedict  XIV.  in 
1741,  and  died  at  the  mother-house  of  the 
Society  on  the  Coelian  Hill  at  Rome  in 
1775.  The  cross  appears  everywhere  as 
their  emblem,  and  a  large  crucifix  forms 
a  part  of  their  striking  costume.  For  a 
time  the  congregation  remained  in  ob- 
scurity; but  in  the  first  half  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  it  rose  into  notice.  In  1842 
it  secured  a  footing  in  England.  The 
American  province,  begun  in  1852,  num- 
bers many  houses.  The  Passionists  were 
introduced  into  the  United  States  by  the 
Right  Rev.  Michael  O'Connor,  bishop  of 
Pittsburg. 

Passion  Play  is  the  name  given  to  the 
portrayal  of  Our  Lord's  Passion,  and  other 
Biblical  events  in  the  series  of  tableaux 
vivants.  In  the  Middle  Ages,  before  the 
invention  of  printing  had  placed  Holy 
Scripture  within  the  reach  of  the  people, 
it  was  customary  to  present  to  their  view 
the  chief  events  of  Our  Lord's  life  in  the- 
atrical representations.  For  instance,  St. 
Francis  of  Assisi,  obtained  the  Papal  per- 
mission to  construct  a  stable  of  brushwood 
and  moss  in  the  midst  of  a  pine  wood.  In 
it  he  placed  a  real  manger  in  which  was 
laid  an  image  of  the  divine  Infant,  while 
figures  representing  Mary  and  Joseph  stood 
beside  it.  A  real  ox  and  an  ass  were  tied 
to  a  stall  outside  the  stable;  inside  an  altar 
was  erected,  at  which  at  midnight  the 
Christmas  Mass  was  solemnly  celebrated, 
St.  Francis,  serving  as  deacon,  to  the  great 
edification  of  the  crowds  who  flocked  from 
all  parts  around  to  witness  the  unwonted 
spectacle.  From  that  time  forth,  the 
custom  of  making  a  crib  in  churches  began 
to  prevail.  In  the  Middle  Ages,  pains 
were  taken  to  make  representations  of  this 


description  as  picturesque  and  true  to  na- 
ture as  possible ;  scenes  from  the  life  of 
Our  Lord  or  other  spiritual  personages 
were  represented  on  the  stage  in  tableaux. 
The  subject  of  these  religious  dramas  or 
miracle-plays,  as  they  were  called,  was 
generally  adapted  to  the  season  of  the  ec- 
clesiastical year  in  which  they  were  per- 
formed. At  first  they  were  enacted  in  the 
Church,  the  actors  speaking  in  Latin ;  later 
on  they  were  given  in  the  open  air,  and  the 
vernacular  was  used.  In  the  fourteenth 
century,  these  sacred  dramas  were  custom- 
ary in  almost  every  village  in  France  and 
Germany,  but  owing  to  abuses  having 
arisen,  they  were  strictly  prohibited  by  the 
Holy  See.  In  1633,  they  were,  however, 
revived  at  Oberammergau,  in  Bavaria,  in 
consequence  of  a  vow  made  by  the  inhabi- 
tants to  perform  a  passion  play  every  ten 
years  if  they  were  delivered  from  a  pes- 
tilence which  was  ravaging  the  village. 
This  passion  play  as  well  as  two  others  in 
the  Tyrol,  has  acquired  a  world-wide  re- 
nown. It  is  performed  with  wonderful 
skill  by  the  peasants,  and  in  a  spirit  of 
heartfelt  piety  and  recollection.  Expe- 
rience proves  that  far  from  being,  as  some 
allege,  a  profanation  of  holy  things,  the 
representation  of  the  solemn  scenes  of 
Our  Lord's  sacred  passion  has  the  effect 
of  impressing  and  touching  the  spectators, 
inspiring  feelings  of  devotion,  and  elevat- 
ing the  heart  so  that  the  actors  are  forgotten 
in  the  entrancing  interest  of  the  scenes  en- 
acted. Besides,  the  gracious  answer  to 
the  petition  of  the  people  of  Oberammer- 
gau ought  to  silence  the  objector,  for  that 
cannot  be  reprehensible  of  which  God 
manifests  His  approval  in  so  signal  a  man- 
ner. 

Passion  Sunday.  —  The  Sunday  before 
Palm  Sunday,  so  called,  because  from  this 
day  the  Church  occupies  herself  exclusively 
with  the  contemplation  of  the  Passion  and 
Death  of  the  Saviour.  The  pictures  of 
Christ  crucified  are  covered  on  this  day  in 
memory  of  His  having  hidden  Himself 
from  the  Jews  until  His  entrance  into  Jeru- 
salem, no  longer  showing  Himself  in  pub- 
lic (John  xi.  54)11  In  the  Mass,  the  Glory 
be  to  the  Father,  etc.,  is  omitted,  because 
in  the  person  of  Christ  the  holy  Trinity 
was  dishonored.  The  Psalm  Judica  is  not 
said,  because  on  this  day  the  high  priests 
held  council  about  our  Lord,  for  which 
reason  in  the  name  of  the  suffering  Saviour 
uses  these  words  at  thfe  Introit:     "Judge 


Passover 


526 


Paten 


me,  O  God,  and  distinguish  my  cause  from 
the  nation  that  is  not  holy :  deliver  me 
from  the  unjust  and  deceitful  man,  for 
Thou  art  my  God  and  my  strength,"  etc. 

Passover.  — An  annual  feast  of  the  Jews, 
instituted  to  commemorate  the  escape  of 
the  Hebrews  in  Egypt,  when  God,  smiting 
the  first-born  of  the  Egyptians,  "  passed 
over"  the  houses  of  the  Israelites,  which 
were  marked  with  the  blood  of  the  Paschal 
Lamb.  It  w.as  celebrated  on  the  evening 
of  the  14th  day  of  Abib  or  Nisan,  the  first 
month  of  the  sacred  year.  The  name  is 
also  used,  by  extension,  to  include  the 
seven  days  that  followed  (from  the  15th  to 
the  22d  of  Nisan),  during  which  the  Israel- 
ites were  permitted  to  eat  only  unleavened 
bread ;  and  hence  the  Passover  is  also 
known  as  the  "  feast  of  unleavened  bread." 
Every  householder  with  his  family  ate  on 
the  first  evening  a  lamb  killed  by  the  priest 
(Ex.  xii.),  which  was  served  without  break- 
ing the  bones. 

Pastor.  —  A  title  pre-eminently  belong- 
ing to  the  Roman  Pontiff,  who  in  the 
collect  Pro  Papa  is  described  as  pastor 
ecclesice.  It  is  also  given  to  bishops  and 
priests,  each  of  whom  are  to  lead,  feed, 
and  gently  rule,  like  a  shepherd,  the  flock 
committed  to  them. 

Pastoral  Letter.  —  A  letter  addressed 
either  at  certain  stated  times,  or  on  the  oc- 
currence of  some  notable  occasion,  by  a 
pastor,  but  especially  by  a  bishop  to  the 
clergy  under  his  jurisdiction,  to  the  laity 
of  his  flock,  or  to  both.  It  is  usual  for 
bishops,  besides  their  stated  letters,  to  ad- 
dress to  their  clergy  or  people  instructions 
suited  to  any  particular  emergency  which 
may  arise,  and  sometimes  to  take  occasion, 
from  the  issuing  of  the  stated  pastoral  let- 
ter, to  offer  instruction  on  some  topic  of 
importance  which  may  engage  public  at- 
tention at  the  time,  on  some  prevelent 
abuse  or  scandal,  or  some  apprehended 
danger  to  faith  or  morals. 

Pastoral  Staff  (sometimes  also,  although 
not  properly,  called  "crosier.")  One  of 
the  insignia  of  the  episcopal  ofiice,  some- 
times also  borne  by  an  abbot.  —  It  is  a  tall 
staff  of  metal,  or  of  wood  ornamented  with 
metal,  having,  at  least  in  the  Western 
Church,  the  head  curved  in  the  form  of  a 
shepherd's  crook,  as  a  symbol  of  the  pas- 
toral office.  It  is  difficult  to  determine  the 
time  at  which  the  pastoral  staff  first  came 


into  use.  The  first  distinct  allusion  to  it  is 
in  St.  Augustine's  commentary  on  the 
124th  Psalm.  Gregory  of  Tours,  in  the 
Life  of  St.  Martin,  mentions  the  pastoral 
staff  of  St.  Severinus,  who  was  bishop  of 
Cologne  toward  the  end  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury. From  an  early  time  the  pastoral 
staff  was  connected  with  the  actual  posses- 
sion of  the  jurisdiction  which  it  symbolizes. 

Patara.  —  In  ancient  geography,  a  city 
of  Lycia,  Asia  Minor,  east  of  the  mouth  of 
Zanthus,  and  opposite  Rhodes.  Here  St. 
Paul  on  his  last  visit  to  Jerusalem  re- 
embarked  (Acts  xxi.  I,  2)  for  Phoenicia. 
It  is  now  in  ruins,  but  retains  its  ancient 
name. 

Patarini. —  Name  given  to  the  followers 
of  the  deacon  Ariald  of  Milan,  who,  in  the 
middle  of  the  eleventh  century,  attacked 
the  marriage  of  certain  clergymen  as  a 
great  scandal,  and  especially  after  the  ar- 
rival there  of  Peter  Damianus  as  papal 
legate  caused  a  great  commotion.  The 
name  is  derived  from  Pataria  (a  rag- 
picker'), a  quarter  of  Milan  inhabited  by 
the  rag-pickers  who  there,  as  in  other 
Italian  cities,  formed  a  guild  of  their  own. 
Patarini  were  also  styled  members  of  a 
Waldensian  sect  of  the  twelfth  century. 
Says  itself  again,  in  general,  of  the  here- 
tics of  this  time,  whom  they  mostly  desig- 
nated under  the  name  of  Albigenses. 

Paten. — A  circular  plate  of  silver,  gilt, 
or  of  gold,  used  from  the  earliest  times  to 
receive  the  Host  consecrated  at  Mass.  It 
is  consecrated  with  chrism  by  the  bishop. 
In  the  primitive  ages  the  number  of  those 
who  partook  of  the  blessed  sacrament 
every  Sunday,  together  with  the  priest, 
was  very  great,  and,  in  consequence,  the 
paten  or  sacred  disc,  from  which  the  sac- 
ramental bread  used  to  be  distributed,  was 
so  large  in  its  dimensions  that  convenience 
required  its  removal  from  the  altar  as  soon 
as  the  oblation  had  been  made,  and  not 
brought  back  until  the  period  arrived  for 
giving  the  communion  to  the  people.  In- 
stead of  depositing  the  paten  upon  the 
credence  table  which  stands  near  the  altar, 
the  Roman  ritual  considered  it  more  deco- 
rous and  appropriate  to  consign  it  to  the  sub- 
deacon,  who,  by  holding  it  in  an  elevated 
position,  might  thus  announce  to  the  as- 
sembly that  the  period  for  receiving  the 
blessed  sacrament  would  very  soon  ap- 
proach, and  silently  admonish  them  to  pray 
with  greater  fervor. 


Pater  Noster 


527 


Patrick 


Pater  Noster  {Our  I^atker).— The  first 
two  words  of  the  Latin  translation  of  the 
Lord's  Prayer.  In  the  Latin  Church,  the 
"  Our  Father  "  is  recited  at  low,  and  sung 
at  high  Mass ;  in  the  Greek  Church,  it  is 
recited  or  chanted  by  all  the  people.  In 
many  parts  of  Asia,  the  sacrifice  of  the 
Mass  is  offered  up  in  ancient  Syriac ;  in 
Africa,  especially  in  Egypt,  in  ancient 
Coptic,  once  the  common,  but  both  for 
many  centuries  past,  dead  languages. 
Though  the  Asiatic  and  African  Chris- 
tians of  the  present  day  speak  a  dialect 
quite  different  from  the  ancient  Syriac  and 
Coptic,  with  which  they  are  utterly  unac- 
quainted, still,  in  joining  in  the  public 
offices  and  liturgy  of  the  Church,  they 
recite  the  "  Our  Father,"  etc.,  in  the  obso- 
lete language,  although  they  possess  ver- 
nacular translations  of  this  prayer  into 
Arabic,  which  they  use  in  their  private 
devotions.     See  Prayer. 

Patmos. —  An  island  of  the  Sporades, 
belonging  to  Turkey,  situated  in  the 
yEgean  sea  about  20  miles  southwest  of 
Samos,  the  modern  Patmo  or  Patino. 
Here  a  monastery  bears  the  name  of  John 
the  Divine,  and  a  cave  is  pointed  out 
where,  according  to  a  legend,  the  Apostle 
and  Evangelist  saw  the  visions  of  the 
Apocalypse. 

Patriarchs.  —  Patriarchs  are  bishops 
who  preside  not  merely  over  one  diocese 
or  province,  but  over  several  provinces  or 
districts.  The  dignity  of  patriarch  dates 
back  to  the  Apostles ;  the  name  came  into 
use  only  from  the  time  of  the  Council  of 
Chalcedon.  Formerly  the  patriarchs  had 
power  chiefly:  To  consecrate  metropoli- 
tans and  give  them  the  pallium,  to  assist 
and  preside  at  patriarchal  or  national 
councils ;  to  receive  appeals  from  the  sen- 
tence of  metropolitans.  These  rights  may 
be  summed  up  thus  :  the  jurisdiction  exer- 
cised by  patriarchs  over  metropolitans  was 
similar  to  that  exercised  in  turn  by  the 
metropolitans  over  their  suffragan  bishops. 
The  four  great  patriarchates  of  the  East- 
ern Church,  namely,  of  Alexandria,  Anti- 
och,  Constantinople,  and  Jerusalem,  having 
fallen  into  schism  and  heresy,  have  become 
extinct.  The  Holy  See,  however,  in  order 
to  preserve  the  memory  of  these  patriarch- 
ates, still  creates  titular  patriarchs  of  these 
sees,  who  reside  in  Rome ;  they  have  only 
the  title  of  patriarchs,  but  no  jurisdiction, 
except,  however,  the  Patriarch  of  Jerusa- 
lem, who  was  sent  to  his  see  by  Pope  Pius 


IX.,  and  occupies  it  at  present.  Besides 
these,  there  are  still  in  the  Oriental  Church 
several  actual  patriarchs  in  communion 
with  the  Holy  See.  Thus,  the  Chaldeans, 
Melchites,  Syrians,  and  Armenians,  who 
are  united  with  the  Catholic  Church,  have 
their  patriarchs,  to  whom  the  Holy  See 
usually  grants  faculties  similar  to  those 
enjoyed  by  the  patriarchs  of  old.  The 
Roman  Pontiff  is  the  patriarch  of  the 
Western  or  Latin  Church.  Besides,  there 
are  in  the  Latin  Church  the  patriarchs  of 
Lisbon,  Venice,  and  the  West  Indies;  they 
are  called  "  minor  patriarchs,"  and  have 
only  the  title,  not  the  jurisdiction,  of 
patriarchs.  The  patriarchate  itself  is  not 
of  divine  but  of  ecclesiastical  institution. 

Patriarchs  {Ancient).  —  The  patriarchs 
of  the  primitive  world  are  those  of  the 
descendants  of  Adam  (who  also  belong  to 
the  descendants  of  Seth),  who  preserved 
tradition  and  the  word  of  God,  as  well  as 
fidelity  in  the  obedience  to  the  divine  law, 
while  the  descendants  of  Cain  delivered 
themselves  to  their  passions.  The  Cainites 
lived  in  the  East  of  Eden,  after  having 
separated  from  the  descendants  of  Seth. 
Holy  Scripture  names  eight  generations  of 
patriarchs  of  the  primitive  world,  to  whom 
they  add  Seth  and  Adam.  The  ten  patri- 
archs before  the  Deluge  are  therefore : 
Adam,  Seth,  Enos,  Cainan,  Malaleel,  Jared, 
Henoch,  Mathusala,  Lamech,  and  Noe. 
After  the  Deluge,  the  name  of  patriarch  is 
also  given  to  Sem,  Arphaxad,  Cainan, 
Sale,  Heber,  Phaleg,  Reu,  Sarug,  Nachor, 
Thare,  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob.  The 
patriarchs  until  Noe  lived  to  a  very  old 
age.  All  appears  to  attest  that  not  only 
human  life,  but  also  that  of  vegetables 
and  animal  species,  which  existed  in  the 
ages  of  the  primitive  world,  had  a  consid- 
erable duration,  which  was  gradually  re- 
duced. This  general  account  is  admitted 
by  science. 

Patrick  (St.). — Apostle  and  patron  of 
Ireland.  Up  to  the  fifth  century,  Chris- 
tianity had  made  but  little  progress  in 
Ireland.  It  is  to  St.  Patrick  alone,  that 
the  island  owes  its  complete  conversion. 
So  blessed  were  his  efforts,  that  in  a  short 
time,  the  people  were  fervent  and  faithful 
Christians.  On  the  authority  of  our  Saint's 
own  confession  and  the  traditions  of  the 
Scottish  Church,  Dr.  Moran,  now  Cardinal 
archbishop  of  Sidney,  has  clearly  shown 
that  the  Apostle  of  Ireland  was  born  at 
Old-Kilpatrick,    between    Alcluaid,    now 


Patrimony  of  St.  Peter 


528 


Patrology 


called  Dumbarton,  and  Glasgow,  in  Scot- 
land, about  the  year  387.  Other  accounts 
make  him  a  native  of  Armorica,  Gaul.  He 
was  the  son  of  Calpurnius,  of  illustrious 
Celtic  descent,  and  of  Conchessa,  who  is 
said  to  have  been  a  near  relative,  probably 
the  sister  of  St.  Martin  of  Tours.  While 
yet  in  his  boyhood,  Patrick  was  led  a  cap- 
tive to  Ireland,  and  there  he  was  obliged 
to  act  as  herdsman.  Being  by  divine  in- 
terposition freed  from  captivity,  he  re- 
solved to  dedicate  himself  to  the  service  of 
God.  By  divers  visions  God  manifested 
to  him  that  he  was  destined  for  the  great 
work  of  converting  Ireland.  Day  and 
night  he  was  hunted  by  the  pagan  country, 
in  which  he  had  spent  six  years  of  servi- 
tude, and  the  character  of  whose  people  he 
so  well  understood.  It  was  at  the  famous 
schools  of  St.  Martin  at  Tours,  and  of 
Lerins,  that  our  Saint  prepared  himself 
for  the  missionary  career.  At  the  solicita- 
tion of  St.  Germanus  of  Auxerre,  his 
spiritual  adviser,  Patrick  proceeded  to 
Rome  in  company  with  the  pious  priest 
Segetius,  who  was  instructed  by  Germanus 
to  attest  the  virtues  and  excellence  of  our 
Saint.  Patrick's  baptismal  name  was 
Succath ;  at  the  time  of  his  ordination  it 
was  changed  to  Magonius ;  but  Pope 
Celestine  I.,  to  add  dignity  to  the  Saint's 
mission,  conferred  on  him  the  Patrician 
order,  which  had  been  instituted  by  Con- 
stantine  the  Great,  whence  he  was  after- 
wards generally  called  "Patricius."  Having 
received  episcopal  consecration,  Patrick 
set  out  for  Ireland,  and,  assisted  by  Aux- 
ilius,  Iserninus  and  some  others,  com- 
menced the  arduous  task  of  a  nation's  con- 
version, with  all  the  advantages  of  profound 
learning  and  piety,  and  of  a  personal 
knowledge  of  the  people,  their  language 
and  manners.  Before  the  arrival  of  St. 
Patrick,  the  Irish  were  pagans,  worshiping 
the  sun  and  the  stars;  hills  and  mountains 
were  the  places  of  their  religious  services. 
His  first  convert  was  a  chief  named  Dicho, 
who  in  proof  of  his  sincerity  built  a  church 
in  Down.  Thence  our  Saint  proceeded  to 
Tara,  in  the  present  county  of  Meath, 
where  he  preached  on  the  eve  of  Easter 
before  the  Monarch  Leaguaire,  and  bap- 
tized many  of  the  Druids,  lords,  and  court- 
iers. Patrick  traveled  over  the  whole 
island,  visiting  every  province.  Such  was 
the  fruit  of  his  preaching  that  the  conver- 
sions soon  numbered  by  tens  of  thousands. 
In  445  St.  Patrick  founded  the  metropolitan 
see  of  Armagh,  and  thus  laid  the  founda- 


tion of  the  primatial  see  of  "All  Ireland." 
In  the  year  450  St.  Patrick  held  a  synod  to 
regulate  the  discipline  of  the  Church  which 
he  had  founded.  His  missionary  success 
is  without  parallel  in  the  history  of  the 
Church.  In  the  course  of  about  fifty 
years,  a  whole  nation,  including  rulers  and 
princes,  men  and  women,  was  won  over  to 
Christianity  without  the  shedding  of  a 
single  drop  of  blood.  Sees  were  founded 
in  all  parts  of  the  island,  bishops  conse- 
crated, and  priests  ordained;  churches 
were  built  and  monasteries  erected,  which 
became  famous  seats  of  piety  and  learning, 
and  nurseries  of  faith  for  other  nations. 
During  the  latter  part  of  his  Apostolic 
life,  St.  Patrick  composed  the  treatise 
known  by  the  name  of  "  St.  Patrick's  Con- 
fessions," in  which  with  fervent  gratitude 
he  records  the  divine  favors  towards  him- 
self and  the  nation  to  which  he  had  been 
sent.  He  died  March  17th,  a.  v.,  493,  in 
the  monastery  of  Saul,  the  first  of  his 
foundations.     F.  March  17th. 

Patrimony  of  St.  Peter.     See  Pkpin  the 

Short  ;  Power  (  Temporal). 

Patripassians.     See  Monarcians. 

Patrology  (knowledge  of  the  writings 
of  the  Doctors  and  Fathers  of  the  Church). 
—  We  must  not  confound  this  science  with 
the  patristic  science  which  also  treats  of 
the  holy  Fathers,  but  solely  from  the  doc- 
trinal point  of  view.  Patrology  may  be 
divided  into  two  parts :  it  is  general  and 
special,  i.  The  general  part  indicates  by 
what  signs  we  may  indicate  the  holy  Fa- 
thers, shows  their  authority  in  everything 
that  concerns  religion,  and  discusses  the 
authenticity  of  their  works ;  establishes 
the  means  to  understand  them,  presents, 
from  the  point  of  view  of  ancient  language 
and  philosophy,  the  difficulty  of  their  in- 
terpretation, a  difficulty  which  resides 
either  in  the  matter  or  form,  or  in  the  cir- 
cumstances of  time  and  place  where  they 
were  written.  2.  The  special  part  treats 
of  each  Father  in  particular;  it  is  subdi- 
vided into  several  sections  :  the  Apostolic 
Fathers  and  the  Apologists  of  the  second 
and  third  centuries;  the  Fathers  of  the 
fourth  century  form  a  very  important 
group  whose  task  it  was  to  combat  the 
heresy  of  the  Arians  and  Macedonians  in 
regard  to  the  Most  Holy  Trinity;  about 
the  end  of  the  fourth  century  appears  a 
new  group,  which  occupied  itself  espe- 
cially   with    the    interpretation    of    Holy 


Patron  Saint 


529 


Paul 


Scripture.  They  are:  St.  Ephrem,  St. 
Chrysostom,  and  St.  Jerome.  In  the  fifth 
century,  it  is  St.  Augustine,  who  alone 
combats  the  Donatists  and  Pelagians,  and 
comes  forth  victorious.  Then,  when  Nes- 
torius  came  to  trouble  the  Church  by  at- 
tacking the  sacred  person  of  the  Saviour 
Himself,  the  champions  did  not  fail ;  at 
their  head,  let  us  quote  St.  Cyril  of  Alex- 
andria. Finally,  when  the  Church  had  to 
defend  the  two  natures  in  Jesus  Christ 
against  Eutyches,  the  great  Pope  Leo  I. 
upheld  the  Catholic  doctrine  and  carried 
the  victory.  Although  the  Fathers  were 
always  held  in  high  esteem,  patrology  is 
quite  a  new  science.  Only  about  the  latter 
half  of  the  last  century,  the  first  patrologies, 
properly  speaking,  appeared.  In  order  to 
solve  the  numerous  difficulties  it  comes 
across,  patrology  makes  use  of  most  of  the 
other  sciences :  theology,  linguistics,  eth- 
nography, mythology,  general  history  of 
the  Church,  and  the  biography  of  each 
Father.  Finally,  it  concludes  on  the  use 
which  can  be  made  of  the  Fathers,  either 
from  the  dogmatic  or  moral  point  of  view. 

Patron  Saint  (special  guardian  or  pro- 
tector).—  The  saint  to  whom  a  church 
has  been  dedicated  and  who  is  looked 
upon  by  a  country,  city,  congregation, 
confraternity,  or  community  as  its  special 
protector.  The  institution  of  patron 
saints  of  churches,  kingdoms,  and  prov- 
inces, is  as  old  as  the  veneration  of  the 
saints.  Since  the  most  remote  antiquity, 
the  Church  has  chosen  for  special  patrons 
of  certain  countries  those  saints  who  ex- 
ercised in  certain  localities  a  peculiar  in- 
fluence, such  as  St.  Polycarp,  at  Smyrna, 
St.  Ignatius,  at  Antioch,  St.  Remigius,  in 
France,  etc. 

Paul  (name  of  five  Popes). — Paul  I. — 
Pope  from  757  to  767.  Roman  by  birth, 
successor  of  Stephen  II.  He  had  to  de- 
fend the  Christians  of  the  East  against  the 
persecutions  of  Emperor  Constantine 
Copronymus.  Paul  II.  —  Pope  from  1464 
to  1471.  He  was  a  liberal  patron  of  arts 
and  letters,  has  been  unjustly  assailed, 
particularly  by  Platina,  out  of  spite  for 
abolishing  the  office  of '*  Abreviators  "  io 
the  Papal  chancery,  among  the  clerks  of 
which  great  abuses  prevailed.  He  is  cen- 
sured for  his  excessive  prodigality,  and 
for  raising  three  of  his  nephews  to  the 
dignity  of  cardinals.  Nepotism,  however, 
was  universally  practiced  in  those  days, 
and  considered  less  odious  than  at  pres- 

34 


ent.  Paul  II.  showed  himself  a  firm  and 
watchful  Pontiff.  Paul  III.  —  Pope  from 
1534  to  1549.  Successor  of  Clemens  VII. 
He  convoked  the  Holy  Ecumenical  Coun- 
cil of  Trent,  which  was  opened  Dec.  13th, 
1545.  Excommunicated  Henry  VIII.  of 
England  as  abettor  of  a  schism  and  of 
heresy,  became  the  ally  of  Charles  V.  of 
Spain,  and  protected  the  Jesuits  in  their 
work  of  foreign  missions  to  which  they 
commenced  to  deliver  themselves  in  the 
East.  Paul  IV.  —  Pope  from  1555  to 
1559.  During  his  troubled  Pontificate  no 
attempt  was  made  to  reconvene  the  Coun- 
cil of  Trent.  Paul  IV.  earnestly  sup- 
ported Queen  Mary  in  her  efforts  to  re- 
store the  Catholic  religion  in  England. 
Charles  V.  of  Spain,  having  abdicated 
without  consulting  the  Holy  See,  Paul 
refused  to  recognize  the  elevation  of 
Ferdinand  to  the  Empire.  The  Roman 
emperor,  henceforth,  not  being  crowned 
but  merely  "elected,"  had,  from  that 
time  no  other  relations  with  the  Holy  See 
than  those  of  other  sovereigns.  Paul  V. — 
Pope  from  1605  to  1621.  He  became  in- 
volved in  a  dispute  with  the  republic  of 
Venice  respecting  the  imprisonment  of 
several  ecclesiastics  and  the  passing  of 
laws  which  prohibited  the  founding 
of  religious  and  charitable  institutions, 
and  the  acquisition  of  landed  property  by 
the  Church,  without  State  approval.  He 
excommunicated  the  Doge  and  laid  Venice 
under  an  interdict.  The  dispute  was  set- 
tled to  the  advantage  of  the  Church, 
through  the  mediation  of  the  French 
king,  in  1607.  Paul  introduced  the 
"Forty  Hours'  Adoration"  and  com- 
pleted St.  Peter's  Church  at  Rome. 

Paul  (St.).  —  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles, 
born  in  the  year  2  a.  d.,  of  Jewish  parents 
of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  at  Tarsus  in  Cili- 
cia,  a  city  which  enjoyed  Roman  citizen- 
ship ;  martyred  at  Rome  in  the  year  67. 
Named  Saul  at  his  birth,'  he  was  sent  to 
Jerusalem  to  become  a  disciple  of  the 
famous  Doctor  Gamaliel.  He  was  an  his 
way  to  Damascus,  when  our  Lord  appeared 
to  him.  The  violent  enemy  of  the  Chris- 
tians was  converted  (37)  and  baptized.  He 
remained  three  days  in  solitude,  then  went 
to  Jerusalem  "  to  gee  Peter."  At  Antioch 
he  was  ordained,  and  officially  recognized 
as  an  Apostle  of  the  Gospel.  In  company 
with  Barnabas  he  set  out  on  his  first  mis- 
sionary journey  (45-48)  to  Cyprus,  where 
he     converted     the     proconsul,     Sergius 


Paul 


530 


Paula 


Paulus;  thence  he  passed  to  Asia  Minor, 
spreading  the  Gospel  and  strengthening 
the  Faithful  in  the  faith  of  Christ.  By 
prayer,  fasting,  and  imposition  of  hands, 
he  ordained  bishops  and  priests  to  govern 
the  new  congregations,  and  then  returned 
to  Antioch.  A  great  controversy  had 
arisen  in  the  Church  of  this  city.  The 
Jewish  Christians  contended  that  the  Gen- 
tiles, who  were  admitted  into  the  Church 
without  circumcision,  should  be  made  sub- 
ject to  the  law  of  Moses.  The  difficulty 
was  settled  by  the  Apostolic  Council  of 
Jerusalem  (50)  in  these  words  :  "  It  hath 
seemed  good  to  the  Holy  Ghost  and  to  us 
to  lay  no  further  burden  upon  you  than 
these  necessary  things,  that  you  abstain 
from  things  sacrificed  to  idols  and  from 
blood  and  from  things  strangled  and  from 
fornication"  (Acts  xv.  28).  In  considera- 
tion of  the  Jewish  Christians,  Peter  had  up 
to  this  time,  observed  the  Mosaic  law;  Paul 
reproved  him,  fearing  that  the  pagan  con- 
verts might  be  led  astray  if  the  Head  of 
the  Church  continued  to  observe  the  law 
of  circumcision.  As  to  the  matter  itself, 
both  Apostles  were  of  one  mind.  In  the 
year  52-55,  St.  Paul  set  out  on  his  second 
missionary  journey.  It  .extended  to  Asia 
Minor,  Macedonia,  Athens,  Corinth,  Ephe- 
sus,  and  Antioch.  On  his  third  missionary 
journey,  which  lasted  from  55-58,  St.  Paul 
went  to  Asia  Minor,  remained  a  long  time 
at  Ephesus,  then  visited  Corinth,  Mace- 
donia, Miletus,  Caesarea,  and  Jerusalem. 
Immediately  upon  his  arrival  at  Jerusalem, 
the  Jews  attempted  to  put  him  to  death 
(58),  but  the  guard  of  the  temple  freed 
him.  Having  spent  two  years  in  prison  at 
Caesarea  (59-61),  St.  Paul  appealed  to 
Caesar,  was  sent  to  Rome,  where  he  was 
again  imprisoned  for  two  years  (61-63). 
Having  recovered  his  freedom  (64),  he 
went  to  the  far  West  (Spain),  thence  to 
Asia  Minor,  Macedonia,  Crete,  was  again 
sent  to  prison  and  beheaded  in  Rome,  June 
29th.  A.  D.  67.  E.  June  29th.  Feast  of  St. 
Paul's  Conversion,  Jan.  25th.  We  have 
fourteen  canonical  letters  from  St.  Paul, 
which  are  addressed  partly  to  one  or  sev- 
eral congregations,  partly  to  certain  per- 
sons (Timothy,  Titus,  Philemon). 

Paul  (St.)  (228-342). — First  hermit  and 
surnamed  "  the  Father  of  Hermits";  was 
born  at  Thebes  in  Upper  Egypt.  During 
the  Decian  persecution  he  fled  into  the 
desert  of  the  Thebaid,  and  lived  there  in  a 
cave  to  the  great  age  of  one  hundred  and 


thirteen  years,  practicing  austere  penance 
and  occupied  in  prayer  and  contemplation. 
His  life  was  written  by  St.  Jerome.  F. 
Jan.  13th. 

Paul  (St.). —  Patriarch  of  Constantino- 
ple and  martyr.  Born  at  Thessalonica, 
elected  bishop  in  340.  Repeatedly  driven 
away  by  the  Arians,  restored  by  Pope  St. 
Julius,  then  exiled  by  the  Arian  Emperor 
Constans  to  the  Chersonesus,  where  he 
died  a  martyr.  He  was  strangled  by  his 
enemies.     F.  June  7th. 

Paul  of  the  Cross.      See  Passion ists. 

Paul  of  Samosata.     See  Paulianists. 

Paul  (Vincent  de). —  One  of  the  most 
eminent  saints  of  the  modern  Catholic 
Church,  was  born  in  the  year  1576.  The 
indications  of  ability  which  he  exhibited 
led  to  his  being  sent  to  school  at  Toulouse. 
He  was  admitted  to  priest's  orders  in  1600. 
He  laid  the  foundation  of  what  eventually 
grew  into  the  great  and  influential  Congre- 
gation of  "  Priests  of  the  Missions."  (See 
L^zarists.)  Vincent's  preaching  was  of 
the  most  simple  kind,  singularly  affecting 
and  impressive.  He  founded  the  order  of 
the  "  Daughters  of  Charity"  at  Paris  in 
1634.  The  order  is  popularly  known  in 
this  country  by  the  title  of  "  The  Sisters  of 
Charity,"  or  "Grey  Nuns,"  and  its  mem- 
bers have  won  for  their  order  as  well  as 
themselves  the  admiration,  esteem,  and 
well-deserved  praise  of  the  whole  nation, 
for  their  godlike  ministration  to  the  sick 
and  aflflicted,  during  times  of  war  and 
peace.  St.  Vincent  died  at  the  advanced 
age  of  eighty-five,  at  St.  Lazare,  Sept.  27th, 
1660;  and  was  canonized  by  Clement  XII. 
in  1737.     F.  July  19th. 

Paula  (St.)  (347-404).  —  Roman  lady, 
descended  through  her  father  Rogatus  of 
Greek  origin,  from  the  famous  Agamem- 
non, and  through  her  mother  Blesilla,  from 
the  Scipions  and  Gracii.  Widow  at  the 
age  of  31,  the  first  in  the  Senate  of  the  Ro- 
man Matrons,  she  abandoned  her  riches 
and  country  to  devote  herself  to  a  penitent 
life.  After  a  voyage  into  Palestine,  she 
retired  with  her  daughter  Eustochia  to 
Bethlehem,  where  she  founded  several 
monasteries  under  the  direction  of  the 
great  St.  Jerome,  and  also  an  asylum  for 
pilgrims,  on  the  site  of  which  arose  the 
modern  convent  of  the  Franciscans.  F. 
Jan.  26th. 


Paulianists 


531 


Pelagius 


Paulianists.  —  Heretics  and  followers  of 
Paul  of  Samosata,  the  proud  Bishop  of  An- 
tioch,  about  the  year  360.  He  maintained 
that  Christ,  though  begotten  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  and  born  of  a  virgin,  was  no  more 
than  a  mere  man  in  whom  the  divine  Logos, 
the  wisdom  of  God,  dwelt  not  as  a  person 
but  as  a  quality  or  power.  Two  Councils 
held  at  Antioch  examined  and  condemned 
his  teaching,  but  owing  to  various  arts  and 
subterfuges  and  by  professing  submission, 
the  heresiarch  managed  to  escape  personal 
anathema  until  at  last,  in  a  third  Council 
convened,  in  269,  in  the  same  city,  his  guilt 
was  unmasked,  he  was  convicted  of  heresy 
and  deposed  as  Bishop  of  Antioch.  The 
♦'  Samosatians  "  or  "  Paulinianists,"  as  his 
followers  were  called,  continued  as  a  dis- 
tinct sect  down  to  the  fourth  century. 

Paulicians. —  Members  of  a  Manichean 
sect  of  the  seventh  century,  founded  by  a 
certain  Constantine  of  Samosata.  Since 
the  name  Manichean  had  become  odious, 
he  gave  to  his  followers  the  title  of  Pauli- 
cians about  the  year  681,  under  pretext  that 
they  followed  only  the  doctrine  of  St. 
Paul.  The  Emperor  Nicephorus  protected 
them.  They  spread  and  extended  their 
influence  westward  to  Thrace  and  Bulgaria, 
and  thence  passed  into  Italy  and  southern 
France. 

Paulinus  (St.)  (353-431).— Born  at  Bor- 
deaux of  a  wealthy  and  ancient  senatorial 
family.  His  acquaintance  with  Sts.  Am- 
brose, Augustine,  and  Jerome,  induced  him 
to  give  up  all  his  dignities  and  retire  from 
the  world.  In  409,  he  became  bishop  of 
Nola  in  Campania.  Many  of  the  works  of 
this  distinguished  Father  are  lost;  there 
only  remain,  besides  30  poems,  50  letters 
written  to  friends,  such  as  Sulpicius  Sev- 
erus,  St.  Augustine,  St.  Jerome,  and  other 
distinguished    contemporaries.       F.    June 

22d. 

Paulinus  (St.).  —  Bishop  of  Treves  in 
349,  born  at  Poitou,  France.  Deposed  by 
the  Arians  in  353,  he  was  banished  to 
Phrygia,  where  he  died  in  353. 

Paulinus  (St.).  — Patriarch  of  Acquileia, 
born  at  Strasburg  about  726.  Friend  of 
Alcuin  and  one  of  the  counsellors  of  Charle- 
magne. Contributed  a  good  deal  to  the 
conversion  of  the  Avares  and  combated  the 
Nestorian  heresy  of  Elipandus  of  Toledo, 
and  Felix  of  Urgel.     F.  Jan.  nth. 


Paulist  Fathers.  —  An  American  Catho- 
lic missionary  society,  organized  in  New 
York  city  in  1858,  and  approved  by  Pope 
Pius  IX.  The  society  was  originally,  and 
for  some  years  afterwards,  composed  ex- 
clusively of  priests,  who,  like  its  founder, 
Father  Isaac  Thomas  Hecker,  were  con- 
verts from  Protestantism.  They  take  no 
special  vows,  and  can  leave  the  order  at 
will.  They  aim  to  adapt  themselves  to 
the  usages  and  needs  of  American  life. 
They  are  known  collectively  as  the  "  Con- 
gregation of  St.  Paul  the  Apostle."  See 
Hecker. 

Pax.     See  Kiss  of  Peace. 

Pax  Vobis.  —  Latin  words  said  by  the 
bishop  after  the  Gloria  in  excelsis.  If  the 
Gloria  be  not  said,  then  the  bishop's  salu- 
tation is  the  same  as  the  priest's  :  Dominus 
V obi  scum. 

Pectoral  Cross.  —  In  the  early  ages  of 
the  Church,  the  Faithful,  both  men  and 
women,  wore  a  small  cross  pendant  from 
the  neck.  To  perpetuate  this  venerable 
usage  as  far  as  lay  in  her  power,  the 
Church  wished  that  her  Pontiffs  should 
carry  a  cross  on  their  breast,  especially 
when  celebrating  the  holy  mysteries. 
This  cross,  set  before  the  bishop,  reminds 
him,  both  of  God  who  died  for  him,  and 
of  the  martyrs,  who  sealed  with  their  blood 
the  faith  that  he  professes  and  teaches. 
The  pectoral  cross  contains  relics  of  mar- 
tyrs, as  is  shown  by  the  prayer  which  the 
bishop  says  when  he  takes  it. 

Pelagius  (name  of  two  Popes). —  Pela- 
gius  I.  —  Pope  from  555  to  560.  Roman  by 
birth,  took  possession  of  the  Holy  See 
without  waiting  for  his  election.  Com- 
menced the  Church  of  St.  Philip  and  of 
St.  James,  at  Rome ;  died  without  putting 
an  end  to  the  schism  which  his  usurpation 
had  caused.  Pelagius  II.  —  Pope  from 
578  to  590.  Born  at  Rome,  wrote  to  the 
bishops  of  Istria  who  did  not  adhere  to 
the  condemnation  of  the  "  Three  Chap- 
ters." 

Pelagius  and  Pelagianism.  —  Pelagius, 
born  in  England,  became  a  monk  at  Bangor, 
Wales.  He  came  to  Rome  about  the  year 
400  for  the  purpose  of  continuing  his 
studies.  Here  he  embraced  the  errors  of 
Rufinus,  concerning  the  exemption  of  hu- 
man nature  from  inborn  and  inherited  cor- 
ruption. During  the  ten  years  of  his  stay 
at  Rome,  he  occupied  himself  in  writing 


Penance 


532 


Penance 


commentaries  on  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul, 
into  which  he  introduced  many  heterodox 
opinions  on  original  sin,  free  will,  and 
grace.  The  fundamental  error  of  Pelagius 
was  the  denial  of  original  sin,  and  of  the 
necessity  of  divine  grace  for  man.  He 
taught:  I.  Adam  was  created  mortal,  and 
would  have  died  whether  he  had  sinned  or 
not.  2.  Adam's  sin  injured  only  himself 
and  not  the  human  race.  3.  Newborn  in- 
fants are  in  the  same  condition  in  which 
Adam  was  before  his  fall.  4.  The  sin  of 
Adam  is  not  the  cause  of  death,  nor  is  the 
resurrection  of  the  flesh  the  consequence 
of  the  resurrection  of  Christ.  5.  The  law 
of  Moses  is  as  good  a  means  of  salvation 
as  the  Gospel  of  Christ.  6.  Even  before 
the  coming  of  Christ,  there  were  impec- 
cable men,  that  is,  men  without  sin.  7. 
Charity  is  no  gift  of  God.  8.  Prayer  is  not 
necessary  to  acquire  the  grace  of  conver- 
sion or  of  perseverance,  because  all  this  is 
in  the  power  of  free  will.  Condemned  by 
Pope  Zozimus  and,  after  having  taught  the 
above  errors  in  Italy,  Africa,  and  Palestine, 
he  spread  them  in  his  own  country,  which 
determined  the  bishops  of  Gaul  to  send 
St.  Germain  of  Auxerre  to  Wales  to  refute 
them. 

Penance  {Sacrament  of). —  Penance  is 
a  sacrament  instituted  by  the  infinite 
mercy  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  for  the 
remission  of  sins  committed  after  baptism, 
through  contrition,  confession,  satisfaction, 
and  absolution,  wherein  the  pentinent  is 
forgiven  by  God  through  the  agency  of 
His  minister,  the  priest,  acting  on  the 
authority  of  our  Saviour.  The  forgive- 
ness of  sin,  by  perfect  contrition,  was 
brought  about  before  the  coming  of  our 
Lord,  much  less  easily  and  efTectually  than 
by  means  of  the  sacrament  of  penance. 
Perfect  contrition  is,  however,  still  suffi- 
cient for  the  remission  of  eternal  punish- 
ment due  to  sin,  whenever  the  sacrament 
of  penance  be  not  procurable  and  is  ear- 
nestly desired. 

Our  Lord  instituted  the  sacrament  of 
penance  and  gave  to  His  Apostles,  to  their 
legitimate  successors,  and  to  those  author- 
ized by  them,  power,  in  His  name,  to 
pardon  sins  or  to  retain  them  according  to 
their  judgment  of  the  dispositions  of  the 
penitent.  This  he  did  when  He  said  to 
his  disciples :  "  Peace  be  unto  you.  As 
the  Father  hath  sent  Me,  I  also  send  you. 
.  .  .  Whose  sins  you  shall  forgive, 
thej  are  forgiven  them;  and  whose  sins 


you  shall  retain,  they  aie  retained " 
( John  XX.  23).  The  confession  of  sins 
alluded  to  by  St.  James,  who  says: 
*'  Confess  therefore  your  sins  one  to 
another"  ( Jas.  v.  16), —  so  often  misun- 
derstood by  Protestants,  —  concerns  the 
sacrament  of  extreme  unction,  as  may 
clearly  be  seen  from  the  context,  which 
expressly  mentions  the  administration  of 
that  sacrament  by  "  the  priests  of  the 
Church  "  (  Jas.  v.  14).  These  are  naturally 
signified,  in  the  previous  quotation,  as 
the  authorized  receivers  of  confession. 

By  the  remission  of  sins,  sanctifying 
grace  is  communicated  to  the  soul,  whereof 
the  act  of  absolution  is  the  outward  sign. 
This  sacrament  is  therefore  necessary  for 
the  salvation  of  those  who  have  committed 
mortal  sin  after  baptism,  a  truth  defined  by 
the  Catholic  Church  to  be  an  article  of 
faith.  The  matter  of  this  sacrament  is 
commonly  thought  to  consist  in  the  con- 
trition, confession,  and  "satisfaction"  of 
the  penitent;  and  the  form  in  the  action 
and  words  of  the  priest  in  absolution.  The 
words  "penitence"  and  "penance"  are 
derived  from  the  Latin,  and  signify  repent- 
ance and  punishment.  Penitence  is  a  su- 
pernatural virtue ;  its  principle  springing 
from  divine  grace,  and  its  motive  from 
sincere  regret  for  having  acted  contrary  to 
the  will  of  God ;  and  it  is  a  virtue  abso- 
lutely necessary  at  all  times  for  obtaining 
the  pardon  of  mortal  sin.  Contrition,  con- 
fession, and  absolution  are  indispensable 
for  the  validity  of  the  sacrament  of  pen- 
ance, for  God  cannot  pardon  sins  that  are 
not  entirely  repented  of;  and  absolution 
given  by  the  priest,  in  the  name  of  our 
Saviour,  depends  on  a  full  self-accusation 
on  the  part  of  the  penitent. 

Contrition  is  a  deep  regret  and  detesta- 
tion of  the  sin  perpetrated,  with  a  firm 
purpose  not  to  repeat  the  same,  and  a  gen- 
eral resolve  to  correct  the  error  of  our 
ways.  Thus,  contrition  includes  two  acts: 
heartfelt  repentant  grief,  and  a  sincere 
resolution  to  avoid  sinful  habits  in  future. 
There  are  two  kinds  of  contrition,  the  one 
called  perfect  contrition,  and  the  other  at- 
trition, or  imperfect  contrition;  differing 
from  each  other  by  the  motive  inspiring 
them,  and  by  the  effects  they  produce. 
Perfect  contrition  has  but  one  motive, 
consisting  in  love  of  God  and  a  consequent 
horror  of  sin,  as  displeasing  to  God.  This 
arises  from  absolute  appreciation  of  His 
infinite  goodness,  the  benefits  received 
from  Him,  and  the  perfect  love  He  has  be- 


Penance  Books 


533 


Penitential  Psalms 


stowed  upon  us  through  our  Redeemer, 
Jesus  Christ.  By  perfect  contrition,  which 
also  includes  the  implicit  desire  for  con- 
fession and  absolution,  as  we  have  before 
stated,  the  stain  of  sin  is  eflfaced,  and  we 
re-enter  a  state  of  grace  and  reconciliation 
with  God,  even  before  receiving  the  sacra- 
ment of  penance.  Imperfect  contrition, 
though  prompted  by  supernatural  mo- 
tives, is  of  an  inferior  quality,  self  largely 
entering  into  it  in  the  fear  of  eternal  pun- 
ishment, and  a  desire  for  everlasting  hap- 
piness, but  does  not  include  a  horror  of 
venial  sin.  Imperfect  contrition  does  not, 
of  itself,  reconcile  us  with  God,  but  dis- 
poses us  for  the  reception  of  forgiveness  in 
the  sacrament  of  penance.  Though  per- 
fect contrition  is  undoubtedly  the  more 
efficacious  means  of  avoiding  sin  and  gain- 
ing in  grace,  imperfect  contrition  suffices 
for  the  reception  of  the  sacrament,  pro- 
vided that  it  be  free  from  willingness  and 
desire  to  sin  if  the  torments  of  hell  and 
joys  of  heaven  had  no  existence,  and  that 
it  also  includes  a  commencement,  at  least, 
of  love  for  God. 

There  are  four  qualities  indispensable  to 
contrition  for  sin.  It  must  be  internal, 
supernatural,  sovereign,  and  universal.  It 
must  come  from  the  heart  in  earnestness 
and  sincerity  of  repentance;  inspiring  an 
act  of  will  contrary  to  that  which  has  in- 
duced sin,  a  detestation  for  any  evil  that 
may  have  separated  us  from  God,  and  a 
firm  purpose  of  amendment,  not  merely  as 
spoken  with  the  lips,  but  as  coming  from 
the  inmost  depths  of  the  soul.  It  must  be 
supernatural  in  its  principle,  through  the 
help  of  divine  grace,  and  supernatural  in 
its  motive ;  the  wish  to  please  God  and 
gain  our  eternal  salvation,  through  love  of 
our  Creator,  Benefactor,  and  Redeemer, 
and  hopeful  desire  for  pardon.  It  must  be 
supreme ;  that  is,  the  love  of  God  and  ab- 
horrence of  evil  must  predominate  over  all 
other  feeling.  Mortal  sin,  involving  our 
greatest  punishment  here  and  greatest 
losses  in  eternity  has  the  triple  character 
of  irreligion  toward  our  Creator,  ingrati- 
tude toward  our  Redeemer,  and  want  of 
sorrow  for  such  irreligion  and  ingratitude, 
so  long  as  not  effaced  by  sincere  repent- 
ance. It  must  be  universal  for  all  mortal 
sins  without  exception,  for  there  cannot  be 
entire  sincerity  of  contrition  if  we  have  sor- 
row for  some  grievous  sins,  and  still  main- 
tain affection  for  others  just  as  grievous; 
nor  can  there  be  partial  absolution,  forgiv- 
ing one  mortal  sin  and   retaining  another. 


Contrition  of  such  a  kind  would  be  a  prof- 
anation of  the  sacrament  of  penance.  As 
venial  sin  is  not  incompatible  with  sancti- 
fying grace,  it  follows  that  some  may  be 
pardoned,  while  we  have  not  contrition  for 
others;  but  if  we  consciously  withhold  all 
sorrow  for  venial  sins,  absolution  given  for 
them  alone  would  be  invalid.  Again, 
should  we  honestly  think  we  have  sufficient 
contrition  without  really  possessing  it,  the 
absolution  would  be  invalid.  The  firm  de- 
termination and  resolution  of  will  which 
must  accompany  contritition  is  completely 
indispensable,  being  inseparable  from  true 
repentance.  Otherwise  confession  would 
be  useless,  and  furthermore  a  new  sin 
would  be  committed  by  our  insincerity  of 
purpose  in  asking  God's  pardon  for  sins 
which  we  had  no  intention  of  trying  to 
overcome,  and  would  be  liable  to  repeat 
upon  the  slightest  provocation.  We  must 
not  only  have  the  strong  desire  to  resist 
sin,  but  must  carry  out  our  resolution  to 
conquer  it  by  making  a  serious  effort  to 
correct  deliberate  venial  sins,  so  frequently 
the  forerunners  of  mortal  sin;  takingvigi- 
lant  precautions  against  the  gratification  of 
our  evil  inclinations,  and  avoiding  all  occa- 
sions of  temptation,  to  which  we  should 
probably  yield.  Hence,  the  penitent  who 
neglects  confession  and  communion,  know- 
ing from  experience  that  those  sacraments 
are  a  necessary  safeguard  against  his  evil 
ways,  has  not  the  firm  purpose  needful  in 
contrition.  See  Confession;  Absolu- 
tion ;  Satisfaction. 

Penance  Books  were  works  compiled  for 
the  instruction  and  guidance  of  the  priests 
administering  the  sacrament  of  penance. 
They  were  in  use  among  the  British  and 
Irish  in  the  fifth  century  and  in  the  Prank- 
ish kingdom  at  the  time  of  St.  Columban, 
in  615. 

Penitential  Discipline.  See  Discipline. 

Penitential  Psalms.  —  Seven  Psalms  of 
David,  so  called  as  being  especially  expres- 
sive of  sorrow  for  sin,  and  accepted  by 
Christian  devotion  as  forms  of  prayer  suit- 
able for  the  repentant  sinner.  These  Psalms 
are:  Ps.  6,  32,  38,  51,  102,  130,  and  143. 
These  Psalms  have  been  set  apart  from  a 
very  early  period,  and  are  referred  to  as 
such  by  Origen.  They  have  a  special 
place  in  the  Roman  Breviary,  and  more 
than  one  of  the  Popes  attached  an  indul- 
gence to  the  recital  of  them.  Pope  Inno- 
cent III.  ordered  that  they  should  be  recited 
in  Lent. 


Penitentiary 


534 


Pentateuch 


Penitentiary.  —  A  term  anciently  applied 
to  every  priest  that  had  the  authorization 
from  the  bishop  to  hear  confession.  In  our 
time,  we  call  a  penitentiary  the  one  who,  in 
cathedral  churches,  has  received  the  power 
to  absolve  from  reserved  cases.  The  peni- 
tentiary or  great  penitentiary,  is  the  eccle- 
siastic especially  appointed  by  the  bishop, 
to  exercise  that  part  of  his  episcopal  power 
and  to  absolve  the  cases  reserved  to  him. 
These  functions  are  incompatible  with 
those  of  the  bishop's  promoter  or  procura- 
tor, the  penitentiary  being  a  minister  of 
mercy,  the  promoter  being  a  minister  of 
rigor  and  justice.  The  office  of  peniten- 
tiary is  purely  religious  and  no  salary  can 
be  accepted  for  the  fulfillment  of  its  func- 
tions. 

Penitentiary's  Court.  —  Office  or  tri- 
bunal in  the  court  of  Rome,  in  which  are 
examined  and  delivered  the  bulls  and  secret 
dispensations  that  are  considered  as  matters 
of  conscience,  for  instance,  dispensations 
from  vows  of  perpetual  chastity  and  of  re- 
ligion, the  absolution  from  censures,  etc. 
This  tribunal  is  of  such  a  high  antiquity, 
that  we  cannot  fix  its  date  of  origin.  If  a 
penitent  desires  to  obtain  from  the  Pope  a 
dispensation,  or  the  absolution  from  some 
censure  which  regards  the  tribunal  of  the 
Penitentiary's  Court,  he  may  write  or 
cause  somebody  else  to  write  in  whatever 
langviage  it  may  be,  to  the  Cardinal  Grand 
Penitentiary  of  the  Pope,  by  explaining  to 
him  the  subject-matter  about  which  he 
asks  for  dispensation,  and  by  stating  the 
reasons  which  he  has  for  his  request.  To 
whomsoever  a  Brief  of  the  Penitentiary's 
Court  is  addressed  he  cannot  commit  it  to 
somebody  else  to  execute  ;  but  must  execute 
it  himself  in  the  confessional,  after  having 
heard  the  confession  of  the  penitent. 

Pentateuch  (Authenticity  of  the). —  The 
first  book  of  the  Old  Testament  is  the 
Pentateuch.  Of  all  the  inspired  writings, 
since  Celsus  and  Julian  the  Apostate,  this 
has  been  most  often  the  target  for  the  ene- 
mies of  faith.  In  our  time,  they  even  go 
so  far  as  to  contest  its  rank ;  they  deny  its 
authenticity,  antiquity,  and  veracity. 
There  is  not  one  single  chapter,  almost  not 
one  single  verse,  against  which  they  did 
not  raise  doubts  or  objections  of  all  kinds. 
Hence  we  shall  establish,  first,  its  Mosaic 
origin;  then  we  shall  answer  the  objec- 
tions in  detail,  in  order  to  justify  this 
sacred  Book  against  all  the  false  accusa- 
tions of  which  it  has  been  the  object. 


The  question  of  authenticity,  that  is,  of 
the  Mosaic  origin  of  the  Pentateuch,  is  a 
capital  question.  It  is,  so  to  say,  the 
'  foundation  upon  which  rests  the  whole 
Biblical  structure  and  consequently  both 
the  Jewish  and  Christian  religions.  If  the 
history  of  the  departure  of  the  Israelites 
was  written  at  the  very  period  when  this 
great  event  took  place,  and  by  the  chief 
actor,  then  its  testimony  cannot  be  contro- 
verted, and  bad  faith  alone  can  call  into 
doubt  the  veracity  of  the  facts  of  Exo- 
dus. If,  on  the  contrary,  it  was  drawn 
up  several  centuries  afterwards,  those  who 
deny  the  inspiration  of  Holy  Scripture  can 
contest  its  authenticity  and  veracity  in  the 
name  of  criticism,  and  consider  as  myths 
the  great  events  and  miracles  which 
brought  about  the  deliverance  of  the  He- 
brews from  the  Egyptian  yoke.  Moreover, 
they  have  the  right  to  claim  that  the  Pen- 
tateuch does  not  present  the  religious, 
intellectual,  and  moral  state  of  the  contem- 
poraries of  Moses,  but  that  of  a  later  epoch, 
when  civilization  had  progressed,  when 
religion  had  become  more  perfect,  and 
when  legislation  had  more  or  less  formed 
itself.  In  this  case  the  Mosaic  law  might 
not  be  the  fruit  of  revelation,  but  of  the 
natural  progress  of  the  human  mind. 
Thus  the  supernatural  character  of  religion 
and  of  the  Hebrew  institutions  would  be 
greatly  altered,  or  rather  destroyed,  and 
although  the  theologian  may  always  be 
armed  to  defend  the  first  books  of  the  Old 
Testament  in  the  name  of  faith,  the  critic 
is  this  no  longer  against  infidelity  which 
rejects,  on  the  one  hand,  the  decisions  of 
the  Church,  and  refuses,  on  the  other,  the 
authority  of  a  history  written  a  long  time 
after  the  events  it  relates,  and  the  testi- 
monies which  it  is  impossible  to  check  and 
verify.  Thus,  aside  from  the  authority 
of  the  Church,  the  divine  origin  of  the 
Jewish  Law,  the  vocation  of  the  chosen 
people,  the  primitive  revelation,  —  in  one 
word,  all  the  great  facts  which  are  the 
basis  of  Christianity, —  become  suspicious 
and  doubtful. 

The  importance  of  the  question  of  the 
antiquity  of  the  Pentateuch  explains  to  us 
the  rage  with  which  infidels  continually  re- 
turn to  the  attack  on  the  traditional  belief. 
They  desire  to  overthrow  this  strong  wall 
in  order  to  enter  the  heart  of  the  place,  for 
they  know  very  well  that  all  their  efforts 
against  religion  will  be  in  vain  as  long  as 
they  have  not  destroyed  the  fortress  which 
defends   it.     Under  the  appearance   of  a 


Pentateuch 


535 


Pentateuch 


literary  question,  the  principle  of  religion 
is  at  stake.  The  question  is  not  so  much 
who  is  the  author  and  what  is  the  date  of 
-the  book,  as  how  to  destroy  or  defend  the 
-existence  of  the  supernatural  and  of  reve- 
lation. The  question  of  the  origin  of  the 
Pentateuch  has  become  the  very  question 
of  revealed  religion.  In  our  time  the  de- 
bate on  the  Gospels  and  Epistles  is  put  in 
the  background,  and  critics  occupy  them- 
selves especially  with  the  inquiry  as  to 
what  epoch  ascends  the  Books  of  Exodus, 
Leviticus,  Numbers,  and  Deuteronomy, 
in  order  to  prove  that  the  laws  which  they 
contain  are  not  derived  from  Moses,  but 
are  the  natural  outgrowth  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  national  life  of  Israel ;  whence 
it  would  result  that  there  is  no  Mosaic 
revelation. 

Therefore,  we  have  to  establish,  in  the 
first  place,  the  authenticity  of  the  Pen- 
tateuch, that  is,  that  it  was  written  in  the 
time  of  the  Exodus,  as  tradition,  both  the 
Jewish  and  Christian,  has  always  believed 
and  taught.  Let  us  remark,  however,  that 
we  do  not  need  to  maintain,  and  will  not 
maintain,  that  the  work  of  Moses  has 
reached  us  in  its  absolute  integrity,  with- 
out any  change,  addition,  alteration,  or 
comment.  More  or  less  slight  modifica- 
tions, made  here  and  there,  in  the  course 
of  time,  to  this  ancient  history,  either  to 
complete  it  or  to  make  it  better  under- 
stood, or  to  polish  its  language,  do  not 
prevent  the  whole  from  dating  from  the 
«poch  of  the  departure  from  Egypt.  The 
most  severe  critics  unhesitatingly  admit 
changes  in  regard  to  figures,  places,  and 
names,  the  addition  of  the  account  about 
the  death  of  Moses  at  the  end  of  Deuter- 
onomy, etc. 

Hence,  we  have  to  defend  the  authen- 
ticity of  the  Pentateuch  only  as  to  its  sub- 
stance, without  occupying  ourselves  with 
minor  details  which  criticism  might  sus- 
picion of  being  interpolated  or  modified. 

The  Mosaic  origin  of  the  Pentateuch 
being  thus  understood,  we  shall  establish  it 
by  callingattention,  first,  to  the  testimonies 
by  which  it  is  supported,  and  secondly,  by 
exposing  the  arguments  drawn  from  the 
study  of  its  contents. 

I.  Extrinsic  Proofs  of  the  Authen- 
ticity OF  THE  Pentateuch,  i.  Testi- 
monies of  Christ  and  of  His  Apostles. 
—  Christian  tradition  has  always  been 
unanimous  in  attributing  to  Moses  the 
composition  of  the  Pentateuch.  The 
Fathers,    Doctors,    Catholic    interpreters 


and  commentators  have  never  differed  as 
to  this  point,  and  the  Council  of  Trent  has 
been  the  faithful  echo  of  the  belief  of  the 
Church  in  naming  Moses,  in  the  Canon  of 
the  Sci-iptures,  as  the  author  of  the  first 
five  books  of  the  Bible.  The  Church  her- 
self has  received  this  belief  from  the  Syna- 
gogue. In  fact  it  is  certain  that  in  the 
epoch  of  our  Lord,  the  Jews  attributed 
the  Pentateuch  to  Moses.  This  is  clearly 
established  from  the  words  of  Jesus  Christ 
reported  in  the  Gospels,  as  well  as  from 
the  numerous  passages  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment and  from  the  writings  of  Philo  and 
Josephus. 

Our  Saviour  speaks  of  Moses  in  sixteen 
passages  of  the  Gospel.  In  two  of  them, 
it  is  in  regard  to  important  events  of  Exo- 
dus (John  iii.  14;  vi.  32).  In  two  other 
places,  we  have  an  allusion  to  the  legislator 
of  the  Hebrews,  and  the  terms  employed 
in  the  second  case  are  worthy  of  remark : 
"  Is  it  not  Moses  that  has  given  you  the 
law?"  (Matt,  xxiii.  2  ;  John  vii.  19.)  The 
Saviour  speaks  repeatedly  of  certain  pre- 
scriptions of  the  Pentateuch  (Matt,  viii.4; 
Mark  vii.  10;  Luke  xx.  37;  John  vii.  22, 
23;  etc.),  so  that  we  can  hardly  believe,  as 
some  critics  pretend,  that  He  simply  ac- 
commodated Himself  to  the  popular  belief 
in  attributing  them  to  Moses;  thus,  when 
He  says  that  Moses  passed  laws  concerning 
leprosy  (Lev.  xiii.,  xiv.),  obedience  to 
parents  (Ex.  xx.  12),  divorce  (Deut.  xxiv. 
1-4;  Mark  x.  5).  Speaking  of  the  Old 
Testament  in  St.  Mark  and  St.  Luke, 
He  repeatedly  names  "The  Book  of 
Moses,"  "  Moses  and  the  Prophets,"  "the 
law  of  Moses,  the  Prophets,  and  the 
Psalms"  (Mark  xii.  26;  Luke  xvi.  29,  31; 
xxiv.  44).  Finally,  in  St.  John  (v.  45-47), 
He  appeals  to  the  -writings  of  Moses,  as 
giving  testimony  of  His  person,  and  He 
adds  that  if  the  Jews  who  hear  Him  really 
believe  in  Moses,  they  ought  to  believe 
also  in  Him,  because  Moses  wrote  of  Him. 
His  Apostles  and  disciples  have  expressed 
themselves  in  the  same  manner  about  the 
Mosaic  origin  of  the  Pentateuch  (Luke 
xvi.  20;  xxiv.  27;  Acts  iii.  22;  xv.  21; 
xxvi.  22;  xxviii.  23;  Rom.  v.  13,  14;  x.  5, 
19;  etc.). 

2.  yewish  Literature.  —  Philo  tells  us 
that  Moses  "  wrote  sacred  volumes,  of 
which  one  portion  is  historical  and  the 
other  contains  precepts  and  prohibitions." 
"  He  does  not  resemble,"  he  adds,  "  the 
other  writers,  but  wishes  to  show  that 
God  is  the  Greater  of  the  Universe  "  {De 


Pentateuch 


536 


Pentateuch 


Vita  Mosis,  1.  11).  Josephus  expressly  at- 
tributes five  books  to  Moses  {Contra 
Apionetn,  I.  8),  and  he  remarks  that  they 
begin  with  the  account  of  the  creation  of 
the  world.  The  Talmud,  that  great  col- 
lection of  all  the  Jewish  traditions,  formally 
teaches  that  Moses  wrote  the  Pentateuch. 
It  goes  even  beyond  the  truth,  saying  that 
all  its  words  were  orally  dictated  to  their 
author.  Among  the  Rabbis  there  is  only 
disagreement  in  regard  to  the  last  verses 
of  Deuteronomy,  some  maintain  the  singu- 
lar opinion  that  Moses  relates  therein,  by 
anticipation,  his  own  death  which  God 
had  revealed  to  him ;  others  believe,  not 
without  probability,  that  Josue  completed 
with  this  account  the  history  of  the  Jewish 
legislator. 

Be  it  as  it  may  with  regard  to  the  latter 
point,  the  Talmudists,  by  attributing  to  Mo- 
ses the  composition  of  the  Pentateuch,  were 
undoubtedly  only  echoing  the  belief  of 
their  fathers.  The  Samaritans,  enemies  of 
the  Jews,  do  not  express  themselves  any 
difJerent  from  them.  The  author  of  the 
Second  Book  of  the  Machabees,  that  of 
Ecclesiasticus,  Paralipomenons,  of  the 
Third  and  Fourth  Books  of  Kings,  Esdras, 
Nehemias,  all  speak  in  the  same  manner 
of  the  book  and  law  of  Moses  (II.  Mach. 
vii.  6;  Ecclus.  xxiv.  33;  II.  Par.  xxiii.  18; 
XXV.  4;  xxxiv.  14;  XXXV.  12;  I.  Esd.  iii.  2; 
iv.  18;  II.  Esd.  xiii.  i  ;  III.  Ki.  ii.  3;  IV. 
Ki.  X.  31 ;  etc.).  Thus  we  may  go  back  to 
the  Book  of  Josue,  written  before  the 
reign  of  Saul;  "the  book  of  the  law"  is 
repeatedly  quoted  therein  (Jos.  viii.  31; 
xxiii.  6). 

Hence  the  entire  Hebrew  literatura 
renders  testimony  of  the  Mosaic  origin  of 
the  Pentateuch.  Both  the  historical  and 
prophetic  books  which  do  not  quote  Moses 
in  explicit  terms  do  this  at  least  in  an  in- 
direct manner  by  way  of  allusions  and 
borrowings.  The  angel  who  appears  at 
the  beginning  of  the  Book  of  Judges  draws 
the  discourses  which  he  addresses  to  the 
Israelites  from  Exodus  and  Numbers  (Jud. 
ii.  1-3;  cf.  Ex.  xxiii.  22,  23;  xxxiv.  12,  13, 
15  ;  Num.  xxxiii.  55  ;  Deut.  vii.  i,  5,  12) ;  the 
unnamed  prophet  who  reproaches  the 
tribes  of  the  North  with  infidelity  repeats 
to  them  words  from  Exodus  (Jud.  vi.  8-10; 
cf.  Ex.  XX.  2,  3;  xxiii.  24),  and  the  message 
which  Jephte  sends  to  the  Ammonites  is 
only  an  abridgment  of  several  chapters  of 
Numbers  (Jud.  xi.  15-27;  cf.  Num.  xx- 
xxii).  All  the. other  writers  of  the  Old 
Testament  draw,  more  or  less,  from  this 


abundant  source  of  the  Pentateuch.  "The 
Jewish  people  with  its  entire  history  and 
literature,  is  like  a  living,  indestructible, 
and  unalterable  papyrus,  on  which  is  writ- 
ten, as  by  the  finger  of  God,  the  text  of  the 
Thorah.  The  history  posterior  to  Moses 
presupposes  the  law  of  Sinai  as  the  written 
law;  the  literature  posterior  to  Moses, 
both  ancient  and  modern,  attests  by  its 
numerous  voices  the  priority  of  the  Thorah 
in  its  actual  form.  ...  In  one  word, 
the  historical,  prophetical,  didactic,  and 
poetical  books  of  Israel  have  their  founda- 
tion and  roots  in  the  law  of  Moses"  (Fr. 
Delitzsch,  Die  Genesis).  Such  a  precise, 
constant,  and  universal  tradition  explains 
itself  only  through  the  existence  of  the 
Pentateuch  from  the  beginning  of  the  his- 
tory of  Israel. 

Deuteronomy  teaches  in  formal  terms 
that  "Moses  wrote  the  law  and  gave  it  to 
the  priests,  children  of  Levi,  who  carried 
the  Ark  of  the  Covenant  of  Jehovah,  and  to 
all  the  ancients  of  Israel"  (Deut.  xxxi.  9; 
cf.  xxxi.  24).  Some  extend  the  meaning 
of  the  word  "law"  to  the  whole  Penta- 
teuch ;  others  restrain  it  to  Deuteronomy, 
but,  even  in  the  latter  interpretation,  this 
passage  furnishes  a  more  or  less  indirect 
proof  of  the  Mosaic  origin  of  the  four 
other  books  of  the  Pentateuch ;  for  the 
fifth,  being  only  an  abridgment  of  the  fore- 
going, necessarily  presupposes  their  exist- 
ence. Besides,  Exodus  speaks  of  "  the 
book"  in  which  the  deliverer  of  Israel  re- 
ceives the  order  to  write  the  divine  pre- 
scription to  root  out  the  Amalekites  (Ex. 
xvii.  14).  It  is  also  said  that  Moses  wrote 
the  words  of  the  law  in  "the  Book  of  the 
Covenant,"  and  that  then  he  read  it  to  the 
people  (Ex.  xxiv.  4,  7).  The  list  of  the  en- 
campments of  Israel  which  we  read  in 
Numbers  (xxxiii.  2)  is  expressly  attrib- 
uted to  Moses. 

Independently  of  these  explicit  testimo- 
nies, we  find  in  the  Pentateuch  a  number 
of  expressions  and  reflections  which  fix  the 
date  of  its  composition,  because  they  prove 
that  at  the  time  when  the  author  lived,  the 
Israelites  were  not  yet  in  the  Promised 
Land.  This  is  what  we  are  going  to  estab- 
lish by  the  examination  of  the  contents  of 
the  Pentateuch. 

II.  Intrinsic  Proofs  OF  THE  Authen- 
ticity OF  THE  Pentateuch,  i.  How 
We  can  Determine  -whether  the  Penta- 
teuch -was  Written  at  the  Time  of  the 
Exodus.  —  Before  establishing  the  Mosaic 
origin  of  the  Pentateuch  by  the  examina- 


Pentateuch 


537 


Pentateuch 


tion  of  its  contents,  it  is  well  to  call  to 
mind  a  few  principles  which  will  permit 
us  to  understand  more  easily  what  is  go- 
ing to  follow,  and  to  seize  better  the  bear- 
ing and  value  of  the  argument  which  we 
are  going  to  set  forth. 

Every  book,  even  the  inspired,  bears 
the  stamp  of  the  time  and  place  where  it 
has  been  written.  Nobody  can  completely 
rid  himself  from  the  surroundings  in 
which  he  lives ;  everyone  shares  more  or 
less  the  preoccupations,  ideas,  passions,  and 
needs  of  those  with  whom  he  lives, 
and  he  leaves  the  imprint  of  these  ideas 
and  passions  in  what  he  writes  and  does. 
Thus  he  marks  unconsciously  the  period 
of  time  in  which  he  lived ;  for  each  cen- 
tury has  its  particular  wants,  diflferent 
tastes,  peculiar  tendencies,  which  cling  to 
the  circumstances,  events,  and  surround- 
ings. When,  therefore,  it  is  possible  to 
know  in  a  certain  and  sufficiently  charac- 
terized manner  the  time  in  which  Moses 
lived,  then  it  will  be  easy  to  weigh  the 
testimony  of  the  tradition  which  attributes 
to  him  the  composition  of  the  Pentateuch, 
and  to  assure  ourselves  that  it  has  not 
been  deceived.  Now  fortunately,  nothing 
is  easier.  Although  each  century  is  dis- 
tinguished by  particular  traits,  there  are 
some  whose  physiognomy  is  more  ex- 
pressive ;  so,  also,  among  men,  who  never 
look  so  completely  alike  but  that  there  are 
always  some  peculiar  features  that  dis- 
tinguish them  from  one  another.  In  the 
history  of  the  world  there  are  critical 
moments ;  in  the  history  of  nations  there 
are  revolutions  which  stir  up  the  passions 
most  vehemently,  like  the  Crusades  or  the 
French  Revolution.  By  a  concourse  of 
events  and  circumstances,  sometimes  a 
capital  fact  presents  itself  which  decides 
the  future  and  fixes  the  destinies  of  a  peo- 
ple for  centuries,  like  the  victory  of  the 
Americans  in  the  War  of  Independence. 
In  the  midst  of  extraordinary  crises,  phe- 
nomena exhibit  themselves  which  do  not 
reappear  in  any  other  period  of  a  people's 
history. 

Moses  did  flourish  in  an  epoch  of  this 
kind.  During  his  life,  the  Israelites  left 
Egypt,  where  they  had  been  slaves,  com- 
menced to  lead  an  independent  life,  and 
set  out  for  the  conquest  of  Palestine.  This 
is  the  gravest  and  most  important  event  in 
a  nation's  history,  for  it  is  its  birth  to  po- 
litical life.  When  we  find  in  the  Penta- 
teuch a  trace  of  the  various  movements 
which  such  a  revolution  provoked  in  the 


minds ;  when  we  find  therein  the  faithful 
picture  of  the  Exodus,  with  all  its  circum- 
stances and  eventualities,  we  have  a  right 
to  maintain  that  the  work  was  written  in 
that  very  epoch.  Then,  it  is  certain,  the 
Israelites  found  themselves  in  a  situation 
which  does  not  present  itself  any  more  in 
their  history. 

There  are  works  which  show  more  than 
any  other  the  stamp  of  their  century ;  they 
are  those  which  we  call  writings  "  of  cir- 
cumstance," because  they  have  been 
drawn  up,  not  with  a  speculative  or  purely 
historical  view,  but  with  a  view  to  the  pres- 
ent moment,  to  answer  to  an  actual  and 
urgent  want,  on  the  occasion,  for  instance, 
of  a  great  public  danger,  such  as  the  apol- 
ogies of  St.  Justin  and  of  Tertullian  in  the 
midst  of  the  fires  of  persecution.  Com- 
positions of  this  kind  necessarily  carry  a 
sensible  trace  and  the  seal,  so  to  say,  of  the 
events  which  have  provoked  their  publica- 
tion, and  thus  it  is  easier  to  fix  their  date. 
If  the  Pentateuch  were  written  by  Moses,  it 
must,  by  the  very  force  of  things,  be  partly 
a  writing  "of  circumstance,"  and  easy  to 
recognize  as  such. 

With  these  principles  before  our  mind, 
we  must  read  the  Pentateuch  and  meditate 
upon  it,  in  order  to  find  out  whether  it 
dates  from  the  time  of  the  Exodus  or  from 
a  later  epoch.  Moses  is  an  Israelite  by 
origin ;  does  the  author  of  the  Pentateuch 
speak  like  an  Israelite?  Moses  was  raised 
in  Egypt,  lived  in  that  country  and  in  the 
peninsula  of  Sinai ;  do  we  recognize  in  the 
book  attributed  to  him  that  he  did  live  in 
Egypt  and  Sinai,  that  he  was  raised  at  the 
court  of  the  Pharaos,  that  he  has  been  in 
contact  with  Egyptian  society?  Moses  de- 
cided his  brethren  to  leave  the  Nile  valley, 
where  they  were  oppressed,  to  go  and 
sacrifice  to  the  true  God  on  Mount=Horeb, 
and  then  undertake  the  conquest  of  the 
land  of  Chanaan ;  does  the  author  of  the 
Pentateuch  express  himself  like  a  con- 
temporary, a  witness  of  these  events  ?  Can 
we,  in  a  word,  recognize  in  him  a  man 
that  has  seen  the  facts  Avhich  he  relates, 
and  whose  soul  has  felt  the  emotions  which 
the  Exodus  must  have  produced  upon  the 
Israelites? 

Such  are  the  questions  which  we  have  to 
propose,  and  which  we  shall  try  to  solve. 
We  shall  commence  to  show,  in  exposing 
the  plan  of  the  Pentateuch,  that  this  book 
is  not  a  simple  collection  of  more  or  less 
disconnected  pieces,  more  or  less  fitted 
together,  but  that  it  forms  a  consecutive 


Pentateuch 


538 


Pentateuch 


and  well  co-ordinated  ensemble.  Then  we 
shall  inquire  whether  it  is  really  the  work 
of  Moses,  by  examining  the  design  its  au- 
thor had  in  view,  and  in  what  manner  he 
accomplished  it.  Finally,  we  shall  see 
whether  all  that  it  contains  is  becoming  to 
the  epoch  of  the  Exodus. 

2.  Plan  of  the  Pentateuch.  —  A  certain 
number  of  critics  have  denied  the  unity  of 
the  Pentateuch  in  general  and  of  Genesis 
in  particular.  To  believe  them,  the  five 
books,  which  tradition  attributes  to  Moses, 
are  only  an  undigested  compilation  of  va- 
rious pieces,  in  which  we  find  neither 
imitv  of  composition  nor  unity  of  mind: 
repetitions  abound,  duplications  are  fre- 
quent, the  language  and  style  reveal 
different  hands  in  the  different  portions; 
moreover,  there  are  flagrant  contradic- 
tions in  the  account  of  the  same  facts. 
Further  on,  we  shall  answer  these  objec- 
tions in  detail;  let  us  now  establish  the 
unity  of  the  Pentateuch  in  a  general  man- 
ner. 

According  to  the  actual  division  of  our 
Bibles,  the  Pentateuch  is  divided  into  five 
books,  known  under  the  names  of  Genesis, 
Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers,  and  Deuter- 
onomy ;  but  this  arrangement  does  not  go 
back  to  its  composition.  In  keeping  ac- 
coimt  of  the  matters  treated  therein  and 
of  the  plan  followed,  we  ought  to  divide  it 
into  three  parts :  the  introduction,  the 
body  of  the  account,  and  the  recapitula- 
tion or  summary  of  the  principal  points  of 
the  Mosaic  law.  The  end,  not  the  sole 
but  the  principal  end  of  the  work,  is  to 
make  known  that  law  and  the  circum- 
stances in  which  it  was  given,  was,  at  the 
time  when  Israel  became  a  people.  All 
refers  to  this  fundamental  idea.  Genesis 
is  a  real  introduction,  a  worthy  frontis- 
piece to  the  legislation  of  Sinai ;  it  relates 
the  genealogy  or  origin  of  God's  people 
from  the  creation  of  the  world  until  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  family  of  Jacob  in  the 
land  of  Gessen,  in  Egypt.  In  the  valley  of 
the  Nile  Israel  ceases  to  be  a  simple 
family  to  become  a  nation.  Here  its  na- 
tional history  commenced  when  its  people 
were  cruelly  persecuted.  The  account  of 
this  persecution  opens  with  the  book  of 
Exodus,  and  with  it  the  body  of  the  work, 
which  comprises,  besides  Exodus,  Leviti- 
cus, and  Numbers.  These  three  books 
form  only  one  whole;  one  distinguishes 
them  from  one  another  by  their  principal 
end,  namely  the  leaving  of  Egypt  in  the 
first,  the  levitical  ceremonial  in  the  sec- 


ond, and  the  counting  of  the  people  in  the 
third,  but  all  three  treat  of  the  same 
subject,  /.  e.,  the  law  of  Moses,  with  the 
circumstances  that  preceded,  accom- 
panied and  followed  its  promulgation. 
Genesis  tells  us  of  the  covenant  which 
God  made  with  the  race  of  Abraham, 
Isaac,  and  Jacob;  Exodus,  Leviticus  and 
Numbers  teach  us  in  what  this  covenant 
consisted  and  under  what  conditions  it  was 
concluded. 

Deuteronomy  is  connected  with  the  two 
preceding  portions,  but  is  nevertheless  a 
third  part  quite  distinct  in  its  plan  and 
form.  It  contains  the  discourses  pro- 
nounced by  Moses,  shortly  before  his 
death,  in  the  plains  of  Moab.  The  legis- 
lator of  the  Hebrews  sums  up  therein  the 
chief  points  of  the  law,  which  he  gave  to 
his  people,  in  the  name  of  the  Lord,  and 
he  urges  them  to  be  always  faithful  to  it. 
The  generation  which  left  Egypt  with 
him  has  paid  already  its  tribute  to  death 
in  the  desert;  it  is  necessary  to  make 
known  to  the  sons,  who  soon  will  go  and 
conquer  the  Promised  Land,  the  command- 
ments that  had  been  imposed  upon  their 
fathers.  As  the  most  of  the  legal  pre- 
scriptions had  been  enacted  only  when 
circumstances  required  it,  they  are  now 
presented  in  the  Book  of  Deuteronomy  as 
a  whole  and  in  a  more  methodic  manner. 
Undoubtedly,  we  could  conceive  the  work 
without  this  epilogue :  however,  Deuter- 
onomy forms  an  integral  part  of  the  Penta- 
teuch, for  the  fourth  book  does  not  com- 
plete the  history  of  Moses.  It  is  the  fifth 
that  contains  the  general  conclusion,  that 
is,  the  account  of  the  last  days  of  the  He- 
brew legislator,  his  canticle  and  the  bless- 
ings which  he  pronounces  upon  Israel, 
and  even  the  circumstances  of  his  death, 
added  by  a  foreign. hand  (probably  by 
Josue),  as  the  natural  complement  of  a 
work  destined  to  make  known  all  this 
great  man  had  done  for  his  people.  There- 
fore, the  Pentateuch  was  drawn  up  accord- 
ing to  a  preconceived  and  faithfully 
followed  plan. 

3.  Authenticity  of  Genesis  Proved  by 
the  Author'' s  Particular  End  in  View:  to 
Determine  the  Israelites  to  Leave  Egyft 
and  to  Go  and  Conquer  the  Promised 
Land. — After  having  established  the  unity 
of  the  Pentateuch  by  the  general  end 
which  its  author  had  in  view  and  by  the 
plan  he  followed  there  remains  for  us  to 
discover  who  this  author  was,  by  examining 
the  particular  end  he  pursued  in  his  work. 


Pentateuch 


539 


Pentateuch 


Besides  the  religious  end,  of  which  we 
have  just  spoken,  the  one  who  wrote  the 
Pentateuch  had,  moreover,  a  particular 
end,  namely,  to  determine  the  Israelites 
to  leave  Egypt  and  to  go  and  conquer  the 
Promised  Land.    This  can  be  easily  proved. 

It  is  well  to  remark  that  this  double  end 
in  view,  corresponds  exactly  to  the  double 
mission  of  MoseSi  This  great  man  had  for 
his  first  mission,  what  we  may  call  a  uni- 
versal, lasting  mission,  because  it  interested 
all  times  to  come :  namely  to  make  known 
the  true  God  and  to  establish  upon  solid 
bases  the  religion  of  his  people  by  giving 
to  it  a  body  of  institutions  and  laws.  But 
besides  this  first  mission,  he  had  a  tempo- 
ral and  passing  one,  of  a  civil  and  political 
character.  It  consisted  in  drawing  out  the 
Israelites  from  Egypt  and  leading  them 
into  the  land  of  Chanaan,  in  order  that  an 
independent  and  social  life  might  assure 
the  maintainance  and  preservation  of  their 
religious  traditions. 

The  first  part  of  his  mission  has  been 
common  to  him,  in  several  respects,  with 
all  the  writers  of  the  Old  Testament,  whose 
aim  it  has  been  to  preserve,  develop  or  to 
revive  the  religious  spirit  in  the  hearts  of 
"their  people.  Hence  this  alone  cannot 
serve  us  to  determine  the  date  of  the  Penta- 
teuch. But  it  is  not  the  same  with  the  sec- 
ond part  of  the  mission  of  Moses.  There 
has  been,  in  sacred  history,  only  one  single 
period,  when  one  had  to  induce  Israel  to 
leave  Egypt  and  to  go  and  conquer  the 
land  of  Chanaan.  Therefore,  if  there  ex- 
ists a  book  that  was  clearly  written  with 
this  particular  design,  it  follows  that  it  was 
written  in  that  epoch ;  if  this  book  is  the 
Pentateuch,  it  follows  that  the  Pentateuch 
was  written  in  the  time  of  Moses.  Now 
this  point,  it  seems  to  us,  can  be  easily 
proved  by  the  examination  of  this  great 
literary  and  sacred  monument.  When  we 
study  it  carefully,  we  remark  indeed  that 
many  pages  of  the  Pentateuch  were  written 
only  for  the  men  who  lived  in  the  time  of 
the  Exodus.  While  all  that  concerns  reli- 
gion, worship,  ceremonies,  civil  and  social 
prescriptions,  addresses  itself  to  all  the 
generations  of  Israel,  there  are  many  de- 
tails which  address  themselves  principally, 
or  even  exclusively,  to  the  generation 
which  lived  in  the  time  of  Moses.  Not 
only  does  the  author  speak  to  that  genera- 
tion, but  there  are  many  things  which  he 
only  could  speak  to  them. 

This  second  design  of  the  author  of  the 
Pentateuch  corresponds,  therefore,  exactly 


to  the  second  part  of  the  mission  of  Moses, 
charged  to  lead  Israel  into  the  land  of 
Chanaan. 

To  execute  this  great  project,  Moses  was 
assured  of  God's  protection ;  but  never- 
theless he  had  to  lead  the  Israelites  to  their 
end  by  ways  of  persuasion.  He  could  not 
forcibly  cause  them  to  leave  Egypt,  where 
bondage  had  degraded  them  and  where 
they  opposed  to  him  the  most  insurmounta- 
ble of  obstacles :  inertness.  He  could  not 
determine  them,  without  acting  strongly 
upon  their  minds  and  hearts,  to  go  into  a 
desert  without  resources,  with  their  wives 
and  children,  and  to  undertake,  without 
arms,  without  preparations,  running  all 
the  risks,  braving  all  the  dangers,  the  con- 
quest of  a  strong  and  powerful  country, 
whose  inhabitants  were  warlike,  and  whose 
mountains  were  inaccessible.  What  could 
he  do  to  triumph  over  so  many  obstacles? 
How  could  he  arouse  the  energy  and  will 
of  this  enslaved  people  .^  By  two  powerful 
means :  by  awakening  in  their  drowsy 
souls  the  strongest  sentiments  of  human 
nature,  both  the  religious  sentiment  and 
filial  love,  and  by  presenting  to  them  the 
land  of  Chanaan  as  the  most  desirable 
country  and  the  most  deserving  to  be 
coveted. 

It  was  this  that  Moses  did.  To  induce 
the  Israelites  to  undertake  the  conquest  of 
Palestine,  he  reminded  them  in  every 
manner,  on  every  occasion,  that  religion 
imposed  it  as  a  duty  upon  them  to  go  and 
occupy  the  land  whose  possession  God  had 
promised  to  them  and  which  He  had  engaged 
Himself  by  an  oath  to  put  it  into  their 
hands.  He  reminded  them  that  their  an- 
cestors had  lived  there,  had  bought  goods 
there,  and  were  buried  there ;  finally,  he 
depicted  to  them  the  country  under  the 
most  attractive  colors.  By  dint  of  placing 
these  things  before  their  eyes,  he  succeeded 
in  his  design ;  he  made  them  leave  Egypt, 
led  them  into  the  desert,  determined  them 
to  march  against  Palestine  and  to  attempt, 
in  one  word,  an  undertaking  which, 
humanly  speaking,  was  senseless  and  im- 
possible. 

a.  Promise  -which  God  Made  to  Give  the 
Land  of  Chanaan  to  the  Israelites,  and  the 
Obligation  -which  this.  Promise  Imposed 
upon  Them. —  The  most  profound  senti- 
ment in  the  hearts  of  the  children  of  Jacob 
was  the  religious  sentiment.  It  was  also 
especially  to  this  sentiment  that  the 
author  of  the  Pentateuch  appealed.  Con- 
tinually he  tries  to  reanimate  their  confi- 


Pentateuch 


540 


Pentateuch 


dence  in  Jehova.  ToKionvince  them  that 
they  ought  to  leave  Eyypt,  he  repeats  to 
them  almost  upon  every  page,  that  God 
has  given  to  them  the  land  of  Chanaan  and 
that  He  has  promised  to  make  them  mas- 
ters of  the  whole  country  ;  that  He  had  re- 
vealed to  their  ancestors  that  their  pos- 
terity should  dwell  for  a  long  time  on  the 
shores  of  the  Nile,  but  that  the  day  would 
come  when,  the  measure  of  the  iniquities 
of  the  Chanaanites  being  full,  the  children 
of  Jacob  would  enter  into  possession  of  the 
land  which  He  had  given  them  (Gen.  xv. 
13,  14,  etc.).  That  day  has  come;  God 
will  be  faithful  to  His  word,  but  under  the 
condition  that  the  Israelites  shall  not  re- 
sist His  will;  hence  all  must  depart, — 
they  must  set  out  right  away  and  go  and 
collect  the  inheritance  of  their  fathers.  If 
they  refuse  to  do  this,  then  they  show 
themselves  distrustful  of  God  and  disobey 
His  orders.  This  is  the  predominant 
thought  of  the  Pentateuch. 

To  show  that  God  is  faithful  to  His 
promises,  the  sacred  writer  quotes  facts 
that  are  most  proper  to  convince  the 
Israelites :  The  Lord  protected  Abraham 
in  Egypt  and  in  the  country  of  the  Philis- 
tines, Isaac  at  Gerara,  Jacob  in  Mesopota"- 
mia,  and  Joseph  in  Egypt  (Gen.  xvii.  17; 
XX.;  xxvi.;  xxviii.— xxxiii. ;  xxxix.-jcli.) ; 
therefore  He  will  protect  the  sons  as  He  pro- 
tected the  fathers,  provided  that  the  sons 
imitate  the  obedience  of  the  fathers.  But 
in  what  must  this  obedience  consist?  To 
leave  Egypt  and  go  into  the  land  of  Cha- 
naan. The  Israelites  cannot  doubt  that 
God  will  be  faithful  to  His  promises.  Well, 
then,  He  has  promised  to  them  to  give 
them  the  land  of  Chanaan.  Here  is  the 
most  important  point  of  which  they  are  to 
be  reminded,  and  it  is  the  one  upon  which 
the  author  of  Genesis  insists  the  most. 

One  of  the  ends  which  he  has  most  man- 
ifestly in  view  is  to  point  out  clearly  this 
promise  of  God,  because  it  gives  them  the 
right  of  ownership  over  Palestine,  and 
thus  obliges  them  to  establish  themselves 
there.  He  returns  continually  to  this 
point ;  for  him  it  is  a  capital  point.  God, 
who  never  fails  in  His  promises,  has  given, 
he  says,  to  the  children  of  Jacob  the  coun- 
try which  extends  itself  on  both  shores  of 
the  Jordan.  He  points  out  in  detail  all  the 
circumstances  under  which  the  country 
was  promised  to  the  heirs  of  Abraham. 
He  relates  the  history  of  this  promise  from 
the  very  beginning.  Nothing  is  neglected, 
nothing  is  forgotten.     The  writer  presents 


first  Thare  and  his  son  Abraham,  the  an- 
cestors of  his  race,  at  Ur,  in  Chaldea. 
Thare  emigrated  with  his  family  to  Haran. 
Here  God  speaks  to  Abraham  (then  only 
Abram)  and  says  to  him  :  "  Come  into  the 
lan'd  which  I  shall  show  thee "  (Gen. 
xii.  i).  Such  is  the  prelude  of  the  promise 
and  of  the  explicit  donation  which  God 
will  make  later  on. 

Abram  obeys  the  order  of  God  and 
arrives  in  the  heart  of  Palestine,  at  Sichem  : 
"  Then,"  says  the  sacred  text,  "  the  Cha- 
naanean  lived  in  the  country  "  (xii.  6).  And 
he  immediately  adds  :  "  Jehovah  appeared 
to  Abram  and  said  to  him :  I  will  give  this 
land  to  thy  seed"  (xii.  7).  Here  is  the 
formal  and  express  promise  of  the  dona- 
tion. Henceforth  the  land  of  Chanaan  is 
the  Promised  Land. 

In  all  the  principal  events  of  the  life  of 
the  holy  Patriarch,  God  repeats  His 
promise,  and  the  sacred  author  records 
with  the  greatest  exactitude  the  renewal  of 
the  divine  engagements.  When  Lot  sepa- 
rates himself  from  his  uncle  to  go  and  live 
at  Sodom,  God  tells  the  Patriarch  that  the 
descendants  of  his  nephew,  /.  e.,  the  Moab- 
ites  and  Ammonites  will  have  no  right  to 
Palestine  (xiii.  14-17).  Also,  Abram  does 
not  delay  to  behave  himself  there  as 
master,  almost  like  a  sovereign.  He 
places  himself  at  the  head  of  the  men  of 
the  country  and  defeats  the  enemies  who 
had  come  to  attack  it  (xiv.) ;  later  on,  the 
native  kings  make  an  alliance  with  him, 
and  beseech  his  benevolence  for  their 
posterity  ( xxi.  22-24).  When  he  has 
gained  his  victory  over  Chodorlahomor, 
king  of  Elam,  God  again  appears  to  him 
and  announces  to  him  that  he  would  have 
a  son.  After  Abram  had  offered  a  sacrifice 
to  the  Lord,  Jehovah  made  a  covenant 
with  him,  saying:  "To  thy  seed  I  will 
give  this  land,  from  thef  river  of  Egypt  even 
to  the  great  river  Euphrates"  (xv.).  At 
the  moment  of  the  institution  of  circum- 
cision the  donation  is  repeated  (xvii.  8). 
When  he  sends  Eliezer  to  seek  a  wife  for 
his  son  Isaac  in  Mesopotamia,  the  Patri- 
arch remembers  the  divine  promise  (xxiv. 
7).  In  fact,  God  not  only  promised,  but 
"  He  has  sworn  "  to  give  Palestine  to  the 
posterity  of  Abraham,  and  as  the  Lord 
cannot  violate  His  promises,  and  much  less 
His  oaths,  Israel  cannot  doubt  that  it  will 
enter  into  possession  of  the  Promised 
Land,since  the  hour  announced  has  arrived. 
The  author  of  the  Pentateuch  insists  on 
this  divine  oath,  and  uses  the  strongest  ex- 


Pentateuch 


541 


Pentateuch 


pressions  to  show  its  full  solemnity :  "  He 
raised  his  hand  to  swear,"  he  says. 

However,  an  objection  quite  naturally 
presented  itself  here  to  the  mind  of  the 
Hebrews.  They  had  to  tell  Moses :  God 
has  given  the  Promised  Land  to  Abra- 
ham, our  father;  we  are  his  descend- 
ants and  can  claim  it  by  right.  But  we 
are  not  the  only  heirs  of  Abraham ;  Lot 
ought  to  be  his  heir  also ;  the  Moabites 
and  the  Ammonites,  the  Ismaelites  and  the 
Arabs,  the  children  of  Cetura  and  of 
Esau  are  our  brethren.  Was  the  land  of 
Chanaan  not  promised  to  them  as  well  as 
to  us,  and  will  they  not  dispute  the  posses- 
sion thereof?  To  answer  this  objection, 
the  author  of  Genesis  does  not  limit  him- 
self to  recording  the  divine  declarations ; 
but  he  establishes  the  fact  that  they  have 
been  made  exclusively  in  favor  of  the  chil- 
dren of  Jacob,  and  that  God  has  eliminated 
from  the  patriarchal  succession  all  those 
of  their  brethren  that  descend  from  Abra- 
ham and  Isaac  by  other  children  than  their 
father  Jacob.  Hence  to  them,  and  to 
them  alone,  belongs  Palestine. 

b.  Filial  Piety  Makes  it  a  Duty  to  the 
Israelites  to  Depart  for  the  PromisedLand. 
—  But  the  author  of  Genesis  appeals  not 
only  to  the  religious  sentiment,  but  also  to 
filial  piety.  There  is  question  of  taking 
such  an  imporant  resolution  that  he  neg- 
lects no  means  at  his  disposal  to  arrive  at 
his  end.  The  Israelites  must  depart  for 
Palestine  because  God  has  given  it  to 
them,  and  to  them  alone  ;  they  also  should 
go  there  because  there  lived  and  are  buried 
the  Patriarchs,  their  ancestors,  and  because 
there  they  have  acquired  property.  The 
sacred  writer  minutely  notes  the  labors 
and  purchases  they  made  in  the  land  of 
Chanaan. 

An  entire  chapter  is  devoted  to  the  ac- 
count of  the  acquisition,  by  Abraham,  of 
the  cave  of  Makpelah,  near  Hebron.  It  is 
rather  the  minutes  of  a  contract  of  sale 
than  a  story  properly  speaking.  Every- 
thing is  enumerated,  even  the  trees  grow- 
ing in  the  field  where  the  cave  is  situated 
(Gen.  xxiii.).  Each  of  the  members  of  the 
patriarchal  family  who  were  successively 
buried  in  the  grotto  is  indicated.  The 
author  sums  up  the  life  of  Abraham  with 
the  remark:  "Abraham  was  a  sojourner 
in  the  land  of  Palestine  many  days"  (xxi. 
34),  as  if  he  wished  to  say  to  his  descend- 
ants :  Behold  the  land  where  your  ances- 
tor lived  and  died ;  will  you  refuse  to  go 
and  take  it  ?    Just  as  Moses  mentions  the 


purchase  of  the  cave  of  Makpelah  by 
Abraham,  he  also  mentions  the  purchase 
and  price  "  of  a  portion  of  a  field,"  made 
by  Jacob  at  Bene-Hemor,  near  Sichem 
(xxxiii.  19).  The  wells  dug  by  the  Pa- 
triarchs are  enumerated  in  the  account  of 
their  migration.  Moses  promises  to  his 
people,  in  Deuteronomy,  that  God  will 
give  them,  when  they  shall  have  taken 
possession  of  the  Promised  Land,  "  cis- 
terns which  they  did  not  dig,  vineyards 
and  olive-groves  which  they  did  not 
plant"  (Deut.  vi.  11).  Therefore,  do  not 
the  children  of  the  Patriarchs  desire  to  re- 
cover the  property  of  their  fathers?  Do 
they  not  desire  to  get  possession  of  their 
tombs?  Jacob  did  not  wish  to  be  buried 
in  Egypt,  but  had  requested  that  his  re- 
mains should  be  transferred  to  Makpelah 
(Gen.  xlix.  29-31;  i.  12,  13). 

Why  does  the  author  of  Genesis  insist 
on  relating  in  detail  these  facts?  Why 
these  repetitions?  He  cannot  have  done 
this  without  design.  It  is  evident  that  the 
one  who  wrote  Genesis  had  a  particular  in- 
terest in  returning  so  often  to  the  same 
subject.  The  more  these  repetitions  ap- 
pear inexplicable  in  themselves,  the  more 
it  is  clear  that  they  must  have  their  ex- 
planation in  the  circumstances  under  which 
they  were  written.  What  justifies  them  is 
the  effect  they  ought  to  produce  on  the 
readers  contemporary  with  Moses.  Well, 
then,  we  now  may  ask,  in  what  epoch 
could  an  historian  attach  such  a  value  to 
the  remembrance  that  the  land  of  Chanaan 
had  been  given  to  the  Hebrews,  and  that 
their  ancestors  had  their  tombs  there?  At 
what  period  could  he  feel  the  need  of  re- 
peating so  often  to  the  children  of  Jacob 
that  Palestine  was  their  inheritage,  and 
that  God  had  guaranteed  to  them  its  pos- 
session with  an  oath,  to  the  exclusion  of 
all  the  other  members  of  the  family  ?  Was 
it  in  the  time  of  the  Kings,  when  the 
Chanaanites  had  been  driven  away  from  it 
for  a  long  time,  when  the  Ammonites  and 
Moabites,  the  Arabs  and  Idumeans  had 
settled  for  centuries  irt  the  East  and  South 
of  Palestine,  and  when  they  were  them- 
selves peaceable  possessors  of  both  shores 
of  the  Jordan  ?  Was  it  in  the  epoch  of  the 
Captivity,  when  nobody  disputed  that  they 
were  the  masters  thereof?  In  one  word, 
was  it  in  a  time  posterior  to  the  conquest 
of  Palestine  and  in  the  epoch  of  Josue? 

No,  undoubtedly.  This  language  would 
have  been  incomprehensible  in  these 
epochs  of  the  history  of  God's  people; 


Pentateuch 


542 


Pentateuch 


then  it  would  have  had  neither  meaning 
nor  bearing.  No  man  pleads  a  cause 
when  it  is  gained.  He  proves  his  titles  of 
proprietorship  only  when  he  wishes  to 
take  possession,  or  to  justify  his  right 
against  those  who  contest  it.  He  recalls 
the  promises  with  so  much  insistence  only 
when  he  wishes  to  execute  them.  There 
was  only  one  epoch  when  a  Hebrew  writer 
could  speak  as  the  author  of  Genesis 
speaks.  This  epoch  was  the  one  in  which 
Moses  had  to  determine  the  children  of 
Jacob  to  leave  the  land  of  Egypt,  which 
they  were  to  regret  so  often  (Ex.  xvi.  3; 
XA-ii.  3,  etc.),  and  to  induce  them  to  un- 
dertake the  difficult  conquest  of  the  land 
of  Chanaan.  It  was  not,  we  repeat  it,  an 
easy  task  to  move  a  people  to  risk  every- 
thing in  order  to  capture  a  strong  and 
powerful  country.  To  make  the  people 
take  this  energetic  resolution,  he  had,  in 
awakening  all  their  religious  and  patriotic 
sentiments,  to  reanimate  their  confidence 
and  assure  the  victory  to  them.  In  order 
to  obtain  this  result  the  sacred  writer 
shows  to  the  Israelites  that  the  land  of 
Chanaan  is  the  Promised  Land,  proves 
that  it  belongs  to  them,  that  it  is  their 
property,  that  God  solemnly  engaged 
Himself  by  an  oath  to  put  them  in  pos- 
session of  this  country  whither  he  had 
called  their  fathers,  and  that  it  depended 
only  upon  them  to  conquer  it  and  to  be- 
come its  masters.  At  that  time,  all  the 
details,  all  the  repetitions,  explain  and 
justify  themselves;  the  least  fact  has  a 
real  importance.  It  is  no  longer  useless 
and  meaningless  to  remind  them  that 
Abraham  had  acquired  a  cave  at  Hebron, 
that  Isaac  had  dug  wells  near  Bersabee, 
that  Jacob  had  bought  a  field  at  Sichem, 
that  he  wished  to  be  buried  in  Palestine. 
Each  of  these  remembrances  is  proper  to 
enkindle  in  the  soul  of  the  Israelites  the 
desire  to  conquer  what  had  belonged  to 
their  fathers,  because  the  children  like  to 
enter  into  possession  of  the  goods  of  their 
ancestors  and  attach  a  particular  value  to 
them.  It  is  not  less  to  the  purpose  to 
make  them  remember  on  every  occasion 
that  the  remains  of  their  ancestors  are 
buried  in  this  country,  at  Makpelah,  be- 
cause all  consider  it  a  sacred  duty  to  keep 
their  family  tombs ;  and  that  the  remains 
of  Joseph  are  still  in  Egypt,  waiting  to  be 
carried  along  into  the  Promised  Land. 

Thus,  as  much  as  the  language  of  Gen- 
esis is  inexplicable  and  unintelligible  at 
any  other  time  except  that  of  the  Exodus, 


so  much  is  it  clear  and  natural  at  the  mo- 
ment when  there  is  question  of  undertak- 
ing the  conquest  of  Palestine  and  of 
inducing  the  people  of  Israel  to  bear  the 
fatigues  and  dangers  of  a  war  of  invasion. 
Therefore,  Genesis  could  have  been  writ- 
ten only  in  the  epoch  of  the  Exodus,  in 
the  time  of  Moses.  Everything  therein  is 
calculated  to  excite  the  desire  to  enter  into 
possession  of  the  Promised  Land  ;  all  tends 
toward  this  capital  and  final  end  Moses  had 
in  view.  Genesis,  in  spite  of  the  universal 
and  lasting  interest  which  it  has  for  all 
time  to  come,  has  been  above  all  a  writ- 
ing composed  for  a  determinate  time  and 
people,  and  thus  it  bears  its  date,  like  a 
discourse  addressed  by  a  general  of  an 
army  to  his  soldiers  at  the  moment  of  their 
entering  into  a  campaign. 

4.  Authenticity  of  the  Last  Four  Books 
of  the  Pentateuch  Prot'ed  by  the  End 
Their  A  uthor  Had  in  View.  —  When 
Moses  has  decided  the  Israelites  to  leave 
Egypt,  the  first  part  of  his  mission  is  ful- 
filled, but  all  is  not  done.  They  must 
really  leave  the  country  of  Gessen,  and, 
after  the  accomplishment  of  this  great 
step,  there  still  remains  another  one  to  be 
made :  the  conquest  of  Palestine.  The 
scope  of  the  author  of  the  last  four  books 
of  the  Pentateuch,  supposing  that  they 
have  been  written  by  Moses,  must  there- 
fore be  to  induce  the  children  of  Jacob  to 
complete  the  work  commenced,  to  uphold 
their  courage,  to  animate  their  confidence, 
in  making  them  triumph  over  all  difficul- 
ties. Moreover,  he  must  prepare  them» 
by  giving  them  a  religious  and  civil  law, 
to  become  the  people  of  Jehovah,  God's 
people.  A  posterior  writer,  relating  ac- 
complished facts,  would  have  had  neither 
the  same  preoccupations,  nor  the  same 
accent,  as  a  contemporary  writer,  and  es- 
pecially Moses,  the  chief  actor  in  this 
revolution  upon  which  depended  the  whole 
future  of  the  Hebrews. 

Hence  we  can  recognize  Moses  in  Ex- 
odus, Leviticus,  Numbers,  and  Deuteron- 
omj'  by  the  same  signs  as  in  Genesis.  He 
had  to  allege  to  the  Hebrews  the  same  mo- 
tives, by  adding  new  ones  as  circumstances 
suggested ;  he  had  to  insist  on  the  partic- 
ular marks  of  protection  which  the  Lord 
was  going  to  lavish  upon  them,  in  order  to 
make  them  persevere  in  the  determination 
which  they  had  taken.  The  law  must  con- 
tain traces  of  the  surroundings  among 
which  it  was  given  and  of  the  character  of 
the  one  who  gives  it ;  finally,  the  remem- 


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543 


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brance  of  Egypt  must  be  always  present  to 
the  mind  of  the  writer.  Let  us  inquire 
whether  these  are  really  the  traits  which 
distinguish  the  last  books  of  the  Pentateuch. 

These  books  contain  two  distinct  things : 
accounts  of  events  and  of  laws.  Let  us 
study  them  successively. 

a.  General  Character  of  the  Last  Four 
Books  of  the  Pentateuch.  —  In  the  first 
place,  the  accounts  are  such  that  the  liber- 
ator of  the  Hebrews  must  have  written 
them;  such  as  he  alone  could  write  them. 
In  fact,  to  what  can  they  be  reduced.?  To 
show  the  difficulties  which  Moses  experi- 
ences in  upholding  the  twelve  tribes  in  the 
desert,  in  preventing  them  from  returning 
to  Egypt,  and  in  determining  them  to  go 
into  the  land  of  Chanaan.  He  tells  us 
nothing  about  things  we  might  have  liked 
to  know,  for  instance,  what  the  Hebrews 
did  in  Egypt  after  the  death  of  Joseph 
until  the  beginning  of  the  persecution,  but, 
on  the  contrary,  episodes  which  interest 
only  his  contemporaries.  Henceforth,  we 
are  far  removed  from  listening  to  that  calm 
tone,  from  that  idyllic  simplicity,  and 
often  also  from  that  austere  grandeur  of 
the  accounts  of  Genesis  !  Now,  there  are 
frequently  quarrels  of  the  household,  so  to 
say,  that  are  related  to  us.  Every  mur- 
mur of  the  people  is  recorded.  That 
which  is  most  wounding,  most  stinging  in 
the  language  of  the  revolters,  is  reported 
as  it  can  be  done  only  by  the  one  who 
has  felt  the  full  force  of  the  blow.  Israel 
is  not  represented  to  us  in  its  beautiful 
aspects,  as  a  later  admirer  of  his  ances- 
tors would  have  done  in  relating  this 
epic  period  of  their  history;  on  the  con- 
trary, it  is  depicted  in  the  worst  light. 
The  beginnings  of  the  Jewish  nation  are 
not  embellished,  like  those,  for  instance, 
of  the  Latins  in  the  Eneid.  Such  is  not 
the  character  of  the  narrator  of  the  Exo- 
dus. He  appears  to  us  as  a  man  who  had 
been  intimately  mingled  with  the  scenes  he 
describes,  who  had  suffered  all  kinds  of 
resistance,  and  who  sufTers  them  still.  He 
does  not  idealize  the  Israelites ;  he  pre- 
sents them,  on  the  contrary,  under  the 
most  repulsive  colors,  as  a  strong-headed 
people  (Ex.  xxxii.  9;  xxxiii.  3,5,  etc.),  al- 
ways stubborn,  and  destitute  of  any  noble 
sentiments.  This  memorable  fact  of  the 
departure  from  Egypt  and  of  the  triumph  of 
a  people  casting  off  a  heavy  yoke  to  con- 
quer liberty  and  independence;  this  birth 
of  a  nation  to  public  life,  which  would  have 
furnished   to  a  posterior  writer  the  occa- 


sion to  exalt  the  heroism  of  the  Israelites, 
—  all  these  great  events  are  not  to  the  glo- 
rification of  the  Hebrews,  but,  on  the  con- 
trary, are  to  their  condemnation  and 
shame.  The  Israelites  were  freed  from 
bondage  in  spite  of  themselves ;  God 
Himself  through  Moses,  had  to  break 
their  chains  by  force;  not  one  single  fea- 
ture is  to  their  honor.  Now  then !  to 
speak  thus  of  the  enfranchisement  of  the 
children  of  Jacob,  to  have  seen  them  under 
this  aspect  and  with  such  eyes,  the  chroni- 
cler must  have  been  not  merely  a  witness, 
but  must  also  have  been,  so  to  say,  a  vic- 
tim of  them ;  he  must  have  suffered  from 
the  ingratitude  and  revolt  of  the  people  to 
have  depicted  them  with  so  much  bitter- 
ness. This  tableau  is  certainly  conforma- 
ble to  historic  truth,  but  an  historian  who 
had  not  been  associated  with  the  events 
could  never  have  described  them  in  such  a 
manner. 

Already,  when  Israel  is  shut  up  between 
the  army  of  the  Pharao  and  the  Red  Sea, 
it  cries  out:  "Perhaps  there  were  no 
graves  in  Egypt,  therefore,  thou  hast 
brought  us  to  die  in  the  wilderness.?" 
(Ex.  xiv.  II.)  What  a  bitterness  in  these 
words !  How  offensive  must  they  have 
been  to  Moses !  When  the  Egyptians  are 
engulfed  in  the  Red  Sea  and  the  first  dan- 
ger is  passed,  a  not  less  dreadful  one 
arises  :  famine.  They  are  now  in  the  open 
desert ;  the  provisions  they  have  brought 
with  them  have  lasted  fourteen  days  (xvi. 
i) ;  at  the  end  of  this  time  they  are  ex- 
hausted. How  can  provisions  be  procured 
in  this  desolate  and  dry  country.?  The  dis- 
content breaks  out  anew  (xvi.  3) ;  very  of- 
ten will  these  murmurs  be  heard,  and  they 
are  always  reported  in  a  similar  manner. 

To  uphold  the  people  in  the  desert, 
Moses  employs  the  means  by  which  he 
had  succeeded  so  well  in  Egypt.  He  tells 
them  what  God  has  done  to  deliver  them 
from  the  yoke  of  their  oppressors ;  he 
composes  religious  and  patriotic  songs, 
and  spreads  his  narratives  among  the  mul- 
titude; his  chants  repeated  in  choir  by 
young  maidens  are  like  a  potent  beverage 
that  strengthens  and  exalts  them.  Be- 
sides, the  second  part  of  the  Pentateuch  is 
not  drawn  up  like  the  first.  We  no  longer 
find  in  Exodus,  Leviticus,  and  Numbers 
the  minutely  followed  plan,  the  learned 
weft  which  we  notice  in  Genesis.  No. 
These  books,  forming  the  body  of  the 
work,  are  composed  in  a  disconnected 
manner,   and  by  snatches,  so    to  say,  ac- 


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544 


Pentateuch 


cording  to  the  occasion  and  circum- 
stances. The  plan  and  order  have  not  been 
determined  beforehand  like  for  Genesis ;  it 
is  rather  a  journal  than  a  book ;  each  great 
event  and  all  the  new  laws  are  recorded  in 
a  somewhat  desultory  manner.  It  can  be 
easily  seen  that  the  author  notes  the  laws 
and  facts  as  they  present  themselves.  The 
people  consulted  Moses  in  all  their  em- 
barrassments. When  the  question  was 
worth  the  while,  the  legislator  wrote  his 
decision  in  his  journal  in  the  order  of  its 
happening.  Thus  the  law  concerning  the 
deposits  (Lev.  vi.  1-7)  is  found  like  a  waif 
in  the  midst  of  the  regulations  concerning 
the  sacrifices,  of  which  there  is  mention 
before  and  after.  A  later  writer  would 
never  have  been  guilty  of  such  confusion, 
but  here  this  disorder  is  like  a  certificate 
of  origin.  The  author  did  not  intend  to 
furnish  a  refined  and  polished  work,  but  a 
work  that  carried  his  prescriptions  ac- 
cording to  the  wants  and  circumstances. 

b.  defeated  Remindings  of  the  Divine 
Promises. —  We  have  said  that  the  author 
of  the  Pentateuch,  to  induce  the  Israelites 
to  leave  Egypt,  represented  to  them  in 
Genesis  the  land  of  Chanaan  as  the  Prom- 
ised Land,  given  by  the  Lord  to  their 
fathers.  The  divine  promise  is  often  re- 
peated in  Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers, 
and  Deuteronomy.  When  from  the  midst 
of  the  burning  bush,  God  intrusted  to 
Moses  the  mission  to  deliver  His  people 
oppressed  by  the  Egyptians,  it  was  that  he 
should  lead  them  into  the  land  of  Chanaan 
(Ex.  iii.  8).  The  Lord  has  not  forgotten 
"the  covenant  which  he  made  with  Abra- 
ham, Isaac,  and  Jacob"  (ii.  24;  cf.  iii.  6, 
15-17).  and  Moses  must  be  in  His  hands 
the  instrument  by  which  He  will  realize 
His  promises.  The  solemn  moment  has 
arrived,  the  hour  is  decisive,  the  people 
must  leave  Egypt  to  go  and  conquer  the 
Promised  Land.  It  was  on  the  eve  of  the 
plagues  which  will  cover  Egypt  with 
mourning.  God,  to  induce  the  Israelites 
to  take  this  great  resolution,  reminds  them 
of  his  promises  (Ex.  vi.  2-8).  When, 
later  on  in  the  desert  of  Sinai,  God, 
irritated  against  the  Israelites  who  had 
adored  the  golden  calf,  wishes  to  exter- 
minate them  entirely,  Moses  obtains  their 
pardon  by  reminding  the  Lord  of  His 
promise  to  the  Patriarchs  to  put  their 
posterity  into  possession  of  the  land  of 
Chanaan  (Ex.  xxxii.  13;  xxxiii.  i,  etc.). 
In  Leviticus  God  promises,  as  reward  for 
the  observance  of  His  law,  "  the  ownership 


of  the  land  which  He  will  give  as  an  in- 
heritance "  to  Israel  (Lev.  xx.  24.).  In  the 
Book  of  Numbers,  Palestine  is  always 
designated  as  the  country  which  God  gives 
to  His  people  (Num.  xiii.  3;  xiv.  8,  9,  16, 
23?  30,  31;  XV.  2,  etc.).  In  Deuteronomy, 
the  promise  and  divine  donation  are  con- 
tinually recalled  to  mind  (Deut.  viii.  7-10; 
see  also,  vi.  10-12). 

We  would  never  finish  were  we  to  notice 
all  the  texts  which  recall  the  donation 
made  to  the  Patriarchs  and  to  their  pos- 
terity of  the  land  of  Chanaan  (see  Deut.  i. 
8;  vi.  3;  vii.  i;  viii.  18;  ix.  4,  5,  28,  etc.). 
Thus,  the  same  motives  which  are  alleged 
in  the  first  book  of  the  Pentateuch  to  in- 
duce the  children  of  Israel  to  march 
toward  the  conquest  of  the  Promised 
Land,  are  equally  alleged  in  the  books  fol- 
lowing, and  this  with  a  persistence  that 
befits  only  the  epoch  when  this  great 
revolution  took  place  in  the  political  life 
of  the  Hebrews ;  with  a  posterior  writer, 
such  a  persistence  would  be  inexplicable, 
as  we  have  already  had  occasion  to  show. 

c.  The  Miraculous  Accounts. — The  cir- 
cumstances permit  the  sacred  writer  to 
make  use  of  a  new  means  to  act  upon  the 
Israelites :  the  accounts  of  miracles.  He 
does  not  relate  them  as  simply  past  facts, 
proper  to  show  the  power  and  grandeur  of 
God,  as  a  posterior  writer  might  have 
done,  but  he  presents  them  as  arguments 
suited  to  enable  him  to  attain  his  end, 
which  is  to  arouse  the  confidence  of  the 
Hebrews  and  to  urge  them  onward.  Now, 
since  the  children  of  Israel  are  on  their 
route  toward  Palestine,  he  shows  them 
that  the  Lord  indeed  keeps  His  promises, 
in  spite  of  their  indocility,  little  faith, 
and  continual  murmurs.  This  is  also 
one  of  the  principal  objects  of  the  last 
four  books  of  the  Pentateuch.  The  most 
of  the  events  related  therein,  aside  from 
the  legislative  portion,  have  no  other 
end;  the  prodigies  accomplished  by  Jeho- 
vah in  favor  of  His  people  are  succeeded 
by  others,  as  so  many  marks  of  the  con- 
stant protection  and  indefatigable  vigilance 
of  the  Lord. 

This  we  remark  from  the  beginning  of 
Exodus,  and  especially  in  the  history  of  the 
vocation  of  Moses,  which  is  at  once  a 
miracle  and. a  divine  revelation.  What  a 
wonderful  development  in  that  whole  ac- 
count of  the  Lord's  apparition  to  Moses  in 
the  burning  bush!  (Ex.  iii.  6-ro. )  The 
promises  which  God  had  made  formerly 
to  Abraham,   Isaac,   and   Jacob,    He   now 


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545 


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makes  to  their  posterity;  the  engagements 
which  he  had  contracted  toward  their 
fathers,  He  declares  that  he  will  execute  in 
favor  of  the  children ;  the  land  which  He 
had  given  to  the  Patriarchs,  He  will  deliver 
into  the  hands  of  their  heirs,  and  thus  He 
will  have  freed  them  from  the  bondage  of 
Egypt,  which  he  had  formerly  foretold 
(Gen.  XV.  13,  14)  and  which  he  now  will 
cause  to  end. 

God  confirms  immediately  by  several 
miracles  the  mission  of  Moses,  thus  to  in- 
spire the  people  with  confidence  (cf.  Ex, 
iv.  1-9,  30,  31),  as  well  as  His  messenger. 
The  whole  history  of  the  plagues  of  Egypt 
is  related  in  such  a  manner  as  to  show  to 
the  Israelites  that  they  can  count  on  God 
as  an  all-powerful  liberator,  that  He  will 
fulfill  what  he  has  promised.  The  chapters 
v.  to  xiv.  show  this  most  evidently.  The 
circumstantial  details  of  the  author's  mis- 
sion, the  persistence  with  which  hedwells  on 
the  objections  which  he  makes  to  the  Lord, 
and  the  manner  in  which  the  Lord  solves 
them  (Ex.  iii.,  iv.),  all  this  indicates  a 
contemporary  account  made,  apparently, 
to  be  spread  among  the  oppressed,  in  order 
to  reanimate  their  hope  and  inflame  their 
courage. 

The  first  interview  of  Moses  with  the 
Pharao  only  aggravates  the  situation  of 
the  Israelites  subject  to  hard  labor.  Hence, 
great  discouragement  on  their  part.  Here, 
as  in  the  rest  of  the  Pentateuch,  the  sacred 
author  reports  the  complaints  of  his  com- 
patriots in  most  expressive  terms  (Ex.  v. 
21).  Moses  himself  is  discouraged  by  this 
check.  It  needs  nothing  less  than  a  new 
manifestation  of  Jehovah  to  reanimate  his 
confidence.  It  was  in  spite  of  himself  that 
he  accepted  the  divine  mission;  he  had 
alleged  all  kinds  of  motives  to  be  excused 
from  the  charge  of  such  a  difficult  enter- 
prise;  he  shows  to  the  Hebrews  that  he 
intermeddles  with  them  only  to  obey. the 
orders  of  the  Almighty.  Then  the  Lord 
renews  to  him,  and  through  him  to  His 
people,  all  the  assurances  which  He  has 
given  before  about  the  covenant  which  He 
has  contracted  with  the  Patriarchs.  To 
these  ancient  obligations  is  now  added 
that  of  freeing  the  Israelites  from  oppres- 
sion because  He  has  heard  their  cries  of 
complaint.  Therefore,  He  affirms  and  re- 
peats that  He  will  keep  his  double  promise, 
/.  e.,  to  deliver  them  from  the  yoke  of  the 
Egyptians  and  put  them  into  possession  of 
the  Promised  Land  (vi.  2-8).  But  they 
have  become  so  embittered  that  they  do 

35 


not  wish  to  listen.  Thus  it  became  neces- 
sary for  the  Lord  to  save  them  in  spite  of 
themselves,  and  He  has  recourse  to  the 
scourges  known  as  the  ten  Plagues  of 
Egypt.  The  people  refusing  to  depart, 
God  forces  in  this  manner  the  Pharao  to 
drive  them  away.  Each  of  these  miraculous 
scourges  is  for  the  Israelites  a  new  proof 
that  God  will  keep  His  promise  (vii.  4,  5; 
viii.  19-22;  xi.  7),  and  they  finally  consent 
to  set  out  when  the  Egyptians  press  them 
to  leave.  All  these  miracles  are  related, 
the  sacred  author  tells  us,  to  show  that  the 
children  of  the  Patriarchs  can  count  on 
the  Lord's  protection  and  power.  And  to 
point  out  more  clfearly  the  divine  protect- 
orate, the  sacred  writer  dwells  especially 
and  at  length  on  all  that  can  contribute  to 
raise  the  courage  of  the  Hebrews.  We 
have  a  striking  example  of  this  in  the  ac- 
count of  the  passage  of  the  Red  Sea.  The 
historian  describes  this  miracle  in  the  most 
lively  colors,  because  it  is  more  than  any 
other  capable  of  inspiring  the  Israelites 
with  full  confidence  in  the  success  of  their 
enterprise.  God  has  thus  far  combated  for 
them  like  a  warrior  (xv.  3) ;  He  has  gained 
this  so  wonderful  a  victory;  He  has 
drowned  the  army  of  Pharao.  Now,  what 
He  did  at  the  beginning  of  the  campaign. 
He  will  do  until  the  end.  Nothing  is  more 
expressive  than  the  Canticle  composed  on 
this  occasion,  to  give  us  the  key  to  the 
whole  Pentateuch  and  to  show  us  that  the 
author  of  the  book  is  the  very  same  as  that 
of  the  Canticle.  More  than  pnce  had  the 
people  already  expressed  and  should  ap^ain 
express  their  fear  of  not  being  strong 
enough  against  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Promised  Land  (Num.  xiv.  3).  Let  them 
be  without  fear.  The  entire  first  part  is 
devoted  to  showing  that  Jehovah,  alone, 
will  gain  the  battles  against  the  enemies  of 
the  children  of  Jacob  (Ex.  xv.  1-2 1),  and 
be  their  deliverer. 

The  other  miracles  which  the  Lord  mul- 
tiplies in  the  desert  in  favor  of  the  Israelites 
are  presented  under  the  same  aspect  (Ex. 
xvi.  6,  7;  xvii.  ir-14;  xxix.  40)  as  that  of 
the  passage  of  the  Red  Sea ;  that  is,  th^y 
are  related  in  a  manner  such  as  Moses  alone 
could  relate  them.  In  the  Book  of  Judges, 
the  prodigies  which  God  accomplished  are 
described  to  us,  on  the  contrary,  not  as 
having  for  their  end  to  manifest  to  the 
Israelites  the  power  of  their  God  and  the 
confidence  they  ought  to  have  in  Him,  but 
as  a  punishment  of  the  people,  when  un- 
faithful, or  as  a  reward  for  their  return  to 


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God,  when  they  became  converted  (Jud. 
ii.  II ;  iii.  7,  9,  etc.).  It  is  the  same  in  the 
other  books  of  the  Old  Testament.  Why 
does  the  Pentateuch  form  an  exception,  if 
it  is  not  because  it  was  written  before  the 
race  of  Jacob,  fleeing  from  Egypt,  was 
established  in  the  land  of  Chanaan? 

d.  Form  and  OmissioMS  of  the  Hebrew 
Legislation:  Proof  a  of  Its  Mosaic  Origin. 
—  The  first  thing  which  the  liberator  of  the 
Israelites  had  to  do  in  the  desert,  to  pre- 
pare his  people  for  the  mission  they  were 
called  to  fulfill  in  the  Promised  Land,  was 
to  give  them  a  law  that  would  render  them 
fit  for  this  design,  and  impress  upon  them 
the  character  which  they  should  preserve 
through  all  ages.  The  Pentateuch  tells  us 
that  Moses  executed  this,  indeed. 

Under  God's  inspiration,  he  formulated 
difTerent  ordinances.  But  since  God  makes 
use  of  contingent  events  to  manifest  His 
providence,  the  legislator  whom  He  directs 
does  not  give  to  the  Hebrews  a  systematic 
and  theoretic  code,  cast,  so  to  say,  in  one 
piece ;  he  regulates  the  affairs  from  day  to 
dav,  according  as  they  occur.  If  we  were 
to  find  in  the  Pentateuch  a  system  of  laws 
disposed  with  order  and  symmetry,  we 
might  harbor  a  suspicion  as  to  its  origin, 
and  ask :  Does  such  a  legislation  not  prove 
a  state  of  civilization  different  from  that 
which  Israel  could  have  had  in  the  desert.? 
But  the  legal  prescriptions  indicate  con- 
ditions that  existed  at  Sinai,  and  could 
only  have  been  formulated  there.  One 
thing  only  is  announced  as  a  whole:  the 
moral  law,  the  expression  of  the  eternal 
law,  independent  of  all  times  and  places, 
contained  in  what  we  call  the  Decalogue, 
and  which  Moses  received  from  God  on 
Mount  Sinai.  The  Mosaic  origin  of  these 
precepts  is  so  evident  that  most  of  the  Ra- 
tionalists raise  no  objection  in  accepting 
them. 

The  law  regulates,  moreover,  all  that  is 
essential  in  religious  matters,  the  worship 
which  we  are  obliged  to  render  to  God,  the 
sacrifices  and  priesthood.  All  that  is  in- 
dependent of  circumstances  is  foreseen  and 
already  obser\-ed  in  the  peninsula  of  Sinai. 
In  the  long  leisures  of  the  desert  life, 
Moses  writes  the  Levitical  ritual.  Every 
day  they  oflFer  victims  to  the  Lord,  and 
soon  all  the  cases  which  the  ceremonial 
might  present  are  exhibited  in  practice 
and  have  been  solved.  However,  other 
details  still  escape  to  the  legislator,  and  he 
determines  them  only  when  unforeseen 
circumstances  furnish  the  occasion. 


We  notice  the  same  character  in  all  the 
other  legal  prescriptions.  That  which  is 
general  and  ordinary  is  regulated  before- 
hand, but  particular  points  are  omitted. 
Only  when  circumstances  draw  the  atten- 
tion of  the  legislator  to  an  extraordinary 
case  does  he  occupy  himself  with  it.  Thus, 
a  surprising  thing,  the  law  contains  no 
general  rule  about  marriage  and  the  trans- 
mission of  inheritances.  We  are  instructed 
only  by  way  of  allusion  on  the  divorce, 
which  is,  however,  such  an  important  in- 
stitution. It  is  the  same  with  the  custom- 
ary and  traditional  laws  of  the  East, 
according  to  which  only  the  sons  inherited 
from  their  father.  Since  the  nomads  have 
but  little  landed  property,  this  custom  of- 
fers no  difficulty,  and  the  legislator  does 
not  even  mention  it.  He  occupies  himself 
with  this  important  point  only  by  accident 
and  when  the  tribes  have  become  proprie- 
tors of  the  soil,  when  litigious  cases  pre- 
sent themselves,  and  when  they  oblige  him 
to  make  a  decision. 

Thus  the  common  law  did  not  provide 
for  the  case  where  a  father  left  only  female 
posterity.  This  case  presented  itself  one 
day  to  Moses  and  he  had  to  pronounce 
himself  (Num.  xxvii.  i-ii).  The  law 
which  punishes  the  blasphemer  with  death 
is  also  declared  on  the  occasion  of  the 
curses  of  a  man  whose  father  was  an 
Egyptian  and  his  mother  an  Israelitess 
(Lev.  xxiv.  10-16;  cf.  Num.  xv.  32-36). 
And  what  is  still  more  remarkable,  in  this 
case,  as  in  that  of  the  Sabbath,  the  sanc- 
tion of  the  law  is  only  made  after  the 
promulgation  of  the  law  itself  (Lev.  xxiv. 
10-16  and  Ex.  xxii.  28;  Num.  xv.  32-36  and 
Ex.  XX.  8). 

Not  only  the  legal  prescriptions  are  thus- 
regulated  from  day  to  day,  as  it  became  a 
people  leading  a  nomadic  life  in  Sinai,  but, 
moreover,  all  that  the  law  ordains  in  the 
Pentateuch  is  peculiar  to  the  time  of 
Moses.  We  even  find  regulations  therein 
which  couW  not  have  their  origin  in  Pales- 
tine and  whose  application  was  possible 
only  to  a  people  camping  in  the  wilderness 
(Lev.  iv.  12,  21 ;  xiii.  46;  xiv.  3,  8;  xvi.  27, 
28;  3ivii.  3;  xxiv.  14,  23;  Num.  xv.  35,  36; 
xix.  3;  etc.)  and  under  the  tent  (Num.  xix. 
4),  such  as  that  regarding  the  scapegoat, 
and  many  others  (Lev.  iv.  12;  xvi.  10; 
Num.  xix.  2-10;  Deut.  xxiii.  12,  13). 
Nothing  leads  us  to  suppose  that  the  peo- 
ple live  in  cities  and  houses;  on  the  con- 
trary, everything  proves  that  they  are  in 
the   desert  (Ex,   xvi.   13;    xxix.    14,   etc.). 


Pentateuch 


547 


Pentateuch 


Only  when  they  are  on  the  plains  of  Moab, 
when  the  trans- Jordanic  tribes  have  already 
their  share  of  territory  (Num.  xxxii.),  does 
Moses  take  measures  for  the  division  of  the 
Promised  Land,  and  occupy  himself  with 
cities  which  shall  be  given  to  the  Levites, 
and  the  cities  of  refuge,  but  he  does  not 
designate  an}'  (Num.  xxxiv.,  xxxv.).  If 
the  chapter  which  contains  these  last  pre- 
scriptions had  been  written  after  the  time 
of  Moses,  very  probably  the  names  of  these 
cities  would  have  been  enumerated  therein. 
Consequently,  the  Hebrew  legislation, 
on  account  of  the  manner  in  which  it  was 
given,  is  not  complete.  The  omissions 
therein  are  numerous,  but  are  not  less  con- 
clusive than  the  positive  prescriptions  in 
favor  of  its  Mosaic  origin.  This  is  a  point 
to  which  we  cannot  draw  enough  atten- 
tion That  which  mostly  occupied  other 
legislators,  that  is,  political  organization, 
is  wanting  with  Moses;  he  does  not  speak 
thereof.  He  found  the  patriarchal  regimen 
already  established,  and  he '  keeps  it  up; 
the  idea  of  changing  it,  modifying  it,  or 
declaring  his  willingness  to  preserve  it, 
does  not  even  seem  to  enter  his  mind. 
While  he  minutely  regulates  everything 
that  concerns  the  religious  service  and  the 
reciprocal  rights  of  each  one,  he  keeps 
silent  about  the  government  and  the 
political  regimen  of  the  twelve  tribes  whom 
he  desires  to  become  a  people.  How  can 
we  explain  a  similar  silence?  Simply  be- 
cause no  one,  neither  he  nor  others,  was 
thinking  about  modifying  the  patriarchal 
organization  received  from  Abraham  and 
Jacob;  it  is  sufficient  in  the  desert;  he 
does  not  look  any  further.  The  daily  of- 
fering of  the  sacrifices  often  brings  up  new 
questions  which  must  be  regulated,  and  he 
regulates  them  in  practice.  The  continual 
relations  of  men  to  one  another  will  give 
rise  to  litigious,  doubtful,  and  unforeseen 
cases,  upon  which  he  is  also  obliged  to  ex- 
press himself,  and  he  does  express  himself. 
But  the  organization  of  the  nomadic  tribes 
is  sufficient  for  the  nomadic  life  they  lead 
in  the  desert;  they  are  contented.  This 
organization  will  have  inconveniences 
when  the  people  shall  be  settled  in  the 
Promised  Land;  they  will  have  no  com- 
mon chief,  will  form  a  multitude  of  small 
and  independent  states,  without  cohesion, 
without  unity,  and  consequently  without 
power;  the  consequence  will  be  that  they 
are  always  at  the  mercy  of  all  invaders,  as 
is  attested  by  the  history  of  the  Judges. 
Moses  does  not  provide  for  any  of  these 


inconveniences;  he  regelates  nothing;  he 
is  occupied  only  with  the  present.  He 
foresees  that  the  people  must  have  a  chief 
when  marching  to  the  conquest  of  Pales- 
tine, and  he  appoints  Josue  to  replace  him 
after  his  death.  But  as  to  who  shall  be  at 
the  head  of  Israel  after  Josue,  he  does  not 
busy  himself,  and  the  Pentateuch  does  not 
contain  a  single  word  in  regard  to  this 
subject. 

Is  there  any  other  epoch  than  that  of 
Moses  where  one  could  forget,  so  to  say, 
the  government  of  Israel?  No.  Moses 
alone  could  be  so  indifferent  (pardon  the 
expression)  about  the  political  future  of 
his  people.  For  him,  religion,  moral  and 
good  civil  order  was  all  he  wanted.  Who- 
ever might  have  written  after  the  reigns  of 
Saul  and  David  would  certainly  have 
alluded  to  the  Judges  of  Israel,  those 
celebrated  heroes,  who  always  held  a  con- 
spicuous place  in  the  popular  remembrance 
(I.  Ki.  xii.  II ;  Ps.  Ixxxii.  lo,  12;  Is.  ix.  4; 
X.  26;  etc.).  If  the  Hebrew  code  had  been 
drawn  up  in  the  time  of  the  Kings,  cer- 
tainly the  author  could  not  have  neglected 
to  speak  of  the  sovereign.  We  can  defy 
all  the  enemies  of  the  authenticity  of  the 
Pentateuch  to  furnish  even  a  plausible  ex- 
planation of  the  omission  of  royalty  in  the 
Hebrew  legislation,  if  Moses  is  not  the  au- 
thor thereof. 

e.  The  Remembrance  of  Egypt  is  Still 
Alive  in  the  Pentateuch.  —  In  both  the 
legislative  part  and  in  the  historical  ac- 
counts of  the  Pentateuch,  we  find  quite  a 
characteristic  feature :  the  place  which 
Egypt  occupies  therein.  It  appears  all 
over, — sometimes  in  a  direct  manner,  some- 
times by  way  of  allusion ;  and  it  is  always 
presented  in  such  a  manner  that  the  un- 
prejudiced reader  can  easily  recognize  that 
Moses  alone  could  think  so  much  of  Egypt 
and  mention  it  so  often  in  his  writings. 

The  deliverance  from  the  bondage  of 
Egypt  is  recalled  to  mind  at  every  moment 
as  a  very  important  event,  as  an  event  with 
which  were  associated  those  whom  the 
writer  addresses  (Num.  xxxii.  11 ;  xxxiii. 
i;  Deut.  ix. ;  xxix.  16;  etc.).  These  are 
incontestable  facts  which  nobody  can  deny 
who  has  read  the  Pentateuch.  The  new 
science  of  Egyptology  has  especially  con- 
firmed this.  All  that  is  related  of  Egypt 
in  the  Pentateuch,  of  the  sojourn  of  the 
Hebrews  in  that  country,  and  of  their  ex- 
odus, is  in  perfect  accord  with  the  state  of 
Egypt  such  as  it  appeared  under  the 
Rameses.     Now  this  state  was  very  differ- 


Pentecost 


548 


Persecutions 


ent  from  what  it  was  later  on,  for  example, 
in  the  epoch  of  Solomon  or  in  that  of  the 
Prophets.  The  Egypt  of  the  Pentateuch 
is  very  different  from  that  of  the  Prophets. 
In  the  former,  one  single  state ;  in  the  lat- 
ter, an  empire  parceled  out  into  small 
principalities.  In  the  former,  complete 
silence  about  the  kingdom  of  Ethiopia;  in 
the  latter,  this  kingdom  appear.  In  all 
the  details  we  discover  the  same  exacti- 
tude, proving  that  the  Pentateuch  is  much 
anterior  to  the  Prophets.  As  to  the  Egyp- 
tian customs,  we  find  them  faithfully  de- 
picted even  to  the  smallest  detail.  To 
be  so  exact  the  author  of  the  Pentateuch 
must  necessarily  have  lived  in  Egypt;  he 
must  have  lived  with  the  people  whose  ex- 
odus he  describes.  This  author  can  have 
been  no  other  than  Moses. 

Pentecost.  —  The  name  given  to  the 
feast  among  the  Jews,  held  on  the  fiftieth 
day  after  the  Passover,  in  celebration  of 
the  "ingathering,"  and  in  thanksgiving 
for  the  harvest.  From  the  Jewish  use,  it 
was  introduced  into  the  Christian,  and 
with  special  solemnity,  as  being  the  day  of 
the  descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost  on  the 
Apostles,  and  of  the  first  solemn  preaching 
of  the  Christian  religion.  From  early 
times  Pentecost  has  been  regarded  as  one 
of  the  great  festivals  of  the  Christian  year, 
and  it  was  chosen  as  one  of  the  times  for 
the  solemn  administration  of  baptism. 
The  English  name  of  the  festival,  Whit- 
sunday', is  derived  from  the  white  robes  in 
which  the  newly  baptized  were  clad.  It  is 
regarded  as  especially  sacred  to  the  Third 
Person  of  the  Blessed  Trinity,  in  whose 
honor  the  services  of  the  day  are  directly 
addressed. 

Pepin  the  Short.  — Died  in  768.  King 
of  the  Franks,  son  of  Charles  Martel.  He 
became  major-domo  of  Neustria  on  the 
death  of  his  father  in  741 ;  his  brother 
Karlmann  becoming  major-domo  of  Aus- 
trasia.  The  latter  abdicated  in  his  favor 
in  747,  and  with  the  Pope's  sanction  he  as- 
sumed the  title  of  king  in  752.  He  assisted 
the  Pope  against  Aistulf,  king  of  the  Lom- 
bards, who,  in  752,  took  possession  of 
Ravenna  and  its  dependent  provinces,  and 
put  an  end  to  the  Greek  dominion  in  that 
part  of  Italy.  He  resolved  to  make  him- 
self master,  also,  of  Rome.  Hereupon 
Pope  Stephen  III.  applied  to  the  Greek 
emperor  for  assistance,  but  being  refused, 
he   had   recourse   to    Pepin,  king   of    the 


Franks.  Pepin  first  attempted  peaceful 
negotiations  with  Aistulf;  but  these  being 
refused,  he,  in  two  expeditions  (754  and 
756),  compelled  the  Lombard  to  surrender 
the  exarchate  and  all  the  cities  which  he 
had  taken  from  the  Roman  Church.  Pepin, 
by  a  solemn  deed,  placed  on  the  tomb  of 
St.  Peter,  together  with  the  keys  of  the 
cities  donated,  or  rather  restored  to  the 
Roman  See,  the  territory  which  his  valor 
had  recovered. 

Thus,  the  Pope  became  an  independent 
and  temporal  sovereign.  By  the  gift  of 
Pepin,  this  large  part  of  Italy,  became  the 
kingdom  of  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  and 
thus,  was  laid  the  foundation  of  what  are 
called  the  Papal  states.  These  states  hav- 
ing been  donated  to  the  "  Apostolic  See," 
and  being  the  property,  the  "  Patrimony 
of  St.  Peter,"  belong  not  to  any  Pope  as 
an  individual,  nor  to  any  family  or  fac- 
tion, but  to  the  entire  Catholic  Church. 
The  protection  of  the  Holy  See,  which 
the  Byzantine  emperors  had  so  basely 
neglected,  was  transferred  to  the  Frankish 
king,  with  the  title  of  "  Patrician  of 
Rome,"  which  conferred  upon  him  a  cer- 
tain ambunt  of  patronage  and  a  voice  in 
certain  matters  relating  to  the  temporal 
weal  of  the  Roman  Church. 

Pepuzians.     See  Montanists. 

Pergamum.  —  A  city  of  Mysia,  Asia 
Minor,  (Apoc.  i.  11;  ii.  12.)  and  the  resi- 
dence of  the  Attalian  princes.  Here  was 
collected  by  the  king  of  this  race  a  noble 
library  of  200,000  volumes,  which  was 
afterwards  transported  to  Egypt  by  Cleo- 
patra, and  added  to  the  library  at  Alex- 
andria. Hence  the  Latin  ndivne pergamentutn 
for  parchment.  Pergamum  was  situated 
on  the  Caicus,  50  miles  north  of  Smyrna, 
and  was  the  birthplace  of  Galen. 

Perge.  —  A  city  in  Pamphylia,  Asia 
Minor.  It  was  noted  for  the  worship  of 
Artemis  (Acts  xiii.  13,  14).  This  is  not  a 
maritime  city,  but  situated  on  the  river 
Cestus,  at  some  distance  from  its  mouth. 
It  was  one  of  the  most  considerable  cities 
in  Pamphylia  ;  and  when  that  province  was 
divided  into  two  parts,  this  city  became 
the  metropolis  of  one  part,  and  Side  of  the 
other. 

Persecutions.  —  History  stigmatizes 
with  the  epithet  *'  persecutors,"  the  Roman 
emperors  who  used  violence  against  the 
Christians  to  force  them  to  abjure  their 


Perseverance 


549 


Perseverance 


religion.  Lactantius  has  left  us  a  treatise 
on  the  death  of  the  persecutors  wherein  he 
shows  that  all  perished  in  a  fatal  manner, 
and  as  having  been  struck  by  Divine  ven- 
geance. In  Palestine  there  never  occurred 
any  general  persecutions;  some  heads  of 
the  Christian  community  of  Jerusalem, 
after  the  example  of  the  divine  Master, 
perished  as  victims  of  their  faith  for  all, 
such  as  St.  James  the  Less  (35),  St.  James 
the  Greater  (62),  and  St.  Stephen.  In  the 
cities  of  the  Roman  empire,  where  the 
Christians  had  colonies,  there  took  place 
ten  great  persecutions.  The  first  occurred 
under  Nero,  who  accused  the  Christians  of 
the  burning  of  Rome,  of  which  he,  him- 
self, was  the  author,  and  who,  under  this 
pretext,  delivered  them,  beginning  with 
the  year  64,  to  the  most  cruel  torments. 
The  second  took  place  in  the  year  95,  in 
the  reign  of  Domitian,  under  pretext  that 
the  Jews  gave  to  Jesus  the  title  of  king.  In 
this  persecution,  a  great  number  of  the 
confessors  of  the  Christian  faith  lost  their 
life,  especially  in  Asia  Minor.  The  third 
took  place  under  Trajan  and  on  the  denun- 
ciation of  the  proconsuls,  among  others,  of 
Plinius  the  Younger,  in  Bithynia,  who 
complained  that  the  Christians  did  not  bow 
before  the  imperial  statues.  The  fourth 
(177)  took  place  under  Marcus  Aurelius, 
who  felt  uneasy  about  the  new  Christian 
communities  established  in  Gaul,  Vienne, 
and  Lyons ;  about  the  year  165  the  Chris- 
tians in  Asia  Minor  had  also  to  suffer 
a  persecution,  and  in  which  perished 
the  Bishop  of  Smyrna,  St.  Polycarp,  and 
at  the  same  time  St.  Justin,  expiated  at 
Rome  the  blame  which  he  had  thrown  on 
the  philosopher  Crescens.  The  fifth  took 
place  under  Septimus  Severus  who,  in 
202,  forbade  the  Jews  to  embrace  the 
Christian  religion ;  the  sixth  was  the 
work  of  Maximus  who  made,  in  the  year 
235,  restrictions  to  the  edicts  of  Alexan- 
der Severus,  who  had  granted  to  the 
Christians  particular  favors ;  the  Emperor 
Decius  (249)  inaugurated  his  reign  with 
the  seventh  persecution,  and  the  character 
of  universality  and  the  merciless  cruelty 
which  presided  therein  indicates  clearly 
the  intention  of  annihilating  Christianity; 
the  eighth  persecution  (257),  under  Vale- 
rian, was  directed  more  especially  against 
the  priests  who  were  put  to  death  without 
mercy ;  the  violent  end  of  the  Emperor 
Aurelian  put  an  end  to  the  ninth  persecu- 
tion, which  he  had  ordered  against  the 
Christians   in   the   year   275 ;   finally,   the 


tenth  was  decreed,  in  303,  by  Diocletian. 
In  a  series  of  cruel  edicts,  this  emperor 
declared  his  intention  of  obliterating  the 
Christian  name.  Imperial  edicts  were 
everywhere  published,  ordering  the 
churches  to  be  destroyed,  the  Scriptures 
to  be  burned.  Christians  of  rank  to  be  de- 
graded, common  people,  if  they  remained 
faithful,  to  be  reduced  to  slavery,  and 
bishops  and  priests,  especially,  should 
have  the  choice  between  apostacy  and  a 
cruel  death.  This  rigorous  order  was, 
in  the  year  304,  extended  by  a  fourth  edict 
to  the  whole  body  of  Christians.  A 
countless  multitude  of  Christians,  in  con- 
sequence of  these  edicts,  obtained  the 
crown  of  martyrdom. 

It  is  impossible  to  fix  the  exact  number 
of  Christian  martyrs  who  died  for  the  faith. 
Dodwell,  an  Anglican  writer  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  and  Gibbon  endeavored  to 
prove  that  it  was  insignificant,  but  this 
opinion  is  not  shared  by  unprejudiced 
writers.  The  computations  of  Bosio,  who 
is  justly  styled  the  "  Columbus  of  the 
Catacombs,"  and  of  other  learned  men 
have  led  to  an  estimate  that  at  least  five  mil- 
lion Christians —  men,  women,  and  chil- 
dren—  were  put  to  death  for  the  faith 
during  the  first  three  centuries  of  the 
Church.  Some  even  believe  the  total 
number  of  Christians  martyred  during 
this  period  to  be  between  nine  and  ten 
millions.  Nor  should  this  appear  exag- 
gerated, especially  when  the  millions  of 
graves  as  well  as  the  inscriptions  found  in 
the  Catacombs  about  Rome,  show  that  in 
the  capital  of  the  empire  alone  there  must 
have  been  about  two  and  a  half  millions  of 
martyrs. 

Perseveranc e. —  By  perseverance  is 
meant  an  unwavering  fixity  of  the  will, 
and  the  word  is  used  in  theology  to  signify 
the  fixed  will  of  a  just  man  to  retain  the 
robe  of  grace  with  which  he  is  clothed,  and 
not  cast  it  from  him  by  committing  griev- 
ous sin.  The  habit  of  this  will  constitutes 
the  x'irtue  of  perseverance,  a  virtue  which 
will  show  itself  in  a  series,  longer  or 
shorter,  of  acts  of  resistance  to  tempta- 
tion ;  this  series  being  known  as  active 
perseverance,  passive  perseverance  —  not 
a  very  apt  phrase  —  is  employed  to  denote 
death  in  the  state  of  grace;  'And  final  per- 
severance is  the  great  gift  enjoyed  by  those 
who  have  actively  persevered  till  death 
came  to  them  and  they  can  be  said  to  have 
had    passive    perseverance.      There    may 


Persia 


550 


Persia 


be  passive  perseverance  without  active, 
as  when  an  infant  dies  after  baptism, 
or  an  adult  the  instant  after  his  soul 
has  received  the  grace  of  God.  It  is  a 
defined  doctrine  of  the  Church  that  perse- 
verance is  impossible  for  a  just  man  with- 
out special  aid  from  God,  but  that  with 
this  aid  it  is  possible.  Council  of  Trent, 
Sess.  VI.,  can.  12.     See  Grace. 

Persia  (in  Hebrew  Phars).  —  A  vast  re- 
gion in  Asia,  the  southwestern  province  of 
which  appears  to  have  been  the  ancient 
Persia  and  is  still  called  **  Pharsistan  "  or 
"  Fars."  The  Persians,  who  became  so  fa- 
mous after  Cyrus,  the  founder  of  their 
more  extended  monarchy,  were  anciently 
called  Elamites;  and  later,  in  the  time  of 
the  Romans,  Parthians.  The  early  history 
of  the  Persians,  like  that  of  most  of  the 
Oriental  nations,  is  involved  in  doubt  and 
perplexity.  We  have  already  suggested 
their  descent  from  Sem,  through  his  son 
Elam,  after  whom  they  were  originally 
named.  It  is  probable  that  they  enjoyed 
their  independence  for  several  ages,  with  a 
monarchical  succession  of  their  own,  until 
they  were  subdued  by  the  Assyrians,  and 
their  country  attached  to  a  province  to 
that  empire.  From  this  period,  both  sacred 
and  profane  writers  distinguished  the  king- 
dom of  the  Medes  from  that  of  the  Per- 
sians. It  is  not  improbable  that  during 
this  period,  petty  revolutions  might  have 
occasioned  temporary  disjunctions  of  Per- 
sia from  Assyria,  and  that  the  Persian 
king  was  quickly  again  made  sensible  of 
his  true  allegiance.  When  Media  became 
independent,  under  Dejoces  and  then 
Phraortes,  Persia  became  also  subject  to 
its  sway,  as  a  tributary  kingdom.  Media 
having  vanquished  her  great  rival,  Assyria, 
enjoyed  a  long  interval  of  peace,  during 
the  reign  of  Astyages,  son  of  Cyaxares. 
But  his  successor,  Cyaxares  the  Second, 
united  with  the  Persians  against  the  Baby- 
lonians, and  gave  the  command  of  the 
combined  armies  to  Cyrus,  who  took 
the  city  of  Babylon,  killed  Balthasar,  and 
terminated  that  kingdom,  in  538  B.  c. 
Cyrus  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Media 
and  Persia,  and  completed  the  union  be- 
tween those  countries.  He  extended  his 
dominion  beyond  the  greatest  limits  of 
that  of  the  kings  of  Assyria.  It  may  be 
worthy  of  remark,  previous  to  this  union, 
Daniel  speaks  of  the  law  of  the  Medes  and 
Persians  as  being  the  same;  the  union  was 
effected  b.  c.  536.    The  principal  events  re- 


lating to  Scripture,  which  occurred  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Cyrus,  were  the  restor- 
ation of  the  Jews,  the  rebuilding  of  the 
city  and  temple,  and  the  capture  of 
Babylon. 

Persia  {Christianity  in). — The  propaga- 
tion of  Christianity  in  Persia  took  place  at 
a  very  early  date.  Several  bishoprics  had 
already  existed  there  in  the  first  quarter  of 
the  fourth  century.  A  Persian  bishop  at- 
tended the  Council  of  Nice,  in  325.  The 
rapid  progress  of  Christianity  in  this 
country  irritated  the  Jews  and  heathen 
Magi,  or  priests,  who  spared  no  pains  to 
arouse  the  suspicion  of  the  Persian  king. 
Sapor  II.  (309-381)  against  the  Christians, 
whom  they  represented  as  the  secret  allies 
of  the  Romans  and  the  enemies  of  their 
country.  A  frightful  persecution  ensued 
in  345,  which  lasted  thirty-five  years. 
Simeon,  the  aged  bishop  of  Seleucia,  to- 
gether with  a  hundred  priests  and  deacons, 
was  among  the  first  put  to  death  for  the 
faith.  Sozomenus  states  that  the  number 
of  Christians  who  suffered  during  this 
persecution  amounted  to  sixteen  thousand, 
not  including  those  of  whom  no  particulars 
could  be  obtained.  After  the  death  of 
Sapor  II.,  the  Church  in  Persia  enjoyed  a 
respite  during  forty  years.  King  Isdegerd 
I.  (401-420)  was  particularly  favorable  to 
Christians,  to  whom  he  granted  the  free 
exercise  of  their  religion.  But  when 
Bishop  Abdas  of  Susa,  by  an  act  of  indis- 
creet zeal,  set  fire  to  a  pagan  temple,  the 
persecution  was  renewed,  and  it  continued 
to  rage  with  increased  fury  until  the  year 
450.  Abdas,  with  a  number  of  Christians, 
was  put  to  death.  Every  species  of  torture 
that  inhumanity  could  devise  was  employed 
upon  the  confessors  of  the  faith  ;  some  were 
sawed  to  pieces  or  flayed  alive;  others 
were  bound  hand  and  foot  and  cast  into 
pits  to  be  devoured  alive  by  rats  and  mice. 
It  was  not  till  the  treaty  of  peace  had  been 
concluded  with  Theodosius  II.  (427),  that 
King  Bahram  V.  (420-438)  became  more 
mild  towards  the  Christians;  and  this 
was  mainly  owing  to  Bishop  Acacius  of 
Amida,  who,  with  the  proceeds  of  Church 
property  which  he  sold,  ransomed  seven 
thousand  Persian  prisoners  of  war,  and 
restored  them  to  their  homes.  Unhappily 
at  this  time  Nestorianism  entered  the  land, 
which  at  a  later  date  fell  a  prey  to  Islamism 
and  rooted  out  Christianity,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  a  few  scattered  fragments  here 
and  there. 


Peschito 


551 


Peter  in  Rome 


Peschito  (simfJii)'.  —  Syriac  version  of 
the  Bible.  It  is  taken  literally  from  the 
Septuagint  in  the  Old  and  from  the  Greek 
originals  in  the  New  Testament,  and  is 
marked  thus:  "This  translation  was  fin- 
ished in  the  year  of  the  Greeks,  389,  by 
the  hand  of  Achaeus,  the  Apostle."  Ac- 
cording to  this  inscription  St.  Thaddaeus 
or  Jude,  who  evangelized  Syria,  was  the 
author  of  this  translation,  which  certainly 
goes  back  to  his  time.  Such  is  the  tradi- 
tion of  the  Syrians  themselves,  and  it  is 
borne  out  by  the  arguments  of  Cardinal 
Wiseman  in  his  HorcE  Syriacte.  The 
Apocalypse  and  four  of  the  Epistles  are 
wanting  in  it,  because  their  canonical 
authority  was  not  commonly  known,  or 
universally  acknowledged  at  the  time  this 
version  was  made.  A  splendid  edition  of 
it  was  printed  at  Vienna,  in  1555,  with  the 
assistance  of  a  distinguished  Maronite 
priest,  who  had  visited  Rome,  with  the  ob- 
ject of  presenting  to  the  Chair  of  St.  Peter, 
in  the  person  of  Julius  III.,  the  allegiance 
of  the  Maronite  Christians. 

Pessimism.  —  Philosophical  system 
which  teaches  that  this  world  is  the  worst 
of  all  worlds  possible;  in  opposition  to 
Optimism,  which  see. 

Petavius  (1583-1652). — Jesuit,  antiquary, 
and  chronologist,  born  at  Orleans,  died  in 
Paris.  Professor  in  difTerent  houses  of 
his  Order.  His  work  Opus  de  doctrina 
temporum  (1627)  was  a  work  of  criticism 
against  Scaliger  and  Saumaise.  We  owe 
to  him  also:  Uranologia;  Rationarium 
temporum  (1633-1634) ;  Dogmata  Theologia 
(1644-1650)  ;  De  Ecclesia  Christi. 

Peter  (St.)  {Petrus).  —  Prince  of  the 
Apostles,  first  Pope,  and  martyr,  born 
about  the  year  10  b.  c,  at  Bethsaida,  Gali- 
lee, son  of  Jonas  or  Joan,  hence  he  is  called 
in  the  Gospel  Bar-Jona  {son  of  yonas), 
brother  of  St.  Andrew,  Apostle.  His  first 
name  was  Simon  or  Simeon.  He  was 
married,  and  had  his  home,  wife  and  sister- 
in-law  at  Capharnaum,  on  the  Lake  Gen- 
esareth,  where  he  practiced  the  trade  of  a 
fisherman.  With  his  brother  Andrew,  he 
was  actually  engaged  in  that  occupation  on 
the  sea  of  Galilee  when  our  Lord  called 
both  to  be  his  disciples,  promising  "  to 
make  them  fishers  of  men."  This  invita- 
tion they  accepted  without  hesitation. 
The  early  labors  of  St.  Peter  in  Palestine 
are  recorded  in  the  first  fifteen  chapters  of 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  written   by  St. 


Luke.  Later  on,  the  historian  of  the  life 
and  sufferings  of  the  Apostles,  became  the 
companion  of  St.  Paul.  For  this  reason 
the  subsequent  labors  of  St.  Peter  are  less 
known  than  those  of  St.  Paul.  Soon  after 
receiving  the  centurion  and  his  household 
into  the  Church,  we  find  the  prince  of  the 
Apostles  presiding  as  bishop  over  a  large 
congregation  at  Antioch,  where  the  follow- 
ers of  Christ  were  first  called  Christians. 
Later  on,  we  see  him  as  missionary  travers- 
ing Pontus,  Galatia,  Cappadocia,  and  other 
countries.  In  the  beginning  of  the  reign 
of  Claudius,  about  the  year  42,  he  arrived 
at  Rome,  where  he  established  a  Church 
and  presided  over  it  as  bishop.  In  the  im- 
perial city,  St.  Mark,  a  companion  of  St. 
Peter,  wrote  his  Gospel.  Peter  approved 
it  and  sent  Mark  to  Alexandria  where  he 
established  a  Christian  Church  and  gov- 
erned it  as  bishop.  Thus  the  Churches  of 
Rome,  Jerusalem,  Antioch,  and  Alexandria, 
justly  trace  their  origin  to  St.  Peter  and 
were  honored  as  patriarchal  sees. 

Peter  {Epistles  of  St.).  —  We  have  two 
canonical  Epistles  from  St.  Peter.  The 
first  is  addressed  to  the  Faithful  who  are 
foreigners  and  dispersed  in  the  provinces 
of  Pontus,  Galatia,  Cappadocia,  Asia,  and 
Bithynia.  The  second  addresses  itself  to 
the  Faithful  in  general,  whom  it  strength- 
ens in  the  expectation  of  the  second  com- 
ing of  Jesus  Christ. 

Peter  (St.).  —  Patriarch  of  Alexandria 
and  martyr  under  the  reign  of  Galerus 
Maximian,  in  310.  We  owe  to  him  Peni- 
tential Canons,  inserted  in  the  Collection 
of  the  Councils  by  Labbe  and  in  all  the 
Collections  of  Canons;  some  fragments  of 
homilies,  etc.,  in  the  Library  of  the  Fa- 
thers, by  Gallandius,  vol.  IV.  F.  Nov. 
26th. 

Peter  Chrysologus  (St.).      See  Chrys- 

OLOGUS. 

Peter  de  Bruys.     See  Petrobusians. 

Peter  in  Rome. —  St.  Peter  labored  in 
Rome  previous  to  his  last  sojourn,  which 
ended  with  his  death.  This  fact  is  proved  : 
I.  By  all  the  writers  of  Christian  antiquity, 
Clement  of  Rome;  Ignatius;  Hegesippus, 
who  sojourned  in  Rome  till  156;  Irenseus, 
Cyprian,  Eusebius,  Orosius,  and  Jerome; 
moreover,  by  the  Liberian  Catalogue  of 
Popes,  compiled  about  the  year  360;  by 
the  patrocinium  in  the  ancient  martyrolo- 
gies,    "  Cathedra    S.   Petri,  qua  primum 


Peter  Lombard 


552 


Peter  the  Hermit 


RomcE  sedit."  Suetonius,  a  pagan  writer, 
points  to  the  expulsion  of  the  Jews  from 
Rome  by  Claudius,  because  "  at  the  insti- 
gation of  a  certain  Chrestus "  (Christ) 
they  created  continual  disturbances.  This 
fact  proves  that  there  existed  in  Rome  a 
Christian  community  about  the  year  49. 
It  is  sometimes  asserted  that  Peter  and 
Paul  founded  the  Church  of  Rome.  As 
St.  Paul,  by  his  apostolic  labors  and  mar- 
tyrdom, did  much  in  spreading  the  Gospel 
of  Christ  in  the  imperial  city,  he  may  be 
said  to  be  the  second  founder.  That  he 
was  not  the  first  who  established  a  Chris- 
tian community  in  Rome  is  evident  from 
his  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  in  which  he  ex- 
presses the  hope  to  see  the  renowned 
Church  of  Rome.  2.  By  the  sacred  Scrip- 
tures. The  first  Epistle  of  Peter  was 
written  from  a  city  which  he  called  Bab- 
ylon. Ancient  Babylon  on  the  Euphrates 
cannot  be  meant,  since  there  is  no  proof 
that  either  Peter  or  Paul  ever  labored 
there.  Nay,  according  to  Pliny  and 
Strabo,  this  once  famous  city  had  at  this 
time  become  "  a  great  solitude."  St. 
Peter  did  not  extend  his  missionary  labors 
so  far,  nor  was  there  ever  a  Christian  com- 
munity in  that  city.  On  the  contrary,  "  Bab- 
ylon "  j«  a  figurative  expression  for  Rome. 
In  this  sense,  it  was  understood  by  Papias,  a 
disciple  of  the  Apostles,  as  Eusebius  ob- 
serves. There  was  a  Christian  community 
in  Rome  before  the  advent  of^St.  Paul. 
This  is  proved  by  St.  Paul  himself,  for  he 
"  longed  to  see  the  Roman  Church,  whose 
faith  is  spoken  of  throughout  the  world." 
The  Church  of  Rome  was  already  in  a 
flourishing  condition  about  the  year  57, 
when  St.  Paul  wrote  his  Epistle  and  had  not 
as  yet  visited  it  (Rom.  i.  1-15;  xv.  20-25). 
Who  founded  the  Roman  Church  before 
Paul,  if  not  Peter?  No  other  Apostle  has 
ever  been  mentioned  as  its  founder.  All 
ancient  Church  history  designates  Peter, 
alone,  as  the  founder  of  the  Roman  Church, 
and  this  simultaneously  with  his  sojourn  in 
Rome,  as  established  by  tradition  from  the 
baptism  of  Cornelius  to  his  imprisonment 
by  Herod  Agrippa  (38-44).  During  all 
this  time  we  have  no  historical  record  of 
Peter  being  eLsewhere.  This  is  the  unani- 
mous testimony  of  the  ancient  Church, 
and  all  pretended  proofs  to  the  contrary 
have  no  foundation  in  history.  St.  Peter, 
it  is  true,  did  not  remain  constantly  in 
Rome.  In  the  year  50,  he  presided  at  the 
Apostolic  Council  of  Jerusalem  ;  then  went 
to   Corinth,    Antioch,   and    other    places. 


He  suffered  martyrdom  in  Rome  together 
with  St.  Paul,  June  29th,  a.  d.  67.  He  was 
crucified,  as  our  Lord  had  foretold. 

There  are  four  festivals  of  St.  Peter:  i. 
The  feast  of  Peter  and  Paul,  on  June  29th. 
This  commemorates  the  burial  of  St.  Peter 
and  St.  Paul,  and  is  mentioned  in  the  Li- 
berian  Catalogue.  2.  Feast  of  the  "  Cathe- 
dra of  Antioch,"  February  22d.  This  feast 
is  also  mentioned  in  the  Liberian  Cata- 
logue. 3.  The  feast  of  the  "Cathedra  of 
Rome,"  January  iSth.  4.  The  feast  of 
"St.  Peter  in  Chains,"  August  1st. 

Peter  Lombard.     See  Lombard. 

Peter  Nolasco  (St.).  See  Mercy  {Or- 
der of ). 

Peter  of  Alcantara  (St.).  —  Religious 
of  the  Order  of  St.  Francis,  born  at  Al- 
cantara, in  1499.  Vicar  and  visitor  general 
of  this  congregation,  established  the  strict 
observance  of  the  rule,  was  a  model  of 
penance,  and  one  of  the  directors  of  St. 
Theresa.  He  died  in  the  convent  of 
Arenas,  in  1562.     F.  Oct.  19th. 

Peter's  Pence.  —  Formerly  an  annual 
tax  of  one  penny  for  every  house  in  Eng- 
land, collected  in  midsummer,  and  paid 
to  the  Holy  See.  It  was  extended  to  Ire- 
land under  the  Bull  granted  by  Pope 
Adrian  to  Henry  II.  Nowadays,  it  is  a 
voluntary  contribution,  given  by  the  Faith- 
ful, for  the  maintenance  of  the  sovereign 
Pontiff,  and  is  taken  up  for  him  annually, 
under  the  direction  of  the  bishop  through- 
out the  whole  Catholic  world. 

Peter  the  Hermit.  —  A  pious  and  holy 
hermit  of  Amiens,  in  France.  About  the 
year  1093,  ^^  undertook  a  pilgrimage  to 
Jerusalem.  The  desolation  of  the  holy 
places,  the  sufferings  and  despair  of  the 
Christians,  and  the  pitiable  complaints 
and  entreaties  of  the  Patriarch  Simeon, 
filled  his  soul  with  indignation  and  com- 
passion. Returning  from  the  Holy  Land, 
the  pious  pilgrim  presented  himself  to 
Pope  Urban  II.,  who  warmly  approved 
the  idea  of  organizing  a  Crusade  for  the 
deliverance  of  Jerusalem,  and  charged 
Peter  with  the  preaching  of  the  holy  war, 
which  he  did  with  wonderful  effect. 
Wandering  from  land  to  land,  Peter  every- 
where repeated  the  tale  of  woe  and  suffer- 
ings, to  which  the  Christians  in  the  East 
were  subjected.  Most  far-reaching  was 
the  agitation  produced  by  the  preaching 
of  the  eloquent  hermit.     Peter  accompa- 


Peter  the  Venerable 


553 


Pharan 


nied  the  expedition  under  Godfrey;  but, 
worn  out  by  the  delays  and  difficulties  of 
the  siege  of  Antioch,  he  was  about  to  with- 
draw from  the  expedition,  and  was  only 
retained  by  the  influence  of  the  other 
leaders,  who  foresaw  the  worst  results 
from  his  departure.  Accordingly,  he  had 
a  share,  although  not  marked  by  any  sig- 
nal distinction,  in  the  siege  and  capture  of 
the  Holy  City  in  1099;  and  the  closing  in- 
cident of  his  history  was  an  address  to  the 
victorious  army,  delivered  on  the  Mount 
of  Olives.  He  returned  to  Europe,  and 
founded  a  monastery  at  Huy,  in  the  Dio- 
cese of  Liege.  In  this  monastery  he  died 
in  1115. 

Peter  the  Venerable  (1093-1156). — Abbot 
of  Cluny,  born  in  the  Auvergne.  One  of 
the  most  valiant  defenders  of  faith  and 
orthodoxy;  he  and  his  friend  St.  Bernard, 
upheld  Pope  Stephen  11.  against  the  anti- 
pope  Anacletus.  He  caused  the  Koran  to 
be  translated  into  Latin. 

Petrines.  —  The  Judaic  Christians,  in 
the  early  Church,  who  after  the  example 
of  our  Lord  and  the  Apostles  continued  to 
obsers'e  the  Mosaical  ceremonies,  soon 
separated  into  two  distinct  classes.  The 
more  moderate  ones,  called  "  Petrines," 
though  following  the  Mosaic  law,  did  not 
insist  upon  its  observance  as  a  condition 
of  salvation.  The  rigid  Judaists,  on  the 
contrary,  held  that  the  keeping  of  the  law 
was  obligatory  to  all,  and  were  desirous  of 
imposing  it,  also,  on  the  Gentile  Chris- 
tians. They  would  not  acknowledge  St. 
Paul,  who  opposed  their  influence  so 
strongly,  as  an  Apostle.  These  turbulent 
Judaists  gave  no  little  trouble  at  Antioch 
about  the  year  50,  and  later  on  at  Corinth 
and  in  Galatia;  their  importunity  causing 
the  holding  of  the  Council  of  Jerusalem. 

Petrobusians.  —  Heretics  in  the  first 
half  of  the  twelfth  century.  They  owed 
their  name  to  Peter  de  Bruys,  a  deposed 
priest,  and  Henry  the  Deacon,  an  apostate 
monk,  of  Cluny.  By  their  fanatical 
preaching,  they  especially  excited  the 
populace  in  the  South  of  France.  Peter 
the  Venerable,  Abbot  of  Cluny,  who 
wrote  against  these  heresiarchs,  arraigns 
Peter  de  Bruys  as  rejecting:  Infant 
baptism;  the  Real  Pre.'^ence  in  the  Holy 
Eucharist;  the  building  and  using  of 
churches,  since  God  might  be  worshiped 
in  any  place,  even  in  stables;  the  worship 
of  the   holy  Cross,  which,  he  said,  ought 


to  be  rather  an  object  of  horror  than  of 
veneration ;  and  prayers  and  oblations  for 
the  dead.  His  followers  committed  many 
atrocities,  especially  against  priests  and 
monks.  "The  people,"  writes  Peter  the 
Venerable,  "are  rebaptized,  altars  thrown 
down,  crosses  burnt,  meat  publicly  eaten 
on  the  day  of  the  Lord's  Passion,  priests 
illtreated,  monks  imprisoned  or  compelled 
to  marry  by  violence  or  by  torture."  The 
Council  of  Toulouse  in  11 19,  invited  the 
civil  power  to  restrain  the  excesses  of  these 
fanatics.  Peter  de  Bruys,  while  engaged, 
on  Good  Friday  at  St.  Gilles,  near  Aries, 
in  burning  a  pile  of  crucifixes,  was  seized 
by  an  excited  multitude  and  cast  into  the 
flames  which  he  had  lighted. 

To  the  errors  of  Peter  de  Bruys,  Henrythe 
Deacon,  "  the  heir  of  his  wickedness,"  as 
he  was  called  by  Peter  the  Venerable,  added 
many  more.  His  rude  eloquence,  and  his 
ostensibly  ascetic  life  gained  him  many 
followers,  especially  among  the  nobility. 
The  "  Henricians,"  as  his  adherents  were 
called,  committed  many  acts  of  violence 
against  the  clergy.  At  the  request  of  Pope 
Eugenius  III.,  St.  Bernard  and  Peter  the 
Venerable  hastened  to  the  assistance  of 
the  oppressed  clergy,  and  succeeded  in 
putting  down  the  heresiarch  and  in  restor- 
ing religion  among  the  people.  St.  Bernard 
found,  so  he  writes,  "  the  churches  without 
people,  the  people  without  priests,  the 
priests  without  respect,  the  Christians 
without  Christ,  God's  holy  places  profaned, 
the  sacraments  no  longer  held  in  honor, 
and  the  hoh'  days  without  their  solemni- 
ties." On  the  arrival  of  the  saint,  Henry 
took  to  flight,  but  was  seized  and  delivered 
over  to  the  papal  legate.  Cardinal  Alberic. 
He  is  said  to  have  died  in  prison. 

Phacee. —  King  of  Israel,  from  753  to 
726  B.C.  Defeated  Achaz,  king  of  Juda, con- 
quered by  the  Assyrian  Theglath-Phalasar, 
he  was  put  to  death  by  Osee. 

Phaceia.  —  King  of  Israel,  from  754  to 
753  B.  c.      Son  and  successor  of  Manahem. 

Phaleg.  —  One  of  the  Hebrew  Patri- 
archs, father  of  Heber  and  son  of  Reu 
(Gen.  X.  25;  XXV.  11,  16). 

Pharan.  —  Capital  of  Arabia  Petrsea,  on 
the  Red  Sea,  at  the  southern  point  of  the 
peninsula  of  Sinai.  The  "Desert  of  Pharan" 
formed  a  part  of  Arabia  Petraea,  in  the 
South  of  Palestine,  whither  Agar  with- 
drew with  her  son  Ismael. 


Pharao 


554 


Philippine  Islands 


Pharao. — A  title  given  to  the  Egyptian 
kings.  Among  those  mentioned  in  Scrip- 
ture by  this  name  are  a  contemporary  of 
Abraham  (Gen.  xii.  15) ;  the  patron  and 
friend  of  Joseph  (Gen.  xli.  1);  the  op- 
pressor of  the  Hebrews,  Rameses  IL 
(Ex.  i.  11) ;  the  Pharao  who  reigned  at  the 
time  of  the  Exodus,  Menephthah  (Ex.  iii. 
10);  Pharao  Nechao  (IV.  Ki.  xxiii.  29); 
and  Pharao  Hophra,  known  as  Apries  or 
Hophra  (Jer.  xxv.  19). 

Pharisees  (a  Jewish  sect  during  the 
time  of  our  Saviour). —  The  Pharisees, 
whose  name  implies  separation  from  the 
unholy,  affected  the  greatest  exactness  in 
every  religious  observance,  and  attributed 
great  authority  to  traditional  precepts  re- 
lating, principally,  to  external  rites.  They 
were  the  leading  sect  among  the  Jews,  and 
had  great  influence  with  the  common  peo- 
ple. 

Pheresites.  —  Chanaanite  tribe  living, 
before  the  advent  of  the  Hebrews,  in  the 
territory  occupied  by  the  tribe  of  Ephraim 
and  half-tribe  of  Manasses. 

Philadelphia.  —  A  city  of  Lydia,  in  Asia 
Minor,  where  was  one  of  the  seven  Asiatic 
Churches  (Apoc.  iii.  7).  Philadelphia 
was  so  called  from  Attains  Philadelphus, 
king  of  Pergamum,  by  whom  it  was 
founded.  It  stood  on  a  branch  of  Mount 
Tmolus,  by  the  river  Cogamus,  about  28 
miles  east  of  Sardis.  It  suffered  greatly 
by  frecjuent  earthquakes,  and  it  was  an- 
ciently a  matter  of  surprise,  that  the  city 
was  not  on  this  account  abandoned.  It  is 
now  a  mean  but  considerable  town  of 
large  extent,  with  a  population  of  about 
1,000  Greek  Christians,  who  have  a  resi- 
dent bishop,  and  about  twenty  inferior 
clergy. 

Philastrius  (St.).  —  Bishop  of  Brescia. 
Left  a  work  On  Heresies,  containing  a 
catalogue  of  158  heresies.  In  it,  however, 
the  author  incorrectly  reckons  among 
heresies,  opinions  that  have  never  been 
declared  heretical,  and  are,  at  most,  only 
problematical.     He  died  in  387. 

Philemon. —  A  rich  citizen  of  Colossae, 
in  Phrygia,  to  whom  St.  Paul  wrote  an 
Epistle,  on  occasion  of  sending  back  to 
him  his  runaway  slave  Onesimus,  just 
converted  by  him  in  Rome.  St.  Paul 
sends  him  back  with  a  tender  appeal  in 
his  Epistle  to  Philemon,  to  receive  back 


Onesimus  into  his  service  and  treat  him 
kindly. 

Philip  (St.).  —  One  of  the  twelve  Apos- 
tles, born  at  Bethsaida,  in  Galilee.  Is 
mentioned  in  the  Gospel  as  the  fourth 
called  by  our  Lord  to  the  Apostleship. 
He  preached  the  faith  in  Scythia,  and 
also  in  Phrygia,  where  he  suffered  mar- 
tyrdom by  crucifixion  at  Hierapolis. 
Papias  and  Polycrates  of  Ephesus,  who 
lived  toward  the  close  of  the  second  cen- 
tury, tell  us  that  Philip  was  married  before 
being  called  by  Christ,  and  had  three 
daughters  who  were  distinguished  for 
their  great  sanctity.  On  this  account, 
this  Apostle  is  sometimes  confounded 
with  Philip  the  Deacon,  also  called  the 
Evangelist  (Acts  xxi.  8,  9).     F.  May  ist. 

Philip  (St.).  —  One  of  the  seven  dea- 
cons, born  at  Caesarea  in  Palestine;  died 
about  58;  preached  the  Gospel  in  Samaria. 
The  Greeks  maintain  that  he  became 
bishop  of  Tralliens.     F.  June  6th. 

Philippians  (Epistle  to  the).  — The  Epis- 
tle to  the  Philippians,  or  inhabitants  of 
Philippi,  a  city  of  Macedonia, .  was  ad- 
dressed to  them  by  St.  Paul  about  the  year 
62,  when  he  was  imprisoned  for  the  first 
time.  He  congratulated  the  Philippians 
on  account  of  their  generosity,  courage, 
and  good  works,  and  prays  fervently  that 
they  may  persevere  in  this  holy  course,  so 
as  to  reach  the  state  of  perfection. 

Philippine  Islands  {Church  in  the).  —  In 
the  Philippine  islands,  by  far  the  greater 
part  of  the  population  is  Catholic.  There 
is  a  hierarchy  composed  of  an  archbishop 
and  four  suffragans,  ruling  over  six  million 
subjects.  The  progress  among  the  non- 
Christian  population,  which  is  estimated 
about  five  hundred  thousand,  is  very  rapid. 

The  following  religious  orders  are 
represented  in  the  Philippine  Islands: 
Franciscans,  155  members ;  Dominicans, 
109;  Augustinians,  228;  Recolects,  233; 
Jesuits,  186;  Capuchins,  16;  Benedic- 
tines, 16;  and  the  Congregation  of  St. 
Vincent  of  Paul,  to  which  belong  675 
natives.  In  Manila  the  Catholic  Church 
supports  four  great  seminaries.  In  this 
city,  the  Jesuits  direct  a  special  literary 
institute,  the  "Altenoe,"  which  is  fre- 
quented by  350  scholars.  The  education 
of  Catholic  girls  is  completely  in  the  hands 
of  Sisters. 


Philip  the  Fair 


555 


Philosophy 


Philip  the  Fair.     See  Boniface  VIII. 

Philip  the  Tetrarch.  —  A  son  of  Herod 
the  Great,  by  his  wife  Cleopatra,  who, 
in  the  division  of  Herod's  kingdom,  was 
made  tetrarch  of  Batanea  Trachonitis,  and 
Auranitis.  From  him  the  city  of  Caesarea 
Philippi  took  its  name. 

Philistines.  —  Inhabitants  of  a  part  of 
Palestine,  before  the  conquest  of  that  coun- 
try by  the  Hebrews.  The  Philistines  were 
descendants  of  Chasluim,  son  of  Mesraim, 
he  himself  a  son  of  Cham.  In  the  time  of 
Abraham,  the  Philistines  were  already  a 
powerful  people  in  Palestine.  Josue  gave 
their  country  to  the  Hebrews  and  attacked 
them  by  order  of  the  Lord ;  however,  un- 
der the  Judges,  under  Saul,  and  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  reign  of  David,  they  often 
oppressed  the  Israelites,  and  it  was  only 
after  the  latter  prince  had  been  anointed  to 
reign  over  all  Israel,  that  he  reduced  them 
under  his  empire.  They  remained  subject 
to  the  kings  of  Juda  until  the  reign  of 
Joram,  during  which  they  made  great  rav- 
ages in  his  kingdom.  Ozias  repressed 
them  and  kept  them  in  check.  The  Phil- 
istines again  devastated  the  countries  of 
Juda  during  the  misfortunes  of  the  reign 
of  Achaz,  but  Ezechias  subjugated  them 
anew.  Later  on  they  became  a  prey  to 
great  calamities.  The  threats  of  the 
Prophets  Isaias,  Jeremias,  Amos,  and  Sopho- 
nias,  against  the  Philistines,  were  only  too 
well  fulfilled,  for  Assaraddon  or  Sargon, 
king  of  the  Assyrians,  besieged  Azoth  and 
took  it  through  the  arms  of  Thartan,  his 
general. 

Philo  the  Jew.  —  Writer  and  philoso- 
pher, born  at  Alexandria,  about  the  year 
30  B.  c,  of  a  sacerdotal  family.  He  deliv- 
ered himself  to  the  study  of  Greek  phi- 
losophy, Oriental  doctrines,  and  Holy 
Scripture.  Surnamed  the  "Jewish  Plato," 
because  his  doctrine  had  for  its  foundation 
the  Platonic  system,  corrected  the  Bible 
and  the  principles  of  the  Jewish  religion. 
He  admitted  two  eternal  principles,  like 
Plato,  the  Idea-God  and  the  Idea-Matter; 
he  drew  from  the  Oriental  doctrine  on 
emanation  a  sort  of  vague  mysticism.  God 
shines  in  all  beings.  All  the  qualities  of 
the  latter  emanate  from  Him,  who  is  the 
efficient  cause  of  the  sensible  world  and 
the  personification  of  the  ideal  world. 
Chosen  by  his  fellow-citizens  to  go  to  Rome 
and  ask  Caligula  for  the  right  of  Roman 
citizenship  in  favor  of  his  co-religionists, 


who  formerly  enjoyed  this,  his  request  was 
granted,  and  he  died  at  an  advanced  age, 
about  the  year  A.  d.  40. 

Philosophy.  —  Philosophy  properly 
speaking  is:  Love  of  wisdom,  inquiry  into 
truth,  into  the  causes  and  effects  of  things, 
and  the  study  of  nature  and  morals.  Cicero  ' 
defines  philosophy  :  The  science  both  of  di- 
vine and  human  things,  as  well  as  of  their 
causes.  At  the  beginning,  philosophy, 
conformable  to  its  etymology,  had  for  its 
object  the  love  of  wisdom  and  science. 
For  Socrates,  both  wisdom  and  science 
sum  themselves  up  in  the  practical  knowl- 
edge of  self.  Under  his  successors,  the 
study  of  man  remained  the  principal  ob- 
ject of  philosophy,  but  not  the  only  one; 
its  domain  extended  to  all  human  knowl- 
edge. In  the  Middle  Ages,  the  domain  of 
faith  was  distinguished  from  that  of  reason. 
The  first  has  for  its  object  the  revealed  truths 
and  is  founded  on  the  word  of  God.  The 
second  supports  itself  upon  reason  and  ex- 
tends to  all  that  can  be  known  through 
nature.  Philosophy  also  comprehends 
the  ensemble  of  the  purely  human  sciences  ; 
but  St.  Thomas  as  well  as  Aristotle  calls 
the  attention  of  the  philosopher  to  another 
object:  sapientis  est  altissiinas  causas 
ceiisiderare. 

In  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  cen- 
turies, the  physical  and ,  mathematical 
sciences  showed  a  tendency  to  separate 
themselves  from  philosophy.  Locke  re- 
duced philosophy  to  a  study  of  understand- 
ing; Condillac,  to  the  problem  of  the 
origin  of  ideas ;  Thomas  Reid,  to  the  ex- 
perimental knowledge  of  the  soul ;  others 
maintained  that  it  should  preserve  its 
character  of  universality.  Actual  philoso- 
phy shows  a  tendency  to  pursue  a  double 
object:  God,  first  cause  and  supreme  end 
of  every  creature;  the  human  soul,  princi- 
pal object  of  philosophical  studies,  and 
which,  at  the  same  time,  is  the  subject  of 
all  sciences.  Indeed,  its  faculties  are  the 
instruments  by  means  of  which  we  acquire 
them.  Each  science  has  its  particular 
philosophy  and,  consequently,  its  special 
object.  The  philosophy  of  religion  seeks 
to  penetrate  the  reason  of  the  dogmas  and 
their  harmony;  the  philosophy  of  right 
inquires  about  the  motives  of  the  law; 
the  philosophy  of  grammar  renders  an  ac- 
count of  the  general  rules  to  which 
languages  are  subject;  the  philosophy  of 
physical  and  natural  sciences  endeavors  to 
bring  into  harmony  and  unity  all  the  cos- 


Philostratus 


556 


Phoenicia 


mogonic  laws  and  to  fathom  the  mystery 
of  matter  and  life ;  the  philosophy  of  the 
beautiful  arts  goes  back  to  the  very  princi- 
ple of  the  beautiful  and  seeks  to  determine 
its  conditions. 

Divisions.  —  The  ancients  agreed  to  di- 
vide philosophy  into  three  great  parts: 
ethics,  physics,  and  logic.  The  scholastics 
added  metaphysics,  both  general  and  spe- 
cial. Actually  it  comprises  psychology, 
logic,  ethics,  and  the  elements  of  meta- 
physics. This  division  flows  naturally 
from  the  double  object  of  philosophy:  the 
soul  and  God.  The  study  of  the  soul  com- 
prehends a  first  speculative  part :  experi- 
mental psychology,  whose  special  object 
is  the  general  knowledge  of  the  human 
spirit ;  then  two  practical  sciences,  whose 
logical  end  is  to  direct  our  intelligence 
toward  the  true ;  and  the  moral  which 
traces  the  rule  the  will  should  follow  to 
attain  the  good.  The  study  of  God  or 
theodicy  penetrates  metaphysics  whose 
natural  crowning  it  is.  The  principal 
systems  of  philosophy  can  be  reduced  to 
five :  Sensualism,  which  leads  to  Material- 
ism; Spiritualism,  which  leads  to  the 
negation  of  matter  or  to  Idealism ;  Scep- 
ticism, which  leads  to  the  suicide  of  intelli- 
gence ;  Mysticism,  and  finally  Eclecticism. 
The  history  of  philosophy  ma^'  be  divided 
into  five  epochs,  ist  Epoch  :  Whose  repre- 
sentatives are  Thales  and  Pythagoras ; 
Sensualism  and  Spiritualism,  from  which 
emanated  all  the  other  systems,  during 
more  than  two  centuries.  The  disputes 
begot  the  Sophists  and  Sceptics.  2d 
Epoch :  Socrates  reacted  against  Scepti- 
cism. In  this  new  school  Plato  represents 
Spiritualism  and  Aristotle  Sensualism. 
3d  Epoch :  This  took  rise  about  the  elev- 
enth century  and  continued  until  the  sev- 
enteenth century  under  the  influence  of 
Catholic  theology;  this  was  the  scholastic 
epoch.  4th  Epoch  (in  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries) :  This  was  the  epoch 
of  experimental  philosophy  under  the  in- 
fluence of  Descartes  and  Bacon.  5th  Epoch  : 
The  Scotch  school,  which  had  its  repre- 
sentatives in  France,  in  Royer,  Collar, 
Cousin,  Jouffroy,  and  Darimon. 

Catholic  philosophy  may  be  divided  into 
three  epochs  :  during  the  first  epoch  Catho- 
lic philosophers  occupied  themselves  in 
classifying  and  co-ordain  the  pre-existing 
elements,  and  having  formed  the  tenor  of 
Catholic  belief  from  the  standpoint  of 
form  and  matter,  two  principles  were  fur- 
nished by  the  ancient  philosophy  which 


became  the  foundation  of  Catholic  philos- 
ophy in  the  Middle  Ages.  Previous  de- 
tailed studies  fill  up  the  second  epoch 
(ninth  and  tenth  centuries).  In  this  epoch 
philosophers  sought  to  fathom  the  great 
questions  of  reason  and  faith,  of  predesti- 
nation and  free  will,  of  realism  and  nom- 
inalism. In  the  third  epoch  they  occupied 
themselves  with  systematizing  the  themes 
of  Catholic  science ;  this  was  the  beautiful 
period  of  Scholasticism.  Its  chief  repre- 
sentatives were  Anselm  of  Canterbury, 
and  Hugh  of  St.  Victor.  The  material  of 
Scholasticism  is  essentially  the  same  as 
that  of  the  philosophy  of  the  Fathers  :  the 
Christian  world,  that  is,  the  world  rein- 
stated through  Christ,  and  all  that  has 
reference  to  it,  with  this  difference,  how- 
ever, that  the  Fathers  had  before  them 
only  single  elements,  the  Scholastics  had 
these  elements  realized. 

Philostratus.      See  Apolloxius  of  Ty- 

ANA. 

Phoenicia.  —  A  name  which,  in  its  more 
ancient  and  extended  sense,  comprised  a 
narrow  strip  of  country  extending  nearly 
the  whole  length  of  the  eastern  coast  of 
the  Mediterranean  sea,  from  Antioch  to  the 
borders  of  Egypt.  But  Phoenicia  Proper 
was  included  between  the  cities  of  Laodi- 
cea  in  Syria,  and  Tyre,  and  comprised  only 
the  territories  of  Tyre  and  Sidon.  Before 
Josue  conquered  Palestine,  this  country  was 
possessed  by  the  Chanaanites,sons  of  Cham, 
divided  into  eleven  families,  of  which  the 
most  powerful  was  that  of  Chanaan,  the 
founder  of  Sidon,  and  head  of  the  Chanaan- 
ites,  properly  so  called,  whom  the  Greeks 
named  "  Phoenicians."  These  only  pre- 
served their  independence  under  Josue, 
and  also  under  David,  Solomon,  and  the 
succeeding  kings ;  but  they  were  subdued 
by  the  kings  of  Assyria  and  Chaldea.  Af- 
terwards, they  successively  submitted  to 
the  Persians,  Greeks,  and  Romans.  At 
this  day,  Phoenicia  is  in  subjection  to  the 
Ottomans,  and  has  not  possessed  any  na- 
tional or  native  kings,  or  any  independent 
form  of  government  for  more  than  2,000 
years.  The  name  Phoenicia  is  not  found  in 
the  books  of  Hebrew  Scripture ;  but  only  in 
the  Machabees  and  the  New  Testament. 
The  Hebrew  always  named  it  "Chanaan." 
St.  Matthew  calls  the  same  person  a 
•♦  Chanaanitish "  woman  (xv.  22),  whom 
St.  Mark  calls  a  "  Syro-Phoenician  "  (vii. 
26),  that  is,  a  Phoenician  of  Syria,  because 
Phoenicia  was  then  a  part  of  Syria. 


Photinus 


557 


Pilgrim 


Photinus.  —  Heretic,  a  native  of  Ancyra 
and  Bishop  of  Sirmium.  Lived  in  the 
fourth  century.  Reviving  Sabellianism, 
he  denied  the  plurality  of  Persons  in  the 
Trinity.  Condemned  at  Antioch  (344), 
at  Milan  (347),  and  by  the  first  Synod  of 
Sirmium,  he  was  deposed.  His  condem- 
nation was  confirmed  by  the  Second  Ecu- 
menical Council.     Photinus  died  in  366. 

Photius.     See  Schism    {Greek). 

Phrygia.  —  In  ancient  geography,  an  in- 
land province  of  Asia  Minor,  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Bithynia  and  Galatia,  on  the 
€ast  by  Cappadocia,  on  the  south  by 
Lycia,  Pisidia,  and  Isauria,  and  on  the  west 
by  Mysia,  Lydia,  and  Caria.  L,ater,  the 
Galatians  settled  in  the  northeast  portion. 

Phul.  —  King  of  Assyria,  lived  in  the 
eighth  century  b.  c.  Founded  the  second 
Assyrian  empire  after  the  fall  of  Sardana- 
palus ;  upheld  the  usurper  Manahem,  in 
Israel. 

Phylacteries  were  small  rolls  of  parch- 
ment, in  which  were  written  certain  words 
of  the  law,  and  which  were  worn  by  the 
Jews  upon  their  foreheads,  and  upon  the 
wrist  of  the  left  arm.  The  custom  was 
founded  on  mistaken  interpretations  of  Ex. 
xiii.  9,  "And  it  shall  be  as  a  sign  in  thy 
hand,  and  as  a  memorial  before  thy  eyes," 
and  verse  16,  "And  it  shall  be  as  a  sign  in 
thy  hand,  and  as  a  thing  hung  between 
thy  eyes  for  a  remembrance.' '  The  phylac- 
teries were  inclosed  in  a  piece  of  rough 
skin,  forming  a  square,  one  side  bearing 
the  Hebrew  letter  skin,  and  this  was  tied 
to  the  forehead  and  worn  at  morning 
prayer.  They  were  called  "frontlets." 
Another  kind  consisted  of  two  rolls  of 
parchment,  written  in  square  letters  with 
an  ink  made  for  the  purpose.  They  were 
rolled  to  a  point  inclosed  in  a  case  of 
black  calfskin  and  put  on  a  square  bit  of 
the  same  leather,  whence  hung  a  tongue 
of  the  same,  about  a  finger'  s  breadth  and 
two  feet  long.  These  rolls  were  placed 
near  the  elbow  of  the  left  arm,  and  after 
the  thong  had  made  a  small  knot  in  the 
form  of  the  letter  yodk  it  was  wound  about 
the  arm  in  a  spiral  line  which  ended  at  the 
top  of  the  middle  finger.  Our  Saviour  re- 
proaches the  ostentation  of  the  Pharisees 
in  making  their  phylacteries  broad  as  a 
sign  of  their  superior  wisdom  and  piety 
(Matt,  xxiii.  5). 

Piarists.  — Members  of  a  religious  con- 
gregation,  also    called   "Fathers    of   the 


Pious  Schools."  This  order  was  founded 
at  Rome  by  St.  Joseph  Calasanctius,  about 
1600.  In  addition  to  the  three  usual 
monastic  vows,  the  Piarists  devoted  them- 
selves to  the  free  instruction  of  youth'. 
They  are  found  especially  in  the  Austrian 
empire. 

Picpus  ( CoHf^regation  of) .  —  A  mission- 
ary institute  founded  in  Paris  in  the  year 
1805  by  the  Venerable  Coudrin.  The 
proper  name  is  "  Congregation  of  the 
Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus  and  Mary."  They 
are  called  "  Picpus  "  from  the  street  in 
Paris  in  which  their  chief  monastery  is 
situated. 

Pietism.  — A  movement  in  the  Lutheran 
Church,  due  to  Philip  James  Spener,  a 
Lutheran  preacher,  born  in  Alsace,  in 
1635.  His  followers  were  called  "Pietists." 
Lamenting  the  absence  of  all  warmth  and 
piety  in  the  Lutheran  Church,  which  he 
censured  as  heartless  and  spiritless,  and 
as  "  an  outward  corrupt  body,"  he  insti- 
tuted "  associations  of  pious  souls,"  for  the 
special  edification  of,  and  for  the  cultiva- 
tion of  evangelical  morality  among  his 
fellow-religionists.  These  were  the  fa- 
mous collegia  pietatis  from  which  the 
name  "  Pietists  "  has  been  derived.  Spener 
died  in  1705. 

Pilate  or  Pontius  Pilate,  was  the  fifth 
Roman  procurator  in  the  province  of 
Judea.  He  took  charge  of  his  office  in 
A.  D.  28,  and  held  it  for  ten  years.  Pilate 
became  odious  both  to  the  Jews  and  Sa- 
maritans for  the  severity  and  cruelty 
of  his  administration,  and  being  accused 
by  the  latter  before  Vitellius,  the  governor 
of  Syria,  he  was  removed  from  his  of- 
fice and  sent  to  Rome  to  answer  to  their 
accusations  before  the  emperor.  Before 
his  arrival,  Tiberius  was  dead;  and  Pi- 
late is  said  to  have  been  banished  by 
Caligula  to  Vienne  in  Gaul,  'and  there  to 
have  died  by  his  own  hand.  It  v/as  before 
Pilate  that  Jesus  was  brought  by  the  Jews 
for  condemnation ;  and  although  conscious 
of  his  innocence,  which  he  did  not  scruple 
to  declare  publicly,  yet  probably  wishing 
to  gratifythe  Jews,  and  perhaps  fearing  an 
accusation  of  disloyalty,  he  yielded  to  their 
clamor,  and  delivered  Jesus  to  be  crucified. 

Pilgrim  and  Pilgrimages  (A  pilgrim 
is  one  who  visits,  with  religious  intent, 
some  place  reputed  to  possess  some  special 
holiness). —  The  early  Christians,  like  the 
Jews   and   the    pagan    Gentiles,   regarded 


PiRKHEIMER 


558 


PiTRA 


certain  places  with  special  religious  inter- 
est; above  all,  the  Holy  Land,  and  par- 
ticularly the  scenes  of  the  Passion  of  our 
Lord  at  Jerusalem.  St.  Jerome  refers  the 
practice  of  visiting  Jerusalem  to  the  dis- 
covery of  the  holy  Cross  by  St.  Helena. 
He  himself  was  a  zealous  pilgrim ;  and 
throughout  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  cen- 
turies, pilgrims  habitually  undertook  the 
long  and  perilous  journey  to  the  Holy 
Land  from  almost  every  part  of  the  West. 
Other  sacred  places,  too,  were  held  to  be 
fit  objects  of  the  same  visits  of  religious 
veneration.  The  tombs  of  the  Apostles 
Peter  and  Paul,  and  of  the  martyrs  of  the 
Catacombs  at  Rome,  are  so  described  by 
St.  Jerome  {Commentary  in  Ezechiel).  St. 
Basil  speaks  in  the  same  terms  of  the 
tomb  of  the  Forty  Martyrs ;  and  the  his- 
torian Theodoret  tells  of  not  only  visiting 
such  sanctuaries,  but  of  hanging  up, 
therein,  as  offerings,  gold  and  silver  orna- 
ments, and  even  models  of  hands,  feet, 
eyes,  etc.,  in  commemoration  of  the  (!ures 
of  diseases  supernaturally  obtained  as  the 
fruit  of  these  pious  visits.  The  pilgrim- 
age, however,  pre-eminently  so  called, 
was  that  to  the  Holy  Land ;  and  even  after 
Jerusalem  had  been  occupied  by  the  Sara- 
cens, the  liberty  of  pilgrimage,  on  pay- 
ment of  a  tax,  was  formally  secured  by 
treaty.  It  was  from  the  necessity  of  pro- 
tecting pilgrims  from  outrage,  that  the 
well-known  military  orders  had  their  ori- 
gin. The  Crusades  may  be  regarded  as  a 
pilgrimage  on  a  grand  scale,  the  direct 
object  being  to  secure  for  the  Latin  Chris- 
tians immunity  of  pilgrimage.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  final  abandonment  of  the 
Crusades  led  to  a  great  extension  of  what 
may  be  called  domestic  pilgrimage,  and 
drew  into  religious  notice  and  veneration 
many  shrines  in  Europe  which,  after  the 
lapse  of  time,  became  celebrated  places  of 
pious  resort.  The  chief  places  of  pil- 
grimage in  the  West  were:  in  Italy  — 
Rome,  Loretto,  Genetsano,  Assisi ;  in 
Spain  —  Compostella,  Guadaloupe,  Mont- 
serrat;  in  France — Fourviere,  Puy,  St. 
Denis;  in  Germany — Getting,  Zell,  Co- 
logne, Trier.  Einsiedlen ;  in  England  — 
Walsingham,  Canterbury,  and  many 
others  of  minor  note.  The  costume  of  the 
pilgrim  consisted  of  a  black  or  gray  gab- 
ardine, girt  with  a  cincture,  from  which  a 
shell  and  scrip  were  suspended ;  a  broad 
hat  ornamented  with  scallop  shells,  and  a 
long  staff.  In  late  years,  however,  pil- 
grims have  resorted  in  large  numbers,  not 


only  to  the  ancient  sanctuaries  of  Notre 
Dame  de  la  Garde,  de  Fourviere,  Puy, 
etc.,  but  also  to  La  Salette,  Lourdes, 
Paray-le-Monial,  and  Pontigny. 

Pirkheimer  (Wilibald)  (1470-1530). — 
Erudite,  born  at  Eichstaedt,  died  at  Nu- 
remberg. Deputy  to  the  diets  of  Treves 
and  Cologne  (1511-1512).  Joined  the 
Catholic  Church  toward  the  close  of  his 
life,  after  having  been  one  of  the  most 
active  adherents  of  Luther. 

Pisa  {Council  o/).  — The  Council  of 
Pisa  (1409)  was  convened  by  the  renegade 
cardinals  of  the  antipopes  Benedicts  XIIL 
and  Gregory  XII.  to  remove  the  schism. 
It  deposed  both,  and  elected  Alexander  V. 
Thus  a  threefold  schism  arose,  which  ended 
only  in  1417.  The  Council  of  Pisa  is  not 
numbered  among  the  Ecumenical  Councils. 

Piscina.  —  In  liturgy  a  term  applied  to 
a  walled-up  cavity  of  a  certain  depth,  cov- 
ered with  a  round  or  oval  stone,  which  is 
pierced  through  the  middle.  There  should 
be  at  least  one  piscina  in  each  church  as  a 
receptacle  for  the  water  that  has  i^erved, 
either  for  baptism,  or  to  cleanse  the  sacred 
vessels  and  linen.  It  is  also  used  as  a  de- 
positary for  the  ashes  of  altar  ornaments 
and  linens,  and  other  blessed  things  which 
should  be  burned  when  they  can  no  longer 
be  used.  The  piscina  also  serves  the  pur- 
pose of  receiving  holy  water  taken  from 
the  holy  water-basin  or  font,  and,  in  gen- 
eral, for  all  articles  used  in  the  sacred 
service  of  divine  worship,  in  order  that 
they  ma}-  not  be  exposed  to  profanation. 

Pistoja  {Synod  of).  —  An  ecclesiastical 
synod  held  under  the  presidency  of  Scipio 
Ricci,  Bishop  of  Pistoja,  in  1786.  It  passed 
a  series  of  decrees  that  were  diametrically 
opposed  to  the  constitutions,  as  well  as  to 
the  teachings,  of  the  Church. 

Pistorius  (Johx)  (1544-1607).  —  His- 
torian and  controversist,  born  at  Nidda, 
Hesse,  died  at  Freiburg.  Counselor  of 
Emperor  Rudolph  II.  Joined  the  Catholic 
Church  after  having  been  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal agitators  of  Reformation. 

Pitra  (John  Baptist)  (1812-1889). — 
Cardinal,  born  at  Champforueil,  France, 
died  at  Rome.  After  entering  the  Bene- 
dictine order  he  lived  at  Solesmes,  devot- 
ing himself  to  historical  researches,  but  was 
sent  in  1858  to  Russia  by  Pope  Pius  IX.  to 
study  the  Slavonic  liturgy  and  entered  the 


Pius 


559 


Pius 


service  of  the  Propaganda  after  his  return. 
In  1863  he  was  created  cardinal,  and  in  1869 
he  became  librarian  of  the  Vatican  Library. 
He  published  Spicilegium  Solesmense ; 
yuris  eccl.  Grcecorum;  etc. 

Pius  ( name  of  nine  Popes) . — Pius  /.  ( St. ) 

—  Pope  from  140  to  i54(?).  Assisted  by 
St.  Justin  the  Philosopher,  he  combated  the 
heresies  of  Valentinus  and  Marcion,  who 
denied  the  resurrection  of  the  body  and 
condemned  marriage.  Pius  II.  (^neas 
Sylvius).  —  Pope  from  1458  to  1464.  Few 
men  of  more  consummate  ability  ever  sat 
in  the  Chair  of  St.  Peter.  The  ruling  ob- 
ject of  his  Pontificate  was  the  organization 
of  a  universal  league,  embracing  all  Chris- 
tendom, against  the  Turks.  He  summoned 
an  assembly  of  all  Christian  powers  to  be 
held  at  Mantua.  At  the  same  time,  he 
undertook  the  conversion  of  the  Sultan 
Mohammed  H.,  to  whom  he  addressed  a 
long  and  elaborate  epistle.  But  the  efforts 
of  the  energetic  Pontiff  met  with  no  encour- 
agement from  the  western  nations.  Not- 
withstanding this  failure,  Pius  maintained 
his  courage.  He  placed  himself  at  the 
head  of  an  army  and  set  out  for  Ancona. 
Here  death  thwarted  the  designs  which 
the  magnanimous  Pontiff  had  formed  for 
the  glory  of  Christendom.  By  a  special 
Bull,  Pius  n.  condemned  appeals  from  the 
Pope  to  a  future  general  council,  and,  by 
another,  he  formally  withdrew  what  he 
had  written  in  defense  of  the  Council  of 
Basle  and  the  supremacy  of  general  coun- 
cils. Pius  III .  —  Pope  in  1503.  Died 
one  month  after  his  election.  He  had  been 
the  successor  of  Alexander  VI.     Pius  IV. 

—  Pope  from  1559  to  1565.  He  again  con- 
voked the  Council  of  Trent,  which  was 
reopened  at  the  seventeenth  session,  in 
January,  1562.  With  the  twenty-fifth  ses- 
sion, the  Fathers  of  Trent  concluded  their 
labors.  The  decrees  of  the  Council  were 
signed  by  205  prelates  and  confirmed  by  Pius 
IV.,  in  his  Bull,  "  Benedicfus  Deus,^'  Jan. 
26th,  1564.  Pius  IV.,  also  caused  a  Triden- 
tine  Profession  of  Faith.,  containing  a  sum- 
mary of  the  Council's  dogmatical  decrees, 
to  be  published.  In  his  Bull  of  approba- 
tion, Pius  IV.  made  it  the  duty  of  bishops 
to  introduce,  without  delay,  and  to  exe- 
cute faithfully  the  reforms  inaugurated  by 
the  Council  of  Trent,  and  established  a 
congregation  of  cardinals,  to  which  was 
assigned  the  special  office  of  enforcing 
and  interpreting  the  enactments  of  the 
Council    of    Trent.     Pius     V.     (Cardinal 


Ghislieri). —  Pope  from  1566  to  1572.  His 
Pontificate,  though  extending  over  a  pe- 
riod of  only  six  years,  was  most  advanta- 
geous to  the  Church.  With  indefatigable 
zeal  he  labored  in  restoring  the  discipline 
and  enforcing  the  canons  of  reformation 
promulgated  at  Trent.  He  obliged  bishops 
to  reside  in  their  sees  and  enjoined  the 
strictest  seclusion  of  both  monks  and  nuns. 
Pius  VI.  (Cardinal  Braschi).  —  Pope 
from  1775  to  1799.  A  mild  and  affable 
Pontiff,  but  firm  in  purpose,  applied  him- 
self with  zeal  and  energy  to  the  work  of 
reform  in  both  Church  and  State.  There 
seemed  to  be,  under  his  Pontificate,  a  gen- 
eral disposition  to  diminish,  if  not  to  un- 
dermine, the  papal  authority,  even  in 
Catholic  countries.  The  courts  of  Ma- 
drid, Naples,  and  Florence  continued  to 
encroach  on  the  immunities  of  the 
Church,  claiming  rights  which  were  in 
direct  opposition  to  the  prerogatives  of  the 
Holy  See.  The  heart  of  the  much 
harassed  Pontiff  was  sorely  aflSicted,  espe- 
cially by  the  "reforms"  of  Emperor 
Joseph  II.  of  Austria,  whose  arbitrary 
regulations,  on  purely  ecclesiastical  mat- 
ters, were  at  variance  with  the  true  inter- 
ests of  religion.  (See  Josephism.)  The 
victories  of  the  French  Revolutionary 
armies  spread  the  ideas  of  the  French 
Revolution  in  other  countries.  The  young 
general.  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  oppressed 
the  Pope  and  demanded  the  revocation  of 
all  the  briefs  issued  against  France.  The 
Pope  refusing  to  accede  to  these  demands. 
Napoleon  extorted  from  him  30,000,000 
francs  and  many  treasures  of  art.  In  1798 
the  French  proclaimed  Rome  a  republic, 
insulted  the  Pope,  and  snatched  from  his 
hand  the  ring  of  the  fisherman.  Pius 
sternly  protested,  in  consequence  of  which 
he  was  carried  as  a  prisoner  to  Siena, 
thence  to  Florence,  thence  to  Valence  in 
France,  where  he  died.  Pius.  VII. — 
Pope  from  1800  to  1823.  Successor-to  the 
foregoing  Pope.  He  was  elected  at  Ven- 
ice. He  re-entered  Rome  amid  the  un- 
bounded enthusiasm  of  its  inhabitants. 
Napoleon,  seeing  that  the  restoration  of 
religion  in  France  was  necessary  to  the 
well-being  of  the  State,  entered  into  ne- 
gotiations with  Pius  VII.  Through  the 
influence  of  Consalvi,  papal  secretary 
of  State,  a  Concordat  was  concluded 
(1801)  by  the  terms  of  which  the  con- 
stitutional bishops  were  deposed  and  the 
faithful  bishops  asked  to  resign.  Napoleon 
continued  to  act  in  his  usual  arbitrary  man- 


Pius 


560 


Pius 


ner  and  asked  the  Pope  to  crown  him  em- 
peror in  Paris.  Although  Pius  VII.  acceded 
to  this  request  (1804),  Napoleon  continued 
his  tyranny  over  the  Church.  By  his  or- 
der, General  Miolis  entered  Rome  (1808), 
banished  the  cardinals  and  subjected  the 
Pope  to  gross  outrages.  Pius  VII.  replied 
with  a  Bull  of  excommunication,  1809, 
which  was  ridiculed  by  Napoleon.  The 
Pope  was  arrested  by  General  Radet  in  the 
Quirinal  at  midnight  and  taken  to  Greno- 
ble, thence  to  Savona,  where  he  was  treated 
as  a  common  criminal.  Letters,  books, 
and  writing  material  were  taken  from  him, 
yet  he  remained  as  firm  in  prison  as  on  the 
throne.  Before  his  departure  for  Moscow, 
Napoleon  ordered  the  sick  Pope  to  be  ta- 
ken to  Fontainebleau,  where  he  received 
the  last  sacraments.  Being  defeated  in  his 
campaign,  Napoleon  again  opened  negotia- 
tions with  the  Pope,  and  by  intrigue, 
obtained  preliminary  articles  of  a  new  con- 
cordat, which  he  promulgated  as  laws  of 
the  empire.  Pius  protested  and  recalled 
his  concessions.  Napoleon  being  defeated 
by  the  allied  forces  of  Europe,  the  Pope 
recovered  his  liberty,  and  made  his  trium- 
phal entrj'  into  Rome.  Having  reinstated 
the  Society  of  Jesus  (1814)  and  reopened 
the  institutions  of  learning,  etc.,  he  died 
in  1823,  at  the  age  of  81.  His  Pontificate 
is  one  of  the  most  illustrious  in  history. 
Pius  VIII.  —  Pope  from  March  31st,  1829, 
to  Nov.  30th,  1830.  Pius  IX.  (Mastai 
Ferretti).  — Pope  from  1846  to  1878.  This 
Pontiff  sought  to  conciliate  the  revolu- 
tionary party  by  a  policy  of  mildness,  but 
his  endeavors  to  pacify  met  with  base  in- 
gratitude. Weighed  down  by  sorrow  and 
undeceived  as  to  the  intention  of  the  revo- 
lutionists, Pius  IX.  quit  the  city  oi  Rome 
and  made  good  his  escape  to  Gaeta,  Novem- 
ber, 24th,  1848.  Rome  was  forthwith  de- 
clared a  republic  by  the  Mazinists  and  the 
Garibaldines;  revolution  had  conquered. 
Through  the  intervention  of  Catholic  pow- 
ers the  Pope  returned  to  Rome,  April  12th, 
1850,  and  though  deeply  affected  by  the 
ingratitude  of  his  subjects,  again  issued  a 
proclamation  of  amnesty.  The  revolu- 
tionary movement  which  had  taken  a  firm 
hold  in  Italy,  found  an  ally  in  King  Victor 
Emanuel  of  Sardinia,  whose  minister,  Ca- 
vour,  joined  hands  with  Napoleon  III.,  and 
drove  Austria  out  of  Italy  (1859).  The  re- 
sult of  this  was  that  the  Pope  lost  several 
provinces.  The  Pontifical  army,  under 
command  of  the  gallant  General  Lamori- 
ciere,  was   defeated   near   Castle   Fidardo 


and  again  at  Ancona  (i860).  The  Pope 
was  now  despoiled  of  four-fifths  of  his  es- 
tates. An  attack  upon  Rome  by  the  Gari- 
baldines was  repulsed  by  the  papal  army 
assisted  by  the  French  soldiers  (1867). 
But  Victor  Emanuel  completed  the  work 
of  despoliation  when,  without  any  previous 
declaration  of  war,  he  took  possession  of 
Rome,  Sept.  20th,  1870. 

Pope  Pius  IX.  displayed  wonderful  en- 
ergy in  ecclesiastical  affairs  which  was  felt 
throughout  the  whole  world.  He  propo- 
gated  the  faith,  increased  the  number  of 
bishoprics  and  apostolic  vicariates ;  he  re- 
stored the  Catholic  hierarchy  of  England 
and  Holland  and  re-established  the  Latin 
patriarchates  at  Jerusalem.  Up  to  the 
year  1876,  he  had  erected  28  archbishoprics, 
129  bishoprics,  31  apostolic  vicariates.  14 
apostolic  prefectures,  and  3  apostolic  dele- 
gations. He  revived  the  provincial  and 
diocesan  synods  in  several  countries.  He 
established  new  seminaries,  principally  for 
the  missions  of  North  and  South  America; 
he  encouraged  science  and  learning,  es- 
pecially the  study  of  ecclesiastical  archae- 
ology; he  appointed  a  great  number  of 
learned  cardinals  outside  of  Italy  such  as 
Wiseman,  Cullen,  McCloskey,  Geissel, 
Othmar,  Rauscher,  Reisach,  Franzelin, 
Gousset,  etc.  He  condemned  the  leading 
errors  of  the  age  in  the  Encyclical  "  Sylla- 
bus of  Errors,"  in  1864.  He  issued  several 
decisions  in  dogmas,  morals,  and  liturgy. 

Pius  IX.  assembled  around  his  throne 
on  four  different  occasions,  a  vast  number 
of  the  bishops  of  the  world,  i.  Dec.  8th, 
1854,  when,  in  the  presence  of  two  hundred 
bishops,  he  promulgated  as  an  article  of 
faith,  the  doctrine  of  the  Immaculate  Con- 
ception of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary.  2.  On 
Pentecost,  1862,  he  canonized  the  twenty- 
six  Japanese  martyrs  (died  1597)  in  the 
presence  of  more  than  three  hundred 
bishops.  The  assembled  bishops  unani- 
mously protested  against  the  spoliation  of 
the  Patrimony  of  Peter.  3.  June  29th,  1867, 
more  than  five  hundred  bishops  and  about 
ten  thousand  pilgrims  met  in  Rome  to 
celebrate  the  eighteenth  centenary  of  the 
martyrdom  of  the  princes  of  the  Apostles 
SS.  Peter  and  Paul.  4.  Dec.  8th,  1869,  he 
opened  the  twenty-f^rst  Ecumenical  ( I 
Vatican)  Council  (1869-1870),  which  was 
attended  by  747  bishops,  and  July  i8th, 
1870,  the  Infallibility  of  the  Pope  in  decid- 
ing matters  of  faith  and  morals,  was  dog- 
matically defined  in  the  presence  of  535 
bishops.     After  the  inroads  of  the  Pied- 


Placet 


561 


Platonism 


montese,  the  Pope  adjourned  the  Council 
(Oct.  20th,  1870).  On  June  i6th,  1871, 
Pius  IX.  had  the  happiness  to  celebrate, 
as  the  first  among  the  successors  of  St. 
Peter,  the  twenty-fifth  anniversary  of  his 
Pontificate.  On  June  3d,  1877,  he  cele- 
brated his  golden  jubilee  as  bishop.  His 
illustrious  reign  came  to  a  close  on  Feb. 
7th,  1878.  Few  Popes  ever  possessed  the 
love  and  veneration  of  Catholic  people 
throughout  the  world  as  did  Pius  IX. 

Placet. — An  expressed  sanction  ;  permis- 
sion given  by  one  in  authority ;  specifically, 
sanction  granted  to  the  promulgation  and 
execution  of  an  ecclesiastical  ordinance, 
and  particularly  such  sanction  granted  by 
a  sovereign  to  papal  bulls,  briefs,  and 
other  edicts. 

Placidus  (St.).  —  Benedictine  monk, 
born  at  Rome,  died  in  539.  He  accom- 
panied St.  Benedict  to  Monte  Cassino, 
then  became  abbot  of  a  monastery  near 
Messina. 

Plagues  of  Egypt.  —  The  plagues  by 
which  God,  at  the  word  of  Moses,  punished 
the  obstinate  refusal  of  the  Pharao  and  his 
subjects,  who  did  not  wish  to  permit  the 
Israelites  to  depart  from  Egypt.  They 
were  ten  in  number  and  are  enumerated  in 
Exodus  (vii.-xi.).  All  these  plagues  had 
a  supernatural  character. 

Plain  Chant.  —  The  unisonous  vocal 
music  which  has  been  used  in  the  Church 
from  the  earliest  centuries.  Its  origin  is 
unknown,  but  it  contains  elements  taken 
from  the  ancient  Greek  music,  and  po'ssi- 
bly  from  the  ancient  Temple  music  of  the 
Hebrews.  It  is  often  called  "  Gregorian," 
from  its  most  prominent  early  systematizer, 
or,  in  certain  details,  "  Ambrosian."  It 
rests  upon  the  elaborate  system  of  octave 
scales  or  modes.  According  to  the  prin- 
ciples and  rules  of  these  modes,  numerous 
melodies  have  been  composed  or  compiled, 
which  have  become  established  by  tradition 
or  authority  as  part  of  the  liturgies  of  the 
Western  and  Eastern  Churches.  This  body 
of  melodies  includes  a  great  variety  of 
material  adapted  not  only  to  every  part  of 
the  liturgy,  but  to  the  several  seasons  of 
the  Christian  year.  Plain  chant  melodies 
are  distinguished  by  the  adherence  to  the 
mediaeval  modes,  by  independence  of 
rhythmical  and  metrical  structure,  and  by 
a  limited  and  austere  use  of  harmony. 
Their  effect  is  strikingly  individual,  digni- 
fied, and  devotional.  The  style  as  such 
36 


is  obligatory  in  the  services  of  the  Catholic 
Church,  and  has  been  perpetuated  by  her 
with  remarkable  purity,  in  spite  of  its  con- 
trasts with  modern  music  in  general.  It 
has  exerted  a  profound  influence  upon 
general  musical  development,  dominating 
that  element  until  nearly  1600,  and  furnish- 
ing innumerable  hints  and  themes  to  all 
subsequent  styles.  The  mediaeval  theory 
of  counterp.oint  was  a  direct  outgrowth  of 
the  melodic  principle  of  plain  chant.  See 
Music. 

Platonism  (philosophical  system  of 
Plato)  (430-348  B.C.). —  There  have  been 
men,  although  quite  serious  and  learned, 
blind  enough  to  compare  Christianity  to 
Platonism  and  Neo-Platonism,  and  even  to 
hold  that  Catholic  doctrines  were  derived 
from  these  systems  :  a  pretension  as  ridic- 
ulous as  it  is  false.  The  pure,  positive, 
and  sublime  conceptions  of  the  Fathers  of 
the  Church,  whom  they  have  been  pleased 
to  metamorphose  into  disciples  of  the 
Christian  philosopher,  conceptions  which, 
in  regard  to  religion  in  general,  or  to  God 
and  man  in  particular,  infinitely  surpass  in 
elevation  and  correctness,  the  doubtful, 
incoherent,  and  contradictory  affirmations 
of  Plato  and  of  the  so-called  school  of 
Alexandria,  the  hearth  of  Neo-Platonism. 
Certainly,  Plato  has  written  wonderful 
lines  about  God,  which  the  Fathers  quoted 
with  praise,  and  which  we  still  read  with  a 
certain  consolation,  when  comparing  them 
with  the  errors  of  the  human  mind,  during 
the  miserable  era  of  paganism.  But  at  the 
same  time,  Plato  greatly  altered  the  idea 
of  the  Deity,  by  first  admitting  absolute, 
substantial,  and  independent  ideas  of  God, 
then  a  necessary  and  eternal  matter,  and 
which  thus  escapes  all  Divine  action.  As 
to  the  dogma  of  the  Trinity,  it  is  in  vain 
that  these  scholars  pretend  that  Plato 
makes  some  allusion  to  it.  Even  the  best 
meaning  commentators,  who  are  far  from 
being  in  agreement  on  the  essence  and  in- 
timate constitution  of  the  Platonic  Trinity, 
in  the  discussion  of  the  texts  alleged  to 
allude  to  the  conception  of  the  Trinity,  do 
not  permit  the  Athenian  philosopher  to 
have  been  better  instructed  as  to  this  point 
than  other  philosophers  of  antiquity.  Did 
the  Alexandrians,  who  endeavored  to  create 
a  system  of  doctrine  which  they  might  op- 
pose to  the  Christion  symbol,  perhaps 
borrow  something  from  the  Fathers  of  the 
Church  ?  Is  the  theory  of  the  divine  at- 
tributes, such  as  we  can  deduct  it  from  the 


Pliny  the  Younger 


562 


POLYCARP 


Enneades  of  Photinus  and  from  the  writ- 
ings of  Proclus,  more  elevated,  purer,  and 
more  complete  than  that  which  our  holy 
Doctors  have  given?  Is  not  that  primor- 
dial unity,  source,  and  term  of  all  reality, 
too  much  like,  in  its  eternal  inertness,  the 
chained  Saturn  of  Greek  mythology,  or 
the  Brahma  of  the  Hindoos  ?  What  is  that 
Triade  expressly  imagined  to  make  compe- 
tition to  the  Christian  Trinity,  and  whose 
elements  were  never  pointed  out  and  unani- 
mously acknowledged.  Alcinous,  Eumenius, 
and  Plotinus  having  furnished  diverse  in- 
dications ?  Is  it  anything  else  but  a  repro- 
duction of  the  Oriental  emanations,  which 
necessarily  implies  either  a  plurality  of 
unequal  gods  or  a  multiplicity  of  purely 
nominal  forms  of  one  and  the  same  sub- 
stance? New  Platonism,  which  was  an 
improvement  on  the  Old,  did  not  even 
know  how  to  copy  Christianity.  How, 
therefore,  could  the  Old  inspire  and  pre- 
pare the  Christian  sjmbol?  Moreover,  in 
matters  of  dogma,  the  Church  teaches  and 
does  not  discuss;  she  comes  with  her 
original  richness,  and  does  not  borrow ; 
how,  therefore,  could  she  have  begged  or 
even  accepted,  to  clothe  her  splendors 
with  rags  of  a  Platonism,  proscribed  by 
her? 

Pliny  the  Younger  (62-113).  —  Born  at 
Como,  Italy.  While  governor  of  Bi- 
thynia  and  Pontus,  Pliny  asked  the  Em- 
peror Trajan  as  to  the  course  of  conduct  he 
should  pursue  with  regard  to  the  Chris- 
tians, whom  he  found  to  be  very  numerous 
in  his  provinces  and  in  whom  he  could  dis- 
cover no  grave  crime  except  "a  perverse 
and  extravagant  superstition."  In  his  re- 
ply to  Pliny,  Trajan  says:  "The  Chris- 
tians are  not  to  be  sought  out;  but  if 
brought  before  you  and  convicted,  they 
must  be  punished ;  yet  if  anyone  denies 
he  is  a  Christian  and  proves  his  denial 
by  acts,  namely,  by  worshiping  our  gods, 
he,  though  in  the  past  suspected  of  being 
a  Christian,  shall,  nevertheless,  be  par- 
doned." 

Plotinus  (205-270).  —  Neo-Platonic  phi- 
losopher, born  at  Lykopolis  in  Egypt; 
died  in  Campania.  He  is  praised  for  the 
severity  of  his  life  and  his  noble  and 
blameless  character.  His  treatisses  were 
collected  by  his  disciple  Porphyrius  and 
arranged  in  six  Enneads,  containing  fifty- 
four  books  on  various  subjects.  See  Pla- 
tonism. 


Plymouth  Brethren. —  A  Protestant  sect 
which  first  attracted  attention  at  Plymouth, 
England,  in  1830,  but  has  since  extended 
over  Great  Britain,  the  United  States,  and 
among  the  Protestants  of  France,  Switzer- 
land, Italy,  etc.  They  recognize  all  as 
brethren  who  believe  in  Christ  and  the 
Holy  Spirit  as  his  vicar,  but  they  have  no 
formal  creed,  ecclesiastical  organization, 
or  official  ministry,  condemning  these  as 
the  causes  of  sectarian  divisions.  They 
are  also  called  "Darbyites,"  after  Mr. 
Darby,  originally  a  barrister,  subsequently 
a  clergyman  of  the  Church  of  England, 
and  thereafter  an  evangelist  not  connected 
with  any  Church,  to  whose  efforts  their 
origin  and  the  diffusion  of  their  principles 
are  to  be  ascribed. 

Poland  {Christianity  in).  —  Christian- 
ity was  carried  into  Poland  from  Bohemia. 
Duke  Minceslas  I.,  who  was  married  to 
the  Bohemian  Princess  Dombrawka,  re- 
ceived baptism  in  the  year  966,  and  his 
example  was  soon  imitated  by  the  greater 
number  of  his  people.  His  successor,  the 
powerful  Duke  Boleslas  I.  (992-1025), 
completed  the  Christianization  of  Poland 
by  the  erection  of  numerous  churches  and 
monasteries.  He  founded  the  archbishop- 
ric of  Gnesen,  with  the  suffragan  sees  of 
Kolberg,  Cracow,  and  Breslau.  His  son 
Casimir  I.,  greatly  promoted  Christianity 
throughout  the  kingdom.  Boleslas  II.,  a 
tyrannical  prince,  slew,  in  1079,  St.  Stan- 
islaus, Bishop  of  Cracow,  who  had  repri- 
manded him  for  his  vicious  conduct.  For 
this  atrocious  act,  Pope  Gregory  VII.  ex- 
communicated him  and  he  died  in  exile. 
See  Germany;  Austria. 

Pole  (Reginald)  (1500-1558). — Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  and  cardinal,  born 
in  the  Castle  of  Stoverton,  in  Stafford- 
shire; kinsman  by  his  mother,  of  Henry 
VII.  and  Edward  IV.  After  the  death  of 
Paul  III.,  he  refused  the  tiara,  presided 
over  the  Council  of  Trent  and,  at  his  re- 
turn into  England,  which  he  had  been 
forced  to  leave  because  he  did  not  wish  to 
flatter  the  passions  of  Henry  VIII.,  he  was 
named  by  Queen  Mary,  archbishop  and 
president  of  the  royal  counsel.  He  left 
quite  a  number  of  works. 

Polycarp  (St.)  (70-166).  —  Bishop  of 
Smyrna.  He  was  the  immediate  contem- 
porary and  friend  of  St.  Ignatius,  but  noth- 
ing certain  is  known  as  to  his  origin,  or 
the  place  of  his  birth.     Irenaeus,  his  dis- 


POLYCHRONIUS 


563 


Polyglot  Bibles 


ciple,  tells  us  that  he  was  instructed  by  the 
Apostle  St.  John,  and  appointed  by  him 
bishop  of  Smyrna.  About  the  middle  of  the 
second  century  he  journeyed  to  Rome  to 
consult  with  Pope  Anicetus  regarding  the 
time  of  Easter.  On  this  occasion  he 
brought  back  to  the  Church  many  who 
had  been  led  away  by  the  Gnostics,  Valen- 
tine and  Marcion.  It  is  recorded  that  on 
meeting  Marcion  in  the  streets  of  Rome, 
when  the  latter  asked  whether  he  knew 
him,  he  replied  that  he  knew  "  the  first- 
born of  Satan."  He  was  close  on  a  hun- 
dred years  old  when  he  died  the  death  of 
a  martyr  by  the  sword  —  having  been 
miraculously  preserved  from  death  by  fire 
—  under  Marcus  Aurelius,  about  166,  or, 
according  to  others,  about  155  or  156.  Of 
his  letters,  which  St.  Polycarp,  according 
to  the  testimony  of  St.  Irenaeus,  wrote  to 
the  neighboring  Churches  and  to  particu- 
lar persons,  we  possess  only  that  to  the 
Philippians,  whose  authenticity  is  vouched 
for  by  Irenaeus  and  Eusebius,  and  by  the 
fact  that  it  was  publicly  read  in  the 
Churches,  and  that  its  subject  is  quite  in 
harmony  with  the  doctrine  of  the  Apostles 
and  the  circumstances  of  the  time  of  the 
author. 

Polychronius.  —  Bishop  of  Apamea  and 
brother  of  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia.  Died 
about  430.  He  composed  commentaries 
on  Daniel,  Ezechiel,  and  Job,  of  which 
only  detached  though  important  and  valu- 
able fragments  are  preserved  in  the  Ca- 
tenae. The  Commentaries  ascribed  to  him 
on  the  Proverbs,  Canticle  of  Canticles, 
Jeremias,  and  Baruch,  as  well  as  the  frag- 
ment on  the  Causes  of  the  Obscurity 
of  Holy  Scriptures,  cannot  be  from  his 
pen,  on  account  of  the  disparity  of  style. 
The  genuine  fragments,  however,  clearly 
show  that  Polychronius  possessed  a  true 
exegetical  spirit  and  instinct,  that  he  held 
to  the  Scriptural  inspiration,  acknowl- 
edged the  full  canon  of  sacred  books, 
favored  the  historical  method  of  interpre- 
tation, and  was  profoundly  versed  in  arch- 
aeology and  profane  history.  He  possessed 
all  the  talents  of  his  brother  without  any 
of  his  faults,  except  perhaps  that  of 
slightly  inclining  to  his  rationalistic 
method.  He  and  Theodoret  of  Cyrus, 
are  considered  the  most  illustrious  inter- 
preters of  the  Antiochian  School. 

Polygamy.     See  Marriage. 

Polyglot  Bibles.  —  Bibles  printed  at 
least  in  three  languages,  whose  texts  are 


arranged  in  different  columns.  Some  con- 
tain all  the  books  of  the  Bible,  others  a 
part  or  only  some  books.  The  first  are 
called  general  Polyglots,  and  the  latter, 
particular  Polyglots.  The  general  Poly- 
glots are:  i.  That  of  Cardinal  Ximenes, 
printed  in  1515;  it  is  also  called  "the 
Complutensian"  or  Alcala  (6  vols,  in  fol.), 
in  four  languages:  the  Hebrew,  the  Chal- 
daic  paraphrase  of  Onkelos  on  the  Penta- 
teuch only,  the  Greek  Version  of  the 
Septuagint,  and  the  ancient  Latin  or 
Italic  Version.  2.  That  published  by  Plan- 
tinus  (1569-1572),  by  authority  and  at  the 
cost  of  Philip  II.,  king  of  Spain;  also 
called  royal  Polyglot  of  Philip  II.,  or 
Polyglot  of  Antwerp ;  besides  that  con- 
tained already  in  the  Complutensian,  was 
added  the  Chaldaic  paraphrases  of  the  rest 
of  the  Scriptures  ;  for  the  New  Testament, 
besides  the  Greek  and  Latin  of  the  Bible 
of  Alcala,  there  was  added  to  this  edition  the 
ancient  Syriac  Version.  3.  That  of  1586 
(2  vols,  in  fol.),  containing  the  Hebrew, 
Greek,  the  Latin  version  of  St.  Jerome, 
and  that  of  Santeo-Pagnini  with  the  notes 
of  the  Vatable ;  which  caused  it  to  be 
called  the  Bible  of  Vatable.  4.  That  of 
Elias  Hutter,  printed  in  1599,  at  Nurem- 
berg, in  six  languages  :  Hebrew,  Chaldaic, 
Greek,  Latin,  German,  and  Slavonic  in 
some  copies,  French  or  Italian  in  others ; 
the  same  author  has  published  also  in  1600 
the  New  Testament  in  twelve  languages : 
Syriac,  Hebrew,  Greek,  Italian,  French, 
Spanish,  Latin,  German,  Bohemian,  Eng- 
lish, Danish,  and  Polish.  5.  That  of  Jay, 
printed  in  Paris,  1645 ;  the  Syriac  and 
Arabic  versions  are  therein  accompanied 
by  Latin  interpretations,  it  contains,  be- 
sides that  of  Philip  II.,  the  Samaritan  text 
of  the  Pentateuch  and  the  Samaritan  ver- 
sion ;  the  New  Testament  contains,  more 
than  the  Antwerp  Polyglot,  an  Arabic 
and  Latin  translation.  6.  That  which  was 
printed  at  London  in  1657  (6  vols,  in  fol.), 
and  which  is  called  the  Polyglot  of  Lon- 
don, Polyglot  of  England,  and  Polyglot  or 
Bible  of  Walton,  because  Bryan  Walton 
printed  it.  It  is  the  most  complete  and 
the  most  convenient.  There  has  been 
added  to  it  a  dictionary  in  seven  languages, 
composed  by  Edmond  Castle.  Walton, 
being  an  Anglican,  did  not  always  express 
himself  in  a  manner  conformable  to  the 
pure  doctrine ;  hence  the  reason  why  this 
Bible  was  put  on  the  Index.  Among  the 
particular  Polyglots  we  quote:  i.  A  Psal- 
ter in  Hebrew,  Greek,  Arabic,  and  Chal- 


Polynesia 


564 


POPE 


daic,  with  Latin  translations  and  glosses 
by  Augustino  Giustiniani,  Genoa  (1516). 
2.  A  Psalter  in  Hebrew,  Greek,  Latin,  and 
Ethiopian;  Cologne  (1518),  by  John  Pot- 
ken. 

Polynesia(  Missions  in) .  See  Australia. 

Polytheism.     See  Paganism. 

Pombal  (MARquis  de)  (1699-1782).— 
Prime  minister  under  Joseph  I.  of  Portugal. 
Pombal,  while  Portuguese  minister  in  Eng- 
land, had  observed  the  docility  of  the  An- 
glican clergy,  and  their  submissiveness  to 
the  English  government.  No  sooner  had 
he  obtained  the  reins  of  power,  than  he 
formed  plans  for  a  national  Church  in 
Portugal,  separated  from  the  Holy  See. 
The  means  which  Pombal  adopted,  were 
calumny  and  cruel  persecution.  He  issued 
writings,  grossly  defaming  the  Society  of 
Jesus,  to  be  circulated  among  the  people. 
They  were  accused  of  conspiracy  against 
the  State;  of  creating  discontent  among 
the  Indians  in  Paraguay ;  they  were  even 
denounced  as  the  instigators  of,  or  accom- 
plices in,  an  attempt  upon  the  king's  life. 
A  royal  edict  of  Sept.  3d,  1759,  declared 
the  Jesuits,  traitors  and  assassins,  and  ban- 
ished them  from  Portugal,  and  from  the 
Portuguese  colonies,  both  East  and  West. 
At  the  death  of  the  king  (1777),  Pombal 
lost  his  credit,  the  ministry  fell,  the  prisons 
were  opened,  the  processes  revised  and  the 
judges  decided  the  innocence  of  the  con- 
demned. As  he  had  been  careful  to  pro- 
vide himself  with  documents  wherein  all 
his  crimes  were  charged  to  the  account  of 
the  king,  whose  executor  he  only  pretended 
to  have  been,  he  was  spared ;  but  assailed 
by  thousands  of  accusations,  he  was  com- 
pelled to  leave  Lisbon,  and,  banished  far 
from  the  court  (1781),  went  to  die  in  exile. 

Pontianus  (St.).  — Pope  from  230  to 
235 ;  martyr.  Exiled  by  Alexander  Seve- 
rus,  upon  the  island  of  Tavolato,  on  the 
eastern  coast  of  Sardinia,  where  he  was  put 
to  death  by  order  of  Maximinus. 

Pontifical.  —  A  book  which  contains  the 
different  orders  of  the  ceremonies  which 
the  bishop  should  observe,  particularly  in 
conferring  the  sacraments  of  ordination, 
confirmation,  and  other  sacred  functions 
reserved  to  the  bishop.  The  Roman  Pon- 
tifical is  attributed  to  the  Popes  Gelasius 
and  Gregory  VII. 

Pontus.  —  In  ancient  geography,  the 
northeastern     province    of     Asia    Minor, 


bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Euxine  sea, 
west  by  Galatia  and  Paphlagonia,  south  by 
Cappadocia  and  part  of  Armenia,  and  east 
by  Colchis.  It  was  originally  governed 
by  kings,  and  was  in  its  most  flourishing 
state  under  Mithridates  the  Great,  who 
waged  a  long  and  celebrated  war  with  the 
Romans,  but  was  at  length  subdued  by 
Pompey;  after  which  Pontus  became  a 
providence  of  the  Roman  empire  (Acts  ii. 
9;  I.  Pet.  i.  I). 

Poor  Man  of  Lyons.     See  Waldknsbs. 

Pope  (the  head  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church). —  The  name   Pope  (Lat.  Pa  fa), 
"  which  means  Father,"  says  Fleury,  "  but 
in  denoting  a  particular  tenderness,"  was 
formerly   given   to    all    bishops.     Among 
the   Russians,  the  simple  priest  placed  at 
the   head    of    a    parish   is   termed    Pope, 
meaning  father  of  the  parish.     However, 
this   title  was  par  excellence,  the    title  of 
the  sovereign  Pontiff,  residing  in  Rome, 
and  since  the  time  of  Gregory  VII.,  the 
Bishop   of   Rome    alone   has   been   called 
Pope.     Witness  how  Crea  expresses  him- 
self on  the  essence  or  nature  of  the  papal 
power  in  the  Church,     "It   is  a  bishop, 
who,    in    quality,    is    nothing    more   than 
other    bishops,   since    bishops    are    alike. 
The  episcopacy  does  not  suffer  inferiority 
in  any  of  its  members,  and  the  Bishop  of 
Rome  is  no  more  a  bishop  than  the  bishop 
of  an  obscure  city.  But  because  the  Bishop 
of  Rome  is  the  Vicar  of  Jesus  Christ,  he 
exercises  a  power  which  is  not  contained 
in  the  essential  power  of  the  episcopacy. 
Indeed,  it  is  the  essence  of  a  vicar  that  he 
forms  only  one  sole    hierarchical  person 
with  the  one  whom  he  represents,  without 
forming    a    distinct    degree    below    him. 
This   is   so  true    in   the  propriety  of  the 
term   vicar,   that  even   in  an  inferior  de- 
gree, we  every  day  see  the  bishop   of   a 
particular  Church,  or  diocese,   giving   to 
himself  a  vicar   who  represents  him  with 
the  plentitude  of  his  ordinary  authority. 
The  vicar  of  a  bishop  is  taken  from  among 
the    priests,   but    he    exercises    a    power 
which  is  not  contained  in  the  priesthood, 
because  this  power  is  the  authority  itself 
which  the  bishop  has  over  the  priests  as 
their  chief.     Hereby,  the  vicar  forms  with 
the  bishop  only  one  sole  hierarchic  person. 
Such  is  the  singular  dignity  of  the  Vicar 
of  Jesus  Christ.      He  is  in   possession  of 
the  whole  authority  of  Jesus  Christ,  over 
the   Church   and    over   the   Episcopacy" 
{De  viglise  et  de  sa  Constitution,  p.  137). 


Pope 


565 


Pope 


The  Pope,  the  visible  head  of  the 
Church,  Vicar  of  Jesus  Christ,  is  the  suc- 
cessor of  St.  Peter.  He  governs,  teaches, 
commands  observance  of  the  canons,  as- 
sembles councils  and  presides  over  them, 
institutes  bishops, .  creates  cardinals,  es- 
tablishes or  suppresses  religious  orders, 
watches  over  the  maintenance  of  dogma 
and  discipline,  approves  or  censures  doc- 
trines, publishes  bulls,  briefs,  encyclicals, 
upholds  liturgy,  grants  major  dispensa- 
tions, concedes  indulgences,  pronounces 
excommunication  or  withdraws  it,  in  a 
word,  he  has  the  supreme  and  entire  au- 
thority of  government. 

The  Pope  wears  a  triple  crown  or  tiara. 
He  is  chosen  by  the  cardinals  in  conclave, 
and  after  being  elected  he  is  placed  upon  a 
seat  and  carried  before  the  altar  of  St. 
Peter,  and  in  that  magnificent,  historic 
cathedral,  he  is  crowned.  He  choses  a 
name  under  which  he  continues  the  series 
of  Pontiffs.  The  history  of  the  Papacy  is 
blended  with  that  of  the  Church,  and 
forms  the  salient  part  thereof.  Since  the 
first  centuries  the  various  Churches  ac- 
knowledged the  papal  authority,  and  have 
recourse  to  Rome  in  all  their  major 
causes.  (See  Primacy.)  The  first  Popes 
underwent  martyrdom  in  turn.  Constan- 
tine  the  Great,  transferring  the  seat  of  the 
empire  to  Constantinople,  left  in  the 
West  the  Papacy  in  charge  of  great 
wealth,  which  gradually  increased  by  the 
generosity  of  the  emperor  and  his  sub- 
jects. This  action  of  Constantine,  to- 
gether with  the  love  and  loyalty  of  the 
Faithful,  gradually  endowed  the  Papacy 
with  a  moral  and  even  temporal  power, 
and  prepared  it  to  exercise  a  supreme  in- 
fluence over  the  world,  which  was  becom- 
ing more  universally  Christianized.  The 
Papacy  under  the  successors  of  Constan- 
tine, had  to  contend  with  and  overcome 
powerful  heresies.  Under  the  Greek  em- 
pire it  found  itself  confronted  by  all  the 
cavils  of  the  Grecian  spirit,  linked  with 
the  decline  of  a  fast  decaying  society.  It, 
on  the  other  hand,  made  an  alliance  with 
Charlemagne,  and  its  prestige  increased. 
It  penetrated  the  abodes  and  conquered 
with  the  Word  of  God,  barbarous  nations, 
forming  them  into  civilized  peoples,  thus 
erecting  the  bulwarks  of  future  Chris- 
tianity. 

Islamism  became  threatening,  and  the 
Papacy  opposed  to  it  the  chivalrous  valor 
of  the  Crusades.  From  the  beginning,  as 
it  still  continues,  the  Papacy  was  the  pro- 


tector and  patron  of  learning,  and  perpetu- 
ated scientific  knowledge ;  transmitting  it 
to  the  coming  ages.  It  gave  energy  to 
the  religious  orders,  it  spread  the  Chris- 
tian life  and  spirit  among  the  clergy  and 
the  Faithful.  A  difficult  trial  awaited  the 
Papacy,  which  for  a  time  seemed  to  over- 
throw it, —  the  great  "Schism  of  the  West," 
yet  in  the  end  it  came  out  victorious.  The 
Reformation,  so  called,  was  a  revolution 
that  strove  to  draw  away  from  the  Papacy 
the  disobedience  of  a  great  part  of  Europe. 
The  modern  spirit  continued  the  work  of 
the  Reformation,  affecting  even  the  nations 
that  remained  faithful.  France,  the  eldest 
daughter  of  the  Church,  felt  its  baneful 
effects.  The  great  French  Revolution  put 
into  practice,  with  fearful  logic,  what 
had  been  at  first  considered  as  simple 
theories.  Finally,  in  our  own  days, 
Pius  IX.  was  robbed  and  despoiled  of 
all  temporal  power  which  had  belonged, 
undisputed,  to  the  Papacy  for  more  than 
a  thousand  years.  Then  did  the  char- 
ity and  loyalty  of  the  Faithful  again 
assert  itself  by  voluntary  contributions 
under  the  name  of  "  Peter's  Pence,"  by 
which  the  Papacy  and  its  needs  are  sup- 
plied. The  Papacy,  as  must  be  admitted, 
even  by  its  enemies,  nevertheless  con- 
tinues to  exist  with  a  character  of  impos- 
ing grandeur,  to  which  even  now  as  of 
yore,  the  great  mass  of  the  enlightened 
world  renders  willing  homage.  Being 
created  by  God  for  an  enduring,  divine 
purpose,  it  remains,  and  shall  remain,  to 
the  end  of  time  a  necessary  institution,  and 
hence  the  '■'■  Non  Possumus,"  of  Pius  IX. 
to  the  Italian  government  is  repeated  by 
his  successor,  the  inflexible,  matchless  Leo 
XIII.,  and  shall  continue  to  be  repeated 
till  justice  shall  be  satisfied. 

Pope  {Election  of  the). — The  manner  of 
electing  the  sovereign  Pontiff  has  been 
different  in  different  ages.  At  first,  i.  e., 
from  the  time  of  St.  Peter  to  Pope  St. 
Sylvester  I.,  the  right  to  elect  the  Roman 
Pontiff  was  vested  in  the  Senate  of  the 
Church  of  the  city  of  Rome.  This  Senate, 
which  was  instituted  by  St.  Peter  himself, 
was  composed  of  twenty-four  priests  and 
deacons.  After  the  Pontificate  of  Sylvester 
I.  (died,  335),  the  entire  Roman  clergy 
and  people  were  also  admitted  to  the  elec- 
tion of  the  Pontiff.  From  the  time  of 
Pope  Simplicius  (467)  to  that  of  Zachary 
(741),  temporal  rulers  sought  to  establish 
the   custom    that    no    Pontiff    should    be 


Pope 


566 


Pope 


acknowledged  as  such  without  their  con- 
firmation. Pope  Nicholas  II.  was  the 
first  who  gave  the  chief  voice  in  the  elec- 
tion of  the  Roman  Pontiff  to  the  cardinals, 
by  ordaining  that  the  election  should  be 
held  by  the  cardinal  bishops.  Finally, 
Pope  Alexander  III.,  in  1178,  reserved  the 
right  of  electing  the  Pontiff  exclusively  to 
the  cardinals ;  he  also  enacted  that  the 
Pope  could  be  validly  elected  by  two-thirds 
of  all  the  cardinals  present  without  any  re- 
gard to  the  absent  members  of  the  Sacred 
College.  These  enactments  were  con- 
firmed by  Gregory  X.  (1274)  and  Clement 
V.  (1310),  and  are  in  force  at  the  present 
day. 

A  vacancy  occurs  in  the  Apostolic  See 
when  the  sovereign  Pontiff  resigns  or  dies. 
Immediately  upon  the  death  of  a  Pope  the 
cardinals  are  to  be  convoked.  All  must  be 
summoned,  even  those  who  are  absent,  ex- 
communicated, suspended,  or  interdicted ; 
also  cardinals  but  recently  created,  though 
not  yet  invested  with  the  insignia  of  the 
cardinalate.  The  cardinals  present  must 
ordinarily  wait  ten  days  for  the  arrival  of 
those  who  are  absent.  If,  however,  the 
cardinals  present,  for  just  reasons,  pro 
ceeded  to  elect  the  Pope  before  the  lapse 
of  ten  days  from  the  death  of  the  late  Pon- 
tiff, this  election  would  nevertheless  be 
valid.  On  the  tenth,  or,  according  to 
Phillips,  on  the  eleventh  day  the  cardinals 
enter  the  conclave  in  procession.  (See 
CoKCLAVE.)  Once  having  entered  the 
conclave  they  cannot  leave  it  until  after 
the  election  of  a  new  Pope.  If  any  cardinal 
should  leave  the  conclave  on  account  of 
sickness  or  other  cause,  he  cannot  return 
again,  even  if  he  recovers,  nor  can  he  have 
a  voice  in  the  election.  If,  in  the  course 
of  the  election,  a  considerable  number  of 
cardinals  should  withdraw  from  the  con- 
clave, refusing  to  participate  in  the  elec- 
tion, the  right  of  electing  the  Pontiff 
would  devolve  on  the  remaining  cardinals, 
even  though  but  two,  nay,  even  in  case  but 
one,  were  left. 

The  election  at  present  must  be  held 
either  by  scrutiniutn  or  ballot,  or  by  com- 
promise, or  by  quasi  inspiration.  Though 
any  of  these  three  modes  can  be  made  use  of, 
the  ballot  is  the  one  more  usually  adopted. 
The  election  fer  scruttnium  consists  in 
this,  that  each  of  the  voters  casts  his  vote, 
as  a  rule,  by  ballot ;  in  the  election  of  the 
sovereign  Pontiff,  the  cardinals  are  ob- 
liged to  vote  by  secret  ballot.  The  candi- 
date who  receives  the  votes  of  two-thirds 


of  all  the  cardinals  present  in  the  conclave, 
is  canonically  elected  Pope.  Before  the 
balloting,  three  cardinals  {scrutatores)  are 
chosen  by  lot  to  count  the  votes  and  an- 
nounce the  result.  The  votes  are  cast  in 
the  following  manner:  Each  cardinal 
writes  the  name  of  his  candidate  on  the 
ballot  or  ticket  of  election,  formulating 
his    vote   thus :    "  I   choose   for   Supreme 

Pontiff,  the  Most  Reverend ."   This 

ticket  is  then  folded,  sealed,  and  deposited 
by  the  voter  in  a  chalice  placed  on  an  altar 
for  that  purpose.  The  three  scrutatores, 
meanwhile,  stand  by  the  chalice  and  super- 
intend the  voting.  When  all  the  votes 
have  been  cast,  the  scrutatores  at  once 
begin  to  announce  the  votes  in  this  man- 
ner: the  first  scrutator  takes  one  of  the 
votes  out  of  the  chalice,  and  simply  looks 
at  or  ascertains  the  name  of  the  candidate 
voted  for;  he  then  hands  the  vote  or 
ticket  to  the  second  scrutator,  who  like- 
wise, having  merely  seen  the  name  on  it, 
passes  it  to  the  third  scrutator,  by  whom 
the  name  is  audibly  announced  to  the 
cardinals.  All  the  tickets  are  thus  an- 
nounced one  by  one. 

When  all  the  votes  have  been  counted  by 
the  scrutatores,  and  it  is  found  that  the 
ballot  is  without  result,  no  candidate  hav- 
ing received  the  requisite  two-thirds  vote, 
the  accessus  must  immediately  begin.  The 
accessus  consists  in  this,  that  the  cardinals, 
by  balloting  as  before,  go  over  to  one  of 
the  candidates  who  has  received  at  least 
one  vote  in  the  first  ballot.  In  the  accessus, 
as  the  word  itself  indicates,  no  cardinal 
can  vote  for  or  go  over  to  the  one  for  whom 
he  voted  in  the  first  ballot;  all,  however, 
are  obliged  to  vote,  though  they  are  free  to 
go  over  to  some  candidate  or  to  stand  by 
their  first  choice.  A  cardinal  who  goes 
over  to  some  candidate  votes  thus  :  **  I  go 

over   to ;"a   cardinal   who   does   not 

wish  to  change  his  vote  ballots  thus:  "I 
go  over  to  no  one."  When  the  accessus  is 
over,  the  votes  are  again  counted  as  before 
in  the  scrutiniutn,  and  if,  even  then,  it  is 
found  that  no  candidate  has  received  the 
necessary  two-thirds  vote,  the  cardinals 
must  in  their  next  meeting,  unless  they 
prefer  to  elect  the  Pope  by  compromise  or 
by  quasi  inspiration,  proceed  to  a  second 
ballot  and  continue  thus  to  ballot  twice  a 
day, —  in  the  morning  and  afternoon, —  un- 
til some  candidate  receives  two-thirds  of 
all  the  votes,  and  is  thus  canonically  elected 
Pope.  The  person  thus  elected,  even 
though  not  yet  in  sacred  orders,  becomes 


Pope 


567 


POPE 


immediately,  upon  the  consenting  to  the 
election,  the  Vicar  of  Christ  on  earth. 
The  new  Pope,  as  a  rule,  lays  aside  his  old 
and  assumes  a  new  name. 

Pope  (  Temporal  Power  of  the).  See 
Power. 

Pope  {Prerogatives  of  the) .  —  It  is  an 
incontestable  fact  that  St.  Peter  went  to 
Rome  to  preach  the  Gospel,  that  he  fixed 
there  his  see  and  that  he  died  there  for 
the  faith.  (See  Peter.)  It  is  no  less 
certain  that,  after  the  death  of  St.  Peter, 
the  See  of  Rome  has  been  constantly 
and  uninterruptedly  occupied  by  a  bishop, 
and  that  this  bishop  has  always  been 
regarded  as  the  successor  of  St.  Peter. 
Now,  as  Pope  Pius  VII.  says,  it  is  a 
Catholic  dogma  that  Jesus  Christ  has 
founded  His  Church  upon  the  solidity  of 
the  rock,  and  that,  by  a  particular  gift, 
He  has  chosen  Peter,  in  preference  to  the 
other  Apostles  to  be  His  vicar  on  earth, 
and  the  prince  of  the  Apostolic  Chair ;  that 
by  intrusting  him, —  and  through  him  his 
successors  in  the  course  of  time, —  the  care 
and  the  supreme  power  is  delegated  to  feed 
the  flock,  to  confirm  his  brethren,  to  bind 
and  to  loose  throughout  the  whole  uni- 
verse. This  dogma  was  derived  from 
Christ  and  has  been  transmitted  to  us  by 
the  belief  and  practice  of  the  universal 
Church,  by  the  testimony  of  the  holy 
Fathers,  and  by  the  decrees  of  sovereign 
Pontiffs  and  councils,  which  decrees  were 
promulgated  against  the  errors  of  innova- 
tors. 

The  Holy  See  is  the  center  of  Chris- 
tianity. "The  ecclesiastical  authority," 
says  Bossuet,  following  Ca3sarius  of  Aries, 
"  first  established  in  the  person  of  one,  has 
spread  itself  only  under  the  condition  of 
always  being  able  to  be  reduced  to  the 
principle  of  its  unity,  and  that  all  those 
who  may  be  obliged  to  exercise  it  shall 
keep  themselves  inseparably  united  to  the 
same  See."  To  be  really  united  with  the 
sovereign  Pontiff,  it  is  not  enough  to 
acknowledge  that  such  or  such  reigning 
Pontiff  is  the  successor  of  St.  Peter;  nor 
is  it  sufficient  to  say  that  we  desire  to  live 
in  communion  with  the  Holy  See ;  we  must, 
moreover,  be  subject  to  the  decrees  of  the 
Apostolic  See,  conform  ourselves  in  all 
things  to  the  teaching  of  the  Roman 
Church,  the  Mother  and  Mistress  of  all  the 
Churches. 

It  belongs  chiefly  to  the  Pope,  to  pro- 
nounce   on    questions   in  regard  to   faith. 


Although  all  bishops  are  judges  of  faith, 
nevertheless,  their  judgments  are  sub- 
ordinate to  the  authority  of  the  Vicar  of 
Christ,  the  successor  of  St.  Peter,  who  has 
received  from  our  Lord  the  command  to 
feed  both  the  lambs  and  the  sheep,  the 
little  ones  and  mothers,  and  to  confirm  his 
brethren,  that  is,  the  Apostles  and  their 
successors,  the  bishops.  There  must  al- 
ways be  a  Peter  in  the  Church  to  confirm 
his  brethren  in  the  faith.  This  is  the 
means  to  preserve  that  unity  of  sentiment 
and  fact  which  our  Blessed  Saviour  desired 
above  all  things  else,  and  the  authority 
of  the  supreme  Pontiff  is  all  the  more  nec- 
essary for  the  bishops,  as  their  faith  is  not 
confirmed,  as  was  that  of  the  Apostles. 
(See  Infallibility.) 

The  Pope  can  make  laws  which  are  obli- 
gatory for  the  whole  Church.  He  has  re- 
ceived from  Jesus  Christ,  in  the  person  of 
Peter,  prince  of  the  Apostles,  the  keys  of 
the  kingdom  of  heaven,  with  the  power  to 
bind  and  to  loose  on  earth,  with  the  full 
and  entire  power  to  feed,  direct,  and  gov- 
ern the  universal  Church.  (Council  of 
Florence.)  Therefore,  he  can  make  laws 
obligatory  on  all  Christians,  since  there  is 
no  government  without  legislative  power. 
This  universal  power  and  authority  of  the 
Pope  in  regard  to  faith,  morals,  and  disci- 
pline has  been  invariably  recognized  by 
all  the  Fathers  and  Doctors  of  the  Church, 
in  all  ages. 

This  supreme  authority  of  the  Holy  See 
every  bishop  at  his  consecration  acknowl- 
edges, promising  under  oath  to  receive 
with  respect  the  holy  decretals  and  consti- 
tutions which  may  emanate  from  the  Pope. 
All  the  decrees  of  the  Popes  or  of  the  gen- 
eral councils,  as  likewise  all  bulls  and  con- 
stitutions are  obligatory  in  the  spiritual 
state  and  bind  in  conscience,  independently 
of  the  authorization  of  the  temporal  State. 
Were  this  otherwise,  no  one  could  be  a 
Catholic  or  at  least  could  not  fulfill  his 
duties  as  such  if  his  obedience  to  the  Holy 
See  depended  on  the  consent  of  the  gov- 
ernment. And  it  would  no  longer  be  St. 
Peter  who  would  be  supreme  head  of  the 
Church,  but  Caesar,  thus  compelling  us  to 
reverse  the  dictum  of  the  Apostles,  who 
said  God  should  be  obeyed  rather  than 
men. 

The  institution  of  bishops  and  establish- 
ing of  dioceses  belongs  to  the  sovereign 
Pontiff.  The  spiritual  power  of  both  Pope 
and  bishops  is  derived  from  Jesus  Christ; 
it  is  the  Holy  Ghost  who  has  established 


Pope 


568 


Pope 


bishops  to  govern  the  Church  of  God. 
But  to  take  part  in  the  government  of  the 
Church,  it  is  not  sufficient  to  have  received 
the  episcopal  character ;  besides  the  power 
of  orders,  which  is  inherent  in  the  sacra- 
ment of  holy  orders,  a  canonical  jurisdic- 
tion is  required  for  both  forms, —  exterior 
and  interior.  In  regard  to  bishops,  it  is  of 
faith,  according  to  the  Council  of  Trent, 
that  those  who  have  been  instituted  by  the 
authority  of  the  Roman  Pontiff  are  true 
and  legitimate  bishops.  According  to  the 
same  Council,  one  of  the  principal  duties 
of  the  Pope,  whose  solicitude  extends  it- 
self over  the  universal  Church,  is  to  give 
to  each  Church  pastors  really  worthy  and 
capable,  under  pain  of  being  responsible 
for  the  loss  of  those  who  might  perish 
through  the  negligence  of  unworthy  pas- 
tors. It  is  a  disputed  question  among 
theologians  whether  bishops  canonically 
instituted,  hold  their  power  immediately 
from  God,  or  from  the  Pope.  However 
this  may  be,  all  Catholics,  says  Benedict 
XIV.,  agree  that  the  jurisdiction  of  bishops 
is  always  subject  to  the  Pope ;  so  that  he 
can  restrain,  limit,  and  even  take  it  away 
entirely,  when  there  is  a  legitimate  cause 
for  so  doing.  As  a  consequence  from  all 
the  facts  which  we  have  detailed,  it  follows 
that  the  Church  is  of  monarchical  form, 
under  an  elective  monarch,  the  Pope.  The 
Pope,  says  St.  Thomas,  has  the  plenitude 
of  Pontifical  power;  he  is  in  the  Church 
what  a  king  is  in  a  kingdom,  and  the  bish- 
ops are  called  to  share  a  part  of  his  care, 
as  judges  established  in  each  city.  Yet 
we  are  not  to  confound  this  monarchical 
form  of  the  Church  with  absolutism.  A 
monarchy,  even  in  a  political  and  social 
order,  has  laws  and  constitutions  independ- 
ent of  the  monarch.  The  government  of 
the  Church  being,  as  the  Church  itself, 
essentially  one,  perpetual,  unchangeable, 
is  necessarily  always  the  same,  that  is, 
always  and  necessarily  monarchic,  and 
this  it  is  by  virtue  of  its  constitution  which 
is  di\-ine.  The  Pope  cannot  render  it  des- 
potic, or  aristocratic,  or  democratic.  It  is 
always  what  it  has  been  and  will  be  such 
to  the  end  of  time. 

The  power  of  the  Pope  extends  itself  in 
a  certain  manner  over  things  temporal. 
No  Pope,  no  Catholic  theologian,  has 
denied  the  real  distinction  between  the 
temporal  and  spiritual  power,  nor  their  in- 
dependence in  their  o-«ti  domain ;  but  the 
Church  interferes  in  the  acts  of  any  gov- 
ernment when  these  acts  are  contrary  to 


justice,  morality,  or  religion ;  she  inter- 
feres in  the  quality  of  interpreter  of  divine 
law,  the  natural  and  positive  laws  having 
their  source  in  the  divine  law,  for  it  Is 
hers  to  care  for  the  eternal  salvation  of 
her  children  and  the  maintenance  of  the 
supernatural  order. 

The  Popes  have  never  pretended  to  pos- 
sess over  kings  and  rulers  temporal  sway ; 
they  used  their  spiritual  sword  only  in 
defense  of  the  outraged  peoples  who  called 
upon  them  as  the  common  father  of  all  to 
protect  them  against  the  tyranny  of  des- 
pots. "It  was  a  principle,"  says  F^nelon, 
"  among  all  Catholic  nations,  received  and 
deeply  engraved,  that  none  but  a  Catholic 
prince  or  sovereign  could  possess  power  to 
govern.  Moreover,  it  was  a  tacit  under- 
standing between  prince  and  people,  that 
the  latter  would  only  obey  the  prince  in  so 
far  as  the  prince  or  ruler  would  obey  the 
laws  of  the  Catholic  Church.  In  virtue  of 
this  principle,  all  the  nations  believed  that 
they  were  freed  from  their  oath  of  fidelity, 
when,  in  despising  this  agreement,  the 
prince  turned  himself  against  religion." 
However,  for  fear  of  being  mistaken  in 
their  judgments,  and  wishing,  besides,  to 
prevent  civil  war  and  its  misfortunes,  the 
people  had  recourse  to  the  Pope,  the  natu- 
ral interpreter  of  an  oath  which  is  an  act 
of  religion,  and  of  the  agreement  on  their 
part  in  as  far  as  such  agreements  affected 
morals  and  consciences.  "Thus,"  con- 
tinues the  Bishop  of  Cambrai,  "  the  Church 
did  not,  strictly  speaking,  depose  or  insti- 
tute lay  princes ;  she  simply  answered 
those  who  consulted  her  in  regard  to  con- 
science, reason,  and  of  the  binding  force  of 
the  agreement  and  oath."  No  one  will 
admit  that  a  prince  can,  with  impunity  use 
and  abuse  the  goods  and  lives  of  his  sub- 
jects. What  will  arbitrate  the  differences 
which  may  arise  between  people  and  rulers  ? 
Force  undoubtedly.  But  what  have  we  not 
to  fear  from  a  prince  or  people  when  they 
rule  only  by  the  edge  of  the  sword  ? 

According  to  Gallicanism  and  some 
other  expositors,  a  general  council  would 
be  superior  to  the  Pope.  But  how  can  we 
reconcile  this  proposition  with  the  Gospel, 
which  represents  St.  Peter  as  the  founda- 
tion of  the  Church  of  Christ?  It  is  not 
the  building  which  supports  the  founda- 
tion, but  the  foundation  which  supports 
the  building.  How  can  we  reconcile  it, 
with  the  power  of  the  keys,  which  have 
been  given  to  St.  Peter  only,  or  with 
the  command,  which  SL  Peter  received 


Popes 


569 


Popes 


from  our  Lord  to  feed  both  the  lambs  and 
the  sheep,  that  is,  the  whole  flock,  to  con- 
firm his  brethren,  that  is  the  Apostles 
themselves,  in  the  faith.  According  to 
the  Second  General  Council  of  Lyons,  the 
Pope  "  has  a  supreme  primacy  with  the 
sovereignty,  and  plenitude  of  power  over 
the  whole  Church.  All  the  Churches  are 
subject  to  him,  and  all  bishops  owe  to  him 
respect  and  obedience.  The  prerogatives 
of  the  Roman  Church  cannot  be  violated, 
either  by  general  or  particular  Councils." 
The  Council  of  Florence  is  not  less  expres- 
sive. It  has  defined  that  the  Roman  Pon- 
tiff has  received  from  Jesus  Christ,  in  the 
person  of  Peter,  "a  full  power  to  feed,  di- 
rect and  govern  the  Universal  Church." 
Finally,  the  Vatican  Council  has  declared 
and  defined  the  dogma  of  the  personal  In- 
fallibility of  the  Pope,  in  matters  of  faith 
and  morals.  For  the  Pope  as  legislator, 
see  Law. 

Popes  {Future),  according  to  the  proph- 
ecy of  Malachias. —  This  prophecy  has 
always  been  attributed  to  this  saint,  who 
was  Archbishop  of  Armagh,  Ireland  (died 
1 148).  St.  Bernard  reports,  as  an  eye- 
witness, several  miracles  and  prophecies  of 
St.  Malachias.  In  1590,  Arnold  of  Wyon, 
a  learned  Benedictine,  discovered  the 
manuscript,  ignored  until  then,  of  the 
prophecy  concerning  the  succession  of 
the  Popes,  since  Celestine  II.,  in  1143,  un- 
til the  end  of  the  world.  He  entrusted 
his  discovery  to  the  Spanish  Dominican 
and  historian,  Ciaconius  (Alphonse  Cha- 
con), author  of  the  Lives  and  Acts  of  the 
Popes  and  Cardinals,  written  in  Latin. 
The  latter  provided  the  work  with  notes. 
This  work  has  often  been  reprinted.  In 
1873,  the  Abbd  Cucherat,  in  a  volume  on 
this  historic  document,  has  reproduced 
the  Latin  text  of  Malachias,  such  as  Ar- 
nold of  Wyon  had  given  it,  in  his  Lignum 
VitcB.  He  added  to  it  a  French  transla- 
tion, the  name  of  the  sovereign  PontiflFs, 
and  the  epoch  of  their  Pontificate.  We 
must  remark  that  the  characteristic,  at- 
tributed by  the  prophecy  to  each  papal 
reign,  does  not  always  refer  to  the  Pope 
himself,  but  often  to  an  event,  to  a  historic 
personage  of  the  period  ;  thus  one  charac- 
teristic applies  to  Napoleon  I.,  the  aquila 
rapax  of  the  prophecy  in  regard  to  Pius 
VII. 

We  will  quote  only  a  part  of  the  proph- 
ecy, that  is,  since  the  time  of  Napoleon  I. : 
Aquila  rapax  (the  ravishing  eagle),  who 


dominated  Europe  during  the  Pontificate 
of  Pius  VII.  (1800-1823). —  Canis  et  coluber 
(dog and  serpent).  Leo  XII.(i823-i829). — 
Vir  religiosus  (religious  man) .  Pius  VIII. 
( 1 829-1 830). — De  balneis  £truriee{iromV\ie 
baths  of  Etruria).  Gregory  XVI.  (1831- 
1846).— Crwxrfe  cr?<ce(  the  cross  of  the  cross). 
PiusIX.(i846-i878). — Lumen  in  ccelo  (light 
in  the  heavens).  Leo  XIII.  (1878-19 — ). — 
Ignis  ardens  (burning  fire). — Religio  </?- 
populata  (religion  devastated). —  Fides 
intrepida  (the  intrepid  faith). — Pastor  an- 
gelicus  (the  angelic  pastor). — Pastor  et 
nauta  (the  pastor  and  pilot). — Flos  jlorum 
(the  flower  of  flowers). —  De  medietate 
luncE  (from  the  half  of  the  moon) . — De  la- 
bore  solis  (from  the  labor  of  the  sun). — De 
gloricB  olivce  (from  the  glory  of  the  olive). 
—  In  persecutione  extrema  sacrce  Romance 
Ecclesice  sedebit  Petrus  Romanus  qui  oves 
in  multis  tribulationibus ;  quibus  trans- 
actis,  civitas  septi  colis  diruetur;  et  Judex 
tremendus  judicabit  populum  (in  the  last 
persecution  of  the  Holy  Roman  Church, 
Peter  the  Roman  will  sit  (reign),  who  will 
feed  the  sheep  amidst  great  tribulations, 
after  which  the  city  on  the  seven  hills  will 
be  destroyed,  and  the  dreadful  Judge  will 
come  and  judge  the  people). 

According  to  this  prophecy  there  would 
be  yet  ten  popes  after  Leo  XIII.,  and  then 
the  end  of  the  world  would  take  place. 

Popes  {List  of).  —  According  to  Birk- 
haeuser's  Church  History,  the  List  of  Popes 
is  as  follows : 

DtTRATION  OF 

Name.  Pontificate  : 

First  Century 
St.  Peter,  Prince  of  the  Apos- 
tles, who  received  the  supreme 
Pontificate  from  Christ.  He 
resided  for  a  time  at  Antioch, 
and  afterwards  established  his 
See  at  Rome,  where  he  died  a 
martyr  with  St.   Paul,  under 

Nero,  June  29th,  67. ... 42 — 67 

St.  Linus 67—78 

St.  Cletus  or  Anacletus  * 78 — 91 

St.  Clement  I 91 — 100 

Second  Century 

St.  Evaristus 100—109 

St.  Alexander  1 109 — 1 19 

St.  Sixtus  I   119 — 127 

St.  Telesphorus 127 — 139 

St.  Hyginus 139 — 142 

St.  Pius  I 142 — 157 


*  See  Anacletus. 


Popes 


570 


Popes 


Duration  of 
Name.  Pontificate  : 

St.  Anicetus 157 — 168 

St.  Soter 168—177 

St.  Eleutherus 177—192 

St.  Victor  I 192—201 

Third  Century 

St.  Zephyrinus 202—218 

St.  Calixtus  I 218—222 

St  Urban  I 223—230 

St.  Pontian 230—235 

St.  Anterus 235—236 

St.  Fabian 236—250 

St.  Cornelius 251—252 

St.  Lucius  I 252—253 

St.  Stephen  1 253—257 

St.  Sixtus  II 257— 25S 

St.  Dionjsius 259 — 269 

St.  Felix   I 269—274 

St.  Eutychianus 275—283 

St.  Cajus 283—296 

St.  Marcellinus 296 — 304 

Fourth  Century 

St.  Marcellus  t 308 — 310 

St.  Eusebius 310 — 311 

St.  Melchiades 311 — 313 

St.  Sylvester  I 314—335 

St.  Marcus 336 — 337 

St.  Julius  I 337—352 

Liberius.       (Felix    II.    Anti- 
pope.)  i 352—366 

St.  Damasus  1 366 — 384 

St.  Siricius 385—398 

St.  Anastasius  1 398 — 402 

Fifth  Century 

St.  Innocent  1 402 — 417 

St.  Zosimus 417—418 

St.  Boniface  I 418—422 

St.  Celestine  I 422 — ^432 

St.  Sixtus  III 432 — 440 

St.  Leo  I.   (the  Great) 440 — 461 

St.  Hilary 461—468 

St.  Simplicius 468—483 

St.  Felix  III 483—492 

St.  Gelasius  I 492 — 496 

St.  Anastasius  II 496 — 498 

Sixth  Century 

St.  Symmachus 498 — 514 

St.  Hormisdas 514 — 523 

t  Owing  to  the  violent  persecution  then  rag- 
ing, the  Holy  See  remained  vacant  nearly  four 
years  3,04 — 308. 

J  Felix  is  put  in  the  list  of  Popes  by  some, 
though  he  is  generally  held  to  be  an  intruder. 


Duration  of 
Name.  Pontificate  : 

St.  John  1 523 — 1525 

St.  Felix  IV 526—530 

Boniface  II 530 — 532 

John  II 532—535 

St.  Agapetus   1 535— 53^ 

St.  Silverius 536 — 540 

Vigilius 540—555 

Pelagius  I 555-5^0 

John  III 560—573 

Benedict  I 574 — 578 

Pelagius  II 578 — 590 

St.  Gregory  I.  (the  Great) 590 — 604 

Seventh  Century 

Sabinianus 604 — 605 

Boniface  III 606 

St.  Boniface  IV 607 — 614 

St.  Deusdedit 615 — 618 

Boniface  V 619 — 625 

Honorius  I . 625 — 638 

Severinus 639 

John  IV 640 — 642 

Theodorus  I 642 — 649 

St.  Martin  1 649 — 655 

Eugenius  1 655 — 657 

St.  Vitalian 657 — 672 

St.  Adeodatus 672 — 676 

Donus 676 — 678 

St.  Agatho 678—681 

St.  Leo  II 682—684 

St.  Benedict  II 684—686 

John   V 686—687 

Conon 687 

St.  Sergius  I 687 — 701 

Eighth  Century 

John  VI 701 — 705 

John  VII 705 — 707 

Sisinnius 708 

Constantine 70S — 715 

St.  Gregory  II 715— 73i 

St.  Gregory  III 731—741 

St.  Zacharias 741 — 752 

Stephen  II 752 

Stephen  III 752—757 

St.  Paul  1 757—767 

Stephen  IV 768—772 

Adrian  I   772—795 

Ninth  Century 

St.  Leo  III 795—816 

Stephen  V 816—817 

Paschal  I 817—824 

Eugenius  II 824—827 

Valentine 827 


Popes 


571 


POPES 


Duration  of 
Name.  Pontificate  : 

Gregory  IV 827 — 844 

Sergius  II 844 — 847 

Leo  IV 847—855 

Benedict   III 855—858 

St.  Nicholas  I.  (the  Great) 858—867 

Adrian  II 867—872 

John  VIII 872—883 

MarinusI    882—884 

Adrian  III 884—885 

Stephen  VI 885—891 

Formosus 891 — 896 

Boniface  VI 896 

Stephen  VII 896— S97 

Romanus 897 

Theodorus    II 897—898 

John  IX 898—900 

Tenth  Century 

Benedict  IV 900 — 903 

Leo  V 903 

Christophorus 903 — 904 

Sergius  III 904 — 91 1 

Anastasius  III    911 — 913 

Lando 913 — 914 

John  X 914 — 928 

Leo  VI 92S — 929 

Stephen   VIII 929 — 931 

John    XI 931—936 

Leo  VII 936 — 939 

Stephen  IX 939 — 943 

Marinus  II 943 — 946 

Agapetus  II 946 — 956 

John  XII  * 956 — 964 

Benedict  V 964 — 965 

John   XIII 965 — 972 

Benedict  VI 972 — 974 

Benedict  VII 975 — 983 

John  XIV 983—985 

John  XV 9S5— 996 

Gregory  V 996 — 999 

Eleventh  Century 

Sylvester  II 999 — 1003 

John   XVII  t 1003 

John  XVIII 1003 — 1009 

Sergius  IV 1009 — 1012 

Benedict  VIII 1012 — 1024 

John    XIX    1024 — 1032 

Benedict  IX 1033 — 1044 

Gregory  VI.    (abdicated) .  .  .  .1044 — 1046 

Clement  II    1046 — 1047 

Damasus  II 1048 


*  Leo  VIII.  and  Benedict  VI.  were  antipopes. 

tThis  Pontiff  took  the  name  of  John  XVII.  to 
prevent  his  acts  being  confounded  with  those  of 
the  antipope  John  XVI.,  in  the  time  of  Gregory  V. 


Duration  of 
Name.  Pontificate  : 

Leo  IX 1049 — 1054 

Victor  II 1054 — 1057 

Stephen  X 1057 — 1058 

Nicholas   II 1059 — 1061 

Alexander  II 1061 — 1073 

St.  Gregory  VII 1073 — 1085 

Victor   III 10S6— 1088 

Urban  II 1088 — 1099 


Twelfth  Century 


Paschal  II 

Gelasius  II.  . . . 
Calixtus  II. . .  . 
Honorius  II. . . 
Innocent  II. .  . 
Celestine  II.  .  . 
Lucius  II  .  .  .  . 
Eugenius  III.  . 
Anastasius  IV. 
Adrian  IV.  . .  . 
Alexander  III. 
Lusius    III.  . .  . 

Urban  III 

Gregory  VIII. 
Clement  III. . . 
Celestine  III.  . 


.1099— 

.1118— 

.1119— 

.  1 1 24 — 

.1130— 

"43— 

"44— 

"45— 

"53— 

■  "54— 

"59— 

.1181 

."85- 
.1187 
.1187— 
.1191— 


118 
119 
124 
130 

143 
144 

145 
153 
154 
159 
181 

185 

187 

191 
198 


Thirteenth  Century 

Innocent  III 1198 — 12 16 

Honorius  III 1216 — 1227 

Gregory  IX 1227 — 1241 

Celestine  IV  * 1241 

Innocent  IV 1243 — 1254 

Alexander  IV 1254 — 1261 

Urban  IV 1261 — 1264 

Clement  IV  + 1265— 1268 

Gregory  X 1272 — 1276 

Innocent  V 1276 

Adrian  V 1276 

John  XXI 1277 

Nicholas  III 1277 — 1280 

Martin    IV 1281— 1285 

Honorius  IV 1285 — 1287 

Nicholas  IV 1288 — 1292 

St.  Celestine  V.  (abdicated).  . .  .1294 

Boniface  VIII 1294 — 1303 

Fourteenth  Century 

Benedict  XI 1303 — 1304 

Clement  V 1305 — 1314 


*  After  the  death  of  this  Pontiff  followed  an  in- 
terregnum of  nearly  two  years,  caused  by  the  hos- 
tile attitude  of  Emperor  Frederick  II.  toward  the 
Holy  See. 

+  After  the  death  of  Clement  IV.  there  was  a 
vacancy  of  nearly  three  years. 


PORPHYRIUS 


572 


PORPHYRIUS 


Duration  of 
Name.  Pontificate  : 

John  XXII 1316— 1334 

Benedict  XII 1334 — 1342 

Clement  VI 1342 — 1352 

Innocent  VI 1352 — 1362 

Urban  V 1362 — 1370 

Gregory  XI 1370— 1378 

Urban  VI* 1378— 1389 

Boniface  IX 1389 — 1404 

Fifteenth  Century 

Innocent  VII 1404 — 1406 

Gregory  XII  t 1406 — 1415 

Martin   V 1417 — 1431 

Eugenius  IV 1431 — 1447 

Nicholas  V 1447 — 1455 

Calixtus  III 1455 — 1458 

Pius  II 1458 — 1464 

Paul  II 1464 — 1471 

Sixtus  IV 1471 — 1484 

Innocent  VIII , 1484 — 1492 

Alexander  VI 1492 — 1503 

Sixteenth  Century 

Pius  III 1503 

Julius  II 1503— 1513 

Leo  X 1513 — 1521 

Adrian  VI 1522 — 1523 

Clement  VII 1523 — 1534 

Paul  III 1534—1549 

Julius  III 1550— 1555 

Marcellus  II ^555 

Paul  IV 1555— 1559 

Pius  IV 1559— 1565 

St.  Pius  V 1566 — 1572 

Gregory  XIII 1572— 1585 

Sixtus  V 1585 — 1590 

Urban  VII 1590 

Gregory  XIV 1590— 1591 

Innocent  IX 1591 — 1592 

Clement  VIII 1592 — 1605 

Seventeenth  Century 

Leo  XI 1605 

Paul  V 1605 — 1621 

Gregory  XV 1621 — 1623 

Urban  VIII 1623 — 1644 

Innocent  X 1644 — 1655 

*  Several  discontented  cardinals  elected  an  anti- 
pope,  Clement  VIII.  (1378 — 1394),  who  resided  at 
Avignon.  He  was  succeeded  by  Benedict  XIII. 
(1394—1417)- 

t  This  Pontiff  abdicated  in  1415  in  the  Council 
of  Constance.  Alexander  V.,  who  was  elected 
by  the  Council  of  Pisa,  in  1409,  and  his  successor 
John  XIII.,  although  generally  classed  as  anti- 
popes,  are  found  in  many  of  the  lists,  even  in  those 
published  at  Rome. 


Duration  op 
Name.  Pontificate: 

Alexander  VII 1655 — 1667 

Clement  IX 1667—1669 

Clement  X 1670 — 1676 

Innocent  XI 1676 — 1689 

Alexander  VIII 1689 — 1691 

Innocent  XII 1691 — 1700 

Eighteenth  Century 

Clement  XI 1700— 1721 

Innocent  XIII 1721 — 1724 

Benedict  XIII 1724 — 1730 

Clement  XII 1730 — 1740 

Benedict  XIV 1740 — 1758 

Clement  XIII 1758— 1769 

Clement  XIV 1769 — 1774 

Pius  VI 1775— 1799 

Nineteenth  Century 

Pius  VII 1800— 1823 

Leo   XII 1823 — 1829 

Pius  VIII 1829— 1830 

Gregory  XVI 1830—1846 

Pius  IX 1846— 1878 

Leo  XIII 1878 

Porphyrius.  —  Neo  -  Platonic  philoso- 
pher, born  at  Batanea  or  Tyre,  died  in 
Rome.  He  was  a  disciple  of  Plotinus  and 
Origen.  He  had  embraced  Christianity 
and  left  it,  it  is  claimed,  on  account  of  ill- 
treatment  by  some  Christians  of  Caesarea. 
He  wrote  Fifteen  Books  against  the 
Christians,  an  elaborate  work,  which  the 
chief  defenders  of  the  faith,  St.  Methodius 
of  Tyre,  Apollinaris  of  Laodicea,  Euse- 
bius  of  Caesarea,  and  others  thought 
worthy  of  refutation.  Both  the  work  of 
Porphyrius  and  the  refutations  by  these 
bishops  are  lost ;  extant  copies  of  the 
former  were  destroyed  in  449,  by  order  of 
Emperor  Theodosius  II.  Porphyrius,  the 
bitterest  enemy  of  Christianity,  denied  the 
Messianic  mission  and  the  divinity  of 
Christ,  the  resurrection  of  the  body  and 
eternal  punishment,  which  he  declared  to 
be  irreconcilable  with  Divine  justice,  and 
maintained  that  the  prophecies  contained 
in  the  Old  Testament  were  written  after 
the  events.  The  miracles  of  the  Apostles 
were  attributed,  by  him,  to  arts  of  magic, 
and  those  occurring  at  the  tombs  of  the 
martyrs,  he  declared  to  be  the  work  of 
demons.  Furthermore,  he  defended 
heathen  mythology  by  endeavoring, 
through  allegorical  and  physical  interpre- 
tations,  to    reconcile    its    teachings  with 


PORTIUNCULA 


573 


Possession 


reason  and  to  prove  that  the  answers  of 
the  oracles  were  in  hartnony  with  sound 
philosophy.  Porphyrins  died  in  304.  His 
followers  gave  him  the  title  of  "  Wonder- 
ful" and  "Divine,"  declaring  him  to  be 
equal  to  Plato.  Miraculous  acts,  and  a 
knowledge  of  future  things,  and  also  the 
inmost  thoughts  of  men  were  ascribed  to 
him. 

Portiuncula.  —  The  Church  of  St.  Mary's 
of  the  Angels,  or  Portiuncula,  at  Assisi, 
has  always  remained  dear  to  the  Order  of 
St.  Francis.  Our  Saint  shared  the  labor  of 
the  workmen  who  repaired  it  when  it  was 
going  to  ruin,  and  here  he  was  accustomed 
to  retire  and  give  himself  up  to  prayer  and 
religious  contemplation.  To  this  Church, 
the  Holy  See,  in  1223,  granted  the  indul- 
gence known  as  the  "Indulgence  of  the 
Portiuncula,"  which,  on  being  extended  to 
all  the  Churches  of  the  Order,  gave  rise  to 
a  special  feast,  celebrated  on  Aug.  2d. 
It  was  further  granted  to  the  Faithful,  for 
all  coming  time,  to  gain  these  indulgences 
whenever  {toties  quoties)  prepared  to  carry 
out  the  requisite  conditions. 

Port  Royal  {Monastery  of ). — Cister- 
cian Convent  of  nuns  at  Paris,  the  great 
center  of  the  Jansenist  movement.  Its 
Abbess  Angelique,  the  sister  of  Antoine 
Arnauld,  the  recognized  head  of  the  Jan- 
senist party  in  France,  and  the  pupil  of 
Saint  Cyran,  dissuaded  the  nuns  from  fre- 
quent communion,  on  the  ground  that  a 
less  frequent  reception  would  increase 
their  desire  for  the  sacrament.  The  nuns 
of  Port  Royal  refusing  to  subscribe  to  the 
Papal  Formula,  were  interdicted  and  for- 
bidden to  receive  novices.  Remaining  ob- 
stinate, the  deluded  religious  were  all  by 
royal  order  expelled,  and  their  convent 
was  utterly  destroyed,  in  1710. 

Portugal  (  Worship  in).—  The  Catholic 
religion  is  the  religion  of  the  State.  Re- 
ligious teaching  is  given  in  seminaries, 
the  expenses  of  which  are  covered  by  the 
product  of  the  gifts  of  the  Faithful,  regu- 
lated by  the  "  Bull  of  the  Crusade,"  in 
other  words,  by  the  money  which  formerly 
had  been  devoted  to  the  Crusade  against 
the  infidels.  The  State  pays  a  salary  only 
to  the  bishops  of  the  continent  and  to  the 
clergy  of  the  islands.  As  to  the  curates, 
they  are  paid  by  special  contributions  of 
the  communities,  the  casual  and  rents  of 
the  churches.     The  monastic  orders  were 


abolished  in  1834  and  the  landed  property 
of  their  churches  sold  by  virtue  of  the 
law  of  April  4th,  1862,  under  the  direction 
of  the  bishops.  This  was  a  return  to  the 
odious  persecution  of  Pombal.  Other  re- 
ligions are  tolerated.  The  Portuguese 
Church  comprises  four  provinces:  Arch- 
bishopric of  Braga,  with  four  suffragan 
sees ;  patriarchate  of  Lisbon,  with  five 
suffragan  sees ;  archbishopric  of  Goa  or 
Primacy  of  the  East,  with  seven  suffragan 
sees ;  archbishopric  of  Evora,  with  two 
suffragan  sees.  The  bishops  are  named 
by  the  king  and  instituted  by  the  Pope. 

Possession  {Diabolical)  (a  state  by  which 
an  evil  spirit,  by  God's  permission,  in- 
habits the  body  of  a  rational  being). — 
Possession  differs  from  obsession,  in  which 
the  devil,  while  agitating  and  tormenting 
man,  does  not,  however,  enter  his  body  as 
in  possession.  That  there  are  in  the  world 
a  certain  number  of  malevolent  spirits, 
whom  we  call  devils,  is  a  fact  which  has 
been  acknowledged  by  all  nations  and  peo- 
ples. Just  as  the  consent  of  all  men,  ad- 
mitting miracles,  proves,  says  Paschal, 
that  there  are  real  miracles,  so  also  the 
consent  of  all  mankind  admitting  posses- 
sions proves  that  there  have  been  some 
real  possessions.  The  reality  of  possession 
clearly  goes  forth  from  the  account  of  the 
Evangelists.  Holy  Scripture  admits  the 
reality  of  possession  and  the  Gospel 
teaches  us  that  our  divine  Saviour  cast  out 
the  devil  from  persons  in  whom  he  dwelled 
and  tyrannized.  The  Church  has  always 
taught  that  the  exorcists  receive,  and  that 
she  confers  upon  them,  the  power  to  cast 
out  demons.  In  connection  with  this  mat- 
ter, the  Gospel  tells  us  that  devils  were 
permitted  to  enter  into  a  herd  of  swine ; 
this  account  is  given  by  all  the  three  Syn- 
optics (Matt,  viii.,  Mark  v.,  Luke  vii.), 
and  there  seems  to  be  no  choice  except  to 
admit  that  we  have  a  story  of  diabolical 
possession  or  an  absolute  fiction.  The  ac- 
count defies  any  other  explanation.  The 
recent  studies  undertaken  on  the  fact 
called  "suggestion"  are  based  on  the  ac- 
count of  the  possibility  to  impose  on  some- 
body, for  determined  acts,  a  foreign  will 
which  permits  the  reapparition  of  the 
proper  will,  after  the  duration  of  the  sug- 
gestion. Without  confounding  in  the 
least  one  subject  with  another,  we  may  re- 
mark that  actual  science  thus  admits  the 
possibility  of  imposing  upon  the  subject 
actions,  jests,  words,  etc.     (See  Devil.) 


Post-Communion 


574 


Power 


Post-Communion  and  Communion.  —  In 

liturgy  Communion  is  an  antiphon  said  in 
Mass.  It  varies  with  each  Sunday  and 
festival,  and  is  generally,  though  not 
always,  a  versicle  extracted  from  the 
Psalms.  It  is  thus  denominated  because 
anciently  it  used  to  be  chanted  while  the 
people  communicated.  In  the  Apostolic 
Constitutions  it  is  prescribed  that  the 
thirty-third  Psalm  shall  be  employed  for 
the  purpose.  In  his  exposition  of  the 
liturgy  used  in  his  time  in  the  ancient 
Church  of  Jerusalem,  St.  Cyril  thus  notices 
the  chanting  of  the  Communion:  "After 
this  you  hear  a  voice  singing  with  a  sacred 
melody,  inviting  you  to  the  communion  of 
the  holy  mysteries,  and  saying :  '  O  taste, 
and  see  that  the  Lord  is  good  '"  (Catech. 
Myst.  v.  20).  This  prayer  received  its 
name,  "  Post-Communion,"  from  being 
recited  just  after  the  communion;  and 
because  it  is  an  act  of  thanksgiving  to 
God  for  the  ineffable  favor  of  having  par- 
ticipated in  the  sacred  mysteries.  The 
form  used  in  the  ancient  Church  may  be 
seen  in  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  (Lib. 
viii.  c.  13,  14). 

Postulant  (Lat. /K/,sa/i.s,  knocking).  —  A 
candidate ;  one  who  applies  for  admission 
into  a  religious  community,  where  he 
passes  through  a  period  of  probation,  or 
novitiate,  during  which  the  serious  obli- 
gation of  the  life  upon  which  he  is  about 
to  enter  is,  as  directed  by  the  Rule, 
brought  before  his  mind. 

Pothinus  (St.). — First  bishop  of  Lyons, 
and  martyr,  born  probably  at  Smyrna. 
Disciple  of  St.  Polycarp;  sent  by  Pope 
Anicetus  into  Gaul  (158),  was  the  founder 
of  the  Church  of  Lyons,  where  he  suffered 
martyrdom  in  177,  under  Marcus  Aurelius 
with  St.  Blandina  and  a  great  number  of 
other  Christians.     F.  June  2d. 

Power    {Temporal   and    Spiritual). — 

Man,  being  composed  of  body  and  soul, 
the  world  is  governed  by  two  essentially 
distinct  powers :  the  temporal  and  spirit- 
ual. The  temporal  power  relates  to  our 
material  interests  and  to  the  civil  order. 
The  spiritual  power  regulates  what  has 
reference  to  our  salvation  and  to  religion. 
The  spiritual  power  belongs  entirely  to 
the  pastors  of  the  Church,  as  the  temporal 
power  belongs  to  the  magistrates  and  rul- 
ers of  civil  society.  Jesus  Christ  insti- 
tuted this  distinction  when  he  said  :  '*  Give 


to  Caesar  what  belongs  to  Caesar,  and  to 
God  what  belongs  to  God." 

But  it  is  not  with  the  Church  as  with  po- 
litical society,  where  the  temporal  power 
of  government  is  determined  by  the  peo- 
ple, according  to  the  times,  places,  and 
customs  of  the  country.  The  Church,  the 
dispenser  of  the  divine  word,  of  the  mys- 
teries and  gifts  of  God,  could  not  fulfill 
her  mission,  if  her  organization  and  right 
to  govern  were  to  depend  upon  the  ca- 
prices of  men  or  the  powers  of  the  earth. 
In  contradistinction  with  earthly  rulers, 
whose  power  is  regulated  and  limited  by 
the  constitution  of  each  nation,  the 
Church  holds  her  authority  and  constitu- 
tion immediately  from  Jesus  Christ  — 
from  God,  and  from  Him  derives  her 
supreme  power  to  legislate  upon  every- 
thing relating  to  religion  and  its  proper 
exercise,  such  as  the  instituting  of  bish- 
ops, priests,  and  other  ministers,  adminis- 
tration of  the  sacraments,  regulations  of 
the  divine  worship,  guarding  of  morals, 
and  defining  of  dogmas.  It  is  because  her 
power  comes  immediately  from  God  that 
she  is  independent  of  the  temporal  in  all 
things  appertaining  to  her  domain  of  faith 
and  morals.  Likewise  is  the  temporal 
power  independent  of  the  Church  in  mat- 
ters purely  social  and  civil.  Yet  those 
who  govern  in  the  temporal  order  are  just 
as  amenable  to  her  tribunal  in  regard  to  thf 
morality  of  their  actions  as  the  lowest  ol 
her  subjects.  Although  the  two  powers 
are  essentially  distinct,  they  should  not  be 
antagonistic,  but  on  the  contrary,  should 
mutually  assist  each  other  and  work  to- 
gether for  the  common  good  of  all  —  ren- 
dering to  Caesar  the  things  that  are  his, 
and  to  God  what  belongs  to  Him.  All  the 
Church  requires  is  liberty  of  action,  free- 
dom from  galling  and  unjust  restrictions. 
We  know  she  comes  from  God;  has  His 
glory  and  the  welfare  of  men  for  her  end 
and  aim,  and  hence  can  neither  err  in  mat- 
ters of  faith  and  morals,  nor  approve  of  evil. 
As  a  complete  and  perfect  society,  the 
Church  can  enact  laws  in  the  spiritual 
order  which  are  obligatory  on  all  her  mem- 
bers, whether  bishop  or  priest,  or  the  sim- 
ple faithful,  rulers,  or  their  subjects.  At 
all  times  and  under  all  circumstances,  the 
Church  has  exercised  this  legislative  power. 
This  legislative  power  belongs  to  the  Pope 
primarily  and  in  its  fullness ;  to  the  bishops, 
also,  throughout  their  dioceses,  restricted 
only  by  the  general  laws,  decrees,  and  con- 
stitutions of   the  Church.     The  Apostles 


Pragmatic  Sanction 


575 


Prayer 


were  invested  with  this  plenary  power  to 
bind  and  to  loose;  to  forgive  or  retain;  to 
punish  or  remit,  and  this  power  came 
down  to  their  lawful  successors  in  the  nat- 
ural order  of  succession,  just  as  did  the 
power  of  preaching  morals,  administer- 
ing the  sacraments,  and  of  governing  the 
flock  of  Christ.  The  two  propositions  of 
the  Synod  of  Pistoja,  in  which  it  is  affirmed 
that  the  spiritual  power  was  given  by  God 
to  the  Church,  or  to  the  community  of  the 
Faithful  to  be  afterwards  communicated 
to  the  pastors,  so  that  the  Pope  and  the 
bishops  have  only  a  ministerial  authority 
granted  by  the  Christian  people,  have  been 
condemned  as  heretical  by  the  Bull  'M«c- 
torevt  Fidei"  in  1794.  To  the  Church 
alone  it  belongs  to  pronounce  in  matters 
of  doctrine  and  discipline.  She  extends 
her  authority  over  all  that  which  in  its  na- 
ture appertains  to  religion,  divine  worship, 
and  salvation  of  souls.  See  Pope  (  Tem- 
foral  Potuer  of  the);  Pope  (^Prerogatives 
of  the) . 

Pragmatic  Sanction. —  A  term  first  ap- 
plied to  certain  decrees  of  the  Byzantine 
emperors,  regulating  the  interest  of  their 
subject  provinces  and  towns;  then  the  sys- 
tem of  limitation  set  to  the  spiritual  power 
of  the  Pope  in  European  countries:  as, 
for  instance,  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  of 
Bourges,  in  1438,  which  admitted  certain 
decrees  of  the  Council  of  Basle,  others  it 
modified.  It  adopted  the  decrees  declar- 
ing a  general  council  superior  to  the  Pope, 
abolishing  papal  reserves  and  restricting 
appeals  to  Rome.  Eugenius  IV.  and  Pius 
II.,  his  successor,  openly  declared  them- 
selves against  this  pragmatic  sanction,  and 
demanded  its  abrogation.  The  Lateran 
Council  (1512)  formally  condemned  it, 
with  the  defense,  under  pain  of  excom- 
munication, to  appeal  to  it  and  to  make  use 
thereof,  in  any  case  whatever.  Leo  X. 
finally  abrogated  it  altogether. 

Prayer  (  an  act  of  religion  whereby  we 
address  ourselves  to  God). —  The  first 
prayers  of  man  were,  undoubtedly,  like 
his  acts  of  thanksgiving,  only  a  pouring 
out  of  his  heart,  aspirations  of  his  soul 
toward  God.  These  pious  feelings  and 
desires  were  not  long  in  showing  them- 
selves exteriorly;  for  in  the  first  chapters 
of  Genesis  (  xii.  8)  we  find  that  man  made 
his  prayers  and  aspirations  with  a  loud 
voice.  The  Mosaic  law  did  not  prescribe 
any  particular  prayers ;  it  regulated  only 
the  formulary  of  blessing  which  the  priest 


should  give  to  the  people,  and  the  actions 
of  thanksgiving  he  should  render  to  God 
when  offering  the  first-fruits  of  the  field. 
Nevertheless,  we  find  the  people  on  solemn 
and  important  occasions  chanting  canticles 
with  musical  accompaniment.  The  He- 
brews maintained  an  erect  position  while 
praying,  and  this  custom  was,  and  is  yet 
observed  in  their  synagogues ;  it  was  also 
observed  in  the  primitive  Church,  and  is 
still  observed  by  the  Eastern  Churches, 
although  kneeling  and  prostrating  are  also 
observed.  The  ancient  Hebrews,  like  the 
modern  Jews,  turned  toward  Jerusalem 
when  praying.  The  custom  of  praying 
three  times  daily,  in  the  morning,  at  noon, 
and  again  at  night,  seems  to  be  of  ancient 
custom,  as  we  find  it  observed  by  David 
(Psalm  1.  18).  It  was  customary  even 
during  the  time  of  Christ  to  say  prayers 
before  and  after  meals.  This  pious  act 
was  performed  by  the  father  of  the  family, 
who  blessed  the  food  to  be  partaken  of 
and  returned  thanks  before  leaving  the 
table.  We  do  not  know  precisely  in  what 
terms  these  prayers  were  made,  but  the 
formula  given  in  the  Talmuc^  is  as  follows  : 
"Blessed  art  Thou,  O  Lord,  our  God,  King 
of  the  world,  who  produceth  the  bread  of 
the  earth.  Blessed  art  Thou  who  hast 
created  the  fruit  of  the  wine."  This  same 
custom  has  been  observed  not  only  by  the 
Jews,  but  even  by  the  Turks  and  Arabs. 

Every  devout  thought  on  God,  every 
good  act  of  the  will,  is  a  prayer;  acts  of 
adoration,  praises,  thanksgiving,  offering 
of  ourself,  holy  thoughts,  good  resolu- 
tions, all  these  may  be  called,  in  a  general 
sense,  prayer.  Holy  Scripture  furnishes 
us  with  numerous  examples  of  all  these 
kinds  of  prayer.  But  prayer  strictly  speak- 
ing is  a  petition  made  to  God  for  some 
worthy  object  and  which  may  serve  to  His 
glory  and  our  salvation.  Such  is  the 
definition  given  by  St.  John  Damascene 
and  by  St.  Thomas.  Jesus  Christ  tells  us  we 
must  always  pray,  and  never  become  tired 
of  praying.  The  forty  days  which  He 
passed  in  the  desert  were  spent  in  prayer 
and  fasting ;  it  was  thus  He  prepared  Him- 
self to  fulfill  His  divine  mission.  After 
having  devoted  the  days  to  instructing 
and  assisting  the  ignorant  and  afflicted, 
laboring  for  His  Father's  glory,  working 
miracles  to  alleviate  the  sufferings  of  men. 
He  would  spend  the  night  in  prayer  and 
contemplation.  The  Apostles  followed 
the  example  of  their  divine  Master,  pray- 
ing and   visiting  the  temple  daily.     Espe- 


Prayer 


576 


Prayer 


cially  did  they  prepare  themselves  by 
fervent  prayer  for  the  coming  of  the  Holy 
Ghost.  The  great  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles 
frequently  enjoins  this  holy  exercise  on 
the  Faithful,  and  we  know  how  well 
they  complied  with  his  advice.  The 
Church  likewise  has  ever  continued  this 
pious  action ;  she  instituted  the  canonical 
hours,  and  has  always  approved  those 
religious  orders  whose  members  devote 
the  greater  part  of  the  day  and  even  the 
night  to  prayer. 

Infidels  and  other  non-Christians  deem 
prayer  unnecessary,  and  even  offensive  to 
God.  They  say  that  if  there  be  a  God,  He 
must  know  all  our  wants,  and  has  no  need 
of  our  petitions ;  that  such  requests  do  but 
express  doubts  in  His  goodness  and  wis- 
dom, etc.  To  this  objection  we  reply : 
God  undoubtedly  knows  all  things,  is  ac- 
quainted with  our  needs  and  is  our  Father; 
that  when  we  pray  directly  to  Him  we  do 
not  deny  these  attributes,  but  we  acknowl- 
edge His  supreme  dominion  and  our  com- 
plete subjection  and  entire  dependence  on 
Him;  that  owing  to  our  weakness  and  the 
force  of  temptations,  we  call  on  Him  for 
that  aid  which  He  has  promised  to  give  to 
all  who  ask  for  it.  A  dutiful  child  does 
nothing  foolish  or  contrary  to  right  reason, 
nor  does  he  demean  his  father  when  he 
asks  that  father  for  favors.  The  favors  we 
ask  from  God  are  undoubtedly  precious 
enough  to  us  to  deserve  the  asking.  Nor 
is  God  required  to  work  a  miracle  in  order 
to  preserve  us  from  evil,  or  from  evil  ef- 
fects of  nature.  The  universe,  with  its  ac- 
tions, laws,  and  surroundings,  is  not  a 
blind  factor,  following  mere  mechanical  or 
physical  rules,  but  is  preserved  and  di- 
rected by  the  will  and  wisdom  of  the  Al- 
mighty, the  first  great  Cause  upon  whom 
all  other  causes  depend.  When  God  in 
His  goodness  suggests  to  us  thoughts  for 
our  spiritual  or  temporal  welfare,  it  is  not 
that  He  wishes  us  to  expect  a  miracle  or 
some  change  of  nature,  though  there  are 
instances  when  even  such  may  be  asked 
for,  but  He  desires  to  rule  and  govern  us 
according  to  the  ordinary  laws  which  He 
observes  in  governing  and  directing  all 
things,  teaching  us  to  avoid  dangers,  use 
remedies,  and  all  proper  precautions. 
These,  with  His  blessing,  which  we  seek 
in  prayer,  obtain  all  the  ends  of  our  desires 
and  petitions.  To  acquire  virtue  and  cor- 
rect our  vices  is  undoubtedly  our  own  work, 
the  work  of  our  will,  but  not  of  our  will 
alone,  because  we  are  in  need  of  a  super- 


natural help,  and  because  from  the  weak- 
ness of  our  will,  we  form  habits  of  evil. 
Now,  grace  is  the  free  gift  of  God,  and  it 
depends  on  Him  to  give  us  the  more  or 
less  abundant  help  of  His  divine  grace.  He 
has  promised  such  help  and  grace  to  prayer, 
and  it  depends  on  us  to  perform  such 
prayer  with  alacrity  and  gratitude.  For  a 
heart  which  loves  God,  prayer  is  a  sweet 
and  consoling  exercise ;  it  diverts  us  from 
the  oppressive  feeling  of  misfortune,  re- 
animates us  with  hope  and  courage;  it 
tranquilizes  the  spirit  and  calms  the  pas- 
sions ;  it  touches  the  sinner  and  sustains 
the  just. 

Every  prayer  should  be  made  in  the 
name  of  the  Lord  Jesus.  We  read  in  Holy 
Scripture,  that  there  is  no  salvation  except 
in  Jesus.  That  no  other  name  has  been 
given  under  heaven  to  man,  by  which  he 
can  be  saved.  We  read  also  that  there  is 
only  one  God  and  only  one  mediator  be- 
tween God  and  man,  —  namely,  the  Man 
Christ  Jesus,  and  that,  moreover,  ifc  is 
through  Him  that  we  have  access  to  the 
Father.  It  is,  therefore,  not  without  rea- 
son that  we  offer  all  our  prayers  to  God 
the  Father  through  Jesus  Christ.  Besides, 
it  is  following  the  recommendation  of  the 
Saviour  Himself  that  we  pray  in  the  name 
of  Jesus  Christ.  He  tells  us  distinctly  that 
"  Whatsoever  you  shall  ask  the  Father  in 
My  name,  that  will  I  do"  (John  xiv.  13). 
And  not  only  our  petitions,  but  also  our 
various  acts  of  praise  and  of  thanksgiving 
should  be  made  in  the  name  of  our  Saviour 
Jesus  Christ,  to  God  His  Father.  It  is  the 
same  with  regard  to  the  prayers  which  we 
address  to  the  saints ;  for  the  Church 
teaches  us  through  the  Council  of  Trent, 
that  the  saints  reigning  with  Christ  have 
access  to  God  and  pray  to  Him  only 
through  Jesus  Christ,  His  Son.  Hence 
the  reason  why  all  the  prayers  of  the  Lit- 
urgy end  with  the  words,  "  Through  our 
Lord  Jesus,  Thy  Son." 

Individual  or  private  prayer  is  good,  and 
agreeable  to  God,  but  public  prayers  are 
more  efficacious,  because  as  it  is  the  whole 
Church  that  prays,  they  are  more  powerful 
and  efficacious  than  the  prayers  of  one, 
and  even  those  w^ho  pray  with  a  certain 
lukewarmness  partake  of  the  prayers  of 
the  more  ardent.  Jesus  Christ  Himself 
has  said  :  "  Where  there  are  two  or  three 
gathered  in  my  name,  I  am  in  the  midst  of 
them  "  (Matt,  xviii.  20).  Hence  with  much 
more  reason  is  He  in  the  midst  of  the  Church 
when  she  and  her  children  are  united. 


Prayer 


577 


Praxeans 


Prayer  {The  Lord's)  (the  prayer  which 
our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  Himself  has  taught 
us). — Since  the  beginning  of  Chris- 
tianity, this  prayer  always  formed  an  essen- 
tial part  of  the  public  worship.  It  is  found 
in  all  the  liturgies.  It  was  recited  as  it  is 
to-day,  not  only  after  the  consecration  of 
the  Eucharist,  but  also  in  the  administra- 
tion of  baptism.  It  was  for  the  newly 
baptized  a  privilege  to  be  permitted  to  re- 
cite it  in  the  assembly  of  the  Faithful,  and 
to  call  God  "Our  Father."  The  Cate- 
chumens were  not  taught  it  before 
they  had  received  baptism.  The  Apos- 
tolic Constitutions,  the  Councils  of  Gi- 
rone,  and  the  Fourth  of  Toledo,  ordained 
that  the  "  Our  Father  "  should  be  recited 
three  times  daily  in  the  divine  office. 
Origen,  Tertullian,  and  St.  Cyprian  have 
left  us  sublime  eulogies  on  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  regarding  it  as  the  foundation  and 
model  of  all  prayers.  Nonbelievers  and 
other  infidels  have  found  fault  with 
and  criticized  this  beautiful  prayer.  They 
assert,  without  a  shadow  of  proof  or  au- 
thority, that  Christ  is  not  its  author;  that 
it  was  in  use  before  the  coming  of  our 
Lord.  Others  have  maintained  that  when 
we  say,  "  Lead  us  not  into  temptation," 
we  belittle  God's  sovereign  goodness,  be- 
cause we  suppose  Him  to  be  capable  of 
leading  us  into  temptation,  thus  making 
Him  the  cause  of  evil.  But  in  Scripture 
the  word  "tempt"  often  means  to  try,  as 
if  we  were  to  say:  "Do  not  place  us  on 
trial,  nor  the  faithfulness,  nor  the  virtue 
of  the  petitioner."  Now,  a  person  may 
be  tried  without  his  being  necessarily  lead 
into  evil ;  it  means,  then,  that  we  ask  God 
to  help  us  in  order  that  we  may  not  fall  or 
commit  sin  on  account  of  the  trials  and 
dangers  of  this  life. 

Prayer  {Mental).  —  Mental  prayer  oV 
meditation  is  an  elevation  of  our  minds 
and  souls  to  God,  to  render  to  Him  our 
duties,  to  ask  from  Him  the  graces  we 
stand  in  need  of,  and  to  increase  our  knowl- 
edge of  His  majesty  and  glory.  Mental 
prayer  is  composed  of  three  parts :  the 
preparation,  body  of  the  subject  or  prayer, 
and  the  conclusion.  There  are  two  kinds 
of  preparation  :  the  remote  and  the  proxi- 
mate. The  remote  preparation  consists 
in  the  purity  of  heart,  of  mind  and  of  in- 
tention. The  proximate  preparation  con- 
sists of  three  things  :  the  one  who  meditates 
should  be  more  recollected  than  usual, 
should  invoke  the  spiritual  help  of  God, 
37 


and  present  to  himself  well  the  subject  of 
his  meditation.  The  body  of  mental 
prayer  consists  of  three  things :  the  con- 
siderations, the  affections,  and  the  resolu- 
tions. The  considerations  are  reasonings 
and  reflections  by  which  our  mind  is  en- 
abled to  take  hold  of  the  subject  in  order 
to  elevate  our  soul  to  God,  or  to  thoroughly 
convince  ourselves  of  some  truth  of  salva- 
tion, and  to  excite  the  will  to  embrace  it. 
The  affections  are  movements  of  the  heart 
which  carry  us  to  God,  inciting  us  to  em- 
brace all  that  is  pleasing  to  Him.  The  res- 
olutions are  firm  purposes  to  perform 
some  action  which  we  know  God  demands 
from  us,  or  to  avoid  something  which  is 
contrary  to  God's  glory  and  our  salvation. 
The  conclusion  includes  two  things :  To 
thank  God  for  the  graces  which  He  has 
granted  us  in  the  meditation,  and  to  ask 
pardon  for  the  faults  we  have  committed 
therein.  Then  a  kind  of  spiritual  bouquet  is 
formed,  which  is  composed  of  some  partic- 
ularly good  thought  or  some  worthy  affec- 
tions which  have  most  potently  touched 
us  in  our  meditation,  and  in  trying  during 
the  day  to  keep  these  good  affections  be- 
fore us.  The  meditation  is  terminated  by 
placing  its  fruits  under  the  protection  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin. 

The  saints  and  holy  Doctors  of  the 
Church  have  ever  spoken  and  written  in 
the  highest  terms  of  mental  prayer.  They 
have  insisted  on  its  practice  by  all  those 
who  wish  to  attain  perfection  in  the 
spiritual  life.  Knowing  its  great  force 
and  efficaciousness,  they  made  use  of  it  as 
frequently  as  their  various  avocations  and 
daily  duties  permitted.  Meditation  was 
for  them  a  school  in  which  the  Holy 
Ghost  instructed  them.  The  sovereign 
Pontiffs,  especially  Pope  Benedict  XIV., 
by  his  Bull:  ^^ ^uemadmodum,''  of  Dec. 
i6th,  1746,  endeavored  to  incite  among  the 
Faithful  a  taste  for  the  practice  of  this 
holy  exercise,  by  granting  many  indul- 
gences to  those  who  teach  or  learn  the 
method  of  mental  prayer,  as  well  as  to 
those  who  make  use  of  it. 

Praxeans  (from  Praxeas,  heretic  of  the 
second  century,  disciple  of  Montanus). — 
A  native  of  Asia  Minor,  he  was  a  distin- 
guished confessor  in  the  persecution  of 
Marcus  Aurelius.  About  the  year  192  he 
went  to  Rome  to  oppose  the  errors  of 
Montanus,  but  at  the  same  time  dissem- 
inated his  own  heretical  views  regarding 
the  Trinity.     Having  been  compelled  to 


Preacher 


578 


Predestination 


recant,  Praxeas  went  to  Africa,  where  he 
continued  to  preach  his  heresy.  He  is 
said  to  have  afterwards  retracted.  The 
Praxeans  believed  that  there  was  only  one 
divine  Person,  the  Father,  and  that  this 
Father  suffered  on  the  cross. 

Preacher  (the  one  who  preaches,  who 
announces  in  the  pulpit  the  word  of  God, 
the  truths  of  the  Gospel).  —  The  right  to 
approve  the  preachers  belongs  to  the 
bishop  alone.  The  preachers,  being  by 
their  ministry,  the  light  of  the  world,  the 
salt  of  the  earth,  the  doctors  of  the  people, 
the  dispensers  of  the  divine  truths,  the 
heralds  and  ambassadors  of  God  Himself, 
they  should  partake  in  the  qualities  of  the 
One  whose  functions  they  exercise,  in  His 
science,  in  His  purity,  in  His  holiness; 
they  must  have  in  view  only  His  glory  and 
the  salvation  of  souls,  uphold  their  preach- 
ing by  an  exemplary  life  and  by  the  prac- 
tice of  all  virtues.  Preaching  is  one  of  the 
necessary  means  of  preserving  the  word  of 
God  in  its  purity.  It  is  by  preaching  that 
the  faith  was  established,  that  it  has  been 
preserved  from  generation  to  generation, 
that  it  will  exist  until  the  end  of  time,  and 
hence  comes  that  continual  succession  of 
preaching,  the  ministry  of  which  Jesus 
Christ  has  intrusted  to  the  bishops  in  the 
person  of  the  Apostles.  Preaching,  there- 
fore, is  the  proper  function  of  the  bishops, 
and  is  so  particularly  attached  to  the  epis- 
copate, that  formerly,  in  several  places,  it 
was  only  the  bishop  who  preached ;  and 
in  other  localities,  the  priests  preached 
only  in  the  presence  of  the  bishop,  hence 
the  custom  of  asking  for  the  blessing  of 
the  bishop  when  present.  The  bishops, 
therefore,  should  fulfill  this  duty  them- 
selves, and,  when  they  cannot  do  so,  they 
should  see  that  it  is  fulfilled  by  capable 
persons.     See  ELoquENCK. 

Preaching  Friars.     See  Dominicans. 

Preadamites  (heretics  according  to  whom 
Adam  was  not  the  first  created  man). — 
That  Adam  has  been  the  first  man  and  the 
father  of  the  human  race,  is  what  Scripture 
teaches  us  in  the  most  formal  and  positive 
manner.  All  the  historians  and  all  the 
Fathers  of  the  Church  unanimously  agree 
to  this ;  the  Church  also  condemned  the 
Preadamites.  It  was  in  1655  that  Isaac  La 
Peyrere  published  a  work  entitled  The 
Preadamites,  in  which  he  maintained  that 
the  Jews  (Adamites)  really  descended  from 
Adam,  but  that  the  Gentiles  existed  long 


before  him.  At  first,  he  found  some  fol- 
lowers in  Holland,  but  this  sect  soon  be- 
came extinct.  Des  Marets,  professor  of 
theology  at  Groeningen,  published  against 
him  a  work  entitled,  Refutatio  Fabulce 
Prceadamiticce .  The  book  of  La  Peyrere 
was  burned  at  Paris,  by  the  hangman,  and, 
in  1656,  the  author  abjured  Calvinism,  in 
which  he  had  been  born,  retracted  his  er- 
rors in  the  presence  of  Pope  Alexander  VII. 
and  wrote  a  book  on  this  subject.  He  ac- 
knowledged that  his  system  of  Preadamites 
could  not  be  defended  because  it  was  op- 
posed to  all  tradition. 

Precious  Blood  {Congregation  of  the 
Most). —  Religious  congregation  founded 
by  the  Venerable  Caspar  Bufalo  at  Rome 
in  1814.  Was  introduced  into  the  United 
States  by  Father  Salesius  Bruner,  in  1844, 
and  now  possesses  several  houses  in  this 
country  and  two  seminaries,  one  at  Carth- 
agena,  Ohio,  and  the  other  at  Rohnerville, 
California. 

Preconization.  —  Action  by  which  a 
cardinal,  and  sometimes  the  Pope,  declares 
in  full  Consistory  that  such  or  such  a  per- 
son named  to  a  bishopric  by  his  sovereign 
has  all  the  qualities  required.  The  pre- 
conization of  this  bishop  was  made  on 
such  or  such  a  day.  —  The  nomination 
to  archbishoprics  and  bishoprics,  either 
proceeding  from  the  sovereign  or  resulting 
from  the  canonical  election,  must  be  sub- 
mitted to  the  approbation  of  the  sovereign 
Pontiff,  to  whom  the  canonical  institution 
is  reserved.  Two  inquiries  ought  to  take 
place :  the  one  in  the  territory  of  the 
State  to  which  the  elected  belongs,  called 
information ;  the  other  at  Rome,  called 
*'  definitive  process."  The  report  is  made 
in  the  Consistory  by  a  cardinal,  and  the 
Pope  pronounces  the  preconization,  ac- 
cording to  the  customary  formula.  Then 
a  Bull  is  sent  to  the  archbishop  or  bishop. 

Predestination  (decree  of  God  by  which 
He  has  predetermined  that  certain  persons 
will  be  saved). — According  to  St.  Augus- 
tine, predestination  is  the  preparation  of 
grace;  it  is  nothing  more  than  God's 
prescience  and  the  preparation  of  God's 
benefits,  by  which  are  certainl}-  saved  all 
those  whom  He  saves.  St.  Thomas  says 
that  predestination  is  the  manner  by  which 
God  guides  reasonable  creatures  to  eternal 
life,  the  preparation  of  grace  for  the  pres- 
ent life.  According  to  this,  we  can  con- 
sider    predestination     under     a     twofold 


Predestined 


579 


Pre-existence  of  Souls 


aspect :  as  grace  without  which  we  can  do 
nothing  as  regards  eternal  life,  and  under 
the  aspect  of  glory  which  is  granted  to 
those  that  have  been  faithful  to  grace. 

Although  God  gives  to  all  men  the 
graces  necessary  for  salvation,  it  is  like- 
wise a  Catholic  dogma  that  He  does  not 
give  to  all  the  same  measure  of  grace ; 
that  there  are  particular  graces,  graces  of 
choice,  which  He  grants  rather  to  one 
than  to  another,  and  that  He  reserves, 
from  all  eternity,  eternal  life  to  those  who 
shall  have  persevered  until  the  end.  In 
other  words,  we  must  admit  on  the  part  of 
God,  the  predestination  of  a  certain  num- 
ber of  men  to  eternal  life.  "  This  belief," 
says  St.  Augustine,  "  has  always  been  that 
of  the  Church  of  Jesus  Christ."  Such  is, 
besides,  the  teaching  of  Holy  Scripture. 
At  the  last  Judgment  our  Lord  will  say, 
addressing  the  elect:  "Come  ye  Blessed 
of  my  Father,  possess  the  kingdom  pre- 
pared for  you  from  the  foundation  of  the 
world"  (Matt.  xxv.  34).  Those  who  are 
predestined  to  glory  will  infallibly  be 
saved  :  the  decree  of  predestination  is  as  in- 
fallible as  divine  prescience.  Thus  the 
number  of  the  predestined  is  fixed  and  un- 
changeable ;  it  will  be  neither  increased 
nor  diminished,  because  God's  prescience 
cannot  be  deceived.  Nevertheless  those 
who  work  out  their  salvation  do  so  freely; 
they  always  preserve  their  free  will,  and 
can  resist  grace  if  they  so  wish. 

It  is  of  faith  that  predestination  is  gra- 
tuitous. Eternal  life  is  a  grace  of  God, 
the  grace  of  graces,  which  supposes  all 
other  graces.  Nevertheless,  predestina- 
tion considered  under  the  aspect  of  glory, 
also  supposes  the  merits  of  the  just.  Eter- 
nal life  is  at  once  a  grace  of  God,  and  the 
reward  for  good  works  done  in  the  state  of 
grace.  It  is  a  Catholic  dogma  that  by  the 
works  of  the  justified  man,  or  by  the  good 
works  which  he  performs  with  God's  grace 
and  the  merits  of  Jesus  Christ,  he  himself 
really  merits  eternal  life. 

Predestined  (^Number  of  the). — God 
alone  knows  the  number  of  the  predes- 
tined. All  conjectures  on  this  point  are 
void  of  foundation.  But  sometimes  the 
question  as  to  the  relative  number  of  the 
saved,  as  regards  the  number  of  the  damned, 
presents  itself.  Will  there  be  more  saved 
than  lost,  or  more  lost  than  saved }  In  re- 
gard to  this  question  which  has  been  raised, 
says  Benedict  XIV.,  with  more  curiosity 
than  utility,  we  can  content  ourselves  in 


saying,  first :  That  it  is  certain  that  all  men 
will  not  be  saved  ;  that,  unfortunately,  there 
is  a  very  great  number  who  willfully  trans- 
gress the  laws  of  God,  who  remain  impen- 
itent, and  who,  consequently,  incur  eternal 
damnation.  Second,  that  if  only  half  of 
mankind  be  saved,  and  though  among 
Catholics  there  should  be  but  a  few  lost, 
yet  we  should  work  out  our  salvation  with 
fear  and  trembling,  lest  we  may  be  one  of 
those  lost  ones.  Even  if  we  admit  that  the 
greater  number  of  mankind  will  be  lost, 
yet  it  does  not  follow  that  the  greater  num- 
ber of  Catholics  will  perish  ;  especially  is 
this  true  when  we  consider  that  more  than 
half  of  the  baptized  children  die  before 
they  lose  their  innocence. 

Predetermination.  —  Operation  of  God 
which  causes  men  to  act;  which  deter- 
mines them,  or  makes  them  to  determine 
themselves  in  all  good  or  evil  actions.  We 
also  call  this  operation  of  God  physical 
premotion  or  predeterminating  decree  of 
God.  All  Catholics  are  agreed  that  in 
order  to  do  a  good  work,  a  meritorious 
and  useful  action  for  salvation,  man  needs 
the  help  of  grace.  Now  grace  is  a  super- 
natural light  given  to  the  understanding, 
and  a  motion  which  God  imprints  upon 
the  will  to  render  it  capable  of  acting; 
nothing,  therefore,  hinders  the  defining  of 
grace  as  a  premotion  or  a  predetermination, 
because  it  precedes  and  influences  our  ac- 
tions. But  must  this  premotion  or  pre- 
determination be  considered  as  really 
ph)-sical,  and  consequently,  carry  this 
name?  The  Thomists  maintain  this ;  but 
other  theologians  are  of  a  contrary  opinion. 

Pre-existence  of  Souls. —  This  question 
of  pre-existence  has  reference  to  the  origin 
of  the  human  soul,  namely:  whether  the 
soul  has  existed  anteriorly  to  the  body. 
Relating  to  this  question  divided  opinions 
have  prevailed  among  the  ancient  philoso- 
phers. The  doctrine  of  the  pre-existence 
of  the  soul  took  its  rise  in  the  Platonic 
philosophy.  Plato  had  posed  the  question  : 
How  does  the  science  of  ideas  arise  in  us? 
And  he  answers:  It  can  be  derived  neither 
from  experience  nor  from  the  observation  of 
the  senses,  for  the  world  of  the  senses  has 
nothing  that  corresponds,  in  an  adequate 
manner,  to  the  conception  of  the  idea. 
The  idea  is  something  equal  to  itself,  and 
the  world  of  the  senses  offers,  in  general, 
something  dissimilar ;  it  offers  nothing  that 
is  in  accord  with  itself;  and  nevertheless 
man    is    conscious    of    the    idea    in    him- 


Preface 


580 


Premonstratensians 


self;  therefore,  he  must  have  had  it  be- 
fore all  experience,  he  must  have  had  it 
before  all  time ;  that  is,  his  knowledge 
of  the  idea  is  only  a  reminiscence.  But 
this  hypothesis  supposes  that  we  did  al- 
ready exist  (pre-exist) ;  without  this  there 
would  be  no  principles  of  the  knowledge 
of  ideas.  Plato  finds  the  cause  of  the 
introduction  of  souls  in  the  sensible  life, 
in  the  fall  of  the  soul.  This  doctrine 
was  propagated  in  the  school  of  Alexan- 
dria; we  find  it  in  Philo,  Plotinus,  at  the 
Essenians,  the  Marcionites,  and  the  Basili- 
dians.  The  Gnostics  made  it  one  of  their 
dogmas ;  the  beings,  which  they  called 
*♦  eons  "  or  emanations  of  the  great  Being, 
were  nothing  else  than  pre-existing  souls, 
to  whom  earthly  life  was  reserved  only 
after  a  series  of  succeeding  degenerations. 
Among  the  ecclesiastical  authors,  Origen 
has  been  accused  of  having  favored  this 
doctrine ;  but  the  celebrated  Huet  has 
proved  that  this  Father  never  did  express 
himself  about  the  origin  of  the  soul,  and 
that  this  doctrine  may  have  been  inserted, 
later  on,  in  his  writings.  Even  modern 
philosophy  could  not  disembarrass  itself 
from  this  old  Platonic  opinion,  and  we  can 
discover  it  piercing  through  the  theories 
of  transformism  and  evolutionism.  This 
doctrine  was  rejected  by  all  the  Fathers  of 
the  Church,  and  condemned  in  the  Fifth 
General  Council  (2d  of  Constantinople). 
This  opinion,  indeed,  is  in  contradiction 
with  the  dogma  of  creation,  as  well  as 
with  the  dogma  of  the  unity  of  mankind 
and  that  of  the  resurrection  of  the  body; 
it  is  opposed  to  conscience  or  inner  sense ; 
it  is  in  contradiction  with  the  Christian 
idea  of  man,  who  is  the  synthesis  of 
nature  and  whose  body  is  the  legitimate 
and  necessary  organ  of  the  soul.  See 
Creationism. 

Preface,  in  liturgy,  is  the  introductory 
part  of  the  antiphon;  the  solemn  Eucha- 
ristic  thanksgiving  and  adscription  of  glory, 
introducing  the  canon  of  the  Mass.  It  is 
an  invitation  to  elevate  our  hearts  to  God 
and  offer  Him  our  thanksgiving  for  the 
stupendous  work  which  He  is  about  to  ac- 
complish, through  the  ministry  of  His 
priest,  by  the  words  of  consecration.  That 
the  Preface  is  very  ancient  is  certain ;  that 
it  owes  its  introduction  into  liturgy  to  the 
Apostles  is  more  than  probable.  The 
Greek  Church  has  but  one  Preface  in  its 
liturgy.  In  the  Gallican,  Mozarabic,  and 
older  Roman   liturgies   there   are   proper 


prefaces  for  nearly  every  festival.  In  the 
Roman  Church  the  number  of  prefaces 
was,  about  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century, 
reduced  to  ten,  namely :  The  Common 
Preface,  probably  the  most  ancient  one  we 
have,  since  it  may  be  found  in  the  Sacra- 
mentary  of  Pope  St.  Gelasius;  and  those 
of  Easter,  Ascension,  Pentecost,  Christmas, 
the  Epiphany,  the  Apostles,  the  Holy 
Trinity,  the  Cross,  and  Lent.  The  Preface, 
recited  on  feasts  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  is 
attributed  to  Pope  Urban  II. ;  if  it  be  not 
the  composition  of  that  Pontiff,  it  at  least 
received  his  approbation. 

Prefect  Apostolic.  See  Vicars  Apos- 
tolic. 

Prelates. — Here  is  mention  of  prelates 
inferior  to  bishops,  that  is,  those  who, 
though  not  clothed  with  the  episcopal 
character  or  ordo,  are,  nevertheless,  vested 
by  the  Holy  See  with  greater  or  less  epis- 
copal rights.  There  are  three  classes  of 
these  prelates  :  The  lowest,  the  middle,  and 
the  highest,  i.  The  lowest  class  consists 
of  those  who  preside  only  over  such  per- 
sons, both  lay  and  ecclesiastical,  as  are 
attached  or  belong  to  a  certain  church  or 
monastery.  General  superiors  of  religious 
orders,  provincials,  and  abbots  immedi- 
ately subject  to  the  Holy  See,  are  prelates 
of  this  kind.  Regular  prelates  of  this  class 
cannot  hear  or  confer  upon  others,  facul- 
ties   to    hear  the  confessions  of   seculars. 

2.  The  middle  or  second  class  is  made  up 
of  those  who  exercise  jurisdiction  over  the 
inhabitants,  that  is,  over  the  clergy  as  well 
as  laity,  of  a  certain  district  or  territory 
which  is  situated  in  and  entirely  sur- 
rounded by  the  diocese  of  another  bishop. 
Hence  they  are  named  prcelati  in  diocesi. 

3.  The  highest  or  third  class  is  composed 
of  those  who  exercise  jurisdiction  in  a  dis- 
trict, that  is,  in  one  or  several  cities  or 
places,  which  is  altogether  separate  from 
and  outside  of  any  diocese  whatever.  They 
are  consequently  termed  prcelati  nullius, 
i.  e.,  dioceseos.  They  have  all  the  rights 
of  ordinary  bishops,  save  those  which  re- 
quire the  exercise  of  the  episcopal  order. 

Premonstratensians. —  Religious  order 
of  canons-regular  founded  in  11 19,  by 
St.  Norbert  in  the  valley  of  Pr^montr^, 
near  Laon,  France.  Norbert  gave  to  his 
followers  the  white  habit  and  the  Rule  of 
St.  Benedict,  with  certain  constitutions 
framed  by  himself,  and  enjoined  on  them 
study,    the   office   of    preaching,   and   the 


Presanctification 


581 


Prescience 


care  of  souls.  The  order  which  was  ap- 
proved by  Pope  Honorius  II.,  in  1126,  ex- 
tended itself  throughout  Europe,  and  its 
labors  were  especially  blessed  in  Germany 
and  the  northern  kingdoms.  There  were 
at  one  time  a  thousand  Premonstratensian 
abbeys.  St.  Norbert  died  archbishop  of 
Magdeburg,  in  1134. 

Presanctification  (Mass  of).  —  A  Mass 
of  presanctification  is  a  Mass  without  con- 
secration, in  which  holy  communion  is  re- 
ceived from  the  host  that  was  consecrated 
on  the  preceding  day  or  some  days  before. 
In  the  West,  the  Mass  of  presanctification 
takes  place  only  on  Good  Friday ; 
but,  among  the  Greeks,  it  is  also  said  dur- 
ing Lent,  except  Saturday,  Sunday,  and 
on  the  day  of  Annunciation.  The  pure 
Roman  rubrics  do  not  permit  the  priest  to 
consecrate  for  the  communion  of  the 
Faithful,  at  a  Mass  for  the  dead ;  but  the 
Faithful  presenting  themselves  for  com- 
munion should  receive  the  presanctified 
hosts,  that  is,  the  species  in  the  tabernacle. 
Properly  speaking,  communion  thus  given 
should  even  precede  or  follow  the  Mass  of 
the  dead.  But,  in  practice,  Rome  has 
granted  the  permission  to  distribute  holy 
communion  during  the  Mass  of  the  dead. 

Presbyterians  (followers  of  the  errors 
and  maxims  of  Calvin) .  —  It  was  under  the 
reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth  that  the  Prot- 
estant heresy  took  a  defective  and  peculiar 
form  in  England,  whence  it  was  called 
Anglicanism.  But  in  Scotland,  in  the 
eyes  of  a  certain  number  of  zealots  im- 
bued with  the  Calvinistic  doctrines,  An- 
glicanism and  the  Established  Church 
appeared  an  imperfect  form  and,  espe- 
cially, the  retaining  of  the  episcopate,  was 
looked  upon  as  an  evident  remnant  of 
papacy  which  must  be  rooted  out.  The 
Presbyterians  were  repeatedly  persecuted 
by  the  Established  Church ;  but  more  than 
once,  they  became  persecutors  in  their 
turn.  Having  become  a  dominant  political 
party,  they  glorified  the  principle  of  popu- 
lar sovereignty  and  hated  the  kings.  They 
led  Charles  I.  to  the  scaffold.  The  Pres- 
byterians pretend  that  the  Church  must  be 
governed  only  by  priests;  that  Scripture 
makes  no  difference  between  priests  and 
bishops,  and  that  the  episcopate  is  not  of 
divine  institution. 

The  Presbyterian  Church  is  a  most 
powerful  body.  It  is  pre-eminently  strong 
in  the  United  States  and  Canada.  Alto- 
gether there  are  89  sects,  which  hold  more 


or  less  the  Presbyterian  system  of  doctrine 
and  mode  of  government.  Of  these,  18 
are  found  in  North  America.  According 
to  the  reports  made  to  the  Alliance  of  Re- 
formed Churches  holding  the  Presbyterian 
System,  at  its  meeting  in  Glasgow  in  1896, 
there  are  in  the  89  branches  of  Presby- 
terianism  1,426  presbyteries,  31,925  con- 
gregations, 27,043  minivers,  130,083  ruling 
elders,  2,666  licentiates,  5,019  students 
preparing  for  the  ministry,  4,795,216  com- 
municant members,  32,271  Sabbath  schools, 
and  3,653,925  Sunday  school  officers,  teach- 
ers and  pupils.  For  the  support  of  work 
at  home,  the  contributions  for  1895  were 
$31,521,150,  and  for  foreign  missions, 
$2,375,310.  There  are  reported  altogether 
in  the  United  States  and  Canada  20,398 
congregations,  15,535  ministers,  68,729 
ruling  elders,  1,259  licentiates,  3,296  stu- 
dents for  preparation  for  the  ministry, 
2,170,517  communicant  members,  18,480 
Sunday  schools,  and  2,067,097  Sunday- 
school  officers,  teachers  and  pupils ;  and 
for  Church  support  $19,625,315  was  con- 
tributed by  the  people. 

Presbytery. — This  name  formerly  served 
to  designate  the  college  of  priests  and 
deacons  living  around  the  bishop  for  the 
purpose  of  assisting  him  in  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Church.  St.  Ignatius  insists 
on  the  intimate  bond  that  should  exist 
between  the  presbytery  and  the  bishop. 
The  college  remains  a  picture  of  the  prim- 
itive presbyteries ;  but  the  diocesan  chap- 
ters gradually  ceased  to  have  such  a  great 
importance,  when  the  vicar-generals  ob- 
tained greater  authority,  by  assuming, 
under  the  orders  of  the  bishop,  a  notable 
part  of  the  burden  of  the  administration. 

Prescience  (knowledge  of  what  is  going 
to  happen ;  certain  and  infallible  knowl- 
edge which  God  has  of  the  future).  —  One 
of  the  truths  taught  by  revelation,  is  that 
God,  from  all  eternity,  has  certainly  known 
all  that  will  take  place  within  the  duration 
of  time.  Although  that  which  He  foresees 
will  infallibly  take  place.  His  prescience 
does  not  necessitate  the  events  :  i.  Because 
His  prescience  is  not  the  cause  of  the 
events.  2.  Because  God  not  only  foresees 
all  things,  but  also  the  manner  in  which 
they  take  place.  God  knows  the  order  of 
the  causes ;  now,  our  will  holds  a  rank  in 
this  order  and  is  the  cause  of  our  actions ; 
thus,  our  will  being  free,  God  foresees 
that  it  will  act  freely. 


Presence 


582 


Primate 


Presence  {Real).     See  Eucharist. 

Presentation.     See  Patronage. 

Presentation  {Feast  of  the).  — It  was  a 
religious  custom  among  the  Jews  to  make 
a  vow  pledging  their  children  to  God, 
even  before  their  birth.  The  parents  who 
had  made  such  a  vow,  led  the  pledged 
child  into  the  Temple,  before  it  had  at- 
tained the  age  of  five  years.  They  com- 
mitted the  same  into  the  hands  of  the 
priest  who  offered  it  to  the  Lord;  then, 
if  parents  desired  to  redeem  the  child,  they 
gave  a  certain  sum  of  money,  or  some  other 
alms;  if  they  did  not  do  this,  the  child  re- 
mained in  the  Temple,  and  was  occupied 
in  serving  the  sacred  ministers,  making 
sacred  ornaments,  in  a  word,  contributing 
toward  all  things  concerning  God's  wor- 
ship. Now,  tradition  tells  us  that  the 
Blessed  Virgin  Mary  was  vowed  to  God 
by  her  parents,  St.  Joachim  and  St.  Anna, 
and  led  by  them  into  the  Temple  of  Jeru- 
salem, when  she  was  only  three  years  old. 
We  do  not  know  the  name  of  the  priest 
that  received  her,  but  some  believe  that  it 
was  Zacharias.  This  offering  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin  to  the  Lord,  the  Church  commem- 
orates by  the  Feast  of  the  Presentation. 
The  Greeks  have  celebrated  this  feast 
since  the  twelfth  century ;  the  Latins  be- 
gan the  practice  somewhat  later.  It  is 
celebrated  on  November  25th.  See  Puri- 
fication. 

Preston  (Thomas  Scott). — An  Amer- 
ican Catholic  clergyman;  born  in  Hart- 
ford, Connecticut,  July  23d,  1824.  He  was 
educated  for  the  Protestant  Episcopal  min- 
istry; graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Hart- 
ford, in  1843;  ordained  minister  in  1846, 
and  engaged  in  pastoral  service  in  various 
cities  in  New  York,  and  was  assistant  rec- 
tor of  St.  Luke's  Church,  New  York  city. 
He  was  converted  to  the  Catholic  Church 
and  ordained  priest  in  1850.  He  was  ap- 
pointed chancellor  of  the  diocese  of  New 
York  in  1853,  ^"'^  afterwards  made  rector 
of  St.  Anne's  Church,  New  York.  He 
published  several  works,  including :  Chris- 
tian Unity  (1866);  Reason  and  Revelation 
(1868);  and  Christ  and  the  Church.  He 
died  in  New  York  city,  Nov.  4th,  1891. 

Priest  (the  one  who  exercises  a  min- 
istry and  presides  at  the  ceremonies  of  a 
religious  worship).  —  We  find  the  priest, 
as  we  find  religious  worship  and  sacred 
ceremonies,  in  all  nations.  Those  of  the 
Egyptians  received  from  the  State  all  that 


was  necessary  for  their  support  and  for  the 
fulfillment  of  the  sacrifices  ;  they  enjoyed 
political  power  and  considerable  authority. 
In  Ethiopia,  priests  appear  to  have  been 
still  more  revered  and  more  powerful; 
they  elected  the  king,  who  was  drawn  from 
their  ranks,  and  maintained  over  him  the 
right  of  life  and  death.  In  Persia,  the 
priests  consecrated  the  king  and  formed  a 
part  of  his  counsel.  In  India,  the  Brah- 
mans  were  rather  philosophers  than  priests, 
but,  nevertheless,  they  represented  a  priest- 
hood independent  of  all  command,  of  all 
authority,  even  of  that  of  the  king.  The 
Greeks,  from  their  heroic  epoch,  knew  the 
priest ;  but  the  chiefs  of  the  people  exer- 
cised, however,  in  this  quality,  a  certain 
sacerdotal  function.  The  union  of  public 
functions  and  of  certain  sacerdotal  func- 
tions, also,  prevailed  with  the  Romans, 
although  they  had  pontiffs  and  many 
strongly  organized  sacerdotal  colleges. 
Moses  did  not  permit  any  interference 
on  the  part  of  the  depositaries  of  the 
civil  power  in  the  exercise  of  the  sacred 
functions ;  a  special  tribe  was  consecrated 
for  the  service  of  the  altar.  In  our  days, 
the  priest  not  only  has  charge  of  the  reli- 
gious worship  and  the  fulfillment  of  its 
ceremonies,  but  also  teaches  religion  and 
directs  the  conscience  of  the  people.  His 
role  is,  consequently,  essentially  distinct 
from  that  of  the  ancient  priesthood.  In 
the  eyes  of  Catholics,  the  priest,  ordained 
by  the  bishop,  receives  an  indelible  char- 
acter. It  is  the  same  with  the  priests 
of  the  Greek  Church  or  of  the  Russian 
Church;  in  the  Anglican  Church,  the  dea- 
con, but  not  the  priest,  may  renounce  the 
order  received.  The  office  of  the  priest, 
says  St.  Thomas,  consists  in  being  the  me- 
diator between  God  and  the  people;  the 
mediator  par  excellence  being  Jesus  Christ; 
the  priest  is  His  representative  among  men 
in  the  functions  of  mediator.  See  Bishop  ; 
Order  {Holy). 

Primate  (prelate  whose  jurisdiction  is 
above  that  of  archbishops).  —  The  name 
primate  and  that  of  the  first  see  of  Mother 
Church,  which  are  given  in  the  most  an- 
cient documents,  either  to  bishops,  or  to 
certain  Churches  of  Gaul,  did  not  formerly 
signify  what  we  to-day  understand  by  these 
names,  and  designated  only  theancientness 
of  the  ordination  of  the  bishops  and  the 
antiquity  of  the  Churches.  Thus,  accord- 
ing to  the  custom  in  Africa,  we  sometimes 
see  the  name  of  primate  given  to  the  bishop 


Prior 


583 


Probabilism 


of  a  small  town.  It  is  claimed  that  before 
Gregory  VII.,  who  was  elected  Pope  in 
1073,  the  Church  in  Gaul  was  entirely  un- 
acquainted with  the  authority  of  any  pri- 
mate, and  that  it  was  this  Pope  who  granted 
the  right  of  primacy  to  the  archbishop  of 
Lyons  over  the  four  provinces  of  Lyons. 

By  primates  now  are  meant  those  who 
are  placed  over  several  metropolitan  sees. 
Primates  formerly  had  the  right  to  convene 
national  councils  and  receive  appeals  from 
the  sentence  of  metropolitans.  These  privi- 
leges have  lapsed,  and,  where  primates  still 
exist,  they  merely  retain  the  name  or  title, 
not  the  jurisdiction  formerly  attached  to 
the  primateship.  Salanzo,  however,  ob- 
serves that  even  at  the  present  day  pri- 
matial  jurisdiction  is  vested  in  the  Primate 
of  Hungary  and  in  the  archbishops  of  To- 
ledo and  of  Armagh.  In  the  United  States, 
the  Archbishop  of  Baltimore,  by  virtue  of 
the  prerogatives  of  the  place  {prcerogativa 
loci),  affixed  to  his  see,  occupies  the  first 
seat  in  all  councils,  meetings,  and  the  like. 
This  privilege,  as  is  evident,  is  simply 
honorary,  and  not  of  jurisdiction,  includ- 
ing no  primatial  rights  whatever. 

Prior.  —  The  ecclesiastic  who  governs  a 
monastery  as  chief  and  first  superior,  with 
the  same  authority  as  an  abbot.  The  head 
of  a  monastery  of  Dominicans  is  called  a 
prior;  that  of  a  monastery  of  Benedictines 
is  called  an  abbot. 

Priscillianists  (sectarians  of  the  fourth 
century). — The  real  founder  of  this  sect 
was  one  Marc,  an  Egyptian  Manichee, 
who  came  to  Spain  in  330.  His  first  dis- 
ciples were  Agape,  a  lady  of  distinction, 
and  Elpidius,  a  rhetorician.  The  wealthy 
and  learned  Priscillian,  another  disciple  of 
Marc,  became  the  real  leader  of  the  sect 
to  which  he  also  gave  his  name.  By  his 
ascetic  life  and  plausible  eloquence,  as 
well  as  by  his  great  wealth  and  refined 
manners,  Priscillian  won  many  followers 
among  the  clergy;  even  two  bishops,  In- 
stantius  and  Salvianus,  joined  his  party 
and  also  ordained  him  bishop  of  Avila. 
The  first  to  resist  this  pernicious  sect  was 
Hyginus,  Bishop  of  Cordova;  but  its 
principal  opponents  were  the  Bishops 
Idacius  of  Merida,  and  Ithacius  of  Os- 
sanoba.  The  Council  of  Saragossa,  in 
380,  condemned  the  heresy  and  excom- 
municated Priscillian,  while  Ithacius 
caused  the  Emperor  Gratian  to  publish  an 
edict  exiling  Priscillian  and  his  friends. 
But  the  exiles,  who  had  vainly  applied  to 


Pope  Damasus  and  St.  Ambrose  for  help, 
succeeded  in  obtaining  a  revocation  of  the 
edict  by  bribery.  Priscillian  and  Instan- 
tius  were  restored  to  their  sees,  and  Itha- 
cius was  compelled  to  flee  from  Spain. 
Another  synod  held  at  Bordeaux,  in  384, 
renewed  the  condemnation  of  the  heresy ; 
but  Priscillian  appealed  to  the  Emperor 
Maximus,  who  had  usurped  the  throne. 
The  heresiarch  and  six  of  his  companions 
were  accordingly  tried  at  Treves,  before  a 
secular  court,  and,  notwithstanding  his 
promise  made  to  St.  Martin,  bishop  of 
Tours,  that  the  life  of  the  heretics  should 
be  spared,  Maximus  sentenced  them  to  be 
beheaded,  in  385.  This  was  the  first  in- 
stance of  Christians  being  condemned  to 
death  for  heresy.  The  doctrines  held 
by  the  Priscillianists  were  a  mixture  of 
Manicheism  and  Gnosticism.  They  de- 
nied the  Trinity  of  Persons  and  advocated 
Dualism  and  Docetism.  They  held  the  use 
of  flesh-meat  and  marriage  to  be  unlawful, 
but  permitted  sexual  intercourse,  on  con- 
dition that  generation  should  be  pre- 
vented. They  celebrated  their  orgies  with 
great  debauchery,  and  principally  at  night. 
This  sect  disappeared  only  about  the  end 
of  the  sixth  century. 

Probabilism  (doctrine  of  probability).  — 
Probabilism  teaches  that  it  is  permissible 
to  follow  a  less  probable  opinion  which 
favors  liberty,  without  the  concurrence  of 
another  opposed  and  more  probable  opin- 
ion which  favors  the  law.  We  define  as 
probable  an  opinion  that  agrees  to  a  senti- 
ment which  appears  true,  after  having 
maturely  and  without  prejudice  considered 
it.  If  this  consent  is  founded  upon 
reasons  drawn  from  the  very  nature  of  the 
thing,  the  opinion  is  intrinsically  proba- 
ble. If  it  is  founded  upon  motives,  such 
as  the  testimony  and  authority  of  others, 
the  opinion  is  extrinsically  probable.  The 
probable  opinion  is  speculative  or  prac- 
tical ;  the  first  limits  itself  to  the  simple 
theory;  the  second  regards  the  morals 
and  passes  to  the  action.  Concerning 
probabilism  there  are  different  systems 
which  divide  theologians  into  rigorists, 
mitigated  probabilists,  etc.  Without  at- 
tempting to  discuss  these  systems,  we 
limit  ourselves  to  report  the  rules  given 
by  the  best  theologians  :  i.  It  is  permitted 
to  follow  an  intrinsically  or  extrinsically 
probable  opinion,  if,  after  mature  exam- 
ination, no  other  opinion  presents  itself. 
The   reason  is   that   then   we   have  moral 


Processions 


584 


Processions 


certainty  of  the  goodness  of  our  action, 
which  is  sufficient  if  it  be  exempt  from 
sin.  2.  It  is  not  permitted  to  follow 
an  opinion  less  probable  in  the  con- 
course of  a  more  probable  opinion,  that 
is,  an  opinion  which  has  in  its  favor 
motives  that  are  stronger,  more  numer- 
ous, more  solid,  and  more  capable  of 
obtaining  the  assent  of  a  prudent  and 
wise  man.  3.  If  there  are  two  probable 
opinions,  and  if  the  one  favors  the  law  and 
the  other  liberty,  we  are  obliged,  accord- 
ing to  a  great  number  of  theologians,  to 
follow,  in  all  cases,  the  one  which  favors  the 
law  and  which  is  the  surest.  According  to 
several  other  doctors,  among  whom  we 
find  St.  Liguori,  if  two  contradictory 
opinions  are  equally  or  about  equally  cer- 
tain, we  can  follow  the  less  sure  opinion. 
The  reason  which  St.  Liguori  gives  is 
that,  in  doubt,  we  are  not  bound  to  take 
the  surest  part,  either  because  a  doubtful 
law  being  founded  only  upon  an  opinion, 
is  not  sufficiently  promulgated  to  be  ob- 
ligatory, or  because  man  remains  in  pos- 
session of  liberty,  whose  exercise  can  be 
inconvenienced  only  by  a  clear  and  certain 
law.  4.  In  matters  of  faith  and  in  the 
necessaries  of  necessity  of  means,  as  well 
if  there  be  question  about  the  validity  of  a 
sacrament,  we  must  always,  in  the  con- 
course of  two  equally  probable  opinions, 
follow  the  most  sure  opinion ;  it  is  the 
same  if  there  be  question  about  the  inter- 
est of  our  neighbor;  the  judges  as  for 
instance,  the  notaries,  the  physicians, 
must  always,  between  two  means,  choose 
the  one  that  appears  to  them  more  con- 
formable to  the  interests  that  are  entrusted 
to  them.  The  contrary  opinion  has  been 
formally  condemned  by  Pope  Innocent  X. 
in  1670.  5.  We  are  permitted  to  follow  a 
more  probable  opinion  although  less  sure 
than  the  opposite  opinion,  the  reason  being 
that  by  following  a  more  probable  opinion 
we  act  prudently,  because  we  are  not  in 
doubt,  and  we  are  morally  certain  of  the 
goodness  of  our  action.  6.  The  authority 
of  a  learned  and  pious  man  is  not  sufficient 
to  render  an  opinion  probable  and  sure  in 
practice. 

Processions. —  Public  processions  and 
supplications  have  always  been  in  use  in 
the  Church,  as  a  means  of  increasing 
piety,  or  in  order  to  return  thanks  to  God 
for  blessings  received,  and  to  implore  His 
mercy.  As  processions  instituted  by  the 
Church  contain  great  and  divine  myster- 


ies, and  as  they  are  in  themselves  a  source 
of  grace,  the  priests  should  instruct  the 
people  concerning  their  nature,  and  insist 
that  they  be  performed  with  modesty  and 
reverence.  In  Church  processions  the  lay 
people  should  follow  the  clergy,  and  the 
women  should  walk  behind  the  men.  The 
cross  should  be  carried  at  the  head  of  the 
procession,  and  if  such  be  the  custom,  a 
banner  decorated  with  sacred  images. 
Should  the  cross  bear  an  image  of  the  cru- 
cifix, the  face  of  the  image  of  Christ  should 
face  those  who  precede,  and  not  those  who 
follow  it.  Strictly  speaking  solemn  Mass 
should  be  celebrated  after  the  procession 
and  not  before.  Among  the  processions 
instituted  by  the  Church  some  are  ordi- 
nary, because  they  occur  every  year  on  the 
same  day.  Such  are  the  processions  on 
the  day  of  the  Purification,  on  Palm  Sun- 
day, St.  Mark's  day,  the  three  Rogation 
days  and  on  Corpus  Christi.  All  these 
processions  should  be  held  according  to 
the  special  rite  prescribed  for  them  in  the 
Roman  Ritual. 

Extraordinary  processions  are  those 
which  are  commanded  for  occasions  con- 
cerning the  public  welfare  of  the  Church ; 
as  for  example,  processions  made  in  order 
to  obtain  rain,  fair  weather,  the  cessation 
of  storms,  of  distress,  of  famine,  of  pesti- 
lence, of  war,  or  of  any  kind  of  affliction, 
and  in  order  to  return  thanks  to  God  for 
blessings  received.  Those  who  take  part 
in  Church  processions  would  do  well  to 
remember  that,  during  our  pilgrimage  on 
this  earth,  we  should  have  our  eyes  con- 
stantly fixed  upon  the  image  of  Jesus 
Christ  crucified,  endeavoring  to  imitate 
His  example  and  those  of  our  patron  saints, 
heartily  imploring  their  protection  and 
the  mercy  of  God  during  the  whole  prog- 
ress of  the  procession.  See  Roman  Rit- 
ual. 

Of  all  processions,  the  most  celebrated 
is  that  of  the  Most  H0I3'  Sacrament 
on  the  feast  of  Corpus  Christi  (which 
see),  instituted  by  Urban  IV.  We  call  it 
a  triumphal  procession,  because  in  it  our 
Redeemer,  the  King  of  Kings,  the  Lord 
of  Lords,  is  carried  triumphantly  through 
the  streets  concealed  in  His  adorable  sac- 
rament, which  He  gives  us  as  a  pledge  of 
our  eternal  triumph  in  heaven.  The 
Churches,  on  this  day,  should  be  beautifully 
decorated  and  the  walls  of  the  streets 
through  which  the  procession  is  to  pass 
should  be  covered  with  tapestries,  hang- 
ings, and  sacred  pictures.     The  street  itself 


Proclamation 


585 


Profession 


might  well  be  strewn  witlf  flowers  and 
foliage  of  trees,  and  along  the  sidewalks 
evergreens  might  be  placed.  It  is  also  a 
general  custom,  in  connection  with  those 
processions,  to  raise  triumphal  arches 
across  the  streets,  and  to  have  one  or  more 
repositories  or  shrines  from  which  bene- 
diction with  the  Blessed  Sacrament  is 
given  during  the  procession. 

Proclamation. —  Name  given  in  some 
monastic  orders  to  the  accusation  made  by 
a  monk  against  one  of  his  fellow-monks, 
in  full  chapter,  for  a  fault  he  saw  him  com- 
mitting. 

Proclus  (St.). —  Ecclesiastical  writer  of 
the  fifth  centur}'.  He  was  a  disciple  of 
St.  John  Chrysostom,  and  afterwards  be- 
came patriarch  of  Constantinople.  He 
died  in  447.  There  are  extant  of  his  writ- 
ings, several  synodal  letters  and  25  homi- 
lies. 

Profanation  of  a  Church  or  Cemetery. 

—  A  church  is  profaned  or  polluted  :  i.  By 
voluntary,  criminal,  or  injurious  homicide 
committed  within  the  interior  of  said 
church.  2.  When  considerable  blood  has 
been  shed  therein,  caused  by  an  act  which 
undoubtedly  assumes  the  aspect  of  mortal 
sin.  A  wound,  of  however  grievous  or 
serious  a  nature,  is  not  sufficient  to  profane 
a  church ;  there  must  be  an  eflfusion  of 
blood,  though  it  is  not  necessary  that  this 
effusion  take  place  in  the  church ;  if  the 
eflfusion  occurs  outside  as  an  effect  of  the 
wound  received  inside,  the  church  is  to  be 
considered  profaned.  3.  By  a  voluntary 
act  of  incontinency.  It  is  the  same  with 
an  act  of  incontinency  as  with  voluntary 
homicide,  or  eflfusion  of  blood ;  it  must 
take  place  inside  the  church.  4.  By  the 
burial  of  an  infidel  or  of  a  person  excom- 
municated by  name.  The  same  causes  or 
eflfects  which  profane  a  church,  profane  a 
cemetery.  Thus  the  cemetery  is  profaned 
by  a  murder,  by  a  considerable  efTusion  of 
blood,  and  by  the  burial  of  one  excom- 
municated by  name.  This  applies  also  to 
a  heretic  denounced  by  name  as  such,  and 
who  is  thereby  excommunicated.  But  it  is 
important  to  remark  that  there  is  a  prof- 
anation, whether  of  church  or  cemetery, 
only  in  so  far  as  the  act  or  fact  which  is  the 
cause  thereof  is  public  and  notorious.  If 
adultery,  or  the  sin  of  fornication,  for  ex- 
ample, has  been  committed  secretly  in  the 
church  or  cemetery,  there  is  no  profanation 
while  the  sin  remains  secret,  or  is  known 


only  to  a  few.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the  sin 
becomes  public,  then  the  church  or  ceme- 
tery is  to  be  regarded  as  profaned.  The 
notoriety  of  the  fact  is  sufficient.  The  prof- 
anation of  the  church  involves  also  that 
of  the  cemetery  if  both  are  on  the  same 
ground  without  any  separation  between 
them.  Yet  the  profanation  of  the  cemetery 
does  not  aflfect  the  church ;  neither  does  it 
affect  the  profanation  of  another  cemetery 
contiguous  to  it,  though  there  should  exist 
a  passageway  between  them.  As  soon  as  a 
church  is  profaned,  the  Blessed  Sacrament 
should  be  removed  ;  only,  however,  if  there 
be  another  church  near  by  where  it  may  be 
placed.  Mass  should  not  be  celebrated  in 
a  profaned  church  until  it  is  reconciled.  If 
it  has  not  already  received  the  episcopal 
consecration,  it  may  be  reconciled  by  the 
bishop  or  by  a  priest  appointed  for  the  pur- 
pose. But  if  the  church  has  been  conse- 
crated by  a  bishop,  a  bishop  must  recon- 
secrate it,  or  by  a  priest  delegated  by  the 
Pope  according  to  the  rite  of  the  Roman 
Pontifical. 

Profession  {Religious).  —  The  religious 
state  is  a  stable  and  permanent  state,  ap- 
proved by  the  Church,  in  which  the  Faith- 
ful engage  themselves  to  live  in  common, 
and  to  strive  after  perfection,  by  the  ob- 
servance of  the  vows  of  poverty,  chastity, 
and  obedience.  The  approbation  of  the 
Church  is  necessary  to  form  a  religious 
order,  and  this  approbation  can  only  ema- 
nate from  the  sovereign  Pontiff.  A  Congre- 
gation, whose  rule  has  not  been  confirmed 
and  sanctioned  by  the  Holy  See,  is  not  a 
religious  congregation  properly  speaking. 
Whoever  belongs  to  a  congregation,  ap- 
proved by  the  Pope  or  a'  bishop,  must 
conform  in  everything  to  the  constitutions 
and  rules  of  the  order  or  congregation. 

There  are  special  privileges  enjoyed  by 
persons  consecrated  to  God.  The  essence 
of  the  religious  life  consists  in  the  vows  of 
poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience.  In  order 
that  a  religious  profession  be  valid  and  bind- 
ing on  the  one  who  makes  it,  the  following 
conditions  are  necessary  to  be  observed : 
I.  That  the  subject,  whether  male  or  fe- 
male, has  completed  his  or  her  sixteenth 
year.  2.  He  or  she  must  have  passed  a  full, 
uninterrupted  year,  at  least,  of  probation, 
clothed  in  the  habit  of  the  order,  and  must 
have  fulfilled  during  this  time  the  exer- 
cises of  the  community.  This  probation 
is  called  the  novitiate.  3.  There  must  exist 
no  impediment  contrary  to  the  statutes  of 


Profession  of  Faith 


586 


Propaganda 


the  order.  4.  The  subject  must  be  free  to 
dispose  of  himself.  5.  The  act  of  profes- 
sion must  be  entirely  free;  a  substantial 
error  or  a  grave  and  unjust  fear  would 
render  it  null  and  void.  Every  person  de- 
sirous of  leaving  the  religious  state  for 
good  and  sufficient  causes,  must  lay  these 
reasons  before  the  superior  and  the  ordi- 
nary of  the  place  within  five  years  count- 
ing from  the  day  of  profession.  If  the 
person  fails  to  do  this,  reclamation  is  not 
admitted.  There  are  particular  precau- 
tions taken  to  assure  the  liberty  of  choice 
of  the  subject  in  communities  of  women. 
According  to  the  Council  of  Trent,  the 
mother  superior  may  admit  a  member  to 
the  religious  profession  only  after  such 
person  has  been  examined  by  the  bishop 
or  his  delegate  as  regards  her  freedom  of 
action  and  wishes,  her  knowledge  of  the 
rules  and  obligations  of  the  religious 
state.  The  mother  superior  is  obliged  to 
notify  the  bishop  a  month  before  the  con- 
templated profession;  failing  in  this  she 
may  be  punished  by  suspension  from  office. 
The  person  who  is  morally  certain  of  a  re- 
ligious vocation  cannot  remain  in  the 
world  without  endangering  his  salvation, 
because  such  a  person  acts  contrary  to  the 
will  of  God.  He  or  she  is,  therefore,  under 
such  conditions,  obliged  to  embrace  the 
religious  state. 

It  is  the  duty  of  parents  to  sanction  the 
vocation  of  a  child  whom  the  Lord  calls 
to  a  religious  life.  They  should  as  far  as 
possible  make  sure  that  the  vocation  is 
real ;  but  they  have  not  the  right  to  oppose 
it  when  they  know  the  call  comes  from 
God.  The  child,  who,  after  certain  trials, 
and  after  having  consulted  a  wise  and  en- 
lightened spiritual  director,  ought  as  a 
rule,  to  ask  his  parents'  consent  before 
embracing  a  religious  state.  If  the  par- 
ents, without  just  reasons,  refuse  their 
consent,  the  child  can,  especially  when  of 
age,  follow  its  pious  designs  and  retire 
into  a  religious  house.  But  when  a  young 
person  cannot,  without  great  inconvenience 
to  the  parents,  enter  upon  such  a  life,  the 
step  may  be  delayed  until  such  obstacles 
are  removed.  Neither  is  it  permitted  to 
parents  themselves  to  join  any  religious 
order  before  they  have  properly  provided 
for  their  children,  especially  as  regards 
their  religious  education.  Nor  may  a 
bishop  leave  his  see  to  become  a  religious 
without  the  permission  of  the  Pope.  In 
the  United  States  a  priest  may  not  join  a 
religious  order  without  the  permission  of 


his  bishop  and  the  Propaganda.  Such 
are  the  formal  laws  of  the  Church  on  this 
important  question. 

Profession  of  Faith.     See  Crkkd. 

Promise  (Divine). —  The  divine  prom- 
ise is  the  announcement  made  to  Adam  of 
a  Saviour  who,  born  of  a  woman,  will 
crush  the  head  of  the  serpent,  that  is,  will 
triumph  over  hell  and  evil,  and  will  redeem 
the  entire  human  race.  This  promise  was 
renewed  to  the  Patriarchs,  especially  to 
Abraham,  and  has  been  the  foundation  of 
the  teaching  of  the  Prophets  until  Jesus 
Christ.  Under  the  new  law,  the  ancient 
promise  having  received  its  fulfillment, 
we  understand  by  promises  (  in  the  plural ) 
the  assurance  given  by  Jesus  Christ  to  His 
Church,  that  He  will  be  with  her  until  the 
end  of  time,  and  that  her  enemies  will  not 
prevail  against  her;  we  may  also  under- 
stand those  that  have  reference  to  the 
rewards  of  eternal  life. 

Propaganda  or  Propagation  of  the 
Faith.  —  A  congregation  established  at 
Rome  by  Gregory  XIII.  and  increased  by 
Clement  VIII.  and  Gregory  XV.  for  the 
administration  of  affairs  regarding  the 
propagation  of  the  faith,  in  infidel  coun- 
tries. The  Propaganda  sends  into  infidel 
or  heretical  countries  missionaries  whom 
it  distributes,  according  to  the  qualities  of 
the  subjects,  and  to  the  religious  socie- 
ties to  which  they  belong.  It  proposes  to 
the  Pope  the  bishops  and  apostolic  vicars; 
it  grants  directly  to  the  missionaries  all 
the  special  powers,  and  dispensations  re- 
quired; it  answers  all  their  doubts,  gives 
them  advice,  traces  for  them  certain  rules, 
and  fixes  the  limits  for  the  different  mis- 
sions in  order  to  avoid  confusion.  Finally 
it  is  the  ordinary  judge  of  controversies 
which  may  arise  among  the  missionaries, 
among  the  religious  of  the  various  orders, 
or  among  the  missionaries  and  the  native 
clergy,  or  among  the  religious  who  are  on 
the  mission  and  their  superiors.  The 
Propaganda  has  also  jurisdiction  over  all 
the  bishops  in  heretical  and  schismatical 
countries,  like  the  United  States  and  the 
Churches  of  the  East.  Urban  VIII. 
founded  a  seminary  subject  to  the  Con- 
gregation of  the  Propaganda,  destined  to 
receive  the  future  missionaries  and  to 
educate  them.  The  printing  institute  of 
the  Propaganda  publishes,  in  all  the  lan- 
guages, works  useful  for  the  missions.  Its 
library  is  one  of  the  richest  in  books  and 


Propaganda  of  Lyons 


587    Prophets  and  Prophecies 


precious  manuscripts,  gathered  from  all 
the  countries  visited  by  the  missionaries. 
Every  year,  on  the  eve  of  Epiphany,  the 
scholars  of  the  different  Roman  colleges 
read  or  write,  each  in  his  mother  tongue, 
a  poem  or  a  canticle  in  honor  of  the  Epiph- 
any. 

Propaganda  of  Lyons.  —  A  religious 
institution  of  French  origin,  founded  at 
Lyons,  in  1822,  by  a  poor  servant  whose 
work  it  was  "  to  assist  by  prayers  and 
alms  the  Catholic  missionaries  who  carry 
the  faith  and  civilization  among  the  infi- 
dels." The  prayers  prescribed  are:  Our 
Father,  and  Hail  Mary,  every  day  with 
the  invocation :  "St.  Francis  Xavier,  pray 
for  us."  The  alms  consist  in  voluntary 
gifts,  and  in  annual  subscriptions.  The  sub- 
scription is  one  cent  per  week,  or  fifty-two 
cents  per  year.  The  center  of  the  work, 
approved  by  Gregory  XVI.,  in  1840,  is  at 
Lyons.  The  annual  amount  of  alms  is 
more  that  one  million  dollars.  The  work 
publishes,  every  two  months,  the  "Annals 
of  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith,"  and  the 
"Catholic  Mission s,"  an  illustrated 
weekly. 

Prophets  and  Prophecies  (The  proph- 
ets were  those  men  who,  by  divine  in- 
spiration, foretold  the  future,  or  revealed 
truths  hidden  from  man).  —  There  were 
among  the  Hebrews  two  very  distinct 
classes  of  these  privileged  men,  whom 
Holy  Scripture  calls  "Men  of  God," 
"  angels,"  or  "  messengers  of  the  Lord  "  : 
the  nebiim  or  prophets  properly  speaking, 
and  the  roiin  or  hozim,  that  is,  seers.  The 
first  class,  having  no  other  function  but 
that  of  extraordinary  messengers  of  God, 
devoted  themselves  entirely  to  directing 
the  people  in  regard  to  religious  aflfairs, 
especially,  when  the  priests  rendered 
themselves  guilty  in  their  sacred  charac- 
ter, and  when  the  people  had  been 
plunged  into  sin  and  idolatry.  The  latter 
were  men  to  whom  God  had  revealed 
Himself,  without  removing  them  from 
their  ordinary  state  and  condition  of  life. 
Without  being  charged  with  prophetical 
functions,  they  nevertheless  prophesied ; 
they  received  visions  and  even  the  most 
important  revelations.  Thus,  for  in- 
stance, David  and  Solomon  being  kings, 
were  favored  with  divine  revelations ;  but 
they  remained  in  their  respective  places. 

The  most  ordinary  way,  in  which  God 
communicated   Himself  to   the  Prophets, 


was  by  inspiration,  enlightening  their 
mind,  and  exciting  their  will  to  publish 
what  He  made  known  to  them  interiorly. 
It  is  in  this  sense  that  we  hold  as  Prophets 
all  the  authors  of  the  canonical  books  of  both 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  Thus  God 
also,  through  dreams  and  visions,  held 
communication  with  the  Prophets,  as  for 
instance,  with  Jacob  and  St.  Peter;  in  a 
cloud,  as  with  Abraham,  Job,  Moses,  and 
again  with  the  latter  through  an  articulate 
voice  in  the  burning  bush  and  upon  Mount 
Sinai,  and  with  Samuel,  while  he  slept  in 
the  Temple.  In  the  Old  Testament,  we 
have  the  writings  or  books  of  sixteen 
Prophets,  of  whom  four  are  called 
"  Greater  Prophets  "  because  their  prophe- 
cies are  longer  and  more  extensive ;  twelve 
"Minor  Prophets,"  because  their  prophe- 
cies are  shorter  than  the  ones  first  named. 
The  four  great  Prophets  are :  Isaias,  Jere- 
mias,  Ezechiel,  and  Daniel.  The  twelve 
minor  Prophets  are :  Osee,  Joel,  Amos, 
Abdias,  Micheas,  Jonas,  Nahum,  Habacuc, 
Sophonias,  Aggeus,  Zacharias,  and  Mala- 
chias.  We  might  also  count  Baruch  as  the 
seventeenth,  but  he  is  generally  included 
with  Jeremias.  In  the  New  Testament, 
the  Apocalypse  is  regarded,  and  with 
right,  as  a  prophecy  of  the  different  states 
of  the  Church  and  of  later  times.  There 
has  been,  in  both  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments, quite  a  number  of  other  prophets, 
but  they  have  left  no  writings,  at  least 
none  that  have  come  to  us.  Among  the 
Jews,  the  Prophets  form  the  second  of  the 
three  classes  from  which  have  gone  forth 
the  twenty-four  books  which  compose  their 
canon.  They  are  divided  into :  the  first 
or  anterior  {rischonim)  section,  comprises : 
Josue,  the  Judges,  the  two  books  of  Samuel, 
and  the  two  books  of  Kings ;  and  the  last 
or  posterior  {aharonim)  section,  comprises : 
Isaias,  Jeremias  (his  prophecies  only), 
Ezechiel,  and  the  twelve  minor  Prophets. 
Daniel  as  well  as  the  Lamentations  and 
Prayer  of  Jeremias  are  ranked  among  the 
third  class,  that  of  the  Hagiographa. 
Under  Josue  we  find  a  kind  of  prophetic 
academy,  where  the  children  of  the 
Prophets,  i.  e.,  their  disciples,  led  a  retired 
and  austere  life,  devoting  themselves  to 
study  and  reading  the  law  of  God.  There 
were  such  prophetic  schools  at  Naioth  of 
Ramatha  under  Saul ;  David  and  Saul  re- 
tired thither.  We  find  them,  also,  under 
the  Prophets  Elias  and  Eliseus  at  Bethel 
and  in  the  plain  of  Jericho.  There  was  a 
great   number   of  similar   schools   in   the 


Prophets  and  Prophecies    588     Prophets  and  Prophecies 


kingdom  of  Israel.  These  schools  con- 
tinued to  exist  until  the  captivity  of  Bab- 
ylon, and  it  even  appears  that  the  captives 
went  to  listen  to  the  Prophets  whenever 
they  had  occasion  to  do  so. 

The  existence  of  prophecies  is  a  fact 
universally  admitted  by  both  Jewish  and 
Christian  traditions.  However  Rational- 
ists deny  that  there  are  any  real  prophe- 
cies, that  is,  supernatural  manifestations 
made  by  God  to  man  in  order  to  reveal 
His  will  or  the  future.  They  acknowledge 
that  there  exist  prophetical  books  in  the 
Old  Testament,  and  admit  what  they  term 
"  Prophetism,"  that  is,  the  intervention  in 
the  history  of  Israel  of  extraordinary  men 
of  great  intelligence  and  of  great  perspi- 
cacity, but  refuse  to  see  in  them  anything 
supernatural.  They  di\ide  the  prophecies 
into  two  classes,  the  one  authentic,  the 
other  unauthentic.  The  latter  are  too  ex- 
plicit, too  precise,  too  much  beyond  hu- 
man power  to  be  explained  naturally. 
According  to  Rationalists  they  were  writ- 
ten after  the  events,  something  like  the 
revelation  of  the  future  history  of  Rome, 
which  Virgil  makes  ^neas  recite  in  hell. 
As  to  those  whose  authenticity  they  ac- 
knowledge, they  refer,  according  to  them, 
either  to  near  events,  which  the  wisdom 
of  the  prophets  permitted  them  to  foresee 
and  to  announce,  or  they  had  for  their  ob- 
ject what  is  called  the  Messianic  kingdom 
^  and  are  the  fruit  of  vague  and  poorly  defined 
aspirations.  We  will  now  show  the  false- 
ness of  these  assumptions. 

Prophecy  is  possible.  God  certainly 
knows  the  future  and  He  is  free  to  reveal 
it  as  He  pleases  and  to  whom  He  pleases. 
Only  an  atheist  can  deny  this  truth,  a 
truth  admitted  at  all  times  and  in  all 
places.  Prophecies  exist  in  fact.  Holy 
Scripture  contains  prophetic  books,  which 
foretell  the  future.  Infidels,  it  is  true, 
deny  the  authenticity  of  several  of  these 
books,  or  interpret  them  in  an  ordinary, 
natural  manner,  but  they  are  forced  to  ad- 
mit that  future  events  are  announced. 
Acknowledging  their  avowals,  and  for  the 
moment  conceding  to  them  all  fair  con- 
cessions, it  is  yet  an  easy  matter  to  prove 
from  the  books  whose  authenticity  they  do 
not  contest,  the  existence  of  real  prophe- 
cies. I.  The  Prophet  Micheas,  for  exam- 
ple, announces  (iv.  8-10)  the  Babylonian 
Captivity  some  150  years  before  the  event, 
when  there  was  no  hostility  between 
Babylon  and  Judea,  and  at  a  time  when 
Babylon   was  not    an    independent   state. 


How  could  the  Prophet  foresee,  humanly 
speaking,  that  which  he  so  explicitly  fore- 
told }  2.  All  the  Prophets,  commencing 
with  the  most  ancient,  foretold  the  de- 
struction of  Jerusalem,  with  its  temple, 
and  the  captivity  of  the  people.  These 
momentously  grave  events  they  did  not 
prophesy  in  a  vague  and  ambiguous  man- 
ner, but  in  a  clear  and  precise  tone.  The 
most  dreaded  enemy  of  the  children  of 
Jacob  at  this  time  were  the  Assyrians. 
Yet  the  Prophet  assures  them  that  the 
Assyrians  will  not  become  God's  avengers, 
nor  will  Israel  be  saved  by  Egypt,  al- 
though to  that  power  it  looked  for  help, 
but  God  Himself  will  be  its  saviour,  after 
its  chastisements  by  the  Chaldeans.  All 
the  Prophets  were  unanimous  in  affirming 
their  predictions,  which  were  literally  ful- 
filled, just  as  they  had  been  foretold. 
3.  When  the  empire  of  Nabuchodonosor 
had  attained  its  highest  degree  of  glory 
and  power,  its  decay  and  ruin  were  fore- 
told in  precise  terms  by  Jeremias  the 
Prophet :  Babylon  will  be  taken  by  the 
Medes  and  their  allies,  the  Persians,  en- 
tering the  city  over  the  dry  bed  of  the 
Euphrates,  during  the  night  of  feasting 
and  drunken  folly,  and  the  Jews  will  be- 
hold the  end  of  their  captivity.  How,  and 
by  what  fact  of  |>erspicacity,  could  a  Jew, 
living  at  Jerusalem,  foresee  events  and 
point  out  such  minute  details,  long  before 
their  actual  occurrence,  except  by  a 
Divine  revelation.''  4.  The  prophets  have 
embraced,  in  their  circle  of  pre- 
dictions, all  the  nations  surrounding 
them,  and  in  every  instance  what 
they  foretold  was  fulfilled.  They  an- 
nounced the  ruin  of  Ninive,  of  Babylon, 
of  Tyre,  of  Memphis,  of  the  Ammonites, 
Moabites,  Philistines,  and  Idumeans;  all 
these  cities,  with  their  peoples,  have  dis- 
appeared forever  from  the  scene  of  this 
world.  There  is  not  a  single  city,  not  a 
people  but  whose  fate  has  been  that  fore- 
told by  the  Prophets  of  Israel.  Such  a 
coincidence  cannot  be  the  effect  of  mere 
chance.  It  is  most  assuredly  God's  work. 
The  ruins  of  these  once  famous  cities  are 
still  to  be  seen,  as  silent,  but  eloquent  wit- 
nesses of  God's  veracitj',  and  the  divine 
inspirations  of  His  Prophets.  5.  Zacharias 
clearly  describes  the  conquest  of  Alexander 
the  Great  (ix.  1-8).  He  foretold  the  con- 
quest of  Hadrach,  Damascus,  and  Emath, 
that  the  defenses  of  Tyre  would  be  thrown 
into  the  sea  and  the  city  burned,  that  Gaza 
would  lose  her  king,  that  Azot  would  be 


Prophets 


589 


Prophets 


peopled  by  a  vile  populace,  and  that  in  the 
midst  of  so  much  trouble  and  ruin,  Jeru- 
salem should  be  at  peace.  All  these 
prophecies  were  completely  fulfilled  during 
the  expedition  of  Alexander.  One  of  the 
fathers  of  modern  rationalism,  Eichorn, 
struck  by  the  character  of  these  prophecies, 
has  found  no  other  means  to  elude  their 
force  than  that  of  having  recourse  to  the 
most  inadmissible  hypothesis  :  that  it  was 
an  historical  narrative  veiled  under  a  pro- 
phetic form,  thereby  involuntarily  con- 
fessing the  exactitude  and  veracity  of  the 
predictions.  6.  We  could  quote  a  multi- 
tude of  other  examples  of  the  same  kind, 

Prophets  (Chronological  Table  of  the). 


all  of  which  were  verified,  but  the  above 
are  sufficient.  Yet,  we  may  be  pardoned, 
if  we  mention  the  Messianic  prophecies. 
All  these  were  incontestably  anterior  to 
the  events  which  they  so  minutely  de- 
scribed and  foretold.  Now,  these  prophe- 
cies announced  the  birth,  life,  death,  and 
events  of  our  Saviour,  just  as  the  preceding 
prophecies  foretold  other  events.  There  is 
hardly  a  prominent  fact  of  the  Gospel  in 
connection  with  our  Saviour  which  was 
not  exactly  foretold.  Hence,  we  may  con- 
clude that  the  existence  of  prophecies  is  an 
historical  fact,  more  plainly  proven  than 
many  other  historical  events. 


First  Period. — The  Struggle  against  Assyria 


Approxi- 
mative 
Dates 


Kings  Under  Whom  Thev 
Prophesied 


Countries   About   Which   They 
Prophesied 


Abias 

Joel 

Jonas  .... 
Amos  . . . . 

Osee 

Micheas... 

Isaias 

Nahum. .  . 

Habacuc. 
Sophonias 

Jeremias  . 

Baruch . . . 
Ezechiel  . 

Daniel... . 

Aggeus... 
Zacharias. 

Malachias 


989-884 
878-838 
825-784 
809-784 

790-725 

758-710 

759-699 
665 


Joram  ( .?) 

Joas  (.?) 

Jeroboam  II 

Jeroboam  II.  and  Ozias 

!  Jeroboam  II.,  Ozias, 
Joatham,  Achaz,  and 
Ezechias. 
')  Joatham,  Achaz,  and 
\  Ezechias. 

!  Ozias,  Joatham, 
Achaz,  Ezechias(and 
Manasses). 
(Manasses) 


Against  Idumea. 
About  Juda. 
About  Ninive. 
Against  Israel. 

About  Israel. 


Against  Juda  and  Israel. 

About  all  the  nations  known 
the  Hebrews. 


by 


Against  Ninive. 


Second  Chaldean  Period 


650-627 
628-623 

625-after 

588 

583 
595-573 

604-534 


(Manasses  or  Josias)  ( ?) . 
Josias 


Josias,  Joakim,  Jechonias, 
Sedecias  (in  Egypt). 

Sedecias 


Jechonias;  Captivity.  . . . 

Jechonias,  Nabuchodono- 
sor,  Balthasar,  Darius 
the  Mede,  Cyrus. 


Against  the  Chaldeans. 

Against  Juda  and  the  neighbor- 
ing nations. 

About  Juda;  against  the  neigh- 
boring nations.  Egypt  and 
Babylon. 

Exhortation  to  the  captives  of 
Babylon. 

Against  Juda  and  the  neighbor- 
ing nations ;  restoration. 

The  Great  Empires. 


Third  Period. — After  the  Captivity 


520 
520 

433-423 


Darius,  son  of  Hystaspes. 
Darius,  son  of  Hystaspes, 

Artaxerxes  Longiraanus. 


Promise  to  Juda. 

The  beautiful  arrival  at  Jerusa- 
lem. 

The  goodness  of  God  for  His 
people. 


Prophets 


590 


Property 


Prophets  i^False).  —  There  is  often  ques- 
tion in  Holy  Scripture  of  False  Prophets. 
The  priests  of  Baal  claimed  to  be  prophets ; 
they  deceived  Achab  by  announcing  to  him 
nothing  but  prosperity.  Micheas,  prophet 
of  the  Lord,  tells  this  king  that  God  has 
sent  a  lying  spirit  in  the  mouth  of  all  these 
prophets  (III.  Ki.  xxii.  22,  23).  God  tells 
through  Ezechias  (xiv.  9):  "When  the 
prophet  shall  err,  and  speak  a  word :  I  the 
Lord  have  deceived  that  prophet."  On 
account  of  these  texts,  the  infidels  ask 
whether  God  can  deceive  a  prophet, 
whether  He  can  send  a  lying  spirit  in  his 
mouth,  and  what  sign  there  is  between  a 
true  and  a  false  prophet?  This  objection 
is  much  more  specious  than  solid.  First, 
infidels  themselves  regard  it  as  unworthy 
of  God's  holiness  that  He  should  deceive, 
and  that  He  should  engage  Himself  to  do 
an  evil  action.  In  this,  we  are  with  them 
in  perfect  agreement.  On  the  other  hand, 
here,  like  in  so  many  other  passages  of 
the  Bible,  the  verbs  which  properly  indi- 
cate an  action,  are  also  to  be  taken  by  me- 
tonymy in  the  sense  of  a  simple  permission. 
Thus  the  phrases :  God  has  sent  a  lying 
spirit  in  the  mouth  of  the  prophets,  and  I 
have  deceived  this  prophet,  simply  signify 
that  God  has  permitted  these  prophets  to 
deceive,  as  they  intended  to  do.  He  freely 
permitting  them  to  tell  lies.  Let  us  add 
that  in  Ezechiel  itself  (xiii.  6,  7),  God 
complains  that  the  false  prophets  dare  to 
speak  in  His  name,  although  He  did  not 
send  them,  and  that  He  told  them  nothing. 
Hence,  God  had  no  part  in  the  falsehoods 
they  told.  It-  is  in  this  manner,  the 
phrases  we  have  quoted,  have  been  ex- 
plained not  only  by  Theodoret,  but  also  by 
Dathe,  Storr,  and  Rosenmiiller.  As  to 
the  sign  by  which  we  can  distinguish  be- 
tween a  true  and  a  false  prophet,  it  is 
manifest  and  evident :  the  prophets  of 
Achab  were  idolaters ;  Micheas  adored  the 
true  God  and  prophesied  in  His  name. 

Prophets  of  Holland  (heretical  enthusi- 
asts of  the  seventeenth  century). — Most 
of  these  sectaries  applied  themselves  to 
the  study  of  Greek  and  Hebrew;  on  the 
first  Sunday  of  every  month  they  assem- 
bled in  a  village,  near  Leyden,  and  there 
passed  the  day  in  reading  Holy  Scripture, 
formulating  different  questions,  and  dis- 
cussing the  meaning  of  divers  passages. 
They  affected  great  uprightness  and  had  a 
horror  of  war  and  arms ;  in  many  things 
they  followed  the  opinions  of  the  Arminians. 


Property. — By  property  in  general  we 
understand  whatever  is  possessed  in  such 
a  way,  that  the  owner  may  dispose  of  it, 
independently,  as  his  own.  The  right  of 
property,  therefore,  is  the  power  to  possess 
a  thing  in  the  manner  described.  The 
right  of  property  implies,  it  is  true,  the 
right  of  free  disposal ;  yet  the  exercise  of 
the  latter  may  be  in  certain  cases  rendered 
unlawful  by  positive  law  or  other  condi- 
tions. A  guardian,  for  instance,  is  a  true 
possessor,  but  the  law  does  not  permit 
him  to  exercise  the  right  of  free  disposal. 
Yet  the  right  of  free  disposal  does  not, 
necessarily,  imply  the  right  of  property. 
An  administrator  may  dispose  of  the  prop- 
erty over  which  he  is  placed  ;  yet  he  does 
not  dispose  of  it  as  his  own,  but  as  the 
property  of  another ;  nor  does  he  dispose 
of  it  independently,  but  only  in  virtue  of 
the  power  given  him. 

God  is  the  Lord  of  all  things,  because 
He  has  created  all  things.  But  man  also, 
the  image  of  God,  can  mold  and  modify 
things  as  he  pleases;  and  thus  he  becomes 
their  true  lord  in  a  limited  sense,  as  God  is 
their  absolute  Lord  in  virtue  of  creation. 
Occupation  of  an  ownerless  property  is  in 
itself  a  certain  modification  of  that  prop- 
erty, and  thus  may  become  the  basis  of 
private  property.  Therefore,  although 
God  has  delivered  irrational  nature,  not  to 
individuals  as  such,  but  to  mankind  at 
large  (Gen.  i.  28,  29),  yet  it  is  by  no  means 
contrary  to  His  design  that  the  goods  of 
this  earth  should  be  divided  among  indi- 
viduals, and,  consequently,  that  private 
property  should  exist, 

God,  on  the  contrary,  intended  private 
ownership  as  the  rule;  in  other  words, 
private  ownership  is  in  accordance  with 
the  design  of  Providence,  being  suited  to 
the  nature  and  conditions  of  man.  The 
earth  serves  its  purpose  better  for  the 
necessities  of  man  if  distributed  among  in- 
dividuals, since  private  property  is  naturally 
more  diligently  cultivated  than  public. 
The  distribution  of  property,  moreover, 
ser\'es  for  the  preservation  of  peace  and 
order,  which  are  more  easily  maintained 
when  the  right  of  private  ownership  is 
secured.  It  is  evident  that  those  griev- 
ances which  in  any  case  would  arise  from 
common  ownership,  would  be  heightened 
by  the  results  of  original  sin,  and,  conse- 
quently, that  fallen  man  is  all  the  more 
constrained  to  have  recourse  to  private 
property.  The  inconvenience  of  common 
ownership  may,  however,  be  more  easily 


Property 


591 


Property 


avoided  in  small  communities,  particu- 
larly if  their  members  bind  themselves  by 
a  vow  of  poverty,  than  in  larger  aggrega- 
tions of  men.  Private  ownership  provides 
better  for  the  dignity  of  the  individual.  It 
forces  man  to  direct  his  attention  to  the 
future,  to  cultivate  his  plot  of  ground  in 
order  to  insure  a  more  abundant  harvest 
for  future  needs.  On  the  other  hand,  huge 
numbers  of  men  would  sink  into  the  degra- 
dation of  slavery  if  they  were  forced,  not 
by  their  own  determination,  but  by  exter- 
nal compulsion,  to  labor  and  thus  to  provide 
for  the  needs  of  the  future.  It  must,  there- 
fore, be  considered  the  exception,  not  the 
rule,  if  religious  communities  leave  their 
temporal  concerns  in  the  hands  of  one,  or 
of  a  few,  in  order  that  the  entire  body  may 
with  greater  freedom  devote  themselves  to 
religious  or  other  higher  pursuits.  As 
long  as  the  great  masses  of  humanity  are 
not  disposed  to  devote  themselves  to  mere 
spiritual  pursuits,  the  care  of  private  prop- 
erty will  continue  to  form  their  God- 
given  and  congenial  occupation. 

The  fact  that  at  all  times  and  in  all 
places,  particularly  after  the  human  race 
had  multiplied  to  some  extent,  a  division 
of  the  earth  was  made,  and  thus  private 
property  established,  is  an  evidence  of  the 
universal  conviction  that  such  a  division, 
or  private  ownership,  was  necessary  as  a 
natural  and  suitable  condition  of  human 
society;  and  was,  consequently,  one  of  the 
demands  of  human  nature  itself.  Man, 
however,  is  not  so  much  impelled  by  the 
natural  law  to  the  division  of  the  property 
as  he  is,  for  instance,  toward  the  love  of  his 
neighbor ;  nor  is  common  property  so  much 
forbidden  by  the  natural  law  as  are  theft 
and  murder.  Common  ownership  of  itself 
is  not  repugnant  to  human  nature ;  else  it 
could  never  be  permitted,  even  in  religious 
communities.  It  is  repugnant  to  human 
nature  only  in  consequence  of  certain  de- 
fects inherent  in  man,  and  only  so  long  as 
the  inconveniences  arising  from  such 
human  imperfections  are  not  otherwise  re- 
moved. The  division  of  earthly  goods, 
and  the  institution  of  private  property, 
depend  upon  the  free  will  of  man,  for  the 
human  race  might  absolutely  exist  without 
private  property,  and  the  earth  could  ab- 
solutely fulfill  its  purpose  —  serve  for  the 
nourishment  and  comfort  of  man  —  with- 
out a  division  of  property.  But  free  will 
is  not  always  arbitrary ;  on  the  contrary, 
man  was  by  various  important  reasons, 
which  at  times  constituted  a  moral  neces- 


sity, constrained  to  have  recourse  to  such 
a  division  of  property.  The  universality 
of  the  institution  of  private  property  among 
the  various  civilized  nations  is  an  evidence 
that  it  rests  upon  certain  conditions  in- 
separable from  human  nature.  Hence  we 
frequently  meet  in  the  works  of  doctors 
and  divines  with  the  assertion  that  private 
ownership  rests  upon  that  universal  right 
or  law  common  to  all  nations  called  jus 
gentium,  which,  however,  is  not  to  be  con- 
founded with  international  right,  or  the 
positive  law  of  nations. 

Against  the  lawfulness  or  fitness  of  pri- 
vate ownership  the  objection  is  sometimes 
raised  that  it  has  been  productive  of  enor- 
mous inequality  and  has  brought  the 
masses  of  humanity  into  poverty  and 
misery.  This  objection,  however,  as  far 
as  it  touches  upon  an  existing  evil,  can  be 
made  only  in  those  cases  in  which  the 
authorities  entrusted  with  the  care  of  the 
common  interests  have  neglected  their 
duty  to  protect  the  weak  against  the  vio- 
lence of  the  strong.  That  civil  authority 
in  matters  regarding  the  acquisition  of 
property  possesses  extensive  rights  is  gen- 
erally conceded  by  philosophers  and  di- 
vines, and  follows  from  the  facts  that  the 
purpose  of  earthly  goods  is  to  facilitate 
the  existence  of  man,  and  that  the  end  of 
public  authority  is  to  maintain  order  and 
prevent  oppression.  Civil  authority  has, 
therefore,  the  right  to  enact  laws  for  the 
general  welfare,  to  prevent  the  exorbitant 
accumulation  of  private  property,  or  the 
occupation  and  appropriation  for  private 
purposes  of  two  extensive  tracts  of  land. 
Hence,  those  economists  are  in  error  who 
assert  that  the  State  can  remove  the  evils 
in  question  only  on  the  condition  that  it 
become  the  sole  possessor  of  the  soil. 
The  Mosaic  law,  as  St.  Thomas  remarks, 
instituted  the  Jubilee  Year  as  the  means  to 
prevent  the  formation  of  too  large  pri- 
vate estates,  and  the  excessive  accumula- 
tion of  wealth  in  the  hands  of  individuals, 
without  making  the  State  the  sole  owner 
of  the  land. 

The  right  of  ownership  is  acknowledged 
by  God  Himself,  in  as  much  as  He  forbids 
theft  as  a  violation  of  the  rights  of  others. 
If  private  property  were  theft,  as  Com- 
munists assert,  theft  would  not  be  a  viola- 
tion of  the  right  of  our  neighbor,  but  of 
the  right  of  the  State.  But  God  does  not 
forbid  theft  as  a  violation  of  the  right  of 
the  State,  but  the  right  of  our  neighbor 
individually,  as  He  forbids  adultery,  not 


Proselytes 


592 


Protestantism 


as  a  violation  of  the  right  of  the  State, 
but  of  the  right  of  the  individual  (  Ex.  xx. 
17).  In  like  manner,  in  the  New  Law  the 
right  of  private  ownership  is  acknowl- 
edged. Christ  says  to  the  young  man  in 
the  Gospel:  **Go,  sell  what  thou  hast, 
and  give  ft  to  the  poor  "  (  Matt.  xix.  21). 
The  young  man  could  not  lawfully  sell  his 
possessions  if  they  were  not  really  his 
own.  This  follows  also  from  the  praise 
which  Christ  imparted  to  Zacheus,  when 
the  latter  declared  himself  ready  to  give 
one-half  of  his  possessions  to  the  poor 
(Luke  xix.  8,  9). 

The  Church  has  in  various  ways  declared 
the  lawfulness  of  private  property.  In  the 
early  ages  the  followers  of  certain  com- 
munistic doctrines,  who  called  themselves 
"Apostolics,"  were  numbered  among  the 
heretics.  Besides,  the  Church  condemned 
the  doctrine  of  Wycliffe,  who  asserted  that 
it  was  contrary  to  the  Scriptures,  that  the 
clergy  should  possess  property.  If,  there- 
fore, the  possession  of  property  is  permit- 
ted to  ecclesiastics,  it  is  all  the  more  lawful 
for  the  laity.  See  Socialism  and  Com- 
munism. 

Proselytes.  —  In  the  Jewish  sense  the 
Proselytes  were  f orei gners  who  had  adopted 
the  Jewish  religion.  There  were  two 
species  of  Proselytes :  "  Proselytes  of  the 
Gate  "  and  "  Proselytes  of  Justice."  To 
the  first  class  belonged  those  pagans  who 
professed  the  monotheism  of  the  Jews, 
adopted  their  moral  code,  abstained  from 
flesh-meat  offered  to  idols,  and  abandoned 
other  pagan  practices.  This  class  was  quite 
numerous.  To  the  second  belong  those 
pagans,  who  submitted  to  circumcision  and 
fully  observed  the  law  of  Moses.  These 
were  comparatively  few  in  number.  There 
was  still  another  and  very  numerous  class, 
who,  without  the  preliminary  preparation 
of  becoming  proselytes  of  the  gate,  sought 
amid  the  general  desolation  of  paganism, 
to  quiet  the  voice  of  conscience,  by  prac- 
ticing the  ceremonial  of  Judaism  and  ob- 
serving the  festivals. 

Prosper  (St.).  —  Ecclesiastical  writer  of 
the  fifth  century.  The  precise  years  of  his 
birth  and  death  is  uncertain.  Though  but 
a  layman,  St.  Prosper  was  an  admirable 
and  pious  theologian.  He  had  been  led  by 
the  evils  of  his  time  to  the  practice  of  a 
devout  life.  A  warm  admirer  of  the  great 
Bishop  of  Hippo,  especially  in  his  teach- 
ings on  grace,  he  was  the  occasion  of  St. 
Augustine  writing  his   two  books  on  the 


Predestination  of  the  Elect  and  The  Gift 
of  Perseverance,  and  he  himself,  both  be- 
fore and  after  St.  Augustine's  death,  took 
up  the  pen  against  the  Pelagians  and  Semi- 
Pelagians.  In  431  he  traveled  to  Rome 
and  complained  to  Pope  Celestine,  that 
certain  misguided  priests  of  Marseilles 
were  teaching  erroneous  doctrines  on  the 
subject  of  grace.  Hereupon  the  Pope 
wrote  a  letter  of  rebuke  to  the  bishops  of 
Gaul  and  commended  in  terms  of  praise 
the  doctrine  of  St.  Augustine.  According 
to  Gennadius,  Prosper  was  afterwards  sum- 
moned to  Rome  and  became  secretary  to 
Pope  Leo  I.  He  died  about  463  in  the 
odor  of  sanctity. 

Protestantism  {Causes  and  effects  of). — 
By  Protestantism  we  understand  the  belief 
of  the  Protestant  Churches  in  all  points 
wherein  they  differ  from  the  faith  of  the 
Catholic  Church.  The  name  Protestant, 
first  applied  to  the  Lutherans  who  fro- 
tested  at  the  Diet  of  Spire  in  1529,  came 
to  be  applied  to  Lutherans  generally,  and 
afterwards  was  extended  to  Calvinists  and 
other  opponents  of  the  Catholic  Church. 
The  introduction  and  rapid  spread  of  the 
new  heresy  may  be  ascribed  to  the  follow- 
ing causes :  I.  Abuses  and  evils  existing 
within  the  Church,  such  as  the  negligence, 
ignorance,  and  degeneracy  of  many  priests 
and  religious.  Members  of  the  nobility 
held  the  most  important  benefices.  The 
spoliation  of  these  was  in  many  instances 
a  just  punishment  on  them.  2.  General 
faultfinding  with  existing  abuses  was  prev- 
alent. The  discontented  are  naturally 
inclined  to  innovation.  3.  The  fascinating 
influence  of  the  writings  of  several  re- 
formers; the  promises  of  the  correction  of 
abuses  accompanied  by  "evangelical  lib- 
erty," carried  with  them  a  weight  of 
authority.  The  masses  were  not  able  to 
detect  the  contradictions  between  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Church  and  the  new  heresy. 
To  deceive  the  people,  the  reformers  at 
first  retained  many  Catholic  usages,  such 
as  Confession,  Church  festivals.  Mass, 
candles,  sacred  vestments,  etc.  4.  The  new 
doctrines  offered  many  advantages  to  sen- 
sual men.  The  humble  and  submissive 
faith  was  replaced  by  individual  reason 
and  private  judgment;  confession  of  sins, 
so  irksome  to  human  nature  was  abolished ; 
princes  and  nobles  were  commanded  to 
seize  and  confiscate  the  estates  of  Churches 
and  convents ;  they  were  allowed  to  exer- 
cise supreme   jurisdiction   over  ecclesias- 


Prothesis 


593 


Proverbs 


tical  affairs.  The  peasants  were  captivated 
by  the  "  liberty  of  the  children  of  God," 
by  means  of  which  they  hoped  to  shake 
off  the  yoke  of  authority  and  free  them- 
selves from  all  burdens,  tithes,  etc.  5.  The 
quarrel  between  the  Humanists  and  School- 
men; the  remaining  influence  of  former 
heresies,  such  as  the  Waldenses,  Hussites, 
added  inflammable  materials.  6.  The  per- 
sonal influence  of  the  reformers,  especially 
of  Luther,  whose  popular  writings  and 
sermons  found  favor  with  the  masses. 
Luther  and  his  followers  were  unscrupu- 
lous in  the  choice  of  means  to  deceive  the 
people.  In  the  beginning  of  their  career, 
they  professed  to  preach  only  the  true 
doctrine  of  the  Church  and  to  desire  only 
the  correction  of  abuses  and  the  enforce- 
ment of  discipline;  later,  however,  they 
directed  bitter  and  grotesque  caricatures 
against  Pope  and  clergy,  misrepresented 
Catholic  doctrine  and  asserted  that  Catho- 
lics paid  divine  honor  to  the  saints,  images, 
relics,  etc.  These  prejudices  are  more  or 
less  entertained  at  the  present  day.  7.  The 
political  condition  of  Germany  was  an- 
other source  of  weakness.  The  bishops 
holding  temporal  power  became  odious  to 
the  people,  and  were  often  in  dispute  with 
cities  and  citizens.  The  latter,  to  gain 
political  power,  became  promoters  of  the 
new  religion.  The  French,  jealous  of  the 
house  of  Austria,  fanned  the  dissensions 
between  the  princes  and  the  emperor, 
while  the  masses  of  the  people  entertained 
unfavorable  sentiments  toward  the  Apos- 
tolic See.  8.  Finally,  tyranny  of  Protes- 
tant princes  in  introducing  the  new  religion 
and  giving  arbitrary  rules  of  faith  to  their 
subjects,  opened  the  way  still  further  for 
the  malcontents. 

The  effects  of  the  Reformation  on  reli- 
gion and  society  were  the  most  deplorable. 
Bitter  complaints  were  made  by  the  re- 
formers themselves  of  increasing  corrup- 
tion of  morals.  We  find  Luther  admitting 
that  there  was  a  worse  Sodom  under  "the 
Gospel"  than  under  the  Papacy.  He 
owned  that  insubordination,  arrogance, 
and  licentiousness  had  become  almost  uni- 
versal and  that  he  would  never  have  begun 
to  preach  if  he  had  foreseen  the  unhappy 
results.  The  Reformation  everywhere  be- 
came the  fruitful  source  of  political  in- 
trigue and  discord,  of  long  and  cruel  civil 
wars.  The  evil  seed  it  had  sown  every- 
where bore  bloody' fruit.  The  religious 
strifes  in  Switzerland ;  the  revolts  of  ,the 
Huguenots   in   France,   and   of    the   Cal- 

38 


vinists  in  the  Netherlands;  the  wars  of 
the  Peasants  and  Anabaptists  in  Germany; 
finally,  the  wars  of  the  Protestant  princes 
of  Germany  against  the  empire,  were  the 
natural  results  of  the  discord  and  hatred 
which  the  Reformers,  by  their  revolution- 
ary teachings,  had  enkindled  among  the 
people  of  Europe.  It  was  the  Reformation 
that  made  England  the  scene  of  constantly 
recurring  insurrections  and  civil  wars  from 
the  "Pilgrimage  of  Grace"  till  the  great 
rebellion,  which  brought  Charles  I.  to  the 
block.  The  Thirty  Years'  War,  which 
converted  Germany  into  a  vast  field  of  des- 
olation and  horror,  was  the  distinct  legacy 
of  Reformation. 

Prothesis. — Name  given  in  the  Greek 
Church  to  a  small,  portable  altar,  upon 
which  is  prepared  all  that  is  necessary  for 
the  celebration  of  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass 
and  which  is  placed  on  the  main  altar. 

Protocanonicals.     See  Deuterocanon- 

ICALS. 

Protomartyr.  —  Title  bestowed  upon  St. 
Stephen,  who  is  regarded  as  the  first  mar- 
tyr. 

Protonotaries.  —  Name  bestowed  on 
officers  of  the  Roman  court  who  have  a 
degree  of  pre-eminence  over  the  other 
notaries  of  the  same  court.  The  papal 
notaries  date  back  to  the  first  century.  It 
is  believed  that  Pope  St.  Clement  insti- 
tuted seven  of  them.  In  the  course  of 
time,  they  drew  up  the  history  of  the 
Popes,  the  verbal  processes  of  canonization 
and  beatification,  and  other  acts.  Pope 
Sixtus  V.  granted  to  them  great  privileges. 
There  is  a  college  of  twelve  Protonotaries 
called  partakers,  because  they  partake  in 
the  rights  of  the  Chancery.  They  wear 
the  violet,  are  ranked  among  the  prel- 
ates, and  precede  all  the  nonconsecrated 
prelates.  Their  office  consists  in  dispatch- 
ing in  great  causes  the  acts  which  the 
simple  apostolic  notaries  dispatch  in 
smaller  ones,  like  the  verbal  processes  of 
which  the  Pope  takes  knowledge.  They 
assist  at  some  Consistories  and  at  the  can- 
onization of  saints.  They  can  create  doc- 
tors and  apostolic  notaries  to  practice 
outside  the  city  of  Rome. 

Proverbs.  —  Canonical  book  of  the  Old 
Testament,  which  contains  short,  pregnant 
sentences  exhorting  the  reader  to  cultivate 
wisdom,  that  is,  virtue,  the  truest  wisdom, 
and  avoid   vice.     Hence,  St.  Jerome  says 


Providence 


594 


Psalms 


that  Solomon  wrote  them  for  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  young,  just  as  he  wrote  Eccle- 
siastes  for  persons  of  mature  age  to  impress 
upon  them  the  vanity  of  all  human  things, 
and  the  Canticle  of  Canticles  for  the  old 
to  set  before  them  a  perfect  model  of 
chastity. 

Providence.  —  The    Roman    Catechism 
presents    divine    providence    as    a  conse- 
quence of  creation.     The  One  who  creates 
everything  cannot  abandon   His  work,  or 
refuse  to  care  for  it.     Hence  the  affirma- 
tion of  Lactantius,  that  if  God  exists  there 
is  a  providence  :  to  deny  providence  would 
be   to    deny    God.     On   the   other   hand, 
theologians  teach  that  God  has  no  limit  as 
regards  creation,  or  as  they  say  ad  extra. 
St.  Thomas  defines  the  action  of  providence 
as   destined   to   attain   its   end  in  created 
things.     Divine  providence,  understood  in 
this  sense,  namely,  the  permanent  action 
of  God   in   favor  of   His  creatures,  is  af- 
firmed in   every   page   of    Scripture.     To 
deny    this,   is,   according    to    Clement  of 
Alexandria,   to    deny    Christianity   itself. 
The   objections    made    by   some  philoso- 
phers do  not  tend  to   deny  the  preserving 
action  of  God  exercising  itself  by  general 
laws,    which   are   in   themselves    but   the 
manifestation  of  God's  plan.     But  the  dif- 
ficulty pointed  out  by  some   is  the  recon- 
ciliation of  man's  freedom  with  the  action 
of  divine  providence.     We  must  not  un- 
derstand providence  as  substituting  itself 
for  man's  free  will,  or  as  modifying  the 
course  of   facts  into  which  human  liberty 
enters;  if  this  were  otherwise,  man  would 
be  little  less  than  a  mere  automaton.     But 
philosophy    itself    acknowledges  that  the 
negation  of  providence  is  as  impossible  as 
the   negation   of    human   liberty.     Provi- 
dence does  not  abolish  the  activity  of  the 
creature,   but    is    not   restrained   to   this. 
Democritus,     Protagoras,    and     Epicurus 
who,  in  antiquity  denied  providence,  were 
real  atheists. 

Provincial.  —  Superior  general  of  sev- 
eral houses  of  the  same  order,  forming  a 
province . 

Prudentius.  —  Christian  poet.  Aurelius 
Prudentius  Clemens  was  born  in  348  of  a 
noble  family  at  Saragossa,  in  Spain.  After 
a  childhood  passed,  as  it  seems,  under  a 
somewhat  severe  discipline  {'■'■  cetas  prima 
cretanttbns  flevit  sub  ferulis^'),  he  de- 
voted himself  to  the  study  of  rhetoric,  and 
embraced  the  career  of  an  advocate,  which 


however,  according  to  his  own  sorrowful 
avowal,  he  disgraced  by  sophistical  decep- 
tions and  shameful  excesses.  His  talent 
and  ability  won  for  him  the  favor  of  the 
Emperor  Theodosius,  who  twice  gave  him 
the  post  of  governor  and  afterwards  a  high 
military  position.  It  was  at  the  very  time 
when  his  fortunes  were  at  their  highest, 
that  he  experienced  a  fierce  inward  strug- 
gle between  virtue  and  vice.  In  the  57th 
year  of  his  age,  he  resigned  his  high  ofli- 
ces,  and  going  to  Rome,  visited  many  of 
the  martyrs'  tombs.  On  his  return,  he 
consecrated  the  rest  of  his  life  to  the  spe- 
cial service  of  God,  and,  in  complete  re- 
tirement, devoted  himself  to  an  ascetic 
life.  He  exercised  his  poetical  talents  for 
the  promotion  of  God's  glory  and  the  de- 
fense of  the  Church.  He  probably  died 
about  the  year  410.  Prudentius  holds  the 
foremost  place  among  early  Christian  poets, 
and  has  not  unjustly  been  called  the 
"  Christian  Virgil."  The  Church  has  par- 
tially adopted  14  of  his  hymns  for  her 
divine  office. 

Psalms  (sacred  canticles  composed  by 
David  or  which  are  generally  attributed  to 
him). — The  Psalms  were,  with  the  He- 
brews, long  before  the  time  of  David,  a 
poetic  form  of  chants  accompanied,  gener- 
ally, by  some  musical  instrument.  David 
excelled  in  this  poetic  form  of  composition 
and  held  the  first  rank  therein.  He  en- 
hanced the  brilliancy  of  the  religious  cere- 
monies by  associating  with  worship  in- 
strumental and  vocal  music.  He  had 
imitators  among  whom  were  Asaph  and 
Core.  Solomon  composed  more  than  i,ooo- 
canticles,  of  which  only  two  have  been  in- 
serted in  the  Psalter,  which,  in  all  proba- 
bility, does  not  contain,  on  the  other  hand, 
all  the  productions  of  David.  Psalm  89- 
is  attributed  to  Moses;  the  ancient  rabbis 
attributed  to  him  10  others,  whose  authors 
are  not  given  by  name.  In  general,  the 
Psalm  is  accompanied  with  an  inscription 
which  determines  its  attribution  to  such 
or  such  an  author.  According  to  the 
Alexandrine  and  Syriac  versions,  the 
Psalms  from  146  to  148  were  the  work  of 
the  Prophets  Aggeus  and  Zacharias.  The 
contents  of  the  Psalms  of  David  are  theo- 
logical, historical,  religious  and  moral,, 
elegiac,  penitential,  and  finally  prophetic. 
The  latter  have  quite  a  separate  impor- 
tance in  apologetics  and,  from  the  first 
centuries  of  the  Christian  Church,  have 
been  held  in  great  esteem  and  valued  as  of 


Psalter 


595 


Purification 


high  authority.  The  Psahns  in  the  original 
Hebrew  are  numbered  differently  from  the 
Latin  Vulgate,  though  the  total  (150)  is 
the  same  in  both.  In  the  Hebrew  the  9th 
Psalm  is  divided  into  two  parts  at  verse  22, 
and  the  113th  Psalm  at  the  9th  verse.  The 
original  has,  therefore,  two  Psalms  more 
than  the  Vulgate  at  this  point;  but  in  the 
ir4th  Psalm  the  Hebrew  drops  one  by  join- 
ing the  114th  with  the  115th,  and  a  second 
at  the  146th  Psalm,  where  the  difTerence 
disappears. 

Psalter.     See  Psalms. 

Pulcheria(399-453) . — Famous  empress  of 
the  East,  born  at  Constantinople,  daugh- 
ter of  Arcadius  and  of  Eudoxia,  sister  of 
Theodosius  H.,  who  created  her  Augusta 
in  414,  and  under  whose  name  she  gov- 
erned. Called  to  succeed  him  (449),  she 
chose  for  spouse  the  Senator  Marcian. 
She  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  convo- 
cation of  the  Council  of  Ephesus  which 
condemned  the  heresy  of  Nestorius  (431). 
The  Greek  Church  honors  her  as  saint,  on 
September  loth. 

Punishment  {Eternal).     See  Hell. 

Purcell  (John  Baptist)  (1800-1883). — 
Archbishop ;  born  at  Mallow,  County 
Cork,  Ireland;  died  in  Brown  County, 
Ohio.  He  emigrated  to  America  in  1818, 
studied  theology  in  Mount  St.  Mary's,  Em- 
metsburg,  Maryland,  and  in  St.  Sulpice, 
Paris,  where  he  was  ordained  priest  in 
1826.  In  1827,  he  was  appointed  professor 
in  St.  Mary's,  and  in  1828  president  of  the 
college.  In  1833  he  was  consecrated 
bishop  of  Cincinnati  and  in  1850  arch- 
bishop. At  the  Council  of  the  Vatican  he 
spoke  and  voted  against  the  dogma  of  in- 
fallibility but  accepted  it,  when  promul- 
gated. The  growth  of  the  Church  in  ■ 
Ohio  was  due  to  his  energy,  but  his 
methods  finally  involved  him  in  financial 
disaster.  For  many  years  he  received  the 
savings  of  his  parishioners  and  spent  them 
on  Church  buildings  and  charitable  insti- 
tutions. Later  on,  when  there  was  an  at- 
tempt to  draw  the  money,  the  state  of 
affairs  was  discovered,  and  the  result  was 
a  failure  in  1879  ^^^  $4,000,000,  after  which 
he  retired  into  a  monastery,  and  a  coad- 
jutor was  appointed.  The  debt  has  never 
been  paid,  and  is  not  likely  to  be.  He  pub- 
lished several  works. 

Purgatory  (place  where  the  souls  of 
those  who  die  in  the  state  of  grace  go  to  ex- 


piate the  sins  for  which  they  have  not  done 
sufficient  penance  in  this  world). — We 
understand  by  purgatory,  a  state  in  which 
are  retained  for  a  certain  time,  the  souls  of 
the  just  who  still  have  expiation  to  make 
after  this  life,  either  for  the  venial  sins 
which  have  not  been  remitted,  or  for  the 
mortal  sins  which,  although  remitted  as  to 
the  offense  and  eternal  punishment,  have 
not  been  remitted  as  to  the  temporal  pun- 
ishment, or  at  least  as  to  the  entire  tem- 
poral punishment.  Nothing  soiled  can 
enter  the  kingdom  of  heaven.  It  is,  there- 
fore, necessary  that  the  just  who  die  with- 
out having  sufficiently  satisfied  the  justice 
of  God,  offer  to  Him  this  satisfaction,  in 
order  that  they  be  admitted  to  the  beatific 
vision.  Such  is  and  such  has  always  been 
the  belief  of  the  Catholic  Church.  It  is  of 
faith,  that  the  whole  punishment  of  sin  is  not 
always  remitted  with  the  offense ;  that  the 
remainder  of  this  punishment  must  be 
expiated,  either  in  this  world  or  in  the 
next ;  that  there  is  a  purgatory  for  the  souls 
of  the  just  who,  when  leaving  this  life,  are 
not  entirely  purified  ;  and  that  these  souls 
maybe  assisted  by  the  prayers  and  suffrages 
of  the  Church.  This  is  what  the  Council 
of  Trent  decided  against  the  Protestants ; 
a  decision  conformable  to  the  preceding 
councils,  to  the  doctrine  of  the  holy 
Fathers,  to  tradition,  to  the  belief  and 
constant  practices  of  the  Church.  Is  pur- 
gatory rather  a  particular  place  than  a 
state,  or  rather  a  state  than  a  particular 
place  ?  Is  the  pain  of  purgatory  a  pain  of 
fire,  or  simply  a  lively  and  bitter  dolor  for 
having  offended  God  ?  What  is  the  rigor 
and  duration  of  this  pain.?  These  ques- 
tions are  not  comprised  in  the  domain  of 
Catholic  dogma.  They  are  questions  con- 
cerning which  there  exists  no  decision,  no 
judgment  upon  the  part  of  the  Church. 
According  to  the  most  common  opinion 
of  theologians,  the  torments  of  purgatory 
consist  in  the  pain  of  fire,  or  at  least  in  a 
pain  analogous  to  that  of  fire.  We  will 
add  that,  according  to  St.  Augustine 
and  St.  Thomas,  whose  views  are  often 
followed,  the  pain  of  purgatory  surpasses 
every  pain  of  this  life. 

Purification. —  The  Purification  of  the 
Hebrews  was  the  means  employed  for 
eradicating  a  legal  impurity,  that  placed 
an  obstacle  on  civil  life,  and  even  on  family 
life,  because  the  one  who  had  contracted 
it  ceased  to  be  capable  of  communication 
with  others.     There  were  more  cases  of 


Purification 


596 


QuadratUB 


legal  impurity  for  the  woman  than  for  the 
man  :  she  was  impure  during  several  days 
of  each  month,  and  impure  in  consequence 
of  child-birth.  She  was  not  permitted  to 
have  any  contact  with  her  husband ;  could 
not  sit  beside  him,  nor  eat  from  the  same 
vessel,  and  could  speak  to  him  only  with 
averted  face,  and  husband  and  wife  could 
assist  one  another  only  in  case  of  sickness. 
The  shortest  duration  of  impurity  was  for 
one  day.  The  most  usual  purification  con- 
sisted in  a  bath,  or  an  ablution.  Certain 
purifications  required  a  sacrifice  which,  for 
the  poor,  consisted  of  two  turtle-doves. 
Impurity  was  contracted  by  touchirjg  an 
impure  person,  and  also  by  touching  a 
corpse.  Objects  such  as  vessels,  clothing, 
etc.,  partook  of  the  impurity  and  purifica- 
tion. 

Purification  {Feast  of  the). — A  feast  ob- 
served in  the  Catholic  Church  on  Febru- 
ary 2d,  in  commemoration  of  the  purifica- 
tion of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  according 
to  the  Jewish  ceremonial,  forty  days  after 
the  birth  of  Christ.  Also  called  Candle- 
mas (which  see). 

Purim. — Festival  which  the  Jews  cele- 
brated in  commemoration  of  the  triumph 
of  Esther  over  Aman. 

Puritans.^  A  certain  number  of  English 
Protestants  who,  under  the  reign  of  Mary, 
had  passed  to  the  Continent,  returned  un- 
der the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  bringing  with 
them  the  most  rigorous  and  intolerant  doc- 
trines of  Calvinism.  Elizabeth  persecuted 
them  which  served  only  to  increase  their 
intolerance.  At  first  they  were  found  with 
the  Presbyterians  of  Scotland,  whom  John 
Knox  evangelized  during  this  time.  They 
tecame,  with  them,  an  important  political 
party.  The  Puritans  refused  to  the  Q^ueen 
the  spiritual  supremacy  and  the  right  to 
reform  the  Church.     They  rejected  the  lit- 


urgy, and  all  that  recalled,  as  they  s&td^ 
the  papal  abomination.  They  admitted 
only  a  part  of  the  Scriptures,  and  con- 
demned Anglicanism,  as  well  as  Papism,  to 
return  to  pure  Christianity;  hence  their 
name  '*  Puritans." 

Puteoli,  now  Pozzuoli,  a  city  in  the 
Campania  of  Naples,  on  the  northern  side 
of  the  bay,  eight  miles  northwest  of  that 
city.  It  was  a  Roman  colony.  Here  St. 
Paul  sojourned  seven  days  (Actsxxviii.  13). 

Puseysm.  —  Anglican  religious  doctrine, 
founded  by  Dr.  Pusey  about  1833,  ^^'^ 
whose  object,  like  Methodism,  was  the  re- 
newal of  the  Anglican  Church,  but  by 
means  of  ecclesiastical  science  and  erudi- 
tion, and  by  attaching  English  Protes- 
tantism much  less  to  the  Reformation  of 
the  sixteenth  century  than  to  the  primitive 
Church.  The  Puseytes  did  not  reject  the 
Thirty-nine  Articles  of  the  confession  of 
Anglican  law ;  but  professed  for  Apostolic 
succession,  for  the  tradition  of  the  first  six 
centuries,  a  respect  which  led  them  to 
adopt  many  points  of  Catholicity.  Be- 
sides, they  protested  against  the  unwar- 
ranted interference  of  the  civil  power  in 
the  government  of  the  Church,  and  against 
the  supremacy  granted  to  the  sovereign  in 
ecclesiastical  matters.  They  tried  to  re- 
store Mass,  the  veneration  of  saints,  espe- 
cially that  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  auricular 
confession,  prayers  for  the  dead,  diverse 
forms  of  worship,  and  Dr.  Newmann  form- 
ally demanded,  in  a  work  published  in  1841, 
the  reconciliation  of  the  Anglican  Church 
with  Rome.  The  result  of  the  Puseyte 
movement  was,  logically,  to  make  many  of 
its  followers  embrace  Catholicity  entirely. 
This  was  in  fact  what  took  place  in  regard 
to  Newmann,  Manning,  and  thousands  of 
others. 

Pyx.     See  Ciborium. 


Quadragesima. — The  name  of  the 
Lenten  season,  or,  more  properly,  the 
first  Sunday  in  Lent,  It  is  so  called  by 
analogy  with  the  three  Sundays  which 
precede  Lent,  and  which  are  called  re- 
spectively Septuagesima  {seventieth),  Sex- 
agesima  {sixtieth),  and  Quinquagesima 
i  fiftieth). 


Quadratus  (St.).  —  Bishop  of  Athens. 
Disciple  of  the  Apostles  and  successor  of 
Publius,  in  125.  He  upheld  the  courage 
of  the  Faithful  during  the  persecution  of 
Hadrian,  and  presented  to  the  emperor  an 
apology  in  defense  of  the  Christians  and 
their  faith,  which  moved  Hadrian  to  stop 
the  persecution.     F.  May  26th. 


Quakers 


597 


Rabbi 


Quakers  or  Society  of  Friends.  —  Prot- 
estant sect,  which  owes  its  origin  to  George 
Fox,  a  shoemaker,  who  was  born  in  Leices- 
tershire in  1624,  and  died  in  1690.  The 
term  Quaker  seems  to  have  been  bestowed 
upon  the  new  sect  in  allusion  to  Fox's 
phrase  in  addressing  the  people  :  "  Trem- 
ble at  the  word  of  the  Lord."  The  prin- 
cipal distinguishing  doctrine  of  the 
Quakers  is  that  of  "the  inward  light  of 
Christ,"  in  the  language  of  the  sect  also 
called  "the  internal  word,"  "Christ 
within,"  and  "  Kingdom  of  God  within." 
The  divine  light  of  Christ,  who  always 
speaks  when  man  is  silent,  is  the  source  of 
all  religious  knowledge,  as  well  as  of  all 
pious  life,  and  is  all-sufficient  to  redeem 
and  save  man.  This  doctrine  led  the 
Quakers  to  reject  all  sacraments,  including 
baptism  and  the  Lord's  supper,  as  well  as 
every  established  service.  They  have  no 
appointed  ministers,  observe  no  festivals 
and  use  no  rites  or  ceremonies.  In  their 
meetings,  they  remain  in  profound  silence 
until  some  one  believes  himself  moved  by 
the  Holy  Spirit  to  speak.  Women  may 
exhort  and  speak  as  well  as  men,  for  the 
"spirit  of  Christ"  is  bestowed  irrespec- 
tively of  rank,  learning,  or  sex.  The 
Quakers  refuse  taking  oaths,  abstain  from 
all  military  service,  condemn  dancing,  all 
kinds   of    games,   and   despise   all   music, 


vocal  as  well  as  instrumental.  The  Quakers 
were  subjected  to  persecution  in  England, 
which  caused  William  Penn,  one  of  their 
distinguished  members,  to  found  the  col- 
ony of  Pennsylvania,  whence  they  spread 
over  several  states  of  the  Union.  The  sect 
claims  to  have  200,000  members. 

Quartodecimans. — A  term  designating 
an  heretical  party  in  the  early  Church, 
known  as  Ebionites,  who  celebrated  Easter 
by  eating  the  Paschal  Lamb  on  the  four- 
teenth of  Nisan,  after  the  manner  of  the 
Jews. 

Quesnel  (Pasquikr)  (1634-1719). — The- 
ologian, born  at  Paris,  died  at  Amsterdam. 
Entered  the  Congregation  of  the  Oratory 
in  1659,  and  became  the  chief  of  the  Jansen- 
ist  party  after  the  death  of  Arnauld.  His 
Moral  Reflections  on  the  Netu  Testament 
were  condemned  by  the  Bull  Unigenitus. 

Quietism. — A  system  of  piety  advocated 
by  Michael  Molinos.     See  Molinos. 

Quinisextum  Concilium.  See  Trullan 
Synods. 

Quinquagesima  (a  period  of  fifty  days). 
— The  Sunday  immediately  preceding  Ash 
Wednesday,  being  the  fiftieth  day  before 
Easter  (both  inclusive)  and  the  last  Sunday 
before  Lent :   Shrove  Sunday. 

Quirinius .    See  C hronology  {Biblical) . 


Rabanus  Maurus  (786-856). —  Prelate, 
born  at  Mayence.  The  most  distinquished 
German  scholar  of  his  epoch.  He  was  a 
monk  of  the  Abbey  of  Fulda,  and  Alcuin's 
most  noted  pupil.  He  was  the  chief 
teacher  in  his  monastery,  and  his  school 
became  so  celebrated  that  pupils  from  all 
quarters  flocked  to  Fulda.  Rabanus  was 
afterwards  raised  to  the  see  of  Mayence 
which  he  adorned  by  his  virtues  as  he  had 
adorned  Fulda  by  his  learning.  His  prin- 
cipal work  De  Institutione  Clericorum, 
written  for  the  instruction  of  his  own 
scholars  and  their  pupils,  exercised  a  great 
and  beneficial  influence  upon  all  the 
cloister  schools  in  the  Frankish  Empire. 
His  work  De  Universe  is  a  sort  of  uni- 
versal encyclopaedia  of  the  arts  and  sciences 
then  known. 

Rabbath  or  Rabbath- Ammon  afterwards 
called    Philadelphia,    the    capital   of    the 


Ammonites,  was  situated  in  the  mountains 
of  Galaad,  near  the  source  of  the  Arnon, 
beyond  the  Jordan.  It  was  famous  even  in 
the  time  of  Moses  (Deut.  iii.  13).  When 
David  declared  war  against  the  Ammonites, 
his  general,  Joab,  laid  siege  to  Rabbath- 
Ammon,  where  Urias  lost  his  life  by  a 
secret  order  of  his  prince;  when  the  city 
was  reduced  to  its  last  extremity,  David 
himself  went  thither,  that  he  might  have 
the  honor  of  taking  it.  From  this  time  it 
became  subject  to  the  king  of  Juda;  but 
the  kings  of  Israel,  subsequently,  became 
masters  of  it,  with  the  tribes  beyond  the 
Jordan.     It  is  now  called  Amman. 

Rabbi  (literally  my  master).  —  A  title  of 
respect  or  of  office  given  to  Jewish  doctors 
or  expounders  of  the  law.  In  modern 
Jewish  usage  the  term  is  strictly  applied 
only  to  those  who  are  authorized  by  ordi- 
nation to  decide  legal  and  ritualistic  ques- 


Rab-mag 


598 


Rappe 


tions,  and  to  perform  certain  designated 
functions,  as  to  receive  proselytes,  etc. ; 
but  it  is  given  by  courtesy  to  other  distin- 
guished Jewish  scholars.  By  persons,  not 
Hebrew,  it  is  often  applied  to  any  one 
ministering  to  a  Jewish  congregation,  to 
distinguish  him  from  a  Christian  clergy- 
man. 

Rab-mag  or  Reb-mag.  —  A  general  of- 
ficer of  Nabuchodonosor's  army,  at  the 
taking  of  Jerusalem  (Jer.  xxxix.  3).  It 
means  probably  chief  of  the  magi,  a  digni- 
tary who  had  accompanied  the  king  of 
Babylon  in  his  campaign. 

Rab-saces  (the  chief  butler  or  cup- 
bearer).—  An  officer  sent  by  Sennach- 
erib, king  of  Assyria,  to  summon  Ezechias 
to  surrender.  He  delivered  his  message 
in  a  most  insolent  and  oppressive  manner. 
The  history  is  told  in  IV.  Ki.  xix.  17,  etc. ; 
II  Par.  xxxii.  9;  etc. 

Rab-saris.  —  An  officer  sent  with  Rab- 
saces  and  Tharthan,  to  summon  Ezechias 
(IV,  Ki.  xviii.  17;  Jer.  xxxix.  3).  It  sig- 
nifies the  chief  of  the  eunuchs. 

Rabulas  (St.).  —  Bishop  of  Edessa, 
Syria ;  lived  about  the  beginning  of  the 
fifth  century.  Was  a  zealous  opponent  of 
the  Nestorian  heresy.  He  closed  the  Per- 
sian school   which  favored  Nestorianism. 

Raca  (Syr.  ivorthless;  naught). — A 
transliterated  word  occurring  in  Matt.  v. 
22,  common  among  the  Jews  in  Christ's 
time  as  an  expression  of  contempt. 

Rachel.  —  Second  daughter  of  Laban. 
Watering  her  flock  at  a  well,  near  the  city 
of  Haran,  she  met  her  cousin  Jacob,  and 
hastened  to  show  him  her  father's  house. 
Jacob  remained  fourteen  years  in  the 
service  of  Laban  in  order  to  have  Rachel 
for  his  wife.  She  became  the  mother  of 
Joseph  and  Benjamin. 

Radbertus  Paschasius.  —  Abbot  of  Cor- 
vey,  died  in  865.  Has  left,  besides  Bibli- 
cal commentaries,  a  c  onypr  eh  e  n  si  ve 
treatise,  On  the  Body  and  Blood  of  Our 
Lord,  in  which  he  sets  forth,  with  great 
precision,  but  in  terms  not  then  in  vogue 
among  theologians,  the  belief  of  the  uni- 
versal Church  regarding  the  Blessed  Sac- 
rament. 

Rages. — City  of  ancient  Media,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Ecbatana.  Here  lived 
Gabelus  to  whom  younger  Tobias  went  to 


claim  the  six  talents  which  Gabelus  owed 
to  his  father.     The  actual  Razi  or  Rei. 

Rahab. — A  woman  of  Jericho,  who  con- 
cealed the  spies  sent  by  Josue,  and  thereby 
merited  to  be  saved,  with  her  whole 
household,  during  the  general  massacre  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Jericho. 

Rama  (Hebr.  mountain). — Ancient  city 
of  Palestine,  in  the  tribe  of  Benjamin, 
between  Gabaa  and  Bethel.  The  actual  Er- 
Ram;  200  inhabitants. 

Ramathaim-Sophim. — Ancient  city  of 
Palestine,  near  Rama,  on  the  south  side. 
The  actual  village  Neby-Samouil  (Prophet 
Samuel).     Important  ruins. 

Raphael. —  One  of  the  seven  archangels 
who,  according  to  the  Bible,  are  before 
the  throne  of  God.  Raphael  was  the  pro- 
tector and  guide  of  Tobias  and  advised 
him  to  marry  Sara.     F.  Sept.  12th. 

Raphia. —  City  of  Palestine  on  the  fron- 
tier of  Syria  and  Egypt.  Victory  of  Ptol- 
emy IV.  Philopator,  over  Antiochus  the 
Great,  king  of  Syria,  in  the  year  217  b.  c. 
The  actual  Refali. 

Raphidim. —  Ancient  place  of  Arabia 
Petraea,  situated  near  Mount  Horeb.  Here 
the  Israelites  camped  during  their  Exo- 
dus ;  here  Moses  received  the  visit  of 
Jethro,  his  father-in-law,  and  here  he 
caused  water  to  come  forth,  in  a  miracu- 
lous manner,  by  striking  the  rock  with  his 
rod.  Here,  also,  Josue  defeated  the  Amel- 
ekites. 

Rappe  (Amadeus)  (1797-1877).  —  Amer- 
ican prelate;  was  born  in  the  diocese  of 
Arras,France;  died  at  St.  Alban's, Vermont. 
After  his  ordination  he  came  to  America 
and  joined  the  Diocese  of  Cincinnati  about 
1840.  After  having  labored  for  many 
years  at  Toledo  and  attending  to  all  the 
Catholics  in  the  Valley  of  the  Maumee, 
he  was  appointed  the  first  bishop  of 
Cleveland  in  1847.  Trained  as  a  hard 
working  missionary,  he  labored  to  give  his 
flock  more  priests  and  churches,  establish- 
ing a  theological  seminary  at  an  early 
date.  Bishop  Rappe  had  built  up  the  dio- 
cese, and  might  have  expected  in  his  de- 
clining years  to  enjoy  a  happy  old  age 
amid  the  clergy  and  people  whom  he  had 
guided  as  a  faithful  pastor  for  twenty 
years;  but  this  was  not  to  be.  An  un- 
grateful opposition  sprang  up,  calumny 
assailed  even  the  venerable   bishop,  who 


Raskolniks 


599 


Rationalism 


with  a  broken  heart  resigned  his  see  Aug. 
22d,  1870,  and  retired  to  tlie  diocese  of  his 
good  friend,  Bishop  de  Goesbriand,  of  Bur- 
lington, Vermont.  There  he  resumed  his 
old  missionary  life,  laboring  assiduously 
among  the  people,  giving  missions  and  re- 
treats, and  earnestly  advocating  the  cause 
of  temperance.  He  died  piously  at  St. 
Alban's,  Vermont,  Sept.  9th,  1877.  His 
remains  were  conveyed  to  and  interred  in 
Cleveland  with  all  the  honor  due  to  his 
life  and  services. 

Raskolniks.  —  Among  the  various  sects 
of  the  Russian  State  Church,  the  most 
numerous  are  the  so-called  Raskolniks 
{Separatists),  or,  as  they  style  themselves, 
Starowierzi  (that  is.  Men  of  the  Old 
Faith).  The  origin  of  this  sect,  the  mem- 
bers of  which  are  again  subdivided  into 
various  parties,  falls  in  the  year  1660. 
The  occasion  of  it  was  the  revision  of  the 
translations  of  the  Bible  and  liturgical 
books  undertaken  by  the  Patriarch  Nikon. 

Rationalism.  —  A  system,  which,  like 
deism  and  naturalism,  acknowledges  in 
religion,  only  what  reason,  left  to  itself, 
can  discover.  The  Rationalists  place  rea- 
son above  faith  and  pretend  that  philosophy 
can,  without  it,  arrive  at  the  term  of  human 
destiny,  that  is,  at  beatitude.  According 
to  them,  the  supernatural  order  does  not 
exist  at  all,  or  is  impossible,  or  at  least 
belief  in  it  is  not  obligatory  and  com- 
manded. The  absolute  independence,  the 
complete  emancipation  of  reason,  is  their 
supreme  principle.  In  our  time  they  even 
endeavor  to  abolish  religion  in  order  to 
substitute  for  it  philosophy,  in  both  the 
intellectual  and  religious  direction  of 
humanity.  Powerless  to  found  their  sys- 
tem upon  any  rational  principle,  they  con- 
tinually appeal  to  big  words  of  science 
and  reason !  They  would  like,  if  it  were 
possible,  to  make  mankind  retrograde  to 
paganism.  St.  Thomas  refuted  this  system 
long  ago.  On  the  question  whether  man, 
by  purely  natural  means,  can  arrive  at  his 
supreme  destiny,  that  is,  to  know  God  in 
His  essence  and  thus  arrive  at  beatitude, 
the  holy  Doctor  answers:  "This  is  im- 
possible, for  knowledge  can  have  place 
only  in  so  far  as  the  object  known  is  in  the 
subject  which  knows  it;  now  only  a  divine 
intelligence  is  capable  of  knowing  the 
Being  which  subsists  by  itself,  and  which 
is  its  own  Being ;  therefore,  this  knowledge 
is    above    the    natural   faculties    of    every 


created  spirit,  because  there  is  no  creature^ 
which  is,  in  itself,  its  own  being;  God, 
however,  can  unite  Himself  with  man 
through  grace  and  thus  render  Himself  ac- 
cessible according  to  the  words  of  St.  Paul : 
'  The  grace  of  God  is  eternal  life.'"  In 
facts  of  truth  and  virtue,  we  can  say,  ac- 
cording to  experience,  that  reason  could 
never  found  anything  stable.  We  do  not 
mean  to  say,  thereby,  that  reason  is  com- 
pletely powerless  to  discover  truths  of  the 
natural  order;  but  we  are  not  afraid  to 
maintain,  after  St.  Thomas,  that  it  is  im- 
possible for  the  greatest  number,  without 
the  help  of  faith,  to  discover  all  the  truths, 
even  in  the  natural  order,  unaided  by 
supernatural  light.  Reason  can  never  be 
certain  in  its  investigations,  although  be- 
fore its  view  takes  place  all  the  great  prob- 
lems that  interest  humanity  the  most.  Is 
man  in  a  pure  state  of  nature?  Has  God. 
spoken?  Has  He  founded  a  religious 
society?  Is  man  created  for  a  supernatural 
end?  We  can  defy  rationalism  to  give  a 
satisfactory  solution  to  any  of  these  ques- 
tions, or  even  to  prove  that,  after  having 
drawn  man  out  of  nothing,  after  having 
endowed  him  with  an  excellent  nature, 
God  could  not  reserve  the  right  to  elevate 
him  suddenly,  or  progressively,  to  a  supe- 
rior order.  We  know  that  the  scope  of 
reason  is  very  limited,  that  never  here 
below  can  it  succeed  in  grasping  the  ade- 
quate truth,  and  that,  on  the  contrary,  in 
all  the  great  philosophical  or  religious 
questions,  it  can  onl}'  lose  itself  in  error. 
The  history  of  philosophy  proves  into 
what  aberrations  human  reason,  if  left  to 
itself,  is  capable  of  falling:  for  more  than 
three  thousand  years  it  has  done  nothing 
but  republish  the  same  errors.  Strange 
destiny,  indeed,  that  human  reason  is  con- 
demned to  turn  perpetually  in  the  same 
circle  of  errors. 

Rationalism  is  of  English  origin,  and 
was  first  called  deism.  This  doctrine  hav- 
ing spread  in  Germany  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  the  German  methodic  mind  trans- 
formed it  into  a  scientific  system,  under 
the  name  of  rationalism.  Founding  itself 
upon  the  negative  principle  of  Kantian 
knowledge,  it  denied,  not  only  positive  re- 
ligion, but  also  natural  religion  itself.  The 
small  number  of  Protestant  theologians 
who  remained  outside  the  movement  ad- 
hered to  the  Bible  and  entered  a  way 
which  brought  them  close  to  the  Catholic 
Church.  Voltaire  and  the  Encyclopaedists 
in   France,  were  the    most  ardent   propa- 


Ratisbonne 


600 


Recollects 


gators  of  rationalism,  which  speedily  de- 
generated into  materialism. 

We  may  say  that  the  system  of  rational- 
ism is  a  consequence  of  Protestantism  and 
a  natural  fruit  of  private  interpretation  of 
Holy  Scripture.     Like  heresy,  indeed,   it 
pretends    to    erect    into   dogmas    its   own 
conceptions.    The  philosophy  of  the  eight- 
eenth  century  had   denied   the  dogma  of 
both    the    natural    and    the   supernatural. 
However,    everything    had    not    been   de- 
stroyed ;  there  still  remained  the  history  of 
mankind,    which    testifies    in    favor   of    a 
primitive  and  traditional  truth,  containing 
the   germs    of    the   great    dogmas   which 
Christianity  came  to  fix  in  the  Church  for- 
ever.    Rationalism  introduced  free  inquiry 
upon  this  reserved  ground,  just  as  Protest- 
antism had  done  in  the  field  of  the  Scrip- 
tures.    In  our  days,  rationalism  has  arrived 
at  its  most  extreme  consequences ;  by  deny- 
ing all  supersensible  truth,  it  goes  so  far  as 
to  undermine  the  basis  of  the  constituent 
principles  of  social  order;  in  its  last  evolu- 
tions,  it   necessarily   dissolves   itself   into 
pantheism  and  atheism:  there  is  no  God, 
reason  is  God;  no  immortality  of  the  soul, 
and  hence  no  morals.      By  the  fruits  we 
know    the     tree.     What    has    rationalism 
made  of  Christian  society  in  this  century 
of  its  power?     It  has  caused  division  in  the 
minds;  hatred  in  the  hearts;  intellectual, 
moral,    and    social   anarchy.     Behold   the 
fruits   of   rationalism!     See    Reason   and 
Faith. 

Ratisbonne  (Alphonse  Maria)  (1812- 
188^).  —  Brother  of  the  following,  born  at 
Strasburg,  died  in  Jerusalem.  Abjured 
the  Jewish  religion  in  1842,  at  Rome;  made 
his  novitiate  at  the  Jesuits,  then  entered 
the  Society  of  Priests  of  Our  Lady  of  Sion. 

Ratisbonne  (Maria  Theodor)  (1802- 
1884).  —  Lawyer,  then  religious.  Born  at 
Strasburg,  died  in  Paris.  Of  Jewish  origin, 
he  became  a  Catholic  in  1826,  received 
holy  orders,  then  became  missionary  apos- 
tolic, founder  and  general  superior  of  the 
Congregation  of  Our  Lady  of  Sion,  in 
Paris  (1842). 

Ratramus.  —  Monk  of  Cor\'ey,  theolo- 
gian, died  about  870.  One  of  the  most 
learned  men  of  his  time. 

Ravignan  (Gustave  Xavier  Lacroix 
de)  (1795-1858).  —  Jesuit  and  celebrated 
preacher,  born  at  Bayonne,  died  in  Paris. 
In  1837  he  became  preacher  of  Notre-Dame 
of  Paris,  where  he  achieved  great  success. 


His  oratorial  action  was  beautiful,  because 
it  was  true.  He  held  his  position  for 
nearly  ten  years,  when  ill-health  compelled 
him  to  retire  to  his  convent. 

Raymond   of  Pennaforte.     See   Order 
OF  Mercy. 

Realism.     See  Nominalism. 

Reason  and  Faith.  —  How  far   can   we 
understand  the  supernatural  truths  or  mys- 
teries which  we  believe  on  the  authority  of 
God    and   the   Church  ?     Rationalists    and 
Agnostics  of  all  times  have  held  that  no 
understanding  of  things  is  possible  beyond 
the    sphere    of    natural    reason.      Abelard 
and   some   theologians   of    the   thirteenth 
century,    and    in    modern    times    Giinther 
and   Frohschammer,  were  of  the  opinion 
that  nothing  is  beyond  the  grasp  of  human 
reason,  and,  consequently,  that  supernat- 
ural truths  can  be  demonstrated  by  reason, 
and  that  faith  can  be  replaced  by  knowl- 
edge.    Other  theologians  allow  the  coex- 
istence of  faith  with  knowledge,  pretending 
that  reason  adds  a  new  certitude  to  faith. 
Against  these  errors  the  Vatican  Council 
teaches  that  some  understanding  of  mys- 
teries  is   possible,    and    it   lays    dov.n    its 
conditions  and    rules:     "When    Reason, 
enlightened     by    faith,    maketh    diligent, 
pious,  and  sober  inquiry,  she  attaineth,  by 
God's    gift,    most    fruitful    knowledge    of 
mysteries,  both  from  the  analogy  of  things 
naturally  known  and  from  the  relation  of 
mysteries  with  one  another  and  with  the 
end  of  man."     Then  the  Council  sets  forth 
that  this   understanding  is  less  clear  and 
less    perfect    than    our    understanding   of 
things    natural.     "Still    she    (Reason)    is 
never  rendered  fit  to  perceive  them  in  the 
same  way  as  the  truths  which  are  her  own 
proper  object.     For  the  divine  mysteries, 
by  their  very   nature,   so  far  surpass    the 
created  intellect  that,  even  when  conveyed 
by  revelation   and  received  by  faith,  they 
remain  covered  by  the  veil  of  faith  and,  as 
it  were,  hidden  by  a  cloud,  as  long  as  in 
this    mortal   life  we  are  absent  from    the 
Lord,   for  we  walk   by  faith   and  not  by 
sight"  (Sess.  iii..  Chap.  4). 

Recollects.  —  A  branch  of  the  Francis- 
can Order,  founded  in  1500,  by  the  blessed 
John  Guadalupe.  Its  members  are  re- 
quired to  observe  the  original  rigor  of  the 
institute.  Recollects  came  to  Cincinnati, 
Ohio,  more  than  fifty  years  ago  and  now 
have  several  houses  in  the  United  States. 
See  Franciscans. 


Rector 


60 1 


Redeemer 


Rector  (pastor  who  has  cura  antmarum, 
"the  care  of  souls")-  —  In  accordance  with 
the  general  law  of  the  Church,  and  the 
proposals  made  by  the  Holy  See  by  the  S. 
Congregation  de  Propaganda  Fide,  in  the 
Conferences  held  at  Rome  in  1883,  the 
Third  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore,  or- 
dains that  in  every  diocese,  the  bishop  shall, 
with  the  advice  of  his  consultors,  select 
certain  missions,  all  of  which  have  been 
thus  far  missions  atnovibiles,  and  make 
them  missions  inamovibiles,  in  such  num- 
ber, that  at  least  one  rector  of  every  ten 
will  be  in  future  irremovable.  However, 
the  Council  advises  the  bishops  not  to  ex- 
ceed this  number,  except  for  good  reasons, 
within  the  first  twenty  years  after  the 
promulgation  of  its  decrees.  It  is,  how- 
ever, the  general  impression  that  such 
missions  inamovibiles  are  not  canonical 
parishes,  properly  speaking,  except  in  some 
parts  of  California. 

As  can  be  seen  from  the  above,  up  to 
the  Third  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore, 
all  our  rectors  were  amovibiles.  Since  the 
aforesaid  Council  decreed  that,  in  future 
one  rector  out  of  every  ten  should  be  irre- 
movable, we  have  at  present,  in  the  United 
States,  two  kinds  of  rectors,  removable 
and  irremovable.  Our  rectors,  who  are 
removable,  are  appointed  in  the  manner 
laid  down  by  the  Second  Plenary  Council 
of  Baltimore  (n.  126).  As  to  our  irre- 
movable rectors,  the  Third  Plenary  Coun- 
cil of  Baltimore  enacts:  i.  The  creation 
of  irremovable  missions  and  the  appoint- 
ment of  irremovable  rectors  must  take 
place  within  three  years  from  the  promul- 
gation of  the  council,  that  is  from  Jan. 
6th,  1886.  2.  The  bishop  can  appoint  the 
irremovable  rectors,  for  the  first  time, 
without  the  concursus,  though  not  without 
the  advice  of  his  consultors;  after  that 
only  by  concursus,  and  that  on  pain  of 
nullity  of  the  appointment.  See  Con- 
cursus. 

Irremovable  rectors  can  be  dismissed 
from  their  parishes  only  for  crimes  which 
are  very  grave  :  expressly  stated  in  law  and 
upon  a  regular  —  i.  e.,  formal  or  solemn  — 
canonical  trial.  The  offenses  for  which 
irremovable  rectors  are  ipso  jure  (by  the 
very  fact)  deprived  of  their  parishes  or 
missions  are  chiefly  :  Heresy;  falsification 
of  apostolic  letters;  assassination;  killing 
or  striking  a  cardinal  or  bishop ;  procur- 
ing abortion;  sodomy;  simony;  duelling, 
even  when  death  does  not  ensue;  visurpa- 
tion   of   the   property   of   any  Church    or 


locus pius  (pious  place) ;  alienating  Church 
property,  except  in  cases  permitted  by  law, 
if  he,  having  been  improperly  promoted  to 
sacred  orders,  presumes  to  exercise  the 
orders  thus  received;  for  omitting  to  re- 
ceive orders  within  a  year. 

The  offenses  to  which  dismissal  from  the 
parish  is  annexed  only  after  the  sentence  of 
the  judge  are  :  Neglect  to  wear  a  becom- 
ing clerical  dress ;  drunkenness  ;  gambling ; 
murder;  perjury;  theft,  and  the  like. 
Also  insordescentia  in  censuris,  concu- 
binage and  simple  fornication.  For  other 
offenses,  see  Third  Plenary  Council  of 
Baltimore  (III.  No.  37). 

Redeemer  and  Redemption.  —  We  shall 
understand  what  is  meant  by  a  redeemer  if 
we  think  of  the  times  when  men  were  not 
uncommonly  kidnapped  by  pirates  and  car- 
ried away  into  slavery.  For  many  centuries 
the  infidels  who  held  the  southern  shores 
of  the  Mediterranean  sea,  made  frequent 
inroads  on  the  neighboring  coasts,  and  led 
away  as  captives  many  of  the  Christian 
inhabitants  who  fell  into  their  hands.  This 
was  the  fate  of  St.  Vincent  of  Paul  in  the 
year  1605.  It  was  obviously  a  great  act  of 
kindness,  when  Christians  bought  back 
these  unfortunates  from  their  masters,  and 
restored  them  to  liberty,  thus  saving  them 
from  misery  and  from  danger  of  apostasy. 
More  than  one  religious  order  charged 
themselves  with  this  work,  and  the  breth- 
ren would  often  themselves  offer  to  take 
the  place  of  some  miserable  captive  for 
whom  they  could  find  no  other  ransom. 
To  redeem,  then,  was  to  buy  back;  to  pay 
a  ransom  to  the  master  of  a  slave,  and  this 
whether  the  slavery  had  any  pretense  of 
lawful  origin  or  was  wholly  and  utterly 
lawless.  It  is  in  this  sense  that  Christ  is 
our  Redeemer,  for  when  we  were  slaves  of 
Satan,  He  gave  Himself  a  redemption  for 
all  (I.  Tim.  ii.  6),  buying  us  with  a  great 
price  (I.  Cor.  vi.  20), —  His  own  Precious 
Blood  and  Life. 

After  sin  had  been  committed,  a  redeemer 
had  to  be  found.  This  Redeemer  was 
the  one,  Who,  being  the  Word  of  God, 
has  created  and  knew  how  to  operate  in 
Himself  a  new  creation.  But  He  had  to 
unite  to  the  nature  of  the  Word,  Son  of 
God,  the  nature  of  man,  that  is,  the  In- 
carnation was  the  obligatory  prelu  -e  of 
redemption.  The  fact  of  the  redemption 
consists,  therefore,  in  this :  that  Jesus 
Christ,  innocent  and  without  sin,  took 
upon   Himself  the  sin,  the  fault,  the  chas- 


Redemptorists 


602 


Religion 


tisement  or  expiation.  By  the  sin  of  one, 
says  the  Apostle  (Rom.  v.  18)  the  sentence 
of  condemnation  involved  all  mankind  ;  so, 
also,  by  the  justice  of  One;  the  justifica- 
tion of  life  extended  itself  over  all  men. 

Redemptorists.     See  Liguori. 

Reformation  {Causes  and  Effects  of). 
See  Protestantism. 

Regalia  (in  ecclesiastical  history,  the 
power  of  the  sovereign  in  ecclesiastical 
affairs). —  In  monarchical  countries,  where 
the  papal  authority  is  recognized  by  the 
State,  the  regalia  are  usually  defined  by  a 
concordat  with  the  Holy  See;  in  other 
monarchical  countries  it  takes  the  form  of 
the  royal  supremacy.  In  mediaeval  times, 
the  regalia  involved  the  right  of  enjoyment 
of  the  revenues  of  vacant  bishoprics,  and 
of  presentation  to  all  ecclesiastical  bene- 
fices or  positions  above  the  ordinary  paro- 
chial cures  during  the  vacancy  of  a  see. 
These  rights  were  exercised  by  the  Nor- 
man and  Plantagenet  kings  of  England, 
and  by  the  French  kings  from  the  eleventh 
century  onward  with  constantl}^  widening 
application  and  increased  insistence  till 
the  time  of  Louis  XIV.    See  Ixvestiturk. 

Regeneration. — The  spiritual  birth 
which  we  receive  in  baptism.  This  second 
birth  renders  us  children  of  God.  See 
Baptism. 

Regina  Cceli  (Latin  words  which  sig- 
nify Sijicen  of  Heaven).  —  An  anthem  in 
honor  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  beginning 
with  these  words,  and  after  each  of  whose 
four  clauses  the  Alleluia  is  repeated.  It  is 
said  at  the  end  of  the  offices  of  the  Brevi- 
ary during  the  Easter  season.  Pope  Bene- 
dict XIV.,  confirming  April  20th,  1742, 
the  indulgences  granted  to  the  recitation 
of  the  Angelus,  ordered  that  the  Regina 
Call  with  its  verses  and  prayers,  be  said 
standing,  instead  of  kneeling  during  Easter 
time. 

Reifenstuel  (Anaclet).  —  Franciscan  of 
the  eighteenth  century.  He  wrote  a  work 
on  Canon  Law  {Jus  Can.  Univers.), 
Venice,  1704.  Its  order,  clearness,  and 
method  are  excellent,  and  it  has  passed 
through  many  editions. 

Relics  (Lat.  reliquicB,  remains).  —  Relics 
is  the  ecclesiastical  term  for  the  remains 
of  a  saint  after  his  death,  either  of  the  en- 
tire body,  or  a  part  of  the  body.  Just  as 
we  venerate  and  pray  to  the  saints,  so  also 
we  pay  respect  to  material  objects  which 


had  some  special  connection  with  them. 
To  rob  a  royal  sepulchre,  and  burn  the 
bones,  would  be  an  act  redounding  to  the 
dishonor  of  the  object  of  the  outrage;  this 
would  be  a  case  of  relative  civil  disrespect; 
in  like  manner,  to  decorate  the  tomb  of  a 
martyr  would  be  relative  veneration.  We 
see  here  the  nature  of  all  honor  paid  to 
relics,  and  we  find  abundant  authority  for 
paying  such  honor.  That  thing  which 
God  is  pleased  to  use  as  the  instrument  of 
a  miracle  certainly  deserves  honor,  and 
this  honor  may  well  redound  to  a  saint  on 
whose  account  the  miracle  was  worked. 
We  read  in  Scripture  that  the  bones  of  the 
Prophet  Eliseus  were  used  as  the  means 
of  restoring  a  dead  man  to  life  (IV.  Ki. 
xiii.  21 ;  Ecclus.  xlviii.  14),  and  garments 
that  had  touched  the  body  of  St.  Paul 
gained  the  power  of  healing  sicknesses 
(Acts  xix.  12).  Nothing  that  has  ever 
been  said  by  Catholic  writers,  concerning 
the  virtue  that  resides  in  relics  of  the  saints, 
attributes  more  to  them  than  is  ascribed 
by  Holy  Scripture.  The  Church  has  never 
made  a  declaration  concerning  the  genuine- 
ness of  any  alleged  relic  and  we,  therefore, 
can  have  no  certaint}'  on  this  point.  But 
we  are  justified  in  paying  honor  whenever 
we  have  a  reasonable  probability  that  the 
object  is  what  we  suppose  it  to  be.  See 
Saints. 

Religion  and  Virtue  of  Religion.  —  By 

religion  we  understand  the  ensemble  of 
doctrines  and  practices  which  constitutes 
the  relation  of  man  with  the  divine  power. 
Religion  exists  in  the  world  as  a  means  of 
salvation  proposed  to  all  men.  It  does  not 
operate  in  the  individual  without  the  free 
concurrence  of  the  will,  that  is,  it  must 
first  be  the  object  of  a  humble  acceptation 
of  the  mind,  and  secondly,  through  obedi- 
ence, it  must  lead  us  to  the  realization  of 
the  precepts  or  commandments.  The 
tendency  and  disposition  of  a  heart  that 
consecrates  itself  to  God  to  serv'e  Him 
interiorly  by  prayer  and  submission,  and 
exteriorly  by  acts  of  adoration  and  by  all 
that  belongs  to  the  observance  of  His  wor- 
ship and  law,  is  what  we  call  the  \-irtue  of 
religion.  This  virtue  can  be  defined  thus: 
a  general  habit  which  comprises,  imme- 
diately, the  theological  virtues  of  faith, 
hope,  and  charity,  and  in  a  less  intimate 
manner,  or  only  mediately,  all  the  moral 
virtues.  Public  worship  is  one  of  the  most 
powerful  means  to  excite  and  to  maintain 
the  virtue  of  religion  in  the  soul. 


Religion  and  History 


603 


Religion  and  History 


Christian  Religion.  —  All  nations  have 
had  a  religion,  and  at  all  times  they  recog- 
nized that  religion  is  necessary  for  men 
individually,  and  not  less  necessary  for 
men  united  in  society.  In  accepting  this 
idea  as  the  starting  point,  the  philosophers 
of  the  eighteenth  century  discussed  at 
length  the  natural  religion,  the  only  one 
they  wished  to  admit.  This  natural  re- 
ligion, which  never  historically  existed, 
they  composed  according  to  their  own 
liking  by  a  choice  of  beliefs  at  which,  ac- 
cording to  them,  reason  alone  can  arrive; 
in  reality,  they  were  themselves  the  in- 
ventors thereof,  as  well  as  the  disciples. 
The  religion  of  nature  expresses  quite  a 
different  idea  from  the  philosophical  con- 
ception of  natural  religion.  The  religion 
of  nature  is  that  which,  under  various 
symbols,  deifies  nature  or  the  forces  of  na- 
ture, without  elevating  itself  to  God,  who 
is  the  author  thereof.  Only  one  religion 
is  historical  and  goes  back  in  its  annals  to 
the  beginning  of  the  world.  It  gave  to  the 
first  men  the  promise  of  a  Redeemer;  of 
the  anointed  of  the  Lord,  or  His  Christ. 
It  exhibited  in  the  Patriarchs  figures  of 
this  Christ,  and  renewed  to  the  Patriarchs, 
to  reanimate  their  faith  and  hope,  the  an- 
cient pfomise.  The  prophetic  ministry 
developed  this  promise,  by  furnishing  the 
most  minute  details  about  the  life,  birth, 
and  death  of  the  Christ,  that  was  going  to 
come.  The  time  of  the  law,  that  is,  of  the 
Mosaic  institution,  will  confer  upon  one 
people  both  the  character  and  mission  of 
permanent  witness  amidst  mankind.  The 
history  of  this  people  will  have  a  sense 
which  no  other  history  presents;  it  will 
converge  entirely  toward  the  one  fact  of 
the  Messias.  When,  finally,  Jesus  Christ 
has  come.  He  will  teach  all  truth.  He 
unites  all  men  in  the  same  love  of  God  and 
of  our  neighbor.  He  performs  striking 
miracles,  and  the  miracle  will  continue  in 
all  the  ages  of  the  Church  to  convince  the 
rebellious  minds.  His  enemies  will  put 
Him  to  death,  and  in  this  death  He  tri- 
umphs. The  Apostles  and  the  preachers 
of  the  Gospel  will  have  no  more  powerful 
means  to  carry  the  victory  than  the  spilling 
of  their  blood.  The  Church  will  be  perse- 
cuted at  all  times,  but  the  gates  of  hell 
shall  not  prevail  against  her.  Finally, 
entire  civilization  will  be  marked  with 
the  seal  of  Christ,  and  if  the  nations  call 
themselves  no  longer  the  Christendom, 
as  in  the  Middle  Ages,  the  civilization 
of  which    they  are    proud   will    have    no 


other  name  than  that  of  Christian  Civiliza- 
tion. 

Religion  and  History.  —  Civilization 
throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  its 
history,  furnishes  us  no  phenomena  so  wide- 
spread and  so  far  reaching  in  its  conse- 
quences as  religion.  The  faint  light  that 
breaks  on  us  from  the  early  dawn  of  civil-  , 
ization,  shows  that  human  knowledge  and 
morality  originated  in  religion,  that  reli- 
gion is  the  spring  from  which  the  first 
songs  of  soul-thrilling  poetry  were  drawn, 
and  that  religious  worship  was  the  parent 
of  the  firstborn  of  art.  In  Iranian  and  Indian 
documents,  in  Egyptian  hieroglyphics,  and 
in  the  cuneiform  inscriptions  of  the  Chalde- 
ans, religion  everywhere  asserts  its  claim  to 
be  considered  the  chief  and  most  influential 
factor  in  the  life  of  families  and  of  nations. 
The  history  of  religion  is  the  history  of 
man.  It  is  the  groundwork  and  the  key  to 
the  right  understanding  of  all  history. 
Our  knowledge  of  antiquity  has  advanced 
by  leaps  and  bounds ;  yet  it  oflfers  no  ex- 
planation of  the  fact  of  religion,  but  merely 
bears  witness  to  its  existence  in  the  remot- 
est ages.  Both  civilized  and  uncivilized 
races  tell  the  same  tale.  If  ancient  writers 
had  asserted  that  belief  in  a  God  was  uni- 
versal, and  that  there  existed  no  people  so 
savage  and  lawless  but  that  they  worshiped 
some  God,  the  statement  might  have  been 
set  down  as  a  hasty  or  superficial  general- 
ization, due  to  their  comparatively  narrow 
knowledge  of  ethnography.  Even  the 
Fathers  and  the  learned  men  of  the  Middle 
Ages  knew  but  little  of  the  inhabitants  of 
the  various  parts  of  the  world.  Now,  how- 
ever, circumstances  are  altered.  The  dis- 
covery of  two  continents  and  of  numberless 
islands,  and  the  exploration  of  the  "Dark 
Continent,"  have  widened  to  an  unfore- 
seen extent  the  circle  of  human  knowledge. 
And  yet  all  modern  discoveries  in  ethnog- 
raphy and  anthropology  do  but  confirm 
the  ancient  truth.  No  nation  has  yet  been 
discovered  wholly  devoid  of  religion  ! 

Writers  of  the  Darwinian  School,  such 
as  Sir  John  Lubbock  and  Haeckel,  have 
had  the  hardihood  to  assert  that  there  are 
men  in  Southern  Asia  and  Eastern  Africa 
wandering  about  in  droves,  living  on  the 
fruits  of  the  earth,  unacquainted  with  fire, 
using  stone  weapons  and  implements,  and 
spending  most  of  their  time  in  climbing 
trees,  like  apes  of  the  higher  class.  But'' 
even  such  staunch  Darwinians  as  Hellwald 
and  Caspari  allow  that  this  contention 
smacks  more  of  romance  than  of  history. 


Religion  and  History 


604 


Religion  and  History 


The  alleged  tribe  is  a  creation  of  fancy 
without  definite  abode.  It  was  a  favorite 
dodge  of  Bayle  and  the  skeptical  school  to 
justify  atheism  by  pointing  to  the  existence 
of  tribes  with  no  religion.  Of  course 
there  have  been  explorers  who  have  in  all 
sincerity  written  in  this  sense.  Living- 
stone asserts  that  no  trace  of  religion  was 
to  be  found  among  the  inhabitants  of 
Bechuanaland  ;  Samuel  Baker,  Dalton,  and 
Lichtenstein  say  the  same  of  South- 
African  and  American  tribes;  Messenger 
Bradley  makes  a  like  statement  about  an 
Australian  tribe.  Sir  John  Lubbock  ap- 
peals to  the  testimony  of  Catholic  and 
Protestant  missionaries.  In  like  manner, 
the  Abbe  Lesserteur,  professor  of  theology 
at  the  Seminary  of  Foreign  Missions, 
maintains  that  the  knowledge  of  God  is 
not  universal.  In  support  of  his  thesis,  he 
cites  the  Missions  CathoUques  of  1881,  in 
which  Father  Berengier  says  that  the  Ar- 
aconians  of  Bengal  have  no  idea  of  the  ex- 
istence of  a  Supreme  Being;  but  they 
believe  that  brooks  and  trees  are  peopled 
by  mysterious  spirits.  Moreover,  he 
quotes  Mgr.  Bourdon,  Vicar  Apostolic  of 
Burmah,  as  saying  that  Kachyens  have  not 
the  least  notion  of  an  eternal,  almighty, 
and  infinite  God,  the  creator  and  sustainer 
of  the  universe,  who  will  reward  the  good 
and  punish  the  wicked.  In  the  same  cate- 
gory he  places  the  Amamites,  who  believe 
in  higher  orders  of  spirits,  for  the  most 
part  wicked  and  terrible ;  but  he  insists 
that  this  belief  cannot  be  described  as  a 
knowledge  of  God. 

In  saying  so  much,  however,  Lesserteur 
has  made  his  meaning  clear.  If,  for  the 
knowledge  of  God,  he  requires  "  the  idea 
of  a  supreme  being  who  created  heaven 
and  earth,  and  is  the  sovereign  Lord  of  all 
things,"  this  exalted  conception  will  not 
easily  be  discovered  among  savages.  But 
it  is  hardly  fair  to  test  the  faith  of  low 
savages  by  our  enlightened  ideas  about 
God.  Nor,  should  it  be  forgotten  that  the 
conduct  of  a  savage,  from  which  alone  his 
belief  can  be  gathered,  is  often  resers-ed 
and  difficult  to  understand.  For  this  rea- 
son we  must  observe  caution  in  receiving 
the  depositions  even  of  travelers  and  mis- 
sionaries. Long  years  of  patient  observa- 
tion, thorough  knowledge  of  the  country, 
and  familiar  and  confidential  intercourse 
with  the  natives  are  the  only  security 
against  error.  In  the  presence  of  white 
men,  savages  are  often  reticent,  being 
afraid  to  mention  the  names  of  their  gods. 


In  this  way  many  contradictory  statements 
may  be  explained.  A  little  while  ago  the 
Zulus  were  accredited  with  having  no  re- 
ligious ideas  of  any  kind.  Now,  mission- 
aries are  often  puzzled  by  their  subtile 
questions.  They  believe  in  an  invisible 
God,  dwelling  in  the  heavens,  who  created 
all  things,  and  guides  the  destiny  of  man. 
BoskofT  has  refuted  Sir  John  Lubbock  in 
detail;  Quatrefages  has  done  a  similar 
service  to  the  stories  of  missionaries ;  Tyler, 
Peschel,  and  Max  Miiller  have  defended  the 
same  thesis  with  success.  In  the  last  in- 
stant the  pivot  on  which  the  whole  dispute 
turns  is  the  question  as  to  how  much  is  es- 
sential to  the  idea  of  religion.  Sir  John 
Lubbock  himself  admits  that  it  will  be  dif- 
ficult to  find  any  savages  without  religion, 
if  magic,  in  large  or  small  quantities,  is  al- 
lowed to  do  duty  for  religion.  He  grants 
that  religion  is  common  to  all  men  if  reli- 
gion is  made  to  include  a  mere  dread  and 
consciousness  of  beings  more  powerful 
than  ourselves.  But  he  thereby  concedes 
in  principle  the  universality  of  religion. 

Even  superstition  and  magic,  however 
debased  and  degraded,  are  an  evidence  of 
faith  and  of  religion.  Sacrifice  and  prayer 
are  constituent  elements  of  both,  though 
the  one  be  repulsive  and  the  other  mean- 
ingless and  mechanical.  Both  magic  and 
superstition  have  for  their  object  union 
with  a  superior  being ;  both  are  an  ac- 
knowledgment of  man's  dependence  on  a 
superior  power;  both  point  to  the  need  of 
reconciliation  with  the  powers  above.  In- 
separably linked  with  these  rites  is  belief 
in  immortality.  Whatever  construction 
we  put  upon  this  belief,  it  is  invariably  as- 
sociated with  religion,  and  shows  itself  in 
the  belief  that  man  is  destined  to  lead  a 
happy  life  in  the  world  to  come,  in  the 
company  of  invisible  spirits  and  the  ances- 
tors who  have  gone  before.  Hence  the 
worship  of  the  dead,  which  is  so  common 
among  savages  that  it  forms  the  center 
round  which  their  religious  ceremonial  re- 
volves. Formerly,  it  was  said  that  the 
negro  races  stood  alone  in  denying  the  im- 
mortality of  the  soul ;  however,  also  they 
believe  in  it.  The  various  funeral  customs 
that  prevail  in  Africa  and  the  South  Sea 
Islands  are,  indeed,  a  disgrace  to  humanity ; 
but  they  ser\'e  to  show  that  these  tribes 
believe  that  there  is  a  life  beyond  the 
grave.  The  African  religions  have,  there- 
fore, long  ceased  to  be  classed  as  fetichism 
pure  and  simple.  In  the  obscure  creeds  of 
the  black  races,  we  can  now  find  distinct 


Religions 


60s 


Remigius 


traces  of  serpent  worship;  the  duty  of 
reverencing  ancestors  is  strongly  incul- 
cated; a  gloomy,  morose  belief  in  a  future 
life  pei-vades  them,  yea  —  through  the 
chinks  there  dimly  shines  the  recollection, 
never  wholly  extinguished,  of  a  supreme 
God,  who  is  equally  the  Father  of  white 
men  and  of  black  men.  Then,  too,  the 
inhabitants  of  the  islands  dotted  over  the 
Pacific  and  Indian  Oceans,  Malays, 
Papuans,  and  Polynesians,  have  some  no- 
tion of  sacrifice  and  prayer,  some  idea  of  a 
Divine  Being,  and  they  are  buoyed  up  by 
hope  in  a  life  to  come  that  will  never  end. 
And  archaeology  enables  us  to  discover  the 
footprints  of  funeral  rites,  even  in  prehis- 
toric times. 

No  people  exists  in  whom  the  idea  of 
morality  has  not  taken  root.  Ethics  had 
long  been  the  hinge  on  which  popular 
philosophy  turned.  Socrates  limited  phi- 
losophy to  ethics.  Morality  postulates 
faith,  and  it  is  at  once  a  proof  and  a  product 
of  faith.  The  laws  of  man  are  founded  on 
the  commandments  of  God,  and,  in  point 
of  time,  religious  notions  are  prior  to  the 
distinction  between  good  and  evil.  The 
moral  law  is  enthroned  on  a  higher  pedes- 
tal. This  is  indeed  denied  by  some  anthro- 
pologists of  note,  like  Taylor  and  Weitz ; 
but  here  again  it  is  a  question  of  defining 
terms.  Morality  is  often  made  to  consist 
wholly  of  the  most  trivial  outward  observ- 
ances ;  nevertheless,  it  is  founded  on  the  dis- 
tinction between  good  and  evil,  as  between 
man  and  a  power  above  him.  With  moral- 
ity were  frequently  bound  up  the  dread  of 
punishment  and  the  desire  to  be  purified 
and  redeemed.  Thus,  religion  became  an 
engine  of  education  and  a  means  of  amel- 
iorating the  condition  of  mankind. 

The  picture  drawn  of  the  moral  life  of 
savages  is  indeed  dark  and  full  of  horrors. 
But  were  civilized  races  any  better  in  the 
earlier  ages  ?  Does  not  the  idea  of  religion 
rise  to  the  surface  of  the  surging  floods? 
May  it  not  regain  that  influence  for  good 
which  it  once  had  ?  Cannibalism  originally 
existed  everywhere.  It  overran  Europe 
and  Asia,  devastating  the  fair  provinces  of 
Italy  and  France,  England  and  Germany. 
In  the  opinion  of  many  savants,  it  can  be 
traced  in  the  religion  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. It  was  flourishing  in  America  when 
Columbus  landed.  It  is  still  a  power  in 
Africa,  Asia,  and  Australia.  At  the  pres- 
ent, five  and  a  quarter  millions  of  men  are 
its  slaves.  At  times  men  may  have  been 
instigated  to  it  by  hunger,  or  craving  for 


human  flesh,  or  by  the  desire  to  kill  an 
enemy  out  of  revenge,  and  thus  make  his 
bravery  their  own ;  but  its  motive  is  super- 
stitious and  religious.  Men  make  their 
gods  as  cruel  as  themselves,  and  strive  to 
propitiate  them  with  human  sacrifices. 
The  Mexicans  offered  up  to  their  god  a 
heart  "  in  order  to  renew  the  youth  of  the 
natural  forces  that  sway  the  universe " ; 
and  they  took  the  heart  out  of  the  noblest 
of  living  beings —  man.  The  same  idea  finds 
expression  in  the  savage  cruelties  perpe- 
trated in  the  human  sacrifices  of  the  Aztecs, 
—  cruelties  that  spread  to  an  alarming  ex- 
tent among  other  races  and  cities.  The 
men  themselves  partook  of  the  sacrificial 
meal.  Religion  looms  behind  the  ghastly 
human  sacrifices  that  take  place  at  funerals. 
As  suicide  among  Hindoos  has  a  religious 
motive,  so  the  variety  of  views  about  this 
life,  a  life  in  the  world  to  come,  accounts 
for  all  such  revolting  barbarities  in  family 
and  tribal  life.  An  explanation  of  many 
of  them  must  be  sought  in  that  love  which 
endures  beyond  the  grave. 

Religions  {Approximate  State  of  the 
Differettt). — The  population  of  the  globe 
being  1,300,000,000,  the  religions  are  stated 
to  ofTer  the  following  proportions:  i. 
Christians,  335,000,000;  2.  Jews,  5,000,000; 
3.  Mohammedans,  160,000,000;  4.  Budhists 
and  Brahmans,  600,000,000;  5.  Pagans  and 
Fetichists,  200,000,000.  The  Christians 
may  be  subdivided  thus :  Catholics,  270,- 
000,000;  Protestants,  89,000,000;  Schis- 
matics, 76,000,000.  Of  the  335,000,000 
Christians,  it  is  counted  that  169,000,000 
are  in  Europe,  58,000,000  in  America, 
and  the  remainder  in  other  countries  of 
the  world.  It  is  claimed  that  there  are  in 
Europe  3,500,000  Jews  and  71,000,000  Mo- 
hammedans ;  Asia,  it  is  claimed,  contains 
50,000,000  Mohammedans  and  Africa  the 
remainder.  The  Buddhists  and  Brahmans 
are  almost  all  in  Asia.  According  to  the 
latest  accounts.  Catholicity  is  gaining 
ground  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  especially 
in  America  and  Africa,  on  account  of  the 
increase  of  the  population  and  through  the 
strong  impulse  impressed  upon  the  mis- 
sions by  the  Holy  See. 

Remigius  (St.)  (437-533).  — Archbishop 
of  Rheims  and  apostle  of  the  Franks. 
Born  at  Cerny,  France,  of  a  noble  family; 
died  at  Rheims.  Clovis,  king  of  the 
Franks,  was  baptized  by  St.  Remigius  on 
Christmas  day,  in  496.  On  this  occasion, 
the  saint  addressing  Clovis,  and  referring 


Remonstrants 


606 


Reprobation 


to  the  idols  of  pagan  and  to  the  symbols  of 
Christian  worship,  said:  "Humble  thy- 
self, proud  Sicambrian ;  burn  now  what 
thou  didst  formerly  adore,  and  adore  now 
what  thou  didst  formerly  burn."  Three 
thousand  Prankish  nobles  and  a  great 
number  of  Frankish  ladies  followed  the 
example  of  Clovis,  and  were  at  once 
baptized  by  the  attending  bishops  and 
clergy.  According  to  a  legend  of  a  more 
recent  date,  the  press  of  the  people  was  so 
great  at  the  ceremony  of  the  anointing  and 
coronation  of  Clovis,  that  the  attendant 
who  bore  the  chrism  could  not  make  his 
way  to  Bishop  Remigius,  who  officiated  on 
this  occasion.  The  interruption,  however, 
was  short;  for  a  white  dove  descending 
from  heaven  supplied  the  sacred  oil,  and, 
after  the  prince  had  been  anointed  and 
crowned,  he  was  saluted  as  the  newly 
arisen  Constantine.  F.  Oct.  ist.  See 
Clovis  and  Clotilda. 

Remonstrants.  —  Arminians;  name  ap- 
plied to  them  from  a  document  consisting 
of  five  articles  expressing  the  points  of 
divergence  of  the  Dutch  Arminians  from 
strict  Calvinism,  presented  to  the  states  of 
Holland  and  West-Friesland  in  1610. 

Renan  (Joseph  Ernest)  (1823-1892). — 
Orientalist,  historian,  and  essayist,  born 
at  Treguier,  in  Brittany.  In  1842  he  en- 
tered the  Seminary  of  St.  Sulpice,  but 
three  years  later  gave  up  the  idea  of  be- 
coming a  priest.  His  first  important  work, 
Az'erroes  et  I' Ar'erroisme,  appeared  in 
1852.  He  was  professor  of  Hebrew  in  the 
Institute  of  France  1861-1862,  and  was  reap- 
pointed in  1870.  His  V^ie  de  Jesus  (1863), 
which  gave  rise  to  much  discussion,  was 
afterwards  expanded  into  Histoire  des 
Origines  du  Christianisme.  He  also  pub- 
lished Le  yudaisme  (1883),  and  numerous 
other  works.  All  his  books  are  on  the 
Index. 

Reprobation.  —  Reprobation  is  an  act  or 
decree  by  which  God  excludes  from  the 
kingdom  of  heaven  and  condemns  to  the 
pains  of  hell,  the  sinners  who  die  in  final 
impenitence.  It  is  the  contrary  of  predes- 
tination. This  decree,  although  infallible 
like  the  divine  prescience,  imposes  upon 
those,  who  are  the  object  thereof,  no  neces- 
sity to  sin.  It  even  supposes  the  liberty, 
or  the  voluntary  and  really  f^ee  abuse  of 
grace,  which  God  refuses  to  nobody.  The 
one  who  is  damned  is  not  damned  because 
there  exists  a  decree  of  reprobation ;  for 


this  decree  exists  only  because  the  sinner 
whom  it  concerns  damns  himself,  by  will- 
ingly and  freely  persevering  in  his  sin 
until  the  end.  It  is  of  faith  that  after  this 
life  there  is  a  hell  for  the  wicked.  Also,  it 
is  of  faith  that  the  pains  of  hell  are  eter- 
nal. The  symbol  of  St.  Athanasius,  which 
is  received  in  the  universal  Church,  ends 
thus:  "Those  who  shall  have  done  good, 
will  enter  eternal  life ;  but  those  who  shall 
have  done  evil,  will  enter  eternal  fire. 
Such  is  the  faith ;  whoever  does  not  faith- 
fully and  firmly  adhere  to  it  cannot  be 
saved."  The  Catholic  dogma  concerning 
the  eternity  of  the  pains  of  hell  is  founded 
upon  Scripture  and  tradition ;  on  the  uni- 
versal and  constant  belief  of  the  Church, 
in  accord  with  the  belief  of  the  ancient 
nations,  even  of  the  Gentiles.  Will  you 
say  that  we  cannot  reconcile  this  dogma 
with  the  goodness  of  God.?  But  "who  art 
thou,  O  man,  to  contest  with  God.?  (O 
homo,  tu  quis  es,  qui  respondeas  Deo  ?) 
Who  shall  dare  to  say  to  Thee,  O  Lord, 
why  didst  Thou  do  this?  Or  who  will 
dare  to  rise  against  Thy  judgment.?  Who 
will  appear  before  Thee  to  take  up  the  de- 
fense of  unjust  men.?"  It  does  not  belong 
to  us  to  criticise  God's  judgments.  He  is 
wonderful  in  His  saints  through  His  good- 
ness;  He  is  not  less  wonderful  by  His  jus- 
tice in  the  damned.  The  sinner  who  is 
condemned  to  eternal  torment,  can  only 
blame  himself;  he  can  blame  God  only  in 
so  far  as  He  could  not  hinder  his  damna- 
tion. But  it  is  not  thus  :  God  rejects  and 
condemns  after  this  life  the  impenitent 
sinners  only  because  these  sinners  rejected 
and  condemned  themselves,  while  they 
were  upon  earth.  Free  to  do  the  good  and 
the  evil,  instead  of  doing  the  good,  they 
preferred  death  to  life,  the  pains  of  hell  to 
the  enjoyments  of  heaven,  the  sojourn  of 
Satan  to  the  kingdom  of  God.  They  are, 
therefore,  unfortunate  because  they  have 
wished  it;  and  they  will  be  this  eternally, 
because,  in  spite  of  the  admonitions  and 
threats  of  the  Lord,  they  have  followed, 
with  free  will,  the  way  that  leads  to  eter- 
nal perdition.  This  shows  that  the  eternity 
of  hell  is  no  more  contrary  to  divine  jus- 
tice than  to  divine  goodness. 

We  distinguish  two  pains  of  hell:  the 
pain  of  damnation  and  the  pain  ot  the 
senses.  The  first  consists  in  the  privation 
of  the  intuitive  vision,  or  in  the  loss  of 
heaven,  and  in  the  regret  of  having  lost  it. 
The  second  consists  in  the  pain  caused  by 
fire.     This  double  chastisement  is  aggra- 


Rescripts 


607 


Restitution 


vated  by  despair ;  the  damned  cannot  en- 
tertain any  liope  of  ever  seeing  an  end  of 
his  torments.  The  pains  of  hell  are  ex- 
pressed by  a  worm  that  never  dies  and  by 
a  fire  which  is  never  extinguished,  and 
with  which  our  divine  Saviour  threatens 
the  sinner.  We  understand  by  this  gnaw- 
ing worm  the  inner  pains,  the  remorses 
and  the  regrets  of  the  damned.  The 
damned  will  be  tormented  through  the 
envy  which  they  shall  have  toward  the 
saints ;  they  shall  condemn  their  aberra- 
tions, and  shall  have  a  bitter  pain  for  be- 
ing deprived  of  the  glory  and  happiness  of 
the  just.  The  second  pain  of  hell  is  the 
pain  of  fire:  ii^nt's  non  extinguitur.  But  is 
it  the  same  with  the  fire  as  with  the  gnaw- 
ing worm?  Is  this  fire  a  material  or  an 
inner  fire,  a  fire  which,  by  acting  directly 
on  the  soul,  acts  indirectly  on  the  body? 
This  is  a  question  about  which  there  exists 
no  decision  of  the  Church.  It  is  of  faith 
that  the  damned  shall  be  eternally  deprived 
of  the  happiness  of  heaven,  and  that  they 
shall  be  eternally  tormented  in  hell;  but  it 
is  not  of  faith  that  the  fire  which  makes 
them  suffer  is  a  material  fire.  However, 
the  opinion  which  is  for  the  reality  or  ma- 
terialitj  of  fire  is  so  general  among  Catho- 
lics, that  we  do  not  believe  we  are  permitted 
to  teach  the  contrary.  But  it  is  important 
to  remark  that,  according  to  both  opinions, 
hell  is  a  place  of  torment.  "  The  opinion, 
according  to  which  the  fire  of  hell  is  only 
metaphorical,  does  not  exclude  the  pain  of 
the  senses,  consisting  in  a  vehement  afflic- 
tion of  the  body,  although  not  caused  by 
fire."  Those  who  shall  be  condemned  to 
eternal  fire  will  all  be  punished,  and  they 
shall  be  this  eternally,  more  or  less  se- 
verely, according  as  they  have  been  more 
or  less  guilty. 

Rescripts.  —  By  rescripts  are  meant 
those  letters  by  which  the  Roman  Pontiff 
replies  to  persons  who  either  ask  for  some 
favor  or  report  on  some  particular  affair, 
or  request  directions  for  a  transient  object 
or  private  individual. 

Reservation  of  Cases.     See  Cases. 

Residence  (  Duty  of).  —  Parish  priests, 
both  removable  and  irremovable,  are  bound 
at  least  jure  ecrlesiastico,  and  that  sub 
g-ravi,  to  reside  in  their  parishes.  We 
say,  at  least,  etc.,  for  whether  they  are  ob- 
ligated also  jure  diviMo  is  a  disputed  ques- 
tion. Assistant  priests  are  not  bound  by 
the  law  of  residence,  though  they  should 


not  be  absent  without  the  permission  of  the 
pastor  or  bishop.  For  certain  causes,  rec- 
tors may,  at  times,  be  absent  from  their 
parishes,  as,  for  instance,  on  account  of  ill- 
health  or  the  need  of  recreation.  How- 
ever, besides  a  legitimate  cause,  the 
permission  of  the  bishop,  in  writing,  is 
necessary,  and  that  even  for  an  absence  of 
one  week.  The  duty  of  residence,  which 
is  particularly  urgent  during  contagious 
diseases,  comprises  not  only  the  obligation 
of  physically  dwelling  in  the  parish,  but 
also  that  of  laboring  for  its  good.  Hence,  a 
pastor  cannot  leave  all  the  parochial  duties 
in  the  hands  of  his  assistants,  but  must  per- 
sonally, unless  lawfully  hindered,  perform 
some,  especially,  of  the  more  important 
ones,  such  as  preaching  and  administering 
the  sacraments.  He  may,  however,  re- 
quire his  assistants  to  attend  to  the  more 
arduous  duties,  such  as  sick  calls  at  night, 
attending  to  out-missions.  As  a  rule,  pas- 
tors should  reside  within  the  limits  of  their 
parishes,  nay,  in  the  parochial  house,  if 
there  be  one. 

Resignation.  —  By  resignation  is  meant 
the  act  by  which  an  ecclesiastic,  of  his  own 
free  will,  gives  up  his  office  or  benefice 
into  the  hands  of  the  bishop  or  superior, 
with  the  consent  of  the  proper  ecclesias- 
tical superior.  We  say  the  resignation 
must  be  voluntary;  that  is,  not  extorted  by 
fear,  violence,  deceit,  or  cunning;  forced 
resignations  are  rescindable.  Also,  the  res- 
ignation must  be  wholly  exempt  from 
simoniacal  stipulation,  that  is,  from  bar- 
gains or  contracts  to  give  or  to  receive 
money  or  any  other  temporal  considera- 
tion for  the  resignation.  Finally,  the  res- 
ignation must  be  accepted  by  the  proper 
ecclesiastical  superior;  otherwise  it  is  in- 
valid and  of  no  effect,  and  the  resigner 
may  be  compelled  to  reassume  his  office. 

Responsory.     See  Gradual. 

Restitution  (action  by  which  we  restore 
or  return). —  He  who  has  unjustly  appro- 
priated his  neighbor's  goods,  or  wilfully 
damaged  his  property,  is  obliged  to  make 
restitution.  For,  if  the  momentary  incon- 
venience which  we  cause  to  our  neighbor 
from  theft  or  damnification  is  sinful,  much 
more  is  the  continued  loss;  and  this  loss 
or  inconvenience  remains  until  restitution 
is  made.  He  who,  knowingly  and  unjustly, 
appropriates  the  goods  of  another  is  obliged 
to  make  restitution,  not  only  of  the  object 
appropriated,  but  also  of  the  gain  he  has 


Resurrection 


608 


Resurrection 


derived  from  it,  and  for  the  loss  incurred 
by  the  owner.  He  who,  without  the  own- 
er's knowledge  or  consent,  has  brought 
into  his  possession  the  property  of  another 
must,  as  soon  as  he  has  discovered  that  it 
belongs  to  another,  restore  the  object  it- 
self and  the  profit  derived  from  it,  or  the 
amount  which  he  has  realized  or  saved  by 
its  use.  In  this  case,  however,  he  is  not 
obliged  to  repair  the  loss  incurred  by  the 
owner,  since  he  only  is  bound  in  conscience 
to  repair  damages,  who  in  conscience  has 
committed  injustice,  and  not  he  who  has 
acted  in  good  faith.  One  who  has  inflicted 
damage  in  good  faith,  however,  may  be 
justly  condemned  to  make  reparation  by 
civil  law,  which  takes  cognizance  of  facts, 
not  of  intentions.  Unjustly  appropriated 
goods  are  to  be  restored  either  to  the 
owner  himself  or  to  his  heirs.  He  who, 
knowingly  and  wilfully,  appropriated  an- 
other's goods  is  bound  to  devote^tirtih  to 
public  or  pious  uses,  in  case  the  owner 
cannot  be  found ;  for  no  one  is  allowed  to 
reap  benefit  from  injustice;  and  unjustly 
appropriated  goods  can  never  become 
ownerless,  but  become,  in  default  of  private 
ownership,  public  property. 

The  duty  of  restitution  devolves,  in  the 
first  instance,  upon  him  who  actually  pos- 
sesses the  ill-gotten  object,  or  upon  him 
who  inflicted  the  unjust  damage.  If  the 
thief,  or  the  author  of  the  damage,  fails  to 
make  restitution,  the  duty  devolves  upon 
those  who  co-operated,  and,  in  the  first 
place,  upon  him  who  co-operated  by  com- 
mand ;  in  the  second  place,  on  him  who  ex- 
ecuted the  command  ;  in  the  third  place,  on 
the  others  who  co-operated  positively;  and 
in  the  fourth  place,  on  those  who  co-oper- 
ated negatively.  In  this  order  the  latter 
party  is  always  obliged  to  make  restitution 
or  reparation  if  the  preceding  parties  have 
failed  to  do  so. 

Resurrection.  —  It  is  a  fundamental 
point  of  the  Christian  religion  that  the 
day  will  come  when  the  true  bodies  of  all 
the  dead  shall  rise  in  their  integrity. 
Nothing  less  than  this  is  meant  by  the 
article  of  the  Apostles'  Creed,  "  the  resur- 
rection of  the  body."  The  same  is  ex- 
pressed in  the  Athanasian  Creed,  and  is 
clearly  a  part  of  Catholic  faith.  This 
truth  is  plainly  taught  by  St.  Paul  (I. 
Cor.  XV.),  where  he  argues  that  as  Christ 
rose  in  the  body,  so  must  all  men  rise,  for 
the  Head  and  the  members  must  be  con- 
formed.    The  Apostle  assumes  the  same 


doctrine  in  other  places  (II.  Cor.  iv.  14; 
Rom.  viil.  11);  and  he  made  no  secret  of 
the  matter  whether  preaching  to  Jews 
(Acts  xxiii.  6)  or  to  heathen  (Acts  xvii. 
32).  The  other  Apostles  taught  the 
same  (Acts  iv.).  The  explicit  statement 
on  the  matter  contained  in  the  ancient 
creeds,  dispenses  us  from  the  necessity  of 
bringing  quotations  to  prove  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Fathers. 

Christ  Himself  spoke  on  the  subject 
(John  V.  28,  29),  instructing  the  Jews  that 
the  hour  was  coming  wherein  all  that  are 
in  the  graves  should  hear  the  voice  of  the 
Son  of  God,  and  they  that  had  done  good 
should  come  forth  unto  the  resurrection 
of  life,  but  they  that  had  done  evil,  unto 
the  resurrection  of  Judgment.  Reference 
to  the  monuments  shows  that  this  pass- 
age refers  to  the  resurrection  of  the  body, 
and  it  is  important  as  proving  that  the 
same  reunion  awaits  the  just  and  the  un- 
just alike.  It  seems  plain  that  all  will 
rise  at  the  same  instant  (I.  Cor.  xv.  52; 
Dan.  xii.  2). 

That  the  body  that  shall  rise  is  the 
same  as  that  which  died,  follows  from  the 
idea  of  "rising  again";  if  a  new  body 
were  created  and  formed  by  the  soul,  no 
one  would  say  that  this  man  had  risen 
again ;  some  other  phrase  must  be  sought 
to  express  what  had  happened,  and  since 
no  case  of  such  an  occurrence  is  known  to 
us,  no  such  phrase  is  in  use.  Moreover, 
the  resurrection  of  Christ  is  nothing  but 
an  anticipation  in  point  of  time  of  that 
which  awaits  all  men,  as  St.  Paul  clearly 
teaches  (I.  Cor.  xv.  20) ;  and  we  know 
that  He  rose  with  the  same  body  with 
which  He  died  (Luke  xxiv.  39).  That 
which  is  in  the  tomb  is  to  come  forth 
when  the  resurrection  day  arrives,  as  we 
learn  from  the  discourse  of  Christ  quoted 
a  few  lines  back;  and  that  which  is  in  the 
tomb  is  the  body  that  died.  The  truth  is 
expressly  defined  by  the  Fourth  Council 
of  La teran,  where  it  is  declared:  "That 
all  the  dead  shall  rise  again  with  their 
bodies  which  they  now  have." 

The  doctrine  of  the  resurrection  of  the 
flesh  has  been  vehemently  attacked  in  all 
ages  of  the  Church ;  some  of  the  earliest 
heretics  found  in  it  an  insurmountable 
difficulty  in  the  way  of  their  tenet  of  the 
essentially  evil  nature  of  matter,  and  the 
rationalizing  spirit  of  modern  times 
prompts  men  to  ask  the  question  :  how  this 
can  be.?  and  to  find  for  an  answer,  —  to 
reject  the  revealed  truth.     We  need   not 


Retreat 


609 


Revelation 


consider  the  earlier  form  of  objection;  to 
the  latter  form,  we  reply  by  avowing  that 
we  do  not  know  how  God's  purpose  will 
be  worked  out,  any  more  than  we  know 
how  He  makes  the  seed  that  is  sown  in  the 
ground  grow  into  a  tree  (I.  Cor.  xv.  35-38) ; 
this  is  the  answer  given  by  St.  Paul  to  the 
question  raised  by  the  Rationalists  of  his 
day.  The  difficulty  sometimes  urged,  that 
particles  which  belonged  to  one  man  at  his 
death  may  become  part  of  the  body  of  an- 
other man  and  be  his  when  he  dies,  is  spe- 
cious but  shallow.  He  that  urges  it,  assumes 
that  he  knows  far  more  about  the  constitu- 
tion of  matter,  dead  and  living,  and  con- 
cerning what  constitutes  identity,  than  has 
as  yet  been  revealed  to  the  researches  of 
chemists,  biologists,  and  metaphysicians; 
and  we  must  remember  that  the  providence 
of  God  is  over  all  His  works,  and  will  se- 
cure the  carrying  out  of  His  ends. 

Retreat  has  a  specific  meaning  in  the 
terminology  of  the  Church,  denoting  a 
time  of  repairing  to  temporary  retirement 
from  the  work  of  active  life  for  the  sake 
of  prayer,  meditation,  and  spiritual  exer- 
cises. 

Reuch  (Francis  Henry). -r-Theologian, 
born  at  Brilon,  Westphalia,  in  1825.  A 
professor  of  the  Catholic  Faculty  of  Bonn, 
he  refused  to  acknowledge  the  decisions  of 
the  Vatican  Council  on  the  Infallibility  of 
the  Pope,  and  then  became  one  of  the 
heads  of  the  "  Old  Catholics."  Wrote  Die 
Bibel  und  Natur,  a  work  translated  into 
English. 

Reuchlin  (John)  (1455-1522). — Human- 
ist, born  at  Phorzheim,  died  at  Stuttgart. 
In  1473,  he  went  to  study  in  Paris,  which 
city  he  left  in  1475  to  go  to  Basle,  where 
he  gave  public  lessons  in  Greek.  Then  he 
went  to  study  law  at  Orleans.  Returning 
to  Germany,  he  went  to  Rome  in  1482,  as 
secretary  of  the  Duke  of  Wiirtemberg;  on 
his  return  he  became  president  of  the 
"Ligue  of  Suabia,"  and  labored  on  a  He- 
brew grammar  and  dictionary  which  caused 
him  to  make  interpretations  of  the  Bible 
that  were  victoriously  combated  by  the 
Universities  of  Paris,  Louvain,  and  May- 
ence. 

Revelation  (action  to  reveal). —  In  the 
theological  sense,  revelation  is  the  divine 
manifestation,  made  by  God  to  man.  Con- 
sidered as  a  divine  act,  it  is  the  funda- 
mental condition  of  all  positive  religion, 
and  considered   as   an    historical   fact,   it 

39 


falls,  like  other  facts,  in  the  domain  of 
history  and  is  subject  to  empiricism. 
Hence  the  new  science :  the  philosophy  of 
revelation.  The  questions  with  which  it 
occupies  itself  treats  first :  on  the  possi- 
bility of  revelation  and  on  its  necessity. 
The  possibility  may  be  looked  upon:  (1) 
either  from  the  part  of  God  (2)  or  from 
the  part  of  man.  The  philosophers  have 
advanced  the  most  diverse  judgments  on 
the  necessity  of  revelation  and  the  need  we 
have  thereof.  Some  have  acknowledged 
the  absolute  need  of  a  progressive  revela- 
tion; the  majority  have  admitted  only  a 
relative  necessity,  not  leaving  the  original 
state  of  man.  The  Rationalists  completely 
deny  both  the  necessity  and  the  need  of  a 
revelation  for  man,  and  do  not  wish  to  ad- 
mit the  revelation  of  the  first  conceptions 
of  religion,  but  regard  them  as  the  testi- 
mony of  reason  itself,  and  besides  pretend 
that  man  can  and  must  of  himself  tend 
and  arrive  at  the  final  possession  of  all 
truth  and  of  all  good.  We  might  argue 
from  the  very  principles  of  philosophy 
itself  to  prove  the  possibility  of  revelation ; 
for,  admitting  that  there  are  truths  of  the 
supernatural  order,  God  can  perfectly  pro- 
pose to  the  reason  of  man  truths  of  this 
order.  God,  being  infinite,  no  one  can 
deny  that  there  are  supernatural  truths, 
truths  which  the  finite  being  can  never 
know  as  long  as  God  is  not  pleased  to  man- 
ifest them  to  him.  It  has  been  well  said, 
"Man  is  on  all  sides  limited  by  the  incom- 
prehensible." "Man  infinitely  surpasses 
man,"  says  Paschal.  And  how  is  it  possi- 
ble to  believe  that  God,  the  infinite,  the 
omniscient,  could  not  propose  mysteries 
to  our  feeble  reason  !  By  His  title  of  Crea- 
tor, God  preserves  over  the  creature  a  su- 
preme authority;  man  is  no  more  inde- 
pendent toward  Him  than  the  vessel  of 
clay  toward  the  potter,  who  can  make  of 
it  what  he  pleases,  a  vessel  of  honor  or  of 
ignominy.  Man,  therefore,  is  not  free  to 
refuse  the  gifts  of  God.  "  He  who  be- 
lieves and  will  be  baptized,  will  be  saved," 
says  the  Sacred  Book,  "and  he  who  will 
not  believe  shall  be  condemned."  There- 
fore, we  are  not  free  to  adhere  or  not  to 
adhere  to  the  truths  of  the  Gospel,  for  the 
order  is  formal,  the  dominion  is  supreme, 
and  the  right  imprescriptible. 

Moreover,  man  is  endowed  with  a 
reason  apt  to  receive  the  object  of  these 
truths ;  he  has  what  we  call  potentia  obe- 
dientialis,  that  is,  he  may  receive  the  intel- 
lectual concourse  of  God,  and  as  God  is 


Revelation,  Primitive 


6io 


Revelation,  Primitive 


pure  essence,  fotentta  elevans,  when  He 
raises  man  to  a  superior  order  of  truths, 
He  ennobles  thereby  the  human  intelli- 
gence ;  hence  man  does  not  renounce,  as 
the  Rationalists  pretend,  his  title  as  man 
when  he  admits  and  believes  in  supernat- 
ural truths.  To  reject  a  priori  the  truths, 
in  saying  for  instance :  I  do  not  admit 
them,  because  I  do  not  understand  them, 
is  acting  like  a  blind  man  who  would  not 
believe  in  tlie  beauties  of  nature  because 
he  does  not  see  them. 

It  is  easy  to  reject  a  priori  the  possi- 
bility of  the  divine  revelation  of  super- 
natural truths;  it  is  easy  to  proclaim  the 
absolute  autonomy  of  reason  in  their  re- 
gard; but  to  justify  one's  assertion,  be- 
hold the  difficulty.  Rationalism  makes 
tabula  rasa  with  all  that  has  preceded ; 
with  the  glorious  prescription  of  a  Chris- 
tianity of  eighteen  centuries  during  which 
has  been  proclaimed  the  union  of  faith 
and  reason ;  it  is  not  an  isolated  thinker 
who  has  said  that  we  must  believe  all  the 
truths  revealed  by  God.  The  successive 
generations  tell  us  this ;  all  the  greatest 
minds  of  which  mankind  boasts,  proclaim 
this.  Moreover,  Christianity  bears  such 
manifest  characters  of  divine  intervention 
in  both  its  diffusion  and  preservation,  that 
we  must  say  with  right  that  it  is  a  divine 
revelation  in  its  origin,  as  it  is  a  work  of 
God  in  its  immortal  duration. 

Since,  even  for  the  truths  of  the  natural 
order  it  is  necessary  for  God  to  intervene, 
—  there  is  question  here  of  a  moral  neces- 
sity,—  with  much  more  reason  is  his  inter- 
vention necessary  for  the  truths  of  the 
supernatural  order.  Undoubtedly,  reason 
may  establish  with  certainty  the  truths  of 
the  natural  order  as,  for  instance,  the  ex- 
istence of  God,  the  spirituality  of  the  soul, 
the  liberty  of  man ;  but  we  say  that  it  is 
impossible,  for  various  causes,  for  the 
great  mass  of  mankind,  to  arrive  individu- 
ally and  practically  at  the  knowledge  of 
these  truths.  History  of  philosophy  comes 
to  our  support  to  corroborate  this  proposi- 
tion. History'  of  the  human  reason,  before 
Christianity  enlightened  it  is,  in  fact,  only 
a  long  and  deplorable  account  of  monstrous 
errors  and  of  incredible  absurdities.  Did 
Cicero  not  say,  "  that  one  could  not  quote 
a  single  absurd  opinion  which  has  not  some 
philosopher  for  author  or  patron  "?  Now, 
when  these  great  minds,  assisted  by  primi- 
tive revelation  and  even  by  the  Mosaic 
revelation,  of  which  they  certainly  must 
have  had  some  knowledge,  could  neverthe- 


less fall  into  the  most  shameful  aberrations, 
what  might  not  take  place  with  ordinary 
minds?  Therefore,  it  is  a  truth  which  re- 
mains attested  by  theology,  philosophy, 
experience,  and  history,  "  that  human  rea- 
son is  not  so  independent  that  God  cannot 
impose  His  truths  upon  it "  ;  we  see  thereby 
how  tlie  anathema  of  the  Vatican  Council, 
against  any  one  daring  to  maintain  the 
contrary,  is  justified. 

Revelation,  Primitive.  —  Primitive  reve- 
lation is  that  which  was  made  to  the  first 
Patriarchs  from  Adam  until  the  written 
law.  It  is  found  related  in  the  first  chap- 
ters of  Genesis,  where  we  can  see  the  his- 
tory of  the  fall  of  man,  his  condemnation, 
and  the  promise  of  a  Redeemer.  By  way 
of  induction  we  draw  the  consequence 
that  God,  in  the  conversation  He  had  with 
Adam,  must  have  revealed  to  him  :  i.  The 
existence  of  one,  personal,  almighty,  just, 
and  merciful  God;  2.  The  unity  of  the 
world  as  the  creation  of  the  Most  High; 
3.  The  substantial  difference  of  the  crea- 
tures. Holy  Scripture  seems  to  indicate 
that  there  have  been  several  successive 
revelations  in  the  race  of  Seth,  later  on  in 
that  of  Noe,  and  in  Abraham  and  his  pos- 
terity. 

All  the  sciences,  to  which  they  appealed 
in  the  eighteenth  century,  in  order  to 
undermine  Christianity,  concur  to-day  to 
prpve  the  primitive  revelation.  Geology 
finds  everywhere  numerous  traces  of  a 
deluge  and  of  a  creation,  relatively  recent, 
of  the  living  beings  upon  the  globe,  and 
by  facts  it  proves  that  the  earth  must 
have  been  really,  in  the  beginning,  such 
as  it  is  described  in  Genesis ;  physiology 
and  philology  have  come  to  establish  in 
a  peremptory  manner  the  unity  of  the 
human  race,  and  history,  according  to 
the  measure  it  makes  new  discoveries, 
confirms  more  and  more  all  the  accounts 
of  the  Bible. 

It  is  an  unquestionable  fact  that  we 
find  traces  of  revelation  in  all  the  ancient 
religions :  the  pagans  refer  to  the  Deity, 
not  only  their  religious  science,  but  also 
their  political  constitutions,  their  laws 
and  institutions.  How  could  they  have 
imagined  a  similar  origin,  if  they  had 
not,  really  and  primitively,  received  from 
God  the  principles  of  this  science  and  these 
institutions.?  Do  we  not  perceive  in  the 
different  theogonies,  and,  in  particular, 
in  the  incarnations  of  Wishnu,  a  shadow 
of  the  Incarnation  of  the  Son  of  God? 


Revolution 


6ii 


RiCCI      ' 


Revolution  {The  French'). — The  great 
French  Revolution  was  brought  on :  By 
the  mania  for  freedom  that  followed  the 
American  war  for  independence ;  by  the 
moral  corruption  of  the  higher  classes ;  by 
royal  absolutism,  financial  embarrassment, 
and  oppressive  taxation  ;  by  the  irreligion 
and  skepticism  which,  disseminated  by  the 
philosophers,  had  permeated  all  classes 
and  destroyed  the  influence  of  the  Church. 
That  France  which  inaugurated  the  revo- 
lution was  not  Catholic  but  infidel ;  Catho- 
lic France  became  a  victim  of  the 
Revolution.  The  irreligious  press  exer- 
cised an  enormous  influence;  more  than 
2,500  pamphlets  attacking  despotism,  the 
nobles,  and  the  clergy,  were  printed ;  30,- 
000  copies  of  Abb^  Siey^s's  What  is  the 
Third  Estate  f  were  cast  abroad.  After 
the  first  scenes  of  violence  had  been  in- 
augurated, all  Catholic  Church  property 
was  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  nation ; 
that  of  Protestants  was  unmolested.  All 
the  religious  orders  were  suppressed  and 
the  so-called  "Civil  Constitution  of  the 
Clergy  "  was  adopted  in  1790.  The  latter 
completely  subverted  the  constitution  of 
the  Church;  it  vested  the  people,  includ- 
ing the  Jews,  with  the  right  to  appoint 
the  priests.  Protestants  were  unmolested 
in  the  administration  of  ecclesiastical  af- 
fairs. In  1791  a  demand  was  made  that 
the  clergy  should  take  the  oath  of  the 
civil  constitution.  Four  bishops  and  many 
of  the  clergy  complied ;  127  bishops  and 
50,000  priests  refused  to  comply  with  this 
demand.  These  were  banished  and  ill- 
treated  ;  many  were  put  to  death ;  sacris- 
tans, mechanics,  etc.,  were  installed  as 
state  priests.  The  Catholics  oflFered  re- 
sistance. Supplied  with  papal  faculties, 
the  faithful  priests  performed  their  func- 
tions in  private,  holding  divine  service 
in  caves,  forests,  etc.  The  revolution  of 
1792  brought  death.  Among  the  victims 
in  Paris  were  400  priests  and  several  bish- 
ops ;  inhuman  atrocities  were  perpetrated ; 
faithful  priests,  who  did  not  take  to  flight, 
died  as  martyrs.  After  the  execution  of 
the  king,  the  Reign  of  Terror  was  in- 
augurated, which  crushed  Christianity 
and  established  the  worship  of  reason. 
Forty-four  thousand  Revolutionary  com- 
mittees were  appointed,  and  as  many 
guillotines  were  set  up  to  clear  France  of 
every  trace  of  Christianity  and  royalty. 
Under  the  sentence  of  these  committees 
were  guillotined  1,135  priests,  350  nuns, 
2,000  of  the  nobility,  besides  thousands  of 


the  lower  classes.  To  these  must  be  added 
32,000  killed  at  Nantes,  and  31,000  at 
Lyons.  In  the  Vendee  alone,  where  so 
gallant  a  stand  was  made  in  behalf  of 
religion  and  order,  900,000  were  killed, 
among  them  15,000  women  and  22,000 
children.  More  than  two  millions  are  said 
to  have  perished  by  the  wars  and  massa- 
cres of  the  Revolution. 

With  resistless  fury  the  Revolution 
poured  like  a  torrent  beyond  the  limits 
of  France.  General  Napoleon  made  the 
French  masters  of  Northern  Italy;  ere 
long  the  Pope  was  threatened  in  his  do- 
minions. It  was  in  vain  that  Pius  VI. 
pleaded  his  neutrality.  He  was  forced  to 
purchase  peace  by  cessions  of  territory 
and  exorbitant  contributions  in  money  and 
works  of  art.  Nor  was  this  all;  when  the 
Pope  refused  the  recognition  of  the  "Civil 
Constitution,"  Rome  was  taken  and  pro- 
claimed a  Republic  in  1798.  The  Pope 
himself  was  taken  prisoner  and  carried  to 
France,  where  he  died  at  Valence  in  1799. 
Napoleon  Bonaparte,  then  First  Consul, 
finding  it  impossible  to  govern  a  people 
destitute  of  religion,  resolved,  with  the 
sentiments  of  the  great  majority  of  the 
nation,  to  restore  the  Catholic  worship  in 
France.  Accordingly,  on  July  15th,  1801, 
he  concluded  a  Concordat,  whereby  the 
Catholic  religion,  the  practice  of  which 
had  been  proscribed  since  1790,  was  re- 
established in  France  and  recognized  again 
as  the  Religion  of  the  State. 

Rhodes.  —  A  noted  island  in  the  .^gean 
sea,  13  miles  from  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor, 
which  St.  Paul  visited  (Acts  xxi.  i)  on  re- 
turning from  his  third  missionary  tour.  It 
was  then  flourishing;  was  held  in  the  Mid- 
dle Ages  by  the  Knights  of  St.  John,  but 
captured  by  the  Turks,  who  still  hold  it. 

Rhodon.  —  Ecclesiastical  writer  of  the 
second  century.  Disciple  and  successor  of 
Tatian  in  the  Roman  Catechetical  School 
under  Pope  Soter.  Wrote  several  works 
against  heretics,  particularly  against  the 
Marcionites. 

Ricci  (Lawrence)  (1703-1775). — Gen- 
eral of  the  Jesuits,  born  at  Florence,  died 
in  Rome.  He  made,  it  is  said,  the  firm 
answer  to  those  that  invited  him  to  moder- 
ate the  statutes  of  St.  Ignatius :  "  Sint  ut 
sunt,  aut  non  sint."  At  the  suppression  of 
the  Society  of  Jesus,  in  1773,  he  was  im- 
prisoned in  the  Castle  Sant  Angelo.  In  a 
Memoire  he  victoriously  refuted  the  ene- 
mies of  his  order. 


RiCCI 


612 


Rogation  Days 


Ricci  (Matthew)  (1552-1610).  —  Jesuit 
missionary,  born  at  Macerata,  died  at  Pekin, 
He  published,  in  Chinese,  several  religious 
and  moral  works. 

Ricci  (SciPio)  (1741-1810).  —  Bishop  of 
Pistoja.  Arose  in  1781  against  the  devotion 
to  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus.  In  1786,  he 
adopted  the  four  famous  articl,es  of  the  As- 
sembly of  the  French  Clergy  of  1682.  He 
was  compelled  to  renounce  the  episcopate 
in  1790;  despised  by  his  clergy,  he  was  im- 
prisoned, in  1799,  in  a  Dominican  convent. 

Richard  of  St.  Victor.  —  Theologian 
and  excellent  ascetic  author,  born  in  Scot- 
land, died  at  St.  Victor  de  Paris,  in  1173. 
Works,  published  at  Rouen  (1650),  2  vols, 
in  folio. 

Richelieu  (Armaxd  du  Plessis  de) 
(  1585-1642).  —  Born  at  the  Castle  of 
Richelieu,  died  at  Paris.  Cardinal  and 
celebrated  French  statesman.  He  was 
educated  for  the  Church ;  became  bishop 
of  Lucon  in  1607,  and  secretary  of 
State  in  1616;  cardinal  in  1622,  and  was 
the  principal  minister  of  Louis  XHI. 
(1624-1642).  The  chief  events  in  his  ad- 
ministration were  the  destruction  of  the 
political  power  of  the  Huguenots  by  the 
siege  and  capture  of  La  Rochelle  (1627- 
1628) ;  the  war  in  Italy  against  Spain 
(1629-1630) ;  the  defeat  of  the  partisans  of 
Maria  de  Medici  in  1630;  the  defeat  of  the 
conspiracy  of  Montmorency  and  Gaston 
of  Orleans  in  1632;  the  co-operation  of 
France  with  Sweden  in  the  Thirty  Years' 
War;  the  founding  of  the  French  Acad- 
emy in  1635 ;  and  the  suppression  of  the 
Cinq-Mars  insurrection  in  1642.  His 
literary  remains  include  religious  works, 
dramas,  memoirs,  correspondence,  and 
State  papers. 

Rimini  {Council  of).  —  Held  in  395. 
With  the  view  of  uniting  the  conflicting 
parties  among  the  Arians  and  forcing  their 
creed  upon  the  Catholic  Church,  Canstan- 
tius  caused  the  convocation  of  the  two 
separate  synods :  one  at  Rimini  for  the 
Western,  and  the  other  at  Seleucia  for  the 
Eastern,  bishops.  In  both  councils  the 
Arians  triumphed  by  means  of  violence. 
Pope  Liberius  had  no  part  in  these  synods 
and  promptly  annulled  their  acts. 

Ring  {Episcopal). —  The  episcopal  ring 
is  the  sign  of  the  spiritual  alliance  that  ex- 
ists between  the  bishop  and  his  Church. 
It  is  like  the  seal  of  their  contract.  Among 


the  ancients,  as  well  as  among  moderns,  a 
seal  was  put  to  contracts,  so  as  to  confirm 
and  authenticate  them.  Hence  the  custom 
that  still  exists  of  giving  a  ring  in  the 
celebration  of  marriage.  The  episcopal 
ring  is  not  only  a  sign  of  the  alliance  of 
the  bishop  with  his  Church,  but  also  a 
mark  of  the  authority  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
in  virtue  of  which  the  bishop  has  the  right 
to  distribute  employments.  He  wears  it 
on  the  forefinger  of  the  right  hand,  accord- 
ing to  the  custom  of  the  Hebrews,  because 
this  is  the  finger  that  indicates  silence. 
The  bishop  is  thus  reminded  of  the  invio- 
lable secrecy  of  mysteries,  and  the  perfect 
discretion  with  which  he  should  announce 
them,  lest  he  should  throw  pearls  to 
swine. 

Ring^  (  Fisherman' s,annulus piscator is  ). 
—  A  signet  ring  worn  by  the  Pope  bear- 
ing the  design  of  St.  Peter,  fishing,  and  is 
used  for  stamping  the  papal  briefs. 

Ritual.      See  Liturgy. 

Robert  of  Abrissel.    See  Fontevr ai  lt. 

Robert  of  Molesme.    See  Cistercians. 

Roboam. —  King  of  Juda  (962-946  b.  c). 
Son  and  successor  of  Solomon;  hardly 
proclaimed  king,  he  rendered  himself  odi- 
ous by  his  hard-heartedness  and  injustices. 
Ten  tribes  revolted  against  him,  chose  for 
king,  Jeroboam,  and  formed  the  kingdom 
of  Israel,  of  which  Sichem,  then  Samaria) 
became  the  capital.  Two  tribes,  that  of 
Juda,  the  most  peopled  of  all,  and  that  of 
Benjamin,  remained  faithful  to  Roboam, 
and  formed  the  kingdom  of  Juda,  whose 
center  was  always  Jerusalem.  Roboam 
tolerated  idolatry,  and  God  punished  him 
on  account  of  his  prevarications.  He  had 
for  successor  Abia,  his  son. 

Rochet.     See  Surplice. 

Rogation  Days. — The  observance  of 
•'  Rogation  Days," —  Monday,  Tuesday,  and 
Wednesday. —  owes  its  origin  to  a  variety 
of  calamities  that  befell  the  city  oi 
Vienne  in  Dauphine.  For  more  than  half 
a  century,  not  a  year,  not  even  a  season, 
passed  without  Dauphine  and  Savoy  being 
afflicted  with  some  new  evils.  So  many 
misfortunes  had  reduced  these  provinces 
to  a  state  of  extreme  desolation.  Mamer- 
tus.  Bishop  of  Vienne  (and  who  is  hon- 
ored as  a  saint),  in  the  liveliness  of  his 
faith  and  charity,  offered  up  praj'ers  and 
tears  to  appease  the  wrath  of  God.     He 


Romans 


613 


Rosary 


was  heard;  stopping  a  conflagration  which 
devoured  his  cathedral,  on  Easter  night 
(469),  he  made  a  vow  to  institute  the  **  Ro- 
gations." The  Rogations  are  litanies,  or 
supplications,  which  consist  in  solemn 
procession,  accompanied  with  public  fast 
and  prayer.  With  the  general  consent  of 
the  clergy  and  people,  the  three  days  pre- 
ceding Ascension  Day  (Thursday)  were 
chosen  for  the  fulfillment  of  this  vow. 
This  example  was  soon  followed  every- 
where. A  decree  of  the  First  Council  of 
Orleans,  in  544,  established  the  Rogations 
in  Gaul,  and  from  there  the  practice  was 
introduced  into  Spain  and  other  countries. 

Romans  {Epistle  to  the). — The  Epistle 
or  Letter  of  St.  Paul  to  the  Romans,  was 
written  from  Corinth,  where  this  Apostle 
stopped,  in  the  year  58,  the  twenty-fourth 
year  of  his  apostolate.  The  principal  end 
of  this  Epistle  is  to  prove  that  the  faith  in 
Jesus  Christ  was  not  granted  to  the  con- 
verted Jews  on  account  of  their  fidelity  to 
the  Mosaic  law,  nor  to  the  Gentiles  for 
having  become  Christians  in  considera- 
tion of  their  obedience  to  the  natural  law, 
but  to  both  through  a  purely  gratuitous 
grace. 

Romanus  (St.  ) .  —  Pope ;  brother  of  Pope 
Martin  II.  Successor  of  St.  Stephen  in 
the  month  of  August  897.  Died  the  same 
year. 

Romuald  (St.).     See  Camaldolitks. 

Ronge  (John)  (1813-1889).  —  An  apos- 
tate priest,  who  became  the  founder  of  a 
sect  in  Germany,  which,  notwithstanding 
the  thorough  Protestant  and  radical  prin- 
ciples it  professed,  called  itself  "  German 
Catholic,"  also  the  "Christian  Catholic 
Apostolic  Church."  Rorige,  who  was 
hailed  by  the  Liberal  and  Protestant  fac- 
tions of  Germany  as  another  Luther,  re- 
jected all  but  two  sacraments.  The  remnant 
of  this  sect,  which  was  largely  composed 
of  Protestants,  snbsequently  joined  the  na- 
tional Protestant  Church  of  Prussia,  and 
has  since  ceased  to  exist  as  a  distinct  de- 
nomination.    Ronge  died  impenitent. 

Rosary. — The  method  by  which  Cath- 
olics most  generally  manifest  a  particular 
devotion  toward  the  Blessed  Virgin,  is  the 
holy  Rosary;  a  religious  exercise  consist- 
ing chiefly  of  the  prayer  most  acceptable 
to  the  Mother  of  God.  It  is  related  that 
the  Blessed  Virgin  herself  made  known 
the  Rosary  to  St.  Dominic  in  the  thirteenth 


century,  since  which  time  it  has  been  gen- 
erally accepted  and  honored  by  the  Church, 
The  Rosary  was  also  in  prominence  in  the 
apparitions  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  to  Berna- 
dette  at  Lourdes,  in  the  year  1858.  Many 
indulgences  have  been  attached  to  the 
reciting  of  it,  provided  that  the  Rosary 
used  is  blessed  for  the  person  who  possesses 
it,  and  has  the  indulgences  attached  to  it 
by  a  Dominican,  or  other  priest,  who  has 
the  authority  to  communicate  them. 

The  Rosary  is  composed  of  fifteen  mys- 
teries ;  all,  with  the  exception  of  the  last 
two,  expressly  spoken  of  in  Scripture,  and 
referring  to  the  fundamental  truths  and 
principal  mysteries  of  our  religion.  It  is 
divided  into  fifteen  decades ;  the  mysteries 
being  arranged  in  three  sets  of  five  each, 
corresponding  to  the  three  great  divisions 
of  our  Lord's  life  :  His  infancy  and  youth; 
His  Passion  and  death;  and  His  Resurrec- 
tion and  glory.  The  words  of  the  Rosary 
are  nearly  all  inspired,  being  made  up  of 
the  Creed,  the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  Hail 
Mary,  and  the  Doxology :  Glory  be  to  the 
Father,  etc. 

To  say  the  Rosary,  we  make  the  sign  of 
the  Cross  in  the  name  of  the  Father,  and 
of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  Many- 
then  recite  the  Creed,  and  three  Hail 
Marys  in  honor  of  the  Most  Holy  Trinity; 
afterwards,  the  Lord's  Prayer  is  said  at  the 
beginning  of  each  mystery,  followed  by  ten 
Hail  Marys  recited  during  or  after  medita- 
tion upon  them.  At  the  end  of  every 
decade  we  repeat :  * '  Glory  be  to  the  Father, 
etc." 

In  the  joyful  mysteries,  the  Annuncia- 
tion teaches  us  humility  and  abnegation  of 
self;  the  Visitation,  charity  toward  our 
neighbor;  the  Nativity,  detachment  from 
the  luxuries  and  vanity  of  this  world ;  the 
Presentation,  purity  and  the  spirit  of  obe- 
dience ;  the  Finding  in  the  Temple,  a  desire 
to  know  God  and  serve  Him.  In  the  sor- 
rowful mysteries,  the  Agony  and  Prayer 
in  the  garden  of  olives,  teach  us  prayer 
and  resignation  to  the  will  of  God ;  the 
Scourging,  practice  of  physical  mortifica- 
tion, and  patience  in  bodily  sufferings; 
the  Crowning  with  Thorns,  humbling  of 
our  pride,  and  indifference  for  worldly 
praise;  the  Carrying  of  the  Cross,  cour- 
age, fortitude,  and  endurance  in  bearing 
all  the  trials  of  life;  the  Crucifixion,  self- 
sacrifice,  prayer  for  the  conversion  of  sin- 
ners, the  perseverance  of  the  just,  and  help 
and  consolation  to  souls  in  purgatory.  In 
the  glorious  mysteries,  the  Resurrection 


ROSATI 


614 


Rubrics 


teaches  us  to  have  faith  and  hope  and  love, 
and  to  arise  from  sin  with  a  firm  purpose 
of  leading  a  better  life;  the  Ascension, 
hope  and  desire  of  Heaven,  and  love  for 
heavenly  things ;  the  descent  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  the  love  of  God  above  all  things, 
and  advance  in  grace  by  the  practice  of 
Christian  virtues;  the  Assumption,  devo- 
tion to  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and  to  live  in 
readiness  for  death ;  the  Coronation  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin,  perseverance  in  good,  and 
the  hope  of  eternal  happiness,  where  the 
Mother  of  God  reigns.  Queen  of  Heaven. 
See  Confraternity  of  the  Rosary. 

Rosati  (Joseph)  (1789-1843). — Ameri- 
can prelate ;  was  born  at  Sora,  Italy,  died 
at  Rome.  After  his  studies  he  entered 
the  novitiate  of  the  Priests  of  the  Mission 
at  Rome,  and  made  his  theological  course 
at  Monte  Citorio.  Came  to  America  in 
1816,  began  his  labors  by  a  mission  at 
Vincennes,  and  then  proceeded  to  St. 
Louis.  First  bishop  of  St.  Louis  in  1827. 
Having  gone  to  Rome  to  make  his  report 
to  Pope  Gregory  XVI.,  he  died  in  the 
-eternal  city.  Dr.  Rosati  did  much  to 
give  Catholicity  order  and  life  in  Mis- 
souri. 

Roscelin  (John). — Scholastic  philoso- 
pher, born  at  Compiegne,  France,  died 
after  1121.  He  was  the  first  who  taught 
Nominalism,  was  condemned,  in  1092,  by 
the  Council  of  Soissons  and  obliged  to 
take  refuge  in  England.  St.  Anselm 
■combated  him.  At  his  return  into  France, 
he  taught  at  the  Collegial  of  St.  Mary's  de 
Loches ;  became  the  accuser  of  Ab^lard, 
ibefore  William,  Bishop  of  Paris,  and  died 
canon  of  St.  Martin  of  Tours. 

Rose  (St.)  of  Lima  (1586-1617).  —  Vir- 
gin, religious  of  the  Third  Order  of  St. 
Dominic,  born  and  died  at  Lima,  Peru, 
South  America.  Patron  saint  of  her  na- 
tive city,  and  the  first  saint  of  South 
America.  She  was  canonized  in  the  year 
1671.     F.  Aug.  30th. 

Rosicrucians.  —  So  called  from  the  name 
of  a  German  Rosenkreuz,  born  in  1388, 
and  who  had  joined  this  society.  Rosi- 
crucians was  the  name  applied  to  a  certain 
society  or  cabal  which  took  rise  in  Ger- 
many. Although  it  had  its  origin  in  1422, 
it  was  little  known  until  1537.  Those 
who  were  admitted  to  it,  and  who  were 
called  "  Brothers  of  the  Rosenkreuz," 
swore  fidelity,  promised  the  secret,  wrote 
bj  enigmas,   and   obliged   themselves    to 


keep  the  laws  of  the  society  the  object  of 
which  was  to  restore  all  the  sciences,  and, 
especially  medicine  which,  according  to 
them,  was  ignored  and  poorly  practiced. 
They  boasted  to  be  in  possession  of  won- 
derful secrets,  of  which  the  least  was  the 
philosopher's  stone,  and  pretended  that 
the  ancient  philosophers  of  Egypt,  the 
Chaldeans,  the  wise  men  of  Persia,  and 
the  Gymnosophists  of  India,  had  only 
taught  what  they  themselves  were  teach- 
ing. 

Rosmini-Serbati  (T/ie  'AbbS  Gregoire) 
(1797-1855).  —  Philosopher,  born  at  Ro- 
veredo,  Tyrol,  died  at  Milan.  Parish 
priest  and  dean  of  the  Church  of  Mount 
Calvary,  at  Domo  d'  Ossola  (province  of 
Novara) ,  where  he  founded,  in  1828,  the 
Institute  of  Charity  and  the  Order  of  the 
Sisters  of  Providence.  Minister  of  public 
instruction  at  Rome,  in  1848,  he  followed 
Pope  Pius  IX.  to  Gaeta.  Two  of  his 
works  having  been  condemned  by  the  Con- 
gregation of  the  Index,  the  author  hastened 
to  submit  himself.  Forty  propositions 
extracted  from  his  works  (mostly  post- 
humous works)  have  been  condemned  by 
the  Holy  See,  March  7th,  1888. 

Rota. — Jurisdiction  of  Rome,  composed 
of  twelve  ecclesiastical  doctors  called  "Au- 
ditors of  the  Rota."  The  tribunal  of  the 
Rota  is  so  called,  because  the  prelates  when 
holding  a  session  form  a  circle,  or  because 
all  the  most  important  affairs  revolve 
around  it.  It  was  instituted  by  Pope  John 
XXII.  Of  the  twelve  prelates  that  com- 
pose it,  one  must  be  a  German,  another  a 
Frenchman,  and  two  others  Spaniards; 
the  remaining  eight  are  Italians,  of  whom 
three  must  be  Romans,  one  of  the  province 
of  Bologna,  one  of  Ferrara,  one  of  Milan, 
one  of  Venice,  and  one  of  Tuscany.  They 
take  knowledge  by  appeal  of  all  the  pro- 
cesses of  the  ecclesiastical  state,  such  as 
beneficial  and  patrimonial  matters.  They 
do  notcloseasuitby  one  and  the  same  judg- 
ment ;  they  give  so  many  sentences,  ap- 
pealed decisions,  as  the  suit  contains 
points  contested ;  and  when  these  sen- 
tences are  rendered  the  cause  can  yet  be 
revised  by  the  Pope. 

Rubrics. —  In  the  law  books  of  the  an- 
cient Romans,  the  titles  and  inscriptions 
were  marked  in  red  with  a  kind  of  mineral 
called  rubrica,  and  hence  the  word  rubrics 
applied  at  first  to  the  titles  or  inscriptions, 
and  in  the  end  to  signify  the  laws  thero- 


RUFINUS 


615 


Ryan 


selves.  The  liturgical  books,  which  regu- 
lated the  solemn  offices  of  the  Church, 
were  marked  in  the  same  way,  and  as  in 
the  course  of  time  they  came  to  be  almost 
the  only  books  so  marked,  the  word  rubrics 
came  to  signify  almost  exclusively  the  laws 
contained  in  these  books.     See  Liturgy. 

Rufinus  (Tyrannius  or  Toranus)  (345- 
410). —  Latin  ecclesiastical  writer,  born  at 
Concordia,  Venetia,  died  in  Sicily.  Fel- 
low-disciple of  St.  Jerome  at  Aquileia, 
went  to  the  East  in  372,  founded  a  monas- 
tery upon  the  Mount  of  Olives  (377).  He 
had  some  theological  dispute  with  St. 
Jerome,  in  regard  to  Origen,  returned  to 
Italy  in  407,  and  then  retired  into  Sicily. 
Has  left  Historia  eretnitica,  seu  Vita 
Patrum;  Historia  eccl.  libri  duo;  Apologia 
ad  Anastasium;  etc. 

Rule  of  Faith.     See  Faith. 

Rupertus  (St.).     See  Bavaria. 

Russian  Church.  — The  Russian  Church 
agrees  with  the  orthodox  Greek  Church, 
both  in  doctrine  and  liturgy;  in  adminis- 
tration, however,  she  is  distinct,  being 
governed,  not  by  a  patriarch,  but  by  the 
"Holy  Synod"  of  St.  Petersburg.  The 
custom  of  receiving  the  metropolitans 
from  Constantinople,  on  which  she  had 
been  made  dependent,  could  not  but  result 
in  drawing  also  the  Church  of  Russia  into 
the  schism  of  the  Greeks,  although  the 
separation  from  Rome  did  not  take  place 
till  half  a  century  later.  Thus,  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  twelfth  century,  Niceph- 
orus,  sent  from  Constantinople  as  patriarch 
of  Kiev,  then  the  principal  see  of  the 
Russian  Church,  avowed  himself  a  schis- 
matic. Prince  Alexander  of  Moscow,  in- 
deed, returned  to  the  communion  and  died 
in  the  faith  of  the  Catholic  Church,  in 
1262 ;  but  under  his  successors  the  separa- 
tion from  Rome  was  rendered  complete. 
Repeated  attempts  at  reunion  were  made 
by  the  Roman  Pontiflfs,  chiefly  by  Alexan- 
der HI.,  Innocent  III.,  and  lastly  by  the 
Council  of  Florence.  The  bishops  of 
Northern  Russia,  and  the  dukes  of  Moscow 
steadily  opposed  the  union,  while  the  met- 
ropolitan of  Kiev  and  his  eight  suffragans 
accepted  it,  and  remained  in  communion 
with  Rome  till  1520,  when  they  also  fell 


into  the  schism.  All  subsequent  attempts 
of  the  Popes  to  unite  the  Russian  Church 
with  the  Latin  Church  proved  fruitless. 
After  the  conquest  of  the  Greek  Empire 
by  the  Turks  in  1453,  the  Czars  of  Moscow 
took  occasion  to  free  the  Russian  Church 
from  all  foreign  dependence,  and  subject 
the  ecclesiastical  power  to  their  own.  This 
was  accomplished,  in  1589,  by  the  erection 
of  the  patriarchate  of  Moscow.  Under 
Peter  the  Great,  the  entire  subjection  of 
the  ecclesiastical  to  the  imperial  power 
was  completed.  After  suppressing  the 
patriarchate,  it  was  replaced  by  the  "  Holy 
Synod,"  which  is  dependent  entirely  upon 
the  Czar. 

Ruth.  —  A  Moabite  woman  who  mar- 
ried one  of  the  sons  of  Noemi.  Having 
become  a  widow,  she  followed  her  mother- 
in-law  to  Bethlehem  and  married  Booz,  a 
wealthy  husbandman  of  that  city  and 
kinsman  of  her  first  husband,  and  by 
whom  she  became  the  mother  of  Obed, 
one  of  the  ancestors  of  David. 


Ruthenian   Catholics. 
Rites. 


See    {Oriental) 


Ryan  (Patrick  John).  —  An  American 
prelate;  born  in  Cloneyharp,  Ireland, 
Feb.  2oth,  183 1 ;  educated  at  Thurles  and 
Dublin ;  prepared  for  the  American  mis- 
sion at  Carlow  College ;  was  ordained 
deacon  in  1B53,  and  the  same  year  re- 
moved to  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  where  he 
completed  his  ecclesiastical  studies  in 
Carondelet  Seminary ;  was  ordained  priest 
in  1854;  vicar-general  and  coadjutor  to 
Archbishop  Kenrick,  of  St.  Louis,  with 
the  title  of  Bishop  of  Tricomia.  In  the 
latter  position  almost  the  entire  govern- 
ment of  the  diocese  rested  upon  him,  ow- 
ing to  the  great  age  of  Archbishop 
Kenrick.  His  administration  was  marked 
by  energy  and  success,  and  in  1884  he 
was  nominated  and  received  the  pallium 
as  archbishop  of  Philadelphia.  Bishop 
Ryan  was  elected  in  1883,  to  represent  the 
interests  of  the  Roman  Catholics  of  the 
United  States,  and  in  1884  made  the  open- 
ing address  at  the  Third  Plenary  Council 
of  Baltimore.  He  went  to  Rome  in  1887 
in  the  interest  of  a  Catholic  university  at 
Washington. 


Saba 


6i6 


Sabinianus 


Saba.  —  Represented  as  a  descendant  of 
Jectan  (Gen.  x.  28),  and  of  Abraham  and 
Cetura  (xxv.  2).  The  Sabeans  were,  ac- 
cording to  Biblical  and  classical  notices, 
the  most  important  people  of  South 
Arabia.  They  settled  in  southwestern 
Arabia  (Yemen)  with  the  capital  Mariba. 
The  numerous  inscriptions  bear  evidence 
of  their  culture.  From  this  country  there 
came  a  queen  to  test  Solomon's  wisdom 
(III.  Ki.  X.  i).  Arabic  legends  give  her 
the  name  of  Balkis,  and  assert  that  she 
bore  a  son  to  Solomon.  It  is  from  this 
son  that  the  Ethiopians  claim  descent. 

Sabaoth  is  one  of  those  Hebrew  words 
which  were  left  untranslated  in  the  earliest 
Latin  version  of  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
called  the  Vetits  Itala,  and  has  been  pre- 
served in  three  places  in  the  translation  by 
St.  Jerome.  Sabaoth  is  plural  and  signi- 
fies armies.  As  the  Roman  Missal  has 
always  followed  the  ancient  Italic  version, 
it  has  consequently  preserved  the  word 
Sabaoth,  instead  of  adopting  the  Vulgate 
translation  of  it,  exercitium,  that  is  of 
armies. 

Sabas  (St.)  (439-531). —  Born  near 
Caesarea,  disciple  of  St.  Enthimus ;  at- 
tracted by  his  virtues  a  great  number  of 
brethren  and  founded  seven  monasteries  in 
Palestine.  Superior  general  of  all  the 
anchorites  and  of  all  the  solitaries  which 
were  under  the  authority  of  the  Patriarch 
of  Jerusalem.  He  went  to  Constantinople 
and  appeased  the  wrath  of  Justinian  against 
the  Christians  of   Palestine.      F.  Dec.  5th. 

Sabatine  Bull. —  Papal  Bull  which  con- 
tains the  privileges  of  the  scapular  granted 
to  Simon  Stock,  and  which  promises  the 
release  of  a  soul  from  purgatory  on  each 
Saturday.     See  Scapular. 

Sabbath.     See  Sunday. 

Sabbathians. — Members  of  a  sect  founded 
in  the  fourth  century,  by  Sabbathius,  who 
taught  that  Easter  should  be  celebrated 
on  the  fourteenth  day  of  the  moon  of 
March. 

Sabeans  or  Mandaeans  (from  manda, 
hno-wledge  gnosis). — A  very  ancient  reli- 
gious body,  still  found,  though  its  mem- 
bers are  few,  in  the  southern  part  of 
Babylonia.     The  religion  of  the  Sabeans 


is  a  kind  of  Gnosticism,  retaining  many 
Jewish  and  Parsee  elements.  They  wor- 
ship, as  divine  beings,  a  number  of  per- 
sonifications, especially  the  attributes  or 
names  of  God.  They  also  adore  the  sun 
and  stars,  observe  the  law  of  Moses,  par- 
ticularly in  regard  to  certain  flesh  meats, 
and  regard  baptism,  the  Eucharist,  holy 
orders,  and  matrimony  as  sacraments.  The 
dignity  of  bishop  consists  only  in  the  supe- 
riority of  command  which  such  an  ecclesi. 
astic  has  over  the  priests ;  both  perpetuate 
the  priesthood  in  their  children,  in  their 
family,  or  in  their  nearest  kindred.  As  to 
marriage,  the  priests,  like  the  laymen,  are 
permitted  to  have  two  wives.  They  honor, 
among  the  saints,  only  St.  John  the  Baptist, 
and  for  this  reason  they  are  called  Chris- 
tians of  St.  John.  Their  doctrine  on  hell 
is  about  similar  to  that  of  the  pagans,  and 
like  the  Moslems,  they  acknowledge  no 
other  beatitude  in  heaven,  but  the  enjoy- 
ment of  carnal  pleasures. 

Sabellius  and  Sabellianism.  —  Sabellius,. 
a  priest  of  Lybia,  in  the  third  century, 
who  extending  the  Noetian  doctrine  (see 
NoKTiANs)  to  the  Holy  Ghost,  taught  a 
Trinity,  not  of  persons,  but  of  manifesta- 
tions or  offices.  He  asserted  the  identity 
of  the  Father  with  the  Son  and  the  Holy 
Ghost,  who  were  but  three  different  opera- 
tions or  modes  of  manifestation  of  the  one 
personal  God.  Sabellius  taught  chiefly  at 
Rome  where  both  he  and  his  opponent,  the 
presbyter  Hippolytus,  who,  indeed,  as- 
serted the  divinity  and  personality  of  the 
Son,  but  made  Him  subordinate  to  the 
Father  {Ditheism),  were  excommunicated 
by  Pope  Calixtus  I. 

Sabina  (St.). — Widow  of  Umbria;  of  a 
noble  family,  martyr  at  Rome  under  Had- 
rian (119).  A  church  built  on  the  site  of 
her  execution,  on  mount  Aventin,  in  425, 
belongs  to  the  Dominicans,  and  they  ven- 
erate there  the  remains  of  St.  Sabina  and 
those  of  the  virgin  Serapia,  who  had  con- 
verted her  to  the  faith,  and  suffered  martyr- 
dom like  her.     F.  Aug.  29th. 

Sabinianus  (St.). —  Pope,  born  in  Tus- 
cany. Successor  of  St.  Gregory  the  Great, 
in  604,  died  in  606.  Had  for  successor 
Boniface  HI.  It  is  claimed  that  he  in- 
troduced the  use  of  bells. 


Sackcloth 


617 


Sacrament 


Sackcloth. — A  coarsely  woven  hempen 
manufacture,  formerly  worn  as  an  em- 
blem of  grief  or  of  penitential  sorrow. 

Sacrament  (a  sacrament  is  a  visible  sign 
of  an  invisible  thing,  instituted  by  God  for 
the  sanctification  of  souls). — The  sacra- 
ments signify  something  hidden,  the  in- 
visible grace  which  they  contain  under  the 
envelope  of  material  and  sensible  things. 
The  matter  and  form  of  a  sacrament  are 
the  two  parts  which  necessarily  enter  its 
composition,  and  form  its  substance.  We 
give  the  name  of  matter  to  the  things  or 
exterior  and  sensible  actions  we  make  use 
of  to  confer  a  sacrament;  and  the  name 
form  is  given  to  the  words  which  the  min- 
ister pronounces  in  applying  the  matter. 
Each  sacrament  has  a  matter  and  a  form 
that  are  peculiar  to  it.  All  the  sacra- 
ments being  of  divine  institution,  it  is 
certain  that  the  matter  and  form  which 
compose  the  substance  thereof  have  been 
determined  by  Jesus  Christ.  The  sacra- 
ment being  a  whole,  it  is  necessary  that  the 
parts  which  constitute  it  should  be  united. 
Contrary  to  the  sacraments  of  the  Old  Law, 
which  did  not  produce  grace,  and  which 
only  signified  that  it  should  be  given  to  us 
in  view  of  the  merits  of  the  Passion  of  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ,  the  sacraments  of  the 
New  Law  contain  in  themselves  grace,  and 
confer  it  upon  those  who  receive  them 
worthily.  There  are  two  sacraments  which 
are  instituted  to  confer  the  first  sanctify- 
ing grace:  these  are  baptism  and  pen- 
ance. The  other  sacraments,  five  in  num- 
ber, namely,  confirmation,  the  Eucharist, 
extreme  unction,  holy  order,  and  matri- 
mony, are  established  to  confer  the  second 
sanctifying  grace,  that  is,  to  increase  in 
us  the  grace  received  in  the  sacraments  of 
baptism  or  penance;  they  are  necessary 
not  only  for  rendering  man  just,  but  to 
render  him  more  just.  They  are  called 
sacraments  of  the  living,  because  we  can 
receive  them  with  profit  only  in  so  far  as 
we  have  already  the  life  of  grace.  Besides 
sanctifying  grace,  each  sacrament  confers 
a  grace  that  is  peculiar  to  itself.  Baptism, 
in  giving  us  a  new  birth,  a  new  life,  gives 
us  at  the  same  time  a  particular  grace 
to  live  conformably  to  the  spirit  of 
the  Gospel.  Confirmation  develops  in  us 
spiritual  life,  and  communicates  to  us  the 
strength  to  combat  the  enemies  of  our  sal- 
vation. It  is  the  same  with  the  other  sac- 
raments ;  they  all  have  a  virtue  that 
corresponds   to   the    end  for  which  they 


have  been  instituted.  There  are  sacra- 
ments which  the  bishop  alone  can  admin- 
ister, either  exclusively,  like  that  of  holy 
order,  or  ordinarily,  like  that  of  confirma- 
tion. The  others  can  be  conferred  by 
simple  priests,  after  having  obtained  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  bishop.  According  to 
the  more  general  opinion  of  theo- 
logians, the  contracting  parties  them- 
selves are  the  ministers  of  the  sacrament 
of  marriage,  and  it  is  accepted  in  the 
Church  that  all  men  and  women  can  ad- 
minister baptism,  validly  in  every  case, 
and  licitly  in  case  of  necessity.  Although 
faith  and  holiness,  that  is,  the  exemption 
from  all  mortal  sin  is  greatly  to  be  de- 
sired in  the  ministers  of  religion,  how- 
ever a  sacrament  conferred  by  a  sinner,  a 
heretic,  or  even  one  of  notorious  impiety, 
is  valid,  if  otherwise  it  is  administered  ac- 
cording to  the  rite  of  the  Church,  with  the 
intention  at  least  to  do  what  the  Church 
does.  It  depends  neither  on  the  faith  nor 
on  the  piety  of  the  minister,  but  on  the 
merits  of  Jesus  Christ,  that  the  sacraments 
draw  their  power  and  efficaciousness. 
The  sacraments  are  for  men ;  but  not  all 
men  are  capable  of  partaking  in  all  the 
sacraments.  A  woman  is  incapable  of  re- 
ceiving the  sacrament  of  holy  orders ;  a 
child,  before  the  use  of  reason,  is  incapa- 
ble of  the  sacrament  of  penance ;  a  per- 
son in  good  health  of  extreme  unction. 
Moreover,  in  regard  to  the  Eucharist, 
though  an  infidel  may  receive  it  ma- 
terially, he  must  have  received  baptism  in 
order  to  be  capable  of  receiving  the  other 
sacraments.  But  children  can  receive 
baptism,  and,  after  baptism,  confirmation 
and  the  Eucharist.  It  is  of  faith  that  the 
sacraments  instituted  by  Jesus  Christ  are 
necessary  for  salvation,  although  they  are 
not  all  necessary  for  each  individual. 
There  are  two  sacraments,  baptism  and 
penance,  which  are  necessary  as  the  means 
of  salvation:  baptism  for  all  men,  and 
penance  for  all  those  who,  after  baptism, 
have  fallen  into  mortal  sin.  The  five  other 
sacraments  are  also  necessary  for  salva- 
tion, but  only  of  a  necessity  of  precept, 
for  they  are  not  established  to  confer  the 
first  sanctifying  grace.  To  receive  validly 
a  sacrament,  it  is  necessary  for  adults  to 
have  the  intention  or  the  will  to  receive  it. 
For  children,  we  can  baptize  them  and  we 
need  not  wait  for  their  consent ;  the 
Church  supplies  this,  according  to  the  or- 
der established  by  Jesus  Christ.  An  adult 
can  receive  a  sacrament  worthily  and  with 


Sacrament 


6i8 


Sacramentary 


fruit,  only  in  so  far  as  he  receives  it  with 
the  necessary  dispositions.  These  dispo- 
sitions vary  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
sacrament.  For  the  sacraments  of  the 
dead,  they  consist  in  faith,  hope,  and  sor- 
row of  our  sins,  with  a  beginning  of  the 
love  of  God.  If  these  sentiments  are 
wanting,  the  baptism  of  an  adult  does  not 
produce  the  grace,  and  the  sacrament 
of  penance  is  null  and  void,  because  it 
cannot  subsist  without  attrition,  which 
forms  a  part  of  sacramental  matter.  As  to 
the  sacraments  of  the  living,  we  can  gen- 
erally receive  them  with  fruit  only  if  we  are 
in  the  state  of  grace;  they  are  instituted  not 
to  confer,  but  to  increase  sanctifying  grace. 

Sacrament  ( Congregations  of  the 
Blessed). — There  are  several  religious 
societies  organized  in  honor  of  the  blessed 
sacrament:  i.  A  Reform  of  the  Order  of 
St.  Dominic,  established  in  1636  by  Father 
Antoine  Lequien.  The  religious  of  this 
Reform  practiced  extraordinary  austeri- 
ties ;  they  observed  perpetual  silence, 
slept  on  straw  mattresses,  often  on  a  naked 
plank  or  on  the  ground,  and  generally 
subsisted  on  poorly  seasoned  herbs  and 
roots.  These  religious  devoted  them- 
selves to  preaching.  2.  Missionary  Priests 
of  the  Blessed  Sacrament.  —  A  congrega- 
tion instituted  in  1632  by  the  Abbe  Chris- 
tophe  d'  Arthur  de  Sisgau,  who  became 
bishop  of  Bethleh,em.  This  institute  had 
for  its  object  the  preaching  and  propaga- 
tion of  the  Gospel,  and  was  approved,  in 
1647,  by  Pope  Innocent  X.  3.  Fathers  of 
the  Blessed  Sacrament.  — A  religious  con- 
gregation founded  at  Paris  by  Rev.  R.  P, 
Eymard,  about  the  year  i860.  4.  Sisters 
of  the  Blessed  Sacrament. — A  religious 
congregation  founded  at  Autun,  France, 
in  1748  by  the  Abbe  Agut  with  the  object 
of  caring  for  the  infirm  and  sick  and  for 
the  instruction  of  children.  5.  Religious 
Teachers  and  Hospitalers  of  the  Blessed 
Sacrament. —  A  religious  congregation 
founded  at  Romans  (Drome),  France,  in 
17 15  by  the  Abbe  Vigne,  with  the  object 
of  instructing  young  girls.  Later  on  the 
religious  of  this  congregration,  joined  to 
their  first  vow  the  care  of  the  sick  in  hos- 
pitals. 6.  Daughters  of  the  Blessed  Sac- 
rament. —  A  religious  congregation  of 
women,  whose  principal  object  is  the 
adoration  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  day 
and  night. 

Sacramentals.  —  Rites  possessing  some 
outward   resemblance   to  the  sacraments, 


and  which,  though  not  of  divine  institu- 
tion, are  initiated  or  approved  by  the 
Church.  The  sacraments  were  instituted 
by  our  Lord,  and  communicate  infallibly 
the  supernatural  gift  of  divine  grace,  if 
their  efficacy  be  not  hindered  by  any  evil 
disposition  in  the  soul ;  whereas  the  sacra- 
mentals  were  instituted  by  the  Church, 
and  remit  venial  sins,  not  in  themselves, 
but  by  reason  of  the  pious  dispositions 
they  excite,  namel}- :  increased  movements 
of  fear  and  love  of  God,  of  detestation  of 
sin,  and  other  elevations  of  the  heart  to 
God.  The  principal  sacramentals,  enumer- 
ated by  devout  writers,  are :  The  repeat- 
ing of  the  Lord's  Prayer,  or  of  the 
Confiteor,  especially  in  conjunction  with 
the  priest  at  holy  Mass ;  the  blessing  given 
by  the  bishop  or  priest,  more  particularly 
at  the  altar;  the  Benediction  given  with 
the  holy  sacrament ;  blessed  bread ;  the 
kiss  of  peace ;  the  pious  use  of  various  ob- 
jects blessed  by  the  Church,  such  as  holy 
water,  the  crucifix,  etc. ;  or  good  works  ex- 
ecuted in  the  name  of  the  Church,  such  as 
teaching  the  Catechism  to  the  ignorant, 
contributing  toward  the  propagation  of 
the  Gospel,  etc.  It  should  be  fully  under- 
stood that  sacramentals  do  not  remit  venial 
sins  by  any  power  given  them  by  God,  over 
and  above  the  good  dispositions  with  which 
they  are  used  ;  but  either  by  the  suffrifges 
of  the  Church,  or  by  the. effect  of  the 
devout  prayers  of  those  who  use  them, 
they  draw  down  upon  the  soul  the  remis- 
sion of  venial  sin  and  of  temporal  punish- 
ment due  for  such  sin.  The  sacramentals 
have  a  special  efficacy  from  the  blessing  of 
prayer,  through  which,  for  example,  when 
a  person  takes  holy  water,  accompanying 
the  outward  act  with  the  desire  that  God 
may  cleanse  the  heart,  the  prayer  of  the 
Church  becomes  joined  to  his  own. 

Sacramentarians  (  name  of  a  Protestant 
sect). —  The  name  Sacramentarians  was  at 
first  given  only  to  such  heretics  as  the 
Calvinists  and  Zwinglians,  who  denied 
the  Real  Presence  of  Jesus  Christ  in  the 
holy  Eucharist,  and  who  considered  it 
merely  as  a  sacred  sign  or  sacrament 
which  signified  grace,  but  which  did  not  give 
grace.  Later  on  the  term  Sacramenta- 
rians was  applied  to  all  the  heretics  who 
combated  the  doctrine  of  the  Church  in 
regard  to  the  sacraments. 

Sacramentary. —  Name  which  was  for- 
merly given  to  an  ecclesiastical  book  which 
contained  the  prayers  and  the  ceremonies 


Sacred  Heart 


619 


Sacrifice 


practiced  in  the  celebration  of  the  Mass 
and  the  administration  of  the  sacraments. 
It  was  at  once  a  pontifical,  a  ritual,  and  a 
missal,  in  which,  however,  was  not  found 
«ither  Introits,  Graduals,  Epistles,  Gos- 
pels, Oflfertories,  or  Communions,  contain- 
ing only  the  Collects  or  Orations,  the 
Prefaces,  the  Canon,  the  Post-Commun- 
ions, the  prayers  and  ceremonies  of  ordi- 
nation, and  a  number  of  blessings.  It 
was  what  is  called  "  Eucologium  "  in  the 
Greek  Church.  Pope  Gelasius  I.,  who 
mounted  the  papal  Chair  in  492,  was  the 
first  author  of  the  Sacramentary ;  St. 
Gregory  the  Great  revised,  corrected,  and 
abridged  it. 

Sacred  Heart.     See  Heart. 

Sacrifice  (action  by  which  we  oflfer  cer- 
tain things  to  God  with  certain  ceremonies, 
to  render  homage  to  His  sovereign  power). 
—  In  Genesis,  the  offering  of  sacrifice  com- 
mences with  the  beginning  of  the  world. 
Abel  offers  to  God  a  sacrifice  that  is  agree- 
,^ble  to  Him.  This  sacrifice  of  Abel  ap- 
pears to  have  been  rather  an  offering  than 
an  expiation,  and  it  is  not  impetratory, 
just  as  it  is  neither  liturgical,  nor  the  ful- 
filment of  a  precept.  We  do  not  remark 
any  rite,  and  the  oblation  is  spontaneous. 
It  prevails  over  the  sacrifice  of  Cain,  not 
on  account  of  its  bloody  form,  but  on  ac- 
count of  the  purity  of  the  heart  of  Abel. 
The  Patriarchs  offered  bloody  sacrifices  of 
animals,  but  Abraham,  whose  faith  should 
be  tried,  received  the  order  to  immolate 
his  son  Isaac.  All  the  peoples  of  antiquity 
offered  to  the  deity  victims  whose  blood 
flowed  in  front  of  the  altar.  Several  na- 
tions have  immolated  human  victims;  of 
this  number  were  the  ancient  Gauls  and 
Alemanni.  The  deities  reputed  to  be  most 
"fierce  required  the  immolation  of  children. 
Moses  carefully  regulated  all  that  con- 
cerned the  sacrifices,  the  choice  of  the 
victims,  the  rites  of  immolation,  the  causes 
which  obliged  the  Hebrews  to  have  re- 
course to  them  either  in  the  interest  of  the 
people  or  of  individuals.  The  sacrifice  for 
sin,  the  holocaust,  the  sacrifice  of  thanks- 
giving, or  the  peaceful  oflfering,  differed 
irom  one  another.  The  fundamental  and 
dominant  idea  went  beyond  a  symbolism 
attesting  the  dependence  of  man  upon 
God ;  the  sacrifice  is  presented  as  a  rite 
which  contained  a  real  efiicaciousness,  and 
the  theologians  make  this  efficaciousness 
of  the  ancient  sacrifice  proceed  from  a 
divine  concession  and  from  the  connection 


with  the  sacrifice  which,  having  wrought 
our  redemption,  continues  to  be  offered 
for  the  salvation  of  souls.  Before  and 
after  Jesus  Christ,  He  alone  remains  the 
source  of  all  justification,  but  since  His 
coming  into  this  world,  the  blood  of  vic- 
tims has  ceased  to  water  the  earth,  even 
among  the  nations  not  subject  to  the  Gos- 
pel. We  distinguish  two  kinds  of  sacri- 
fices :  the  inner  and  the  outward  sacrifice. 
The  first  is  that  by  which  our  soul  offers 
itself  to  God ;  it  takes  place  through  faith, 
charity,  prayer,  and  other  acts  of  religion. 
The  outward  sacrifice  consists  in  the  offer- 
ing which  we  make  to  God  of  something 
sensible,  of  something  that  belongs  to  us; 
such  as,  for  instance,  the  sacrifice  of  our 
body,  which  we  offer  to  God  in  some  man- 
ner by  martyrdom,  abstinence,  and  conti- 
nence. The  word  sacrifice  is  taken  either 
in  an  extensive  sense,  for  all  kinds  of 
good  works  which  we  perform  to  honor 
God,  or  in  a  more  restrained  sense,  for 
the  offering  made  to  God  of  an  outward  or 
sensible  thing  immolated  to  His  honor,  f 
Therefore,  we  define  sacrifice,  properly 
speaking,  as  the  oblation  of  a  sensible 
thing  which  we  immolate  to  God,  to  ac- 
knowledge His  sovereign  dominion  over  all 
things.  Every  sacrifice  is  an  oblation,  but 
not  every  oblation  is  a  sacrifice,  strictly 
speaking;  for  a  true  sacrifice,  there  must 
be  an  immolation,  a  destruction  of  the 
thing  offered,  or  at  least  a  consecration 
which  changes  its  nature,  state,  or  natural 
form.  The  Eucharistic  sacrifice  is  desig- 
nated under  different  names  by  the  ancient 
Doctors  of  the  Church;  but  from  very 
early  times  it  has  been  universally  called 
the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass.  According  to 
the  belief  of  the  Catholic  Church,  Mass  is 
a  sacrifice  of  the  New  Law  by  which  the 
priest  offers  to  God  the  Body  and  Blood  of 
Jesus  Christ,  under  the  form  of  bread  and 
wine.  Mass  is  a  true  sacrifice,  instituted 
by  Jesus  Christ.  About  to  consummate 
the  bloody  sacrifice  upon  the  Cross,  Christ 
commenced  by  offering  His  Body  and  His 
Blood,  ordaining  to  His  Apostles  to  renew 
it  and  to  perpetuate  it  in  commemoration 
of  His  death.  It  is  a  sacrifice  which  is  of- 
fered to  God.  Sacrifice,  by  its  nature,  is 
an  act  of  supreme  worship,  of  latria  wor- 
ship, which  is  due  to  God  alone.  Thus, 
when  we  say  the  Mass  of  a  saint,  we  must 
not  believe  that  we  offer  the  sacrifice  of 
the  Mass  to  this  saint,  but  we  only  make 
commemoration  of  the  saint,  whose  pro- 
tection we  implore,  and  to  whom  we  pray 


Sacrifices  OF 


620 


THE  Old  Law 


to  intercede  for  us.  It  is  a  sacrifice  by 
which  we  offer  the  Body  and  Blood  of 
Jesus  Christ;  it  is  Jesus  Christ  Himself, — 
whose  Body  is  present  under  the  symbol  of 
bread  and  His  Blood  under  the  symbol  of 
wine,  —  who  is  the  victim  in  the  host  which 
we  immolate  in  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass. 
Finally,  the  Eucharistic  sacrifice  takes 
place  through  the  hands  of  the  priest ;  but 
the  principal  minister  of  this  sacrifice  is 
Jesus  Christ,  who  is  at  once  the  priest  and 
the  victim,  offering  Himself  to  God  the 
Father  through  the  ministry  of  His  priests. 
Hence,  it  is  in  the  name  of  Jesus  Christ 
and  with  Him  that  the  priest  offers  the 
sacrifice  of  the  Mass;  the  same  ministry 
which  Jesus  Christ  visibly  performed  upon 
the  Cross,  He  performs  in  an  invisible 
manner  upon  the  altar,  and  causes  to  be 
visibly  performed  by  the  priests,  whom  He 
has  established  in  His  Church. 

Sacrifices  of  the  Old  Law.  —  The  sacri- 
fices in  the  Old  Law  were  of  many  differ- 
ent kinds.  There  were  the  bloody  and 
unbloody  sacrifices,  and  the  bloody  sacri- 
fices were  of  three  kinds:  i.  The  Whole 
Burnt  Offering  or  Holocaust.  —  In  this 
sacrifice  the  whole  of  the  victim  was  de- 
stroyed by  fire  in  recognition  of  the  sover- 
eign dominion  of  God  over  all  His 
creatures,  in  acknowledgment  of  the  guilt 
of  the  offerer,  in  gratitude  for  God's  bless- 
ings, and  as  an  expression  of  determination 
to  spend  his  life  to  the  honor  of  his  Creator. 
This  sacrifice  was  to  be  offered  on  the  altar 
of  holocausts.  It  was  accompanied  with 
an  offering  of  flour,  oil,  and  wine.  The 
daily,  national  holocausts  were  two 
lambs :  one  offered  about  sunrise,  the 
other  at  the  decline  of  day,  before  the 
evening  incense  offering.  A  greater  num- 
ber of  holocausts  for  the  nation  were  to  be 
offered  on  the  Sabbath  and  great  festivals ; 
and  private  individuals  might  also,  and 
sometimes  were  bound  to  offer  whole  burnt 
offerings  to  the  Lord.  2.  The  Sin  and 
Trespass  Offerings.  —  These  w'ere  offered, 
as  their  names  indicate,  for  great  sins,  sins 
of  the  whole  nation,  or  for  individual  tres- 
passes. The  victims  offered  and  slain,  and 
the  ceremonials  used  in  these  sacrifices 
were  in  keeping  with  the  nature  of  the 
sin  which  they  were  intended  to  expiate. 
3.  Peace  Offerings.  —  This  kind  of  sacrifice 
was  prescribed  for  certain  occasions.  The 
peace  offerings  were  offered  by  the  whole 
nation,  or  by  individuals  in  thanksgiving 
for  blessings,  or  as  a  means  to  obtain  grace. 


In  the  consecration  of  Aaron  the  high- 
priest,  in  the  consecration  of  the  altar  of 
holocausts,  and  on  other  important  occa- 
sions, we  find  that  the  three  sacrifices  were 
offered  in  succession :  First,  the  sacrifice 
for  sin  to  prepare  access  to  God.  Sec- 
ondly, the  holocaust  to  acknowledge  His 
sovereign  dominion.  Third,  the  peace  of- 
fering to  return  thanks  to  God,  to  ask  for 
continuous  favor  and  to  rejoice  with  Him. 

The  unbloody  sacrifices  or  offerings  con- 
sisted of  fine  flour  unbaked  or  made  in 
cakes.  This  offering  was  salted  and  min- 
gled with  oil,  and  frankincense  was  placed 
upon  it.  These  offerings  partook  of  the 
nature  of  other  sacrifices,  inasmuch  as 
they  were  partially  or  wholly  destroyed. 

The  following  remarks  will  enable  the 
reader  to  understand  more  perfectly  all 
this  matter  of  sacrifices  commanded  by  the 
Law  of  Moses:  i.  There  were  sacrifices 
of  different  kinds,  and  they  were  offered 
very  frequently,  both  for  the  nation  and 
for  the  individual,  because  they  were  im- 
perfect, insufficient  in  themselves  to  give 
due  honor  to  God,  but  well  apt  to  excite  in 
the  offerer  sentiments  of  adoration,  re- 
pentance, and  thanksgiving.  The  fre- 
quency of  those  offerings  seemed  to  suggest 
the  idea,  that  men  and  God  desired  the 
blood  of  a  victim  of  greater  worth  than 
the  blood  of  goats  and  oxen.  2.  When  a 
sin  offering  was  sacrificed  for  the  people, 
the  high-priest,  or  a  private  person,  none 
of  the  offerers  were  permitted  to  eat  of  its 
flesh,  for  they  might  not  rejoice  at  the 
banquet  of  God,  who  acknowledged  them- 
selves guilty,  by  offering:  to  Him  a  sin  of- 
fering. 3.  It  is  acknowledged  that  private 
persons,  when  offering  a  victim  for  sin, 
confessed  their  transgression  to  the  priest, 
and  that  he  directed  them  to  bring  a  vic- 
tim of  greater  or  lesser  value  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  transgression.  For- 
mulas of  general  confessions  were  pre- 
scribed to  be  read  by  the  high-priest  in 
the  case  of  sin  offerings  for  the  nation  or 
for  the  priests.  Confession  of  sin  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  imposition  of  the  hands  of 
the  sinner  on  the  head  of  the  victim.  The 
victim  was  next  put  to  death,  and  its 
blood  poured  down  around  the  altar  of 
holocausts.  It  is  natural  to  infer,  that 
after  participating  in  the  sacrifice  the  de- 
vout Israelite  must  have  returned  home 
with  a  contrite  heart,  and  a  firm  determi- 
nation to  serve  God.  4.  Two  ceremonies 
which  were  to  be  performed  in  the  offer- 
ing of  sacrifices  were  the  touching  of  the 


Sacrilege 


621 


Sadoc 


horns  of  the  altar  with  the  blood  of  the 
victims,  and  the  sprinkling  of  the  same 
blood  seven  times  toward  the  veils  of  the 
•'  holy  place  "  and  of  the  "  holy  of  holies." 
The  children  of  Israel  believed  in, 
and  sighed  after  a  Redeemer.  Theirs 
were  the  sentiments  of  Him  who 
prayed,  "  Come  to  save  us,  Lord  God  of 
hosts."  The  sight  of  the  altar  stained 
with  blood,  and  of  the  inner  veil  conceal- 
ing from  view  the  holy  of  holies,  the 
place  of  His  glorious  dwelling,  were  well 
calculated  to  remind  them  of  the  need 
they  had  of  the  Redeemer.  And  in  truth, 
although  reconciliation  with  God  was 
obtainable  by  a  proper  offering  of  victims, 
this  reconciliation  was  due  to  the  disposi- 
tion of  the  offerer,  and  the  future  merits 
of  Jesus  Christ,  and  not  to  any  intrinsic 
value  of  the  victims.  Hence,  although 
many  souls  went  before  God  after  death 
in  a  state  of  justice,  none  of  them  were 
permitted  to  enter  heaven,  but  they  were 
detained  in  limbo  until  He  came,  one 
drop  of  whose  blood  could  purge  the 
world  from  all  its  sins.  5.  The  victim  set 
apart  for  sacrifice  was  to  be  a  male  with- 
out blemish.  If  lame,  blind,  or  in  any 
manner  disfigured  or  feeble,  it  should  not 
be  sacrificed  to  the  Lord.  The  perfection 
of  the  victim  was  a  warning  to  the  oflferer, 
that  his  heart  must  be  pure  before  his 
God.  The  victim  once  selected  was  con- 
sidered as  a  thing  sacred,  and  might  not 
be  used  for  another  purpose.  It  became, 
as  it  were,  the  property  of  God.  6.  In 
the  peaceful  sacrifices,  there  was,  we  might 
say,  a  threefold  communion  or  participa- 
tion with  the  victim.  The  part  consumed 
on  the  altar  by  fire  was  the  share  of  God 
who  has  no  need  of  food  offerings.  The 
second  part  was  that  of  the  priest  who  was 
entitled  to  it,  and  the  third  was  the  part 
of  the  offerer.  We  readily  imagine  that 
great  must  have  been  the  joy  of  the  pious 
Israelite,  who,  after  offering  a  holocaust 
to  the  great  God  who  made  all  things, 
after  confessing  his  sin  and  offering  a 
victim  for  its  expiation,  now  sat  down 
reconciled  with  God,  surrounded  by  his 
family  in  the  court  of  the  tabernacle,  be- 
ing allowed  to  eat  with  the  Levite,  of  the 
maats  presented  to  God  and  accepted  by 
Him. 

Sacrilege  (  impious  action  by  which  we 
profane  sacred  things). — The  Jews,  like  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  branded  with  the 
epithet  "sacrilege"  any  action  which  con- 


tained an  act  of  contempt  directed  toward 
God,  His  ministers,  or  sacred  things.  We 
see  also,  in  the  Second  Book  of  Machabees, 
that  Lysimacus  committed  many  sacri- 
leges, and  that,  among  others,  he  robbed 
the  temple  at  Jerusalem  of  its  golden  ves- 
sels serving  for  divine  worship.  The  sa- 
cred war,  among  the  Greeks,  originated 
from  the  sacrilege  of  the  Phoceans  against 
the  temple  of  Apollo.  Sacrilege  is  mostly 
committed  through  an  exterior  fact;  but, 
for  Catholic  theologians,  sacrilege  is  also 
committed  through  solely  internal  facts ; 
facts  of  conscience,  as  for  instance,  the 
receiving  and  profanation  of  a  sacrament 
by  a  person  in  the  state  of  mortal  sin. 
We  consider  also  a  sacrilege  the  pro- 
fanation of  places,  or  things  such  as  a 
church,  chapel,  or  cemetery  consecrated 
or  blessed  by  a  bishop ;  a  relic,  vestment, 
or  Church  ornament.     See  Profanation. 

Sacristan  ( the  one  who  takes  care  of 
the  sacristy  of  a  church  ). —  The  sacristan 
prepares  what  is  necessary  for  the  litur- 
gical offices,  fits  the  altars  inside  the 
church;  he  is,  in  one  word,  a  servant.  In 
religious  orders,  the  sacristan,  who  is  one 
of  the  religious,  is  called  the  warden,  and 
he  exercises  a  highly  personal  supervision 
over  the  sacristy,  and  the  employees  are 
placed  under  his  direct  orders.  The  sac- 
ristan of  the  Pope  is  a  prelate;  he  gives 
conwnunion  to  the  sovereign  Pontiff,  as 
viaticum  in  danger  of  death,  and  adminis- 
ters to  him  extreme  unction.  In  the 
Conclave  he  ranks  as  the  first  Conclavist, 
and  he  daily  says  the  Mass  for  the  cardi- 
nals and  administers  the  sacraments  to 
them. 

Sacristy. — Room  in  a  church  where  the 
sacred  vessels  and  the  ornaments  of  the 
church  are  locked  up,  and  where  the 
priests,  deacons,  and  all  those  who  serve  at 
the  altar  dress  for  the  divine  service,  while 
the  bishop  dresses  in  the  santuary,  at  the 
foot  of  the  altar.  In  the  Middle  Ages  a 
special  chapel  served  for  the  purpose  of 
putting  on  the  sacred  vestments.  For  the 
divine  offices,  the  Greeks  dress  in  the 
sanctuary  near  a  credence ;  they  have  no 
sacristy.  In  the  first  centuries  of  the 
Church,  the  dwelling  of  the  bishop  and 
clergy  not  being  separated  from  the  church, 
the  vessels,  ornaments,  and  linen  were  kept 
in  this  dwelling. 

Sadducees.     See  Sadoc. 
Sadoc. —  Chief  of  the  sect  of  Sadducees, 
lived    probably    248    b.  c,    if,   as   we  are 


Sainte  Anne  de  Beaupre       622 


Saints 


assured,  he  succeeded  a  certain  Antigonus 
Sacchaeus,  successor  in  the  tradition  of  the 
doctrine  of  Simon  the  Just.  The  latter 
taught  that,  by  an  excess  of  spirituality,  we 
must  obey  God  without  any  view  to  per- 
sonal interest,  and  Sadoc  concluded  from 
this  that  there  was,  in  fact,  neither  re- 
ward to  hope  for,  nor  punishment  to  fear 
in  the  other  life.  The  disciples  of  Sadoc, 
or  Sadducees,  formed  one  of  the  four  prin- 
cipal sects  of  the  Jews.  They  denied  the 
immortality  of  the  soul,  the  punishment 
and  reward  of  the  other  life,  and  the  exist- 
ence of  angels.  They  admitted  no  tradi- 
tions, and  denied  the  destiny,  as  well  as 
Providence.  St.  Epiphanius,  and  after 
him  St.  Augustine,  says  Dom  Calmet, 
have  maintained  that  the  Sadducees  denied 
the  Holy  Ghost,  but  neither  Josephus  nor 
the  Evangelists  accuse  them  of  this  error. 
It  has  also  been  imputed  to  them  that  they 
believed  God  to  be  corporal  and  not  to  ad- 
mit the  prophecies.  John  Hyrcanus  left 
the  sect  of  the  Pharisees  to  attach  himself 
to  that  of  Sadoc.  Caiphas  as  well  as  Ana- 
nus  the  Younger,  were  Sadducees,  but 
at  present  the  Jews  regard  as  heretics  the 
few  Sadducees  found  among  them. 

Sainte  Anne  de  Beaupre.  —  A  village 
of  Montomorency  County.  Canada,  on  the 
north  shore  of  St.  Lawrence,  at  the  Ste. 
Anne,  a  left-hand  affluent  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence. Many  miraculous  cures  have  been 
attributed  to  relics  of  Ste.  Anne  which  are 
contained  in  the  parish  church ;  the  great 
feast  day  of  the  patron  saint  is  on  the  26th 
of  July,  when  many  pilgrimages  are  made 
to  her  shrine. 

Saints  {Veneration  of  the). — All  the 
reasonable  creatures,  angels  or  men,  whom 
God  has  admitted  to  the  participation  of 
His  eternal  glory  are  called  saints.  The 
name  saint  {holy)  is  given  to  the  sovereign 
Pontiff  and  all  the  Popes  receive  this  ap- 
pellation on  account  of  the  veneration  due 
to  the  high  dignity  of  the  holy  Father  in 
the  Church.  But  by  saint  is  understood 
more  particularly  those,  whose  virtues, 
practiced  in  the  highest  degree,  have  been 
attested  by  miracles,  and  on  which  account 
they  were  canonized.  See  Beatificatiox 
and  Canonization. 

We  honor  the  saints  as  the  friends  and 
servants  of  God,  whom  He  has  over- 
whelmed with  his  choicest  gifts  and  most 
precious  graces.  That  religious  venera- 
tion may  be  paid  to  holy  persons  on  ac- 
count of   the   extraordinary   supernatural 


gifts  accorded  to  them,  we  may  conclude 
from  certain  facts  of  Holy  Scripture.  The 
sons  of  the  Prophets,  for  instance,  on  per- 
ceiving that  the  supernatural  power  of 
Elias  had  passed  to  Eliseus,  came  to  meet 
him  and  worshiped  him  (IV.  Kings  ii.  5). 
From  the  first  centuries  the  angels  and 
saints  were  honored  in  the  Church.  St 
Justin  (Apel.  I.,  n.  6)  writes  :  "  We  honor 
Him  (God  the  Father),  and  the  Son,  and 
the  host  of  blessed  spirits."  Even  before 
the  time  of  St.  Justin,  the  Church  of 
Smyrna,  in  a  letter  on  the  martyrdom  of 
St.  Polycarp,  declares:  "We  adore  the 
Son  of  God ;  but  we  honor  His  martyrs  as 
the  disciples  and  followers  of  our  Lord, 
for  the  exquisite  love  of  their  king  and 
master." 

The  veneration  of  the  saints  is,  on  the 
one  hand,  the  natural  outcome  of  the  wor- 
ship of  God ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  it 
contributes  to  the  increase  of  divine  wor- 
ship. For,  if  we  honor  God,  we  also  honor 
His  distinguished  friends  and  servants; 
just  as  we  love  our  neighbor  if  we  love 
God  Himself;  and,  contrary,  if  we  honor 
the  saints  on  account  of  their  supernatural 
gifts,  we  honor  also  God  Himself,  the 
giver  of  those  divine  gifts.  Nay,  God 
Himself  gives  us  the  example:  "If  any 
man  minister  to  Me,  him  will  My  Father 
honor"  (John  xii.  26).  The  veneration  of 
the  saints  is  also  salutary  for  us,  inasmuch 
as  it  incites  us  to  the  imitation  of  their  ex- 
ample. Therefore  the  Church  rightly 
professes  that  the  "  saints,  who  reign  with 
Christ,  are  to  be  honored"  (S>'m.  Trid.). 

The  invocation  of  the  saints  is  useful 
and  salutary.  From  the  dogma  of  the 
Communion  of  Saints  it  follows  that  the 
blessed  in  hea^"en  can,  and  actually  do,  pray 
for  us  and  obtain  for  us  the  grace  of  God 
by  their  intercession.  This  is  still  more 
emphatically  true  of  the  saints ;  for,  owing 
to  their  more  intimate  union  with  God, 
as  His  special  friends,  they  have  a  stricter 
title  (as  far  as  we  can  speak  of  right  in 
this  matter)  to  be  heard ;  and,  owing  to 
their  greater  love  for  us,  they  are  more  in- 
clined to  use  their  intercession  in  our  be- 
half. But  they  are  more  certain  to 
intercede  for  us  if  we  invoke  their  inter- 
cession; for,  what  is  true  of  God  Himself, 
who  is  the  pattern  of  the  saints,  holds 
good  also  of  the  saints  themselves ;  as 
God,  though  of  Himself,  inclined  to  be- 
stow His  favors,  confers  His  gifts  with 
more  certainty  and  in  greater  abundance 
in  answer  to  our  prayers,  so  also  the  saints 


Salem 


623 


Salvation 


will  more  certainly  intercede  for  us  if  we 
invoke  them.  That  the  saints  are  con- 
scious of  our  prayers  may  be  easily  under- 
stood from  what  we  have  said  concerning 
our  relation  to  good  angels.  See  Angel. 
From  time  immemorial  it  has  been  cus- 
tomary in  the  Church  to  invoke  the  saints. 
In  the  Catacombs  of  Rome,  particularly 
on  the  graves  of  the  martyrs,  may  be 
found  inscriptions  like  the  following : 
"  Pray  for  me,"  "  Pray  for  thy  brethren," 
etc.  St.  Augustine  says,  that  while  in  the 
holy  sacrifice  of  the  Mass  we  commemo- 
rate other  departed  souls  in  order  to  pray 
for  them,  we  invoke  the  martyrs  that  they 
may  pray  for  us.  (St.  Augustine  :  In  yoan. 
Tract.  84.)  See  Images;  Relics;  Mary 
{Prerogative  of). 

Salem.  —  Ancient  name  of  the  lower 
part  of  Jerusalem  (Gen.  xiv.  18;  Hebr.  vii. 
1-2),  which  later  on,  was  applied  to  the 
whole  city  (Ps.  LXXV.  3). 

Sales  (St.  Francis  of).     See  Francis. 

Salesians.  —  Religious  of  an  order 
founded  in  Italy  by  Dom  Bosco,  a  priest 
(born,  1S15).  They  were  called  Salesians 
on  account  of  the  quite  special  devotion 
which  Dom  Bosco  and  his  followers  had 
toward  St.  Francis  of  Sales.  The  Salesian 
Society  has  for  its  object  the  education 
and  instruction  of  the  poor  and  abandoned 
youth. 

SaWe  {The  AbbS  De  La).  See  Brothers 
OF  THE  Christian  Schools. 

Salmanasar.     See  Shalmaneser. 

Salome.  —  Wife  of  Zebedee,  mother  of 
St.  James  the  Elder  and  of  St.  John  the 
Evangelist.  She  accompanied  our  Saviour 
to  Calvary,  and  was  one  of  the  holy  women 
who  came  early  on  Sunday  to  the  sepulchre 
of  our  Lord. 

Salomon.     See  Solomon. 

Salvation  Army  (an  organization  founded 
upon  a  quasi  military  pattern,  for  the  re- 
vival of  religion  among  the  masses).  —  It 
was  founded  in  England  by  the  Methodist 
Evangelist  William  Booth  about  1865,  un- 
der the  name  of  "Christian  Mission." 
The  present  name  and  organization  were 
adopted  about  1878.  It  has  extended  to 
the  continent  of  Europe,  to  India,  Aus- 
tralia, and  other  British  possessions;  to  the 
United  States,  South  America,  and  else- 
where. Its  work  is  carried  on  by  means  of 
processions,  street  singing,  preaching,  and 


the  like,  under  the  direction  of  officers,  en- 
titled generals,  majors,  captains,  etc.  Both 
sexes  participate  in  the  services  and  direc- 
tion of  the  body  on  equal  terms.  It  has  no 
formulated  creed,  but  the  doctrines  bear  a 
general  resemblance  to  those  common  to  all 
Protestants  and  especially  to  theMethodists. 

Salvation  (A^o)  Outside  the  Church. — 
Ecclesiastical  documents  are  not  wanting 
in  which  this  doctrine  is  embodied.  The 
Fourth  Council  of  the  Lateran  in  its  pro- 
fession of  faith  teaches  as  follows  (chap.  i. ) : 
"  There  is  but  one  universal  Church  of 
the  Faithful,  and  outside  of  it  no  one  can 
be  saved."  The  Waldenses,  after  their 
conversion,  were  required  to  profess  faith 
in  one  Church,  not  an  heretical  Church, 
but  in  the  Holy,  Roman,  Catholic,  and 
Apostolic  Church,  outside  of  which  no 
one  is  saved.  In  like  manner  Eugenius 
IV.,  speaking  in  the  name  of  the  Roman 
Church,  teaches  that  none  outside  the 
Catholic  Church,  whether  heathen,  Jews, 
heretics,  or  schismatics,  shall  have  a  share 
in  everlasting  life,  but  that  they  shall  go 
into  eternal  fire  unless  converted  before 
death.  And  the  Council  of  Trent  pre- 
supposes this  universal  belief.  The  de- 
cree on  original  sin  begins  with  these 
words:  "That  our  Catholic  faith,  with- 
out which  it  is  impossible  to  please  God, 
may  be  purified  from  errors,  and  pre- 
served intact  and  inviolate,  .  .  .  the 
Synod  decrees,  etc."  This  evidently  im- 
plies the  same  doctrine  of  one  saving 
Church  as  is  contained  in  the  Athanasian 
Symbol.  The  Catholic  Church,  it  says 
again,  instructed  by  Jesus  Christ,  our 
Lord,  and  His  Apostles,  and  the  Holy 
Spirit  who  leads  her  into  all  truth,  teaches 
that  she  possesses  and  will  always  hold  to 
the  true  doctrines  of  the  Eucharist,  and 
that  therefore  she  forbids  all  Christians 
to  think  otherwise.  The  Roman  Church 
is  called  by  the  Synod  the  mother  and 
mistress  of  others.  Pius  IV.  inserted  the 
following  words  in  the  profession  of  faith  : 
"  I  acknowledge  the  Holy  Catholic  and 
Apostolic  Roman  Church  as  the  Mother 
and  Mistress  of  all  Churches."  And  it 
concludes  with  the  words:  "This  true 
Catholic  faith,  without  which  no  one  can 
be  saved,  I  promise  to  hold  intact  and 
entire  until  my  last  breath." 

Of  modern  theologians,  we  shall  men- 
tion but  two.  Tournely  considers  that  the 
phrase  '■'■Extra  Ecclesiam^'  (outside  the 
Church),  etc.,  is  one  of  those  truths  which 


Salvation 


624 


Salvation 


are  both  incomprehensible  and  hard,  be- 
cause it  lays  a  ban  on  all  heretics  and 
schismatics.  "  But  it  is  not  on  that  ac- 
count less  true ;  for  tradition,  from  first 
to  last,  teaches  that  there  is  no  remis- 
sion of  sins,  no  charity,  no  salvation,  out- 
side the  Church."  Perrone  lays  down 
the  following  thesis  :  "  For  those  who  cul- 
pably depart  this  life  in  heresy,  schism,  or 
unbelief,  there  can  be  no  salvation ;  in 
other  words  extra  ecclesiam  nulla  salus." 
And  he  begins  to  demonstrate  it  with 
the  words  :  "  This  thesis,  which  makes  all 
sectaries  and  unbelievers  gnash  their  teeth, 
is  clear,  not  only  fromi  Scripture  and  the 
constant  sense  of  the  Catholic  Church,  but 
also  from  reason.  In  fact,  so  clear  is  it 
Wiat  he  \*no  fails  to  perceive  its  truth  must 
be  blino."  (Tournely,  p.  52 ;  Perrone,  I. 
240.) 

The  proposition,  as  the  author  has  clearly 
shown,  is  old  and  Catholic,  and  is,  in  fact, 
only  the  logical  conclusion  of  the  doctrine 
of  one  visible  Church  of  Christ  on  earth. 
As  a  matter  of  principle,  therefore,  Non- 
Catholics  ought  not  to  object  to  the  con- 
clusion, but  to  the  premises,  which  assert 
that  Christ  instituted  and  left  in  His  place 
one  only  Church.  The  anger  and  fury 
with  which  the  conclusion  is  assailed  seems 
to  be  due  to  the  fact  that  superficial  minds 
consider  it  as  synonymous  with,  or,  at 
least,  as  necessarily  implying  the  proposi- 
tion that,  "All  heretics  and  schismatics  of 
any  and  every  kind,  will  be  damned." 
This,  of  course,  is  a  monstrous  proposi- 
tion, and  entirely  repugnant  to  Catholic 
principles  and  instinct.  Such  a  conclusion 
could  only  be  drawn,  if  it  were  stated  that 
no  one  can  or  does  belong  in  any  way 
whatsoever  to  the  Catholic  Church,  unless 
he  be  an  actual,  visible  member.  There  is 
no  such  proposition  in  the  whole  range  of 
Catholic  theology.  What  the  Catholic 
proposition  does  imply  is  that  whoever  is 
saved,  will  be  saved  only  in  so  far  as  he  is 
a  member  of  the  one  Catholic  Church  on 
earth.  To  put  the  matter  in  what  seems  to  us 
an  easier  form :  granting,  then,  for  argu- 
ment's sake,  that  there  is  but  one  visible 
Church,  it  clearly  follows  that  it  is  the 
moral  duty  of  every  man  to  belong  to  it. 
His  own  salvation  as  well  as  the  will  of 
God,  who  founded  the  Church,  imposes  on 
him  the  moral  obligation  which,  like  every 
other  moral  duty,  supposes  knowledge  and 
freewill.  Now,  a  man  is  accountable  only 
in  so  far  as  he  knows  the  duty,  and  is  free 
to  fulfill  it.     But  a  man  may,  without  any 


fault  of  his,  be  ignorant  of  it,  or,  what 
is  still  more  common,  may  be  mistaken 
about  it,  thinking  that  he  is  actually  ful- 
filling it,  when  in  reality  he  is  not.  To 
blame  or  punish  such  a  one,  would  evi- 
dently be  contrary  to  all  moral  principles. 
The  man  who  can  plead  invincible  igno- 
rance or  inculpable  error,  is  reputed  as  good 
as  having  fulfilled  the  duty.  But  the  duty 
remains  the  same  in  all  cases.  Accord- 
ingly there  may  be  heretics  and  schismatics, 
who  are  born  in  heresy  and  who  believe 
bona  fide  that  they  are  in  the  one  Church 
of  Christ,  and  must  consequently  be  re- 
puted as  satisfying  as  far  as  they  are  able 
the  moral  duty  of  belonging  to  the  Cath- 
olic Church.  But  the  duty  of  belonging 
to  that  Church  remains  ever  the  same. 
The  Catholic  principle,  therefore,  requires 
no  modification  whatever.  It  is  simply 
and  absolutely  true.  Extra  Ecclesiam 
nulla  salus.  It  is  simply  the  self-assertion 
of  the  Church  as  the  sole  representative  of 
Christ  and  His  work  on  earth.  The  prin- 
ciple is  directed  against  those  who  willingly 
and  knowingly  fall  away  from,  or  justify 
their  separation  from  her. 

The  Reformers  adopted  the  very  same 
principle.  When  they  cut  themselves  off 
from  the  universal  and  Apostolic  Church, 
they  not  only  took  with  them  the  ground- 
work of  their  faith,  that  is  the  Holy  Scrip- 
ture, but  they  also  claimed  to  be  a  rival, 
infallible,  and  only  true  Church.  Thus  the 
Confessio  condemns  all  heretics :  Mani- 
cheans,  Valentinians,  Arians,  Eunomians, 
Mohammedans,  and  such  like;  and  also  the 
followers  of  Paul  of  Samosata,  old  and  new 
Pelagians,  and  others  who  figure  in  the 
Apology  as  scholastics,  the  Anabaptists, 
Donatists,  Novatians,  and  others.  What 
else  can  this  mean,  but  that  there  is  no 
salvation  except  through  Christ,  and 
through  the  one  Church.?  The  same  view 
is  urged  against  that  section  of  Protestants 
which  went  under  the  name  of  "  Re- 
formed." "If,"  says  the  Apology,  "  our 
adversaries  arrogate  to  themselves  the 
name  Church,  we  know  full  well  that  the 
Church  is  theirs  who  teach  Christ's  Gos- 
pel, and  that  the  Church  is  not  with  them 
who  defend  wicked  doctrines  in  the  teeth 
of  the  Gospel  [  ( Confess,  i.  i ,  3,  4 ;  22 ;  Apol. 
c.  iii.,  a.  6.  Formul.  Cone.  Proem.  //.)]. 
The  Formula  Concordice  recognizes  the 
ancient  symbols  "th't  express  the  unan- 
imous consent  of  the  Christian  and  Cath- 
olic faith,  and  that  contain  the  confession 
of   orthodox   Christians   and   of   the   true 


Salve  Regina 


625 


Samaria 


Church,  to  wit,  the  Apostles,  Nicene,  and 
Athanasian  Creeds."  It  likewise  anathe- 
matizes all  heretics,  and  all  propositions  at 
variance  with  the  faith,  that  have  ever  been 
broached  in  the  Church.  In  connection 
with  the  Smalcaldic  articles  it  is  said : 
"  We  in  nowise  concede  that  bishops  are 
the  Church,  because  they  are  not;  nor  do 
we  hearken  to  their  voice  as  if  they  issued 
commands  or  prohibitions  in  the  Church's 
name.  God  be  thanked,  any  child  seven 
years  old  now  knows  what  the  true  Church 
is;  namely  the  saints,  the  Faithful,  and  the 
sheep  who  hear  the  Shepherd's  voice." 

Luther,  in  his  greater  Catechism,  says: 
"  Outside  this  Christianity,  and  where  this 
Gospel  has  no  place,  there  can  be  neither 
forgiveness  of  sins  nor  sanctification. 
Hence  all  are  far  removed  from  this  Church 
who  contend  that  they  seek,  and  purchase, 
and  merit  sanctification  by  their  own  works, 
and  not  through  the  grace  of  the  Gospel 
and  the  remission  of  sins."  "All  who  are 
outside  the  Christian  pale,  be  they  heathen, 
Turk,  Jew,  false  Christian  or  hypocrite, 
even  if  they  believe  in  the  one  true  God 
and  invoke  Him,  but  know  not  how  He  is 
disposed  toward  them,  cannot  promise 
themselves  God's  grace  and  favor.  There- 
fore they  abide  in  His  eternal  wrath,  and 
in  everlasting  damnation"  (Catech.  ii.  47, 
56.  See  Mb-lanchthon,  De  Pecc.  orig. 
Calv.  Instit.  iii.  14,  4).  Of  course,  he 
had  his  doubts  and  often  spoke  diffidently 
as  to  the  truth  of  this  doctrine,  and  the 
salvation  of  the  Faithful  outside  the  true 
Church.  But  despite  his  teaching  as  to 
the  invisible  Church,  into  which  he  was 
reluctantly  driven,  Luther  could  not  shake 
off  the  idea  of  the  necessity  of  a  visible 
Church.  But  he  made  the  community  the 
Church.  According  to  Luther,  no  one  at- 
tains to  faith,  except  by  hearing  God's 
word  in  the  Church.  And  God  has  handed 
over  this  key  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven  to 
the  community  of  the  Faithful. 

The  Calvinists  were  still  more  clamor- 
ous in  their  pretensions  to  be  the  one  re- 
ligion, out  of  which  there  is  no  salvation. 
They  were  thoroughly  convinced  that  the 
Pope  was  Anti-Christ,  the  man  of  sin,  and 
the  child  of  destruction,  and  that  the 
Catholic  Church  was  the  Synagogue  of 
Satan.  "That  all  in  communion  with  him 
( the  Pope)  are  lost,  is  an  article  of  faith 
wherever  genuine  Calvinism  is  rampant. 
It  stands  in  the  Westminster  Confession  " 
(  Zokler,  11,747).  Nor  were  the  Calvin- 
ists less  tolerant  toward  the  Lutherans. 
40 


As  they  still  breathe  the  old  undying 
hatred  toward  Rome,  so  they  endeavor, 
where  they  can,  "  to  render  suspect  as 
liars,  as  denying  the  true  faith,  and  follow- 
ing a  false,  erring  theology,  all  who  will 
not  be  set  on  fire  with  fanatical  zeal  for 
Calvinism."  The  Lutherans,  on  their 
part,  were  not  slow  to  show  their  hatred 
of  the  doctrine  of  Zwingli  and  Calvin, 
saying  that  through  its  instrumentality 
the  devil  was  seeking  to  introduce  heathen- 
ism, Talmudism,  and  Mohammedanism 
into  the  Church. 

Salve  Regina  (antiphon  to  the  Blessed 
Virgin,  so  called  from  the  two  Latin  words 
with  which  it  commences).  —  The  Salve 
Regina  was  composed,  according  to  some, 
by  Germann  or  Hermann  Conrad,  Bene- 
dictine of  the  eleventh  century,  according 
to  others,  by  Preize,  Bishop  of  Compostella, 
in  the  twelfth  century,  and  whom  some  call 
Peter  of  Monsoro  or  of  Monsocio,  and,  ac- 
cording to  others,  by  Adhemar  of  Montheil, 
Bishop  of  Puy  (died  at  Antioch  in  1098) ; 
and  for  this  reason,  undoubtedly,  it  was 
first  called  "Antiphon  of  Puy  "  (Antipkona 
de  Padio).  St.  Bernard,  apostolic  legate 
in  Germany,  having  heard  the  singing  of 
the  Salve  Regina  in  the  Church  of  Spire, 
added  to  it,  by  a  sudden  inspiration,  the 
words  which  end  it:  "(?  clemens,  O pia,  O 
dulcis  Virgo  Maria V 

Salvianus  (390  .^-484 }) .  —  Ecclesiastical 
writer,  born  at  Cologne  or  at  Treves.  Mar- 
ried at  Cologne,  he  and  his  wife  renounced 
the  world,  and  withdrew  to  the  Monastery 
of  Lerins  (420),  then  to  Marseilles,  where 
he  was  ordained  priest.  He  has  depicted 
with  eloquence  the  vices  and  misfortunes 
of  his  time ;  was  consulted  by  the  most  il- 
lustrious prelates  of  Gaul,  and  received  the 
name  of  "  Master  of  the  Bishops."  Among 
his  writings,  which  have  an  important 
bearing  on  the  history  of  his  age,  should 
be  mentioned  his  treatises,  Against  Avarice 
and  On  the  Governtnent  and  Providence  of 
God.  The  object  of  the  last-named  work 
is  similar  to  that  of  St.  Augustine's  City 
of  God. 

Samaria  (the  modern  Sebastiyeh). — 
Village  of  Palestine.  Founded  by  Amri, 
king  of  Israel,  in  912  B.C.,  it  rapidly  be- 
came a  wealthy  capital.  Taken  and  laid 
waste  in  724  b.  c.  by  Salmanasar,  king  of 
Assyria,  it  lost  its  inhabitants,  who  were 
transported  into  Assyria  and  replaced  by  a 
colony  of  Cutheans.  It  had  become  re- 
peopled  under  Aassar-Haddon  in  572,  and 


Samaritan  Pentateuch 


626 


Samuel 


regained  its  ancient  importance,  when  it 
became  a  prey  of  Antiochus  the  Great  in 
203 ;  destroyed  by  John  Hyrcanus  in  128, 
raised  from  its  ruins  by  Gabinius,  it  reob- 
tained  its  old  splendor  under  Herod,  who, 
to  flatter  Augustus,  gave  it  the  name  of 
"  Sebaste."  It  was  taken  for  the  last  time 
and  definitely  destroyed  by  Vespasian,  on 
the  occasion  of  the  revolt  of  the  Jews  in 
the  first  years  of  the  Christian  era.  Its 
port  was  Caesarea,  the  modern  Kaisarieh. 

Samaritan  Pentateuch.  —  Collection  of 
the  five  books  of  Moses  in  the  Hebrew 
language,  but  in  Samaritan  characters  or 
in  ancient  Hebrew  characters,  which  were 
in  use  before  the  Babylonian  captivity. 
The  critics  have  remarked  some  differences 
between  the  Pentateuch  of  the  Jews  and 
that  of  the  Samaritans.  These  differences 
concern  principally  the  word  Garizim, 
which  the  Samaritans  have  substituted  for 
that  of  Hebal,  to  favor  their  pretensions ; 
but  other  variations  are  of  little  impor- 
tance. The  Samaritan  Pentateuch  power- 
fully confirms  the  authenticity  and  veracity 
of  the  writings  of  Moses,  but  the  use  that 
can  be  made  thereof,  must  be  limited. 

Samaritans  (inhabitants  of  Samaria). 
—  The  Samaritans,  called  at  first  Cutheans, 
were  a  people  from  beyond  the  Euphrates, 
whom  the  kings  of  Assyria  sent  to  inhabit 
the  kingdom  of  Samaria,  after  they  had 
led  away  captive  the  Israelites  who  lived 
there  before.  At  first  they  continued  to 
adore  only  idols,  and  afterwards  they 
mingled  the  worship  of  the  Lord  with  that 
of  false  gods;  but  after  the  return  from 
captivity.  Holy  Scripture,  which  does  not 
conceal  their  jealousy  of  the  Jews,  nor  the 
bad  services  which  they  rendered  against 
them  at  the  Persian  court,  neither  the 
snares  which  they  laid  for  them  in  order 
to  hinder  them  from  rebuilding  the  walls 
of  Jerusalem,  nowhere  reproaches  them 
with  the  adoration  of  idols.  It  does  not 
appear  that  this  people  had  a  common 
temple  before  the  arrival  of  Alexander  the 
Great  into  Judea ;  afterwards  they  wished 
to  go  to  Jerusalem,  but  the  Jews  being  op- 
posed to  this,  they  built,  with  the  consent 
of  Alexander,  the  temple  of  Garizim,  of 
which  Manasses,  son  of  Jaddus,  was  made 
high-priest.  The  animosity  of  the  Samar- 
itans for  the  Jews  increased  still  more 
when,  to  punish  them  for  their  rebellion, 
Alexander,  on  his  return  from  Egypt, 
drove  them  from  Samaria  and  gave  their 
province   to   the   Jews.      Also,   when   our 


Saviour  appeared  in  Judea,  there  existed 
no  relation  between  Samaria  and  Jerusa- 
lem. The  greatest  injury  the  Jews  could 
inflict  upon  a  man  was  to  call  him  a  Sa- 
maritan. When  Alexander  had  driven 
the  Samaritans  from  their  province,  they 
withdrew  to  Sichem  ( the  modern  Na- 
plouse),  where  they  are  still  found.  Al- 
though reduced  to  about  thirty  families, 
they  hold  aloof  from  all  foreign  union, 
and  marry  among  themselves.  They  be- 
lieve as  in  the  time  of  Christ,  that  it  is 
upon  Mount  Garizim  that  God  wishes  to 
be  adored.  They  have  faithfully  preserved 
the  Pentateuch,  and  this  is  the  only  portion 
of  Scripture  which  they  acknowledge. 
The  celebration  of  the  Pasch  on  Mount 
Garizim  is  for  them  a  sacred  rite,  as  well 
as  circumcision,  the  keeping  of  the  Sab- 
bath, and  the  other  festivals  prescribed  by 
the  Mosaic .  legislation.  They  are  even 
more  exact  and  more  superstitious  observ- 
ers of  the  law  than  the  Jews,  and  have  a 
horror  of  idolatry.  Finally,  like  the  Jews, 
they  expect  a  Messias  whom  they  call 
"  Hathab,"  that  is,  the  Converter. 

Samos.  —  An  island  in  the  northeastern 
part  of  the  ..•Egean  sea,  near  the  coast,  27 
miles  long  and  10  miles  wide,  which  St. 
Paul  touched  on  his  third  missionary  jour- 
ney (Acts  XX.  15). 

Samosathians.     See  Pauliaxists. 

Samothracia.  —  A  mountainous  island 
of  the  yEgean  sea  which  St.  Paul  visited 
on  his  first  missionary  journey.  The  latter 
half  of  the  name  was  added  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  other  Samos.  It  is  also  called 
Samothraki  and  contains  from  one  to  two 
thousand  inhabitants. 

Samson.  —  One  of  the  Hebrew  judges, 
celebrated  for  his  great  physical  strength, 
and  for  the  bravery  and  success  with  which 
he  defended  his  country  against  the  Phi- 
listines (Judg.  xiii.-xvi.). 

Samuel  (Hebr.  God  hath  heard).  —  Last 
judge  of  Israel,  born  at  Ramatha,  in  the 
mountains  of  Ephraim,  about  1132  b.  c. 
The  disciple  of  Heli  and  his  successor  in 
the  sovereign  judicature  (1092),  delivered 
the  Israelites  from  the  yoke  of  the  Phi- 
listines. But  his  sons  whom,  in  his  old  age, 
he  had  associated  in  his  functions,  dis- 
satisfied the  people,  who  asked,  through 
the  ancients,  for  a  monarchical  govern- 
ment. Samuel,  forced  to  yield,  chose  Saul 
and  anointed  him  king   (1080),   reserving 


Sanbenito 


627 


Satan 


for  himself  only  the  sacerdotal  functions. 
Later  on,  he  anointed  David  and  died  in 
1048.  General  opinion  has  attributed  to 
him  the  authorship  of  the  Book  of  Judges, 
that  of  Ruth  and  the  First  Book  of  Kings 
up  to  chapter  xxiv. 

Sanbenito.  —  A  garment  worn  by  per- 
sons under  trial  by  the  Inquisition  when 
brought  into  public  view  at  an  auto  de  fe, 
either  for  recantation  and  subsequent  par- 
don after  penance,  or  for  any  other  punish- 
ment. Some  writers  describe  it  as  a  hat  or 
a  sort  of  cassock  or  loose  over  garment, 
others  again  claim  that,  according  to  the 
name  *♦  Sanbenito,"  it  was  the  habit  of  the 
religious  of  St.  Benedict. 

Sanchez  (Thomas)  (1550-1610).  —  Jesuit 
and  casuist,  born  at  Cordova,  died  at 
Grenada.  His  treatise,  De  Matrimonio, 
for  the  use  of  confessors  and  directors  of 
souls,  has  given  rise  to  many  attacks. 
These  attacks  would  have  been  less  fre- 
quent and  perhaps  less  hypocritical,  if  the 
authors  had  studied  this  treatise,  where  it 
was  composed,  at  the  foot  of  the  crucifix. 

Sanctuary.  —  The  part  of  the  church 
around  the  high  altar  reserved  for  the 
clergy,  generally  inclosed  by  wooden  rails. 

Sanctus.  —  A  hymn  which  forms  the 
conclusion  of  the  Preface.  The  Greeks 
call  it  Trisagion;  but  this  trisagion  must 
not  be  confounded  with  that  of  the  Latin 
Church,  sung  on  Good  Friday  during  the 
adoration  of  the  Cross.  The  chant  of  the 
Sanctus  was  used  in  the  Church  at  the  time 
of  Tertullian,  and  is  contained  in  the 
Preface  in  the  fifth  Catechesis  of  St.  Cyril 
of  Jerusalem,  who  adds  that  when  we 
recite  the  Sanctus,  as  the  seraphim  con- 
tinually do,  we  should  enter  into  commun- 
ion with  the  heavenly  militia,  by  this 
divine  psalmody. 

Sanhedrin,  or  Bethdin  {W&hr.  house  of 
judgment) .  — This  was  a  council  of  seventy- 
one  or  seventy-two  senators,  among  the 
Jews,  who  determined  the  most  important 
aflfairs  of  the  nation.  The  room  in  which 
they  met,  according  to  the  rabbins,  was  a 
rotundo,  half  of  which  was  built  without 
the  temple,  and  half  within ;  the  latter 
part  being  that  in  which  the  judges 
sat.  The  nasi  or  president,  who  was  gen- 
erally the  high-priest,  sat  on  a  throne  at 
the  end  of  the  hall ;  his  deputy,  or  vice- 
president,  called  ab-bethdin^  at  his  right; 
and  the  sub-deputy,  or  kakatn,  at  his  left; 


the  other  senators  being  ranged  in  order 
on  each  side.  Most  of  the  members  of  this 
council  were  priests  or  Levites,  though 
men  in  private  stations  of  life  were  not  ex- 
cluded. The  authority  of  the  Sanhedrin 
was  very  extensive.  It  decided  cases 
brought  before  it  by  appeal  from  inferior 
courts ;  and  even  the  king,  the  high- 
priest,  and  the  prophets  were  under  its 
jurisdiction.  The  general  affairs  of  the 
nation  were  also  brought  before  this  as- 
sembly. The  right  of  judging  in  capital 
cases  belonged  to  it,  until  this  was  taken 
away  by  the  Romans.  The  Sanhedrin 
was  probably  the  council  referred  to  by 
our  Lord  (Matt.  v.  22). 

San  Jago  {Order  of).  —  A  religio-mili- 
tary  order  instituted  in  1170,  for  the 
protection  of  Christian  pilgrims  to  Com- 
postella,  Spain. 

Sara  ( 1986-1859  b.  c. ).  —  Wife  of  Abra- 
ham, followed  him  into  Egypt.  Capti- 
vated by  her  beauty,  the  king  of  that 
country,  and  later  on,  Abimelech,  king  of 
the  Philistines,  wished  to  marry  her,  be- 
lieving that  she  was  only  the  sister  of 
Abraham ;  but  God  protected  her  against 
all  outrage.  Having  become  the  mother 
of  Isaac,  she  drove  away  Agar  and  Ismael. 

Sarabites.  —  Wandering  monks  who 
had  enfranchised  themselves  from  the 
rule  and  the  cenobitic  life,  and  went  from 
city  to  city,  living  at  leisure. 

Sardica  (the  modern  Sophia).  —  City  of 
Lower  Dacia,  capital  of  the  diocese  of 
eastern  Illyria  in  the  fourth  century. 
Here  a  Church  council  was  held  in  347 
which  condemned  the  Arians. 

Sarepta  (the  modern  Sarfend).  —  An- 
cient town  of  Phoenicia  between  Tyre  and 
Sidon,  on  the  Mediterranean ;  famous 
through  the  sojourn  which  the  Prophet 
Elias  made  there,  in  the  house  of  a  poor 
widow,  whose  flour  and  oil  he  miraculously 
multiplied,  and  whose  child  he  raised  to 
life  again,  in  gratitude  for  the  hospitalitj 
he  had  received. 

Sargon.  —  King  of  Assyria,  whom  some 
claim  to  be  Sennacherib,  others  Assar- 
Haddon,  his  son,  and  still  others  Salman- 
asar,  his  father. 

Satan  (enemy).  —  St.  Jerome  has  pre- 
served the  word  Satan,  which  signifies 
enemy,  adversary,  accuser;  but  elsewhere, 
in  Job,  for   instance,  it  designates  demon. 


Satisfaction 


628 


Saturday 


dn>il.  In  the  New  Testament  it  is  ac- 
cepted in  both  senses.  In  gathering  the 
passages  where  there  is  mention  of  Satan 
or  the  devil,  we  find  that  he  was  cast  out  of 
heaven  in  punishment  for  his  pride ;  that 
his  jealousy  introduced  death  into  the 
world ;  that  bj  God's  permission  he  exer- 
cises a  kind  of  dominion  over  the  other 
angels,  apostates  like  himself;  that  God 
makes  use  of  him  to  try  the  good  and 
chastise  the  wicked ;  that  he  is  a  lying 
spirit  in  the  mouth  of  false  prophets  and 
heretics;  that  he  or  his  own  torment,  pos- 
sess men  and  inspire  them  with  evil  de- 
signs ;  that  he  causes  several  diseases, 
attacks  us,  especially,  at  the  hour  of  death, 
and  that  he  leads  the  souls  of  the  damned 
into  hell ;  that  his  power  and  malice,  sub- 
ordinate to  the  will  of  God,  will  have  a 
greater  dominion  in  the  time  of  Anti- 
Christ  than  at  present;  that  he  is  chained 
in  hell,  whose  fire  was  prepared  for  him 
and  all  his  followers ;  finally,  that  he  will  be 
judged  at  the  end  of  the  world.   See  Devil. 

Satisfiaction  (a  penance  imposed  on  us 
by  the  confessor,  including  restoration  of 
stolen  property,  and  reparation  for  scan- 
dal). —  Although  absolution  wipes  out 
the  guilt  of  mortal  sin,  delivering  us  from 
eternal  punishment,  there  usually  remains 
a  temporal  punishment  due  for  evil  deeds, 
unless  the  penitent's  dispositions  are  of 
such  perfection  that,  by  the  divine  mercy 
of  God,  even  that  debt  is  canceled.  The 
penance  imposed  by  the  confessor  is  not 
always  equal  to  the  offense  committed, 
which  may  still  have  to  be  expiated  more 
fully  by  further  punishment,  whether  in 
this  world  or  in  purgatory.  Satisfaction 
is  an  act  of  atonement  toward  God  and  our 
neighbor,  for  in  the  sacrament  of  penance, 
the  mercy  of  our  Lord  is  extended  to  us 
by  the  remission  of  eternal  chastisement, 
and  justice  is  compassionately  enforced 
upon  us  by  means  of  temporal  punishment 
in  commutation  of  the  everlasting  penal- 
ties we  have  deserved.  The  Church  exacts 
fulfillment  of  the  satisfaction  imposed, 
under  pain  of  mortal  sin, —  the  penance 
being  more  or  less  severe  according  to  the 
gravity  of  the  offense  confessed, —  except, 
when  it  is  either  impossible  or  too  difficult 
of  accomplishment,  in  which  case  it  is 
our  duty  to  make  this  known  to  the 
confessor,  respectfully  begging  that  the 
penance  may  be  changed.  The  penance 
imposed  should  be  carried  out  with  exacti- 
tude as  to  the  time,  place,  and  manner  of 


execution  demanded  by  Christ's  minister, 
and  with  devout  sentiments  of  piety  and 
fervor,  united  with  the  sincere  repentance 
of  the  sins  for  which  atonement  is  being 
offered. 

Satolli  (Francis).  —  A  Catholic  prelate 
and  diplomat  of  the  Holy  See ;  born  in  the 
city  of  Perugia,  Italy,  in  1841.  He  was 
educated  in  the  diocesan  seminary  of  his 
native  city,  over  which  presided  Joachim 
Pecci,  Archbishop  of  Perugia,  afterwards 
Pope  Leo  XIII.  He  early  distinguished 
himself  as  an  orator  and  linguist,  and  on 
the  accession  of  Leo  XIII.  was  chosen  his 
chief  assistant  in  the  work  of  promoting 
theological  studies.  He  became,  succes- 
sively, professor  in  the  Propaganda  and 
Roman  Seminary,  president  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Noble  Ecclesiastics,  and  archbishop 
of  Lepanto.  In  1889,  he  was  deputed  by 
the  Pope  to  represent  him  at  Baltimore, 
Maryland,  on  the  occasion  of  the  centenary 
of  the  Catholic  hierarchy,  also,  at  the  in- 
auguration of  the  Catholic  University  in 
Washington,  District  of  Columbia.  On 
Jan.  23d,  1893,  he  was  appointed  apostolic 
Delegate  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
in  the  United  States,  with  power  to  exer- 
cise Pontifical  jurisdiction,  subject  only  to 
Appeal  to  the  Pope.  This  has  given  the 
Church  in  America  an  autonomy  and  uni- 
formity which  it  did  not  before  possess. 
He  was  created  a  cardinal  Jan.  5th,  1896, 
and  was  succeeded  in  the  oflSce  of  Delegate 
by  Sebastian  Martinelli  in  1896.  He  has 
written  a  Course  of  Philosophy  on  the 
Sumtna  of  St.  Thomas,  and  essays  on 
various  philosophical  themes. 

Saturday  {Holy)  (Saturday  before  Eas- 
ter).—  It  is  the  first  of  all  the  eves  as  to 
dignity  and  antiquity.  It  has  always 
passed  as  the  most  important  and  the 
longest,  joining  immediately  the  office  of 
Easter  with  its  own,  esp>ecially  when  it 
commenced  after  the  hour  of  None  or 
about  sunset-  It  then  continued  until 
Sunday,  making  the  Faithful  spend  their 
time  in  church  from  sunset  to  sunrise; 
and  this  custom,  which  has  ceased  with 
the  Latins  only  since  they  commenced  the 
oflSces  of  this  great  eve  in  the  morning  or 
at  the  hour  of  Tierce  of  Saturday,  has  al- 
ways continued  to  exist  with  the  Greeks. 
Holy  Saturday  was  formerly  kept  entirely 
holy  in  several  Churches.  Then  in  the 
course  of  time,  it  was  reduced  to  the  rank 
of  half- feast  which  was  kept  holy  until 
noon,  but  to-day  it  is  left  almost  every- 


Saul 


629 


Scapular 


where  to  the  voluntary  devotion  of  the 
Faithful.  All  the  offices  and  ceremonies 
of  Holy  Saturday  have  reference  to  the 
baptism  of  the  Catechumens,  which  was 
administered  in  the  most  solemn  manner 
on  the  eves  of  Easter  and  Pentecost.  See 
Holy  Week. 

Saul.  —  First  king  of  Israel,  son  of  Cis, 
powerful  man  of  Gaboa,  of  the  tribe  of 
Benjamin,  died  in  1040.  Warrior,  endowed 
with  great  strength  and  high  stature ;  he 
was  anointed  king  by  the  Prophet  Sam- 
uel (1080  B.  c.) ;  signalized  the  beginning 
of  his  reign  by  brilliant  victories  over  the 
Ammonites,  Amalekites,  and  Philistines, 
and  introduced  a  severe  discipline  among 
his  troops.  Having  usurped  the  functions 
of  the  priesthood,  he  himself  oflfering  the 
holocaust  at  Galgala,  instead  of  Samuel, 
he  was  from  that  time  abandoned  by  God's 
spirit,  and  delivered  himself  to  cruelty 
and  superstitions,  and  fell  into  a  gloomy 
melancholy.  David,  secretly  anointed 
king  by  Samuel,  dispelled  Saul's  fits  of 
madness  by  playing  the  harp  before  him, 
and  became  the  intimate  friend  of  his  son 
Jonathan.  Saul,  jealous  of  David,  tried 
repeatedly  to  kill  him.  More  than  ever  a 
prey  to  his  fits  of  madness,  he  consulted, 
in  a  last  campaign  against  the  Philistines, 
the  pythoness  of  Endor ;  called  forth  the 
shadow  of  Samuel,  who  foretold  to  him 
his  approaching  fall.  On  the  next  day, 
Saul,  conquered  at  Gelboe,  beheld  the 
slaying  on  the  battlefield  of  Jonathan  and 
two  of  his  sons,  and,  he  being  wounded, 
pierced  himself  with  his  own  sword. 

Saviour.  —  A  term  applied  to  Jesus 
Christ,  because,  as  the  angel  expressed  it. 
He  came  "  to  save  the  people  from  their 
sins  "  (Matt.  i.  2). 

Savonarola  (Jerome)  (1452-1498).  —  Fa- 
mous preacher  and  Dominican,  born  at 
Ferrara,  entered  at  the  Dominicans  at 
Bologna  in  1475.  Master  of  the  novices 
in  the  convent  of  St.  Mark,  in  Florence 
(1382),  prior  (1488),  he  soon  beheld  the 
leading  intellects  grouping  around  his  pul- 
pit. Two  objects  especially  preoccupied 
him :  the  general  reform  of  morals,  and  a 
wise  and  Christian  ministry  of  the  Floren- 
tine republic.  He  was  not  the  chief  in- 
strument in  the  overthrow  of  the  Medici 
in  1494,  but  from  the  depth  of  his  cell  and 
from  the  height  of  his  pulpit,  he  became 
the  real  chief  of  the  new  power.  A  power- 
ful league  formed  itself  against  him;  the 


friends  of  the  ancient  government  tried 
repeatedly  to  assassinate  him.  Making 
war  upon  temporal  rulers,  including  the 
Pope,  denouncing  their  corruption  and  ex- 
cesses, he  was  condemned  to  death,  and 
executed  at  Florence,  in  1498. 

Scapular  {Confraternity  of  the). —  In 
the  first  place,  the  scapular  was  a  long 
narrow  stripof  cloth,  covering  the  shoulders 
and  hanging  down  before  and  behind  to 
the  knees,  worn  by  certain  religious  orders. 
Secondly,  two  small  pieces  of  cloth  con- 
nected by  strings  and  worn  over  the  shoul- 
ders by  laymen.  The  Confraternity  of 
the  Scapular  is  quite  ancient.  It  was  in- 
spired and  revealed  by  the  Holy  Virgin  to 
the  blessed  Simon  Stock,  sixth  general  of 
the  Carmelite  Order,  about  the  beginning 
of  the  thirteenth  century.  This  venerable 
religious,  who  had  entertained  from  his 
earliest  years  a  truly  filial  confidence  in 
Mary,  was  one  day  in  prayer,  when  the 
Queen  of  Heaven  appeared  to  him,  sur- 
rounded by  a  multitude  of  blessed  spir- 
its, and  holding  in  her  hand  a  scapular 
of  the  Order  of  Carmel.  She  gave  it  to 
him  with  these  words :  "  Receive,  my  dear 
son,  this  scapular  of  thy  order,  as  the  dis- 
tinctive sign  of  my  confraternity,  and  the 
mark  of  the  privilege  that  I  have  obtained 
for  thee  and  the  children  of  Carmel. 
Whosoever  dies  while  piously  wearing  the 
scapular,  shall  be  preserved  from  eternal 
flames.  It  will  be  a  sign  of  salvation,  a 
safeguard  in  danger,  and  a  special  pledge 
of  peace  and  protection  till  the  end  of 
time."  {Manueldu  Scap,  by  M.  de  Sam- 
bucy,  p.  28.) 

Though  magnificent,  this  first  promise 
was  only  a  part  of  what  the  blessed  Simon 
had  asked.  To  answer  him  fully,  the 
Holy  Virgin  made  him  a  second  promise 
in  favor  of  the  Carmelite  religious,  and 
members  of  the  Scapular  Confraternity. 
To  make  the  matter  more  sure,  she  ap- 
peared to  Pope  John  XXII.,  and  said  to 
him,  according  to  the  very  tenor  of  the 
Bull :  "  John,  Vicar  of  my  Son !  it  is  to 
my  solicitations  with  my  son  that  you  are 
indebted  for  the  high  dignity  to  which 
you  have  been  raised.  As  I  have  with- 
drawn you  from  the  ambushes  of  your 
enemies,  I  expect  from  you  an  ample  and 
favorable  confirmation  of  the  holy  Car- 
melite Order,  which  has  always  been  sin- 
gularly devoted  to  me.  ...  If,  among 
the  members  of  the  order  or  the  confrater- 
nity  who   quit   this   world,    there  be  any 


Scapular 


630 


Scapular 


whose  sins  deserve  purgatory,  I,  as  a  ten- 
der mother,  will  go  down  to  them  in  pur- 
gatory on  the  Saturday  after  their  death. 
I  will  deliver  such  as  I  find  there,  and  will 
bring  them  to  the  holy  mountain,  the 
happy  abode  of  eternal  life"  {Opus  cit.). 

Here  three  questions  present  them- 
selves: I.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin's  twofold  promises?  2. 
Could  the  Blessed  Virgin  make  this  prom- 
ise? 3.  Did  the  Blessed  Virgin  make  this 
promise? 

I.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin's  promise?  Our  divine  Mother 
promises,  in  the  first  place,  to  save  from 
the  pains  of  hell  those  who  die  piously 
wearing  the  scapular.  Does  this  mean 
that  in  whatsoever  state,  even  in  the  state 
of  mortal  sin,  a  member  of  the  Scapular 
Confraternity  dies,  he  will  not  fail  to  be 
saved,  provided  only  he  dies  wearing  the 
scapular?  Such  an  interpretation  is  revolt- 
ing, shocking.  Also  the  Bull  of  John 
XXII.,  in  which  the  promise  is  found, 
does  not  say  that  to  escape  hell  it  suffices 
to  wear  the  holy  scapular,  without  prac- 
ticing good  works.  It  says  quite  the  con- 
trary. The  meaning  of  this  promise  is, 
therefore,  that  the  Blessed  Virgin  will  ob- 
tain for  her  clients,  the  grace  not  to  be 
surprised  by  death,  in  the  state  of  mortal 
sin,  though  it  should  be  necessary  on 
many  occasions  to  prevent,  by  a  miracu- 
lous interposition,  some  dreadful  accident 
in  order  to  save  them  from  death,  or  to 
prolong  the  life  of  the  sick  and  bring 
about  a  favorable  moment  for  their  con- 
version and  salvation.  This  is  the  natural 
and  only  lawful  meaning  to  put  upon 
Mary's  promise.  To  obtain  its  fulfillment, 
we  must  join  with  the  duties  of  the  confra- 
ternity the  still  more  essential  duties  of  a 
Christian.  We  must  avoid  sin,  and  not 
expose  ourselves  to  the  danger  of  being 
overtaken  by  death  in  the  enmity  of  God. 
It  is  by  these  marks  that  the  true  servant 
of  Mary  is  known. 

The  Blessed  Virgin  promises,  in  the 
second  place,  that  she  will  come  and  de- 
liver out  of  purgatory  the  wearers  of  the 
scapular  on  the  first  Saturday  after  their 
death.  There  is  nothing  repugnant  in 
this.  First,  God  can  make  the  pains  of 
purgatory  more  acute,  and  compensate  for 
shorter  duration  by  greater  severity. 
Again,  parents  in  their  families,  and  rulers 
in  their  states  have  certain  days  for  grant- 
ing their  favors.  The  Church  herself  has 
many  days  appointed  for  granting  a  ple- 


nary indulgence,  that  is  to  say,  the  remis- 
sion of  the  temporal  penalties  due  to  our 
sins.  Why  should  not  the  Blessed  Virgin 
do  likewise? 

2.  Could  the  Blessed  Virgin  make  this 
promise?  Every  Catholic  answers:  To 
be  sure  she  could  !  Mary  is  most  power- 
ful, and  is  all  goodness. 

3.  Did  the  Blessed  Virgin  make  this 
promise?  Two  voices  answer.  Yes,  Mary 
made  this  promise.  The  first  of  these 
voices  is  that  of  the  Church.  What  have 
not  sovereign  PontiflFs  done,  that  no  doubt 
should  remain  in  minds  regarding  the 
truth  of  each  part  of  this  promise?  Con- 
sulting on  the  first,  which  refers  to  the 
pains  of  hell,  John  XXII.,  in  a  Bull  issued 
in  1316,  declares  that  it  has  been  examined 
with  the  weights  of  the  sanctuary  and 
found  most  true.  As  for  the  second, 
which  refers  to  the  pains  of  purgatory,  he 
declares  that,  in  an  apparition,  the  Blessed 
Virgin  made  the  promise  personally  to 
himself.  To  better  establish  these  things, 
he  published  another  Bull  in  1322,  wherein 
he  renewed  the  previous  one.  Since  the 
time  of  this  Pontiff  we  count  twenty-two 
Popes,  his  successors,  who  have  solemnly 
explained  themselves  in  the  same  sense  on 
the  subject  of  the  Confraternity  of  the 
Holy  Scapular.  Lastly,  an  annual  festival 
is  celebrated  in  virtue  of  the  decrees  of 
sovereign  Pontiffs,  throughout  the  whole 
extent  of  the  Catholic  world,  to  perpetuate 
the  memory  of  this  glorious  promise,  and 
to  glorify  Our  Lady  of  Mount  Carmel  or 
of  the  Holy  Scapular. 

The  second  of  these  voices  is  that  of 
God  Himself.  God  never  authorizes  error 
or  deceit  by  miracles ;  it  would  be  out  of 
keeping  with  His  sanctity  to  do  so.  Now, 
of  all  the  practices  of  piety  that  have  been 
inspired  to  honor  Mary,  none  has  been 
more  visibly  authorized  by  splendid 
miracles. 

To  obtain  the  first  privilege  of  the  holy 
scapular,  that  is  to  say,  the  grace  of  a 
happy  death,  and  to  share  in  the  indul- 
gences of  the  confraternity,  the  merits  of 
the  Carmelite  Order,  and  the  protection  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin,  it  is  necessary  to  be  a 
member  of  the  Confraternity  of  the  Holy 
Scapular.  For  this  purpose  two  conditions 
must  be  fulfilled:  (i)  To  receive  the 
blessed  scapular  from  the  hands  of  a  priest 
who  has  the  power  of  giving  it ;  and  (2)  To 
wear  it  around  the  neck  day  and  night,  in 
health  and  in  sickness,  in  life  and  at  death. 
These  are  the  only  obligations  necessary 


Scepticism 


631 


Schism  of  England 


and  common  to  all  the  members.  The 
Church  imposes  no  extraordinary  prayers, 
abstinences,  or  fasts  on  them. 

To  enjoy  the  second  privilege,  that  is,  to 
have  a  speedy  release  out  of  purgatory,  it 
is  also  necessary  for  all  the  members  to  ob- 
serve the  chastity  proper  to  their  state: 
virginal  chastity  in  the  state  of  celibacy ; 
conjugal  fidelity  in  the  state  of  marriage; 
and  continence  in  the  state  of  widowhood. 
Moreover,  for  such  as  can  read :  to  recite 
daily  the  Canonical  Office  of  the  Church, 
or  the  Little  Office  of  the  Blessed  Virgin, 
according  to  Roman  Breviary.  For  such 
as  cannot  read  :  to  supply  for  the  Office  (i) 
by  not  failing  in  any  of  the  fasts  prescribed 
by  the  Church ;  and  (2)  by  abstaining  from 
flesh-meat  on  Wednesdays,  in  addition  to 
Fridays  and  Saturdays,  except  on  Christ- 
mas when  it  falls  on  any  of  these  days.  In 
case  of  grave  hindrance,  the  abstinence  is 
binding;  but  it  is  proper  to  have  recourse 
to  one's  confessor,  so  as  to  obtain  a  com- 
mutation. 

Scepticism  (  doctrine,  opinion  of  philos- 
ophers, whose  principal  dogma  is  to 
doubt,  to  affirm  nothing,  to  suspend  their 
judgment  about  everything.) — Scepticism 
has  counted  numerous  followers  at  all 
times.  The  first  germs  thereof  were  spread 
in  Greece,  by  the  sophists,  who  professed 
not  only  scepticism,  but  also  the  nihilism 
of  all  things  and  of  all  truth.  The  most 
famous  philosophers  of  scepticism  were 
Anaxagoras,  Empedocles,  Anesidemus  of 
Alexandria,  and  Sextus  Empiricus.  Herac- 
litus,  drawing  the  uttermost  consequences 
from  the  Ionian  doctrine  which  was  ma- 
terialistic at  its  foundation,  admits  the 
soul-world,  and  denies  all  experience  by 
means  of  the  senses;  the  last  term  of  this 
idealistic  pantheism  was  the  scepticism  of 
the  Stoics,  who  had  for  most  eminent  ad- 
versaries Plato  and  Socrates.  Pyrrho  was 
the  first  to  erect  scepticism  into  a  system, 
whence  it  obtained  the  name  Pyrrhoism. 
Among  the  moderns,  scepticism  has  taken 
the  most  diverse  formsj  it  has  inspired 
the  easy  philosophy  of  Montaigne  and 
PierreCharron,  the  encyclopaedic  erudition 
of  Bayle,  the  paradoxes  of  Berkley  about 
the  existence  of  bodies,  those  of  Hume 
about  the  notions  of  cause  and  substance ; 
even  partly  the  Criticism  of  Pure  Rea- 
son of  Kant  and  the  idealistic  scepti- 
cism of  JouflFroy.  Contemporary  scepti- 
cism wishes  to  parade  as  a  science ;  it 
maintains   that  we  are  reduced   to  purely 


subjective  truths  and  denies  all  criterion 
which  makes  us  to  distinguish  with  certi- 
tude, the  knowledge  of  the  truth  of  that 
which  has  only  the  appearance  thereof. 
Locke  was  the  first  who,  in  his  book, 
Essay  on  the  Understanding,  sowed  the 
germs  of  scepticism,  by  setting  up  as 
principle :  "  That  things  are  true  only  in 
so  far  as  they  are  conformable  to  our 
ideas."  Hume,  drawing  the  uttermost 
consequences  Trom  this  principle,  estab- 
lished the  universal  doubt.  In  his  system, 
there  are  only  sensations ;  the  phenomena 
and  substance  itself  are  nothing  but  an 
idle  name  of  sense:  "Sensation  alone 
reigns  above  the  abyss  of  nothingness." 
The  consequence  of  this  system,  indeed, 
must  be  the  destruction  of  all  science  and 
of  all  virtue.  The  practical  scepticism 
is,  therefore,  the  natural  consequence  of 
the  Empiricism  of  Locke  and  of  scientific 
scepticism. 

Schism  (division,  .separation  from  the 
body  and  communion  of  a  religion) . — There 
have  been,  at  all  times,  in  the  Church, 
whimsical,  critical,  and  dissatisfied  minds, 
who  found  abuses  in  the  Church  (for  in 
the  most  perfect  society  there  is  always 
the  human  side),  and  have  dragged  in 
their  revolt  a  part  of  the  flock.  Even  in 
the  time  of  the  Apostles  the  Church  wit- 
nessed similar  secessions.  Schism,  there- 
fore, attacks  the  outward  unity  of  the 
members  of  the  Church.  If  it  pursues  its 
way,  like  in  England,  to  the  injury  of 
faith,  then  this  rupture  of  unity  becomes 
heresy,  and  the  separation  is  complete. 
God  has  permitted,  in  all  the  epochs  of 
history,  schisms  in  the  Church.  The 
principal  ones  are,  in  the  first  centuries, 
the  schism  of  the  Novatians,  Donatists, 
Luciferians,  which  disappeared  long  since ; 
more  recent  are  those  of  the  Greeks  and 
Protestants.  The  schism  of  the  "Three 
Chapters"  is  that  which  arose  in  the 
Council  of  Constantinople,  and  which  was 
called  thus  on  account  of  the  writings  of 
Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  divided  into  three 
chapters  {capitula  tria).  This  schism 
lasted  from  550  to  699,  and  was,  so  to  speak, 
the  first  germ  of  the  great  schism.  Schism 
is  always  a  crime,  for  it  acts  against  the 
manifest  intention  of  Jesus  Christ,  Who 
recommends  and  desires  the  union  of  all 
the  members  of  His  Church  :  ut  sint  unum. 

Schism  of  England. — A  popular  and 
culpable  incident,  the  passion  of  Henry 
VIII.  for. Anne  Boleyn,  became  the  origin 


Schism  of  the  East 


632 


Schism  of  the  East 


of  the  schism  of  England.  This  prince 
on  the  refusal  of  Clement  VII.  to  com- 
ply with  his  request  to  separate  him 
from  Catharine  of  Aragon,  his  sister-in- 
law,  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  by  a 
servile  parliament,  supreme  head  of  the 
Church  of  England  in  1531.  In  the  year 
following  he  married  Anne  Boleyn.  Here- 
upon Pope  Paul  III.  excommunicated 
him  (1534).  From  that  time  the  king 
overstepped  all  limits ;  wishing  to  remain 
orthodox,  he  answered  to  the  sentence  of 
the  Pope  by  completely  separating  himself 
from  the  Church.  The  religious  orders 
who,  in  general,  refused  to  accept  the  new 
order  of  things,  were  suppressed  and  their 
goods  confiscated.  Parliament  published 
the  famous  Bill  of  October  4th,  which  the 
reformers  themselves  called  the  "Bloody 
Bill."  Beginning  with  this  period,  an  era 
of  persecution  was  inaugurated  which 
lasted  for  many  years.  Already  Cardinal 
Fisher  and  the  chancellor  Sir  Thomas 
More,  had  lost  their  heads  on  the 
block.  A  real  inquisition  erected,  so  to 
speak,  funeral-piles  all  over  the  country; 
more  than  72,000  capital  punishments  fol- 
lowed. Never  had  a  revolution  more 
bloody  sources  and  never  was  a  revolution 
established  on  more  bloody  grounds. 
Schismatic,  but  orthodox,  under  Henry 
VIII., -England  became  more  and  more 
heretical  under  Edward  VI.  Sommerset, 
the  regent,  proscribed  the  Mass  and 
abolished  the  festivals.  During  the  reign 
of  Mary  Tudor,  an  attempt  was  made  to 
restore  the  Catholic  religion,  but  this 
reign  was  of  very  short  duration,  and  the 
"  Bloody  Elizabeth  "  came  to  consummate 
the  schism.  All  the  religious  laws  of 
Mary  were  annulled  ;  an  oath  implying  the 
acknowledgment  of  spiritual  supremacy 
of  the  Crown  was  imposed  upon  all  the 
officials. 

The  bishops,  with  the  exception  of  one, 
refused  this  oath ;  but  the  clergy  of  the 
second  order  in  a  great  majority  accepted 
it.  The  new  religion  maintained  the  epis- 
copal hierarchy,  and  a  large  portion  of 
Catholic  liturgy.  The  organization  of  the 
Anglican  Church  was  resolved  upon  in  the 
bill   of  Thirty-nine   Articles  (1562).     See 

AXGLICANISM. 

Schism  of  the  Hast.  —  The  Emperor 
Michael  lU.  had  raised  Photius  to  the  see 
of  Constantinople ;  he  was  a  man  of  sci- 
ence and  genius,  but  of  unlimited  ambi- 
tion, who  had  nothing  less  in  view  than 


the  object  of  becoming  universal  patri- 
arch. His  death  (891)  only  delayed  the 
secession  which  became  fatal.  His  suc- 
cessors, in  spite  of  the  protests  of  the 
Pope,  continued  to  arrogate  to  themselves 
the  title  of  ecumenical  patriarchs,  and,  in 
1043,  under  the  reign  of  Constantin  Mo- 
nomachus,  Michael  Cerularius  rendered 
the  schism  definite.  Pope  Leo  IX.  re- 
futed the  reasons  or  rather  the  pretexts 
which  he  alleged  to  justify-  himself;  the 
Pope  remarked  that  diversity  of  customs 
was  not  a  sufficient  motive  to  break  the  tie 
of  unity.  It  was  useless  for  the  Pope  to 
send  legates  to  Constantinople,  in  order  to 
confer  with  him;  the  proud  patriarch,  in 
spite  of  the  desire  of  the  emperor  to  come 
to  an  understanding,  did  not  even  receive 
them,  and  the  whole  disagreement  ended 
by  reciprocal  excommunications.  Honorius 
III.  (1222),  Michael  Palaeologus  in  the 
Council  of  Lyons  (1294),  and  John  Palaeol- 
ogus, in  the  Council  of  Florence  (1439), 
made  attempts  for  reunion,  but  they  re- 
mained fruitless.  Several  circumstances 
still  more  aggravated  the  division:  the 
establishment  of  a  new  empire  in  the 
West,  the  Crusades,  and  the  foundation  of 
a  Latin  empire  at  Constantinople,  became 
so  many  causes  of  jealousy  to  the  Byzan- 
tines against  the  Latins.  In  fact,  to-day 
there  is  no  Church  of  the  East ;  it  has 
been,  since  the  ferocious  Mahomet  II, 
(1453),  captured.  Constantinople,  com- 
pletely disorganized,  and  divided  into  a 
multitude  of  sects,  carries  the  weight  of 
God's  curse.  Servility,  misery,  and  ig- 
norance have  become  the  lot  of  this 
Church,  formerly  so  brilliant,  as  long  as  it 
remained  united  with  the  Chair  of  Peter. 
The  Russian  Church,  which  had  received 
the  faith  from  Constantinople,  did  not 
break  immediately  with  the  Church  of 
Rome;  in  the  time  of  the  Council  of  Flor- 
ence, the  Catholics  in  Russia  were  still  as 
numerous  as  the  schismatics.  It  was  only 
in  the  fifteenth  centurj-  that  the  schism 
spread  all  over  the  country.  The  Patri- 
arch of  Moscow  was  declared  patriarch  of 
all  Russia  by  the  Patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople (1589),  but  the  union  did  not  last 
long;  the  Patriarch  of  Moscow  soon 
separated  himself  from  Constantinople, 
and,  thus  there  was  a  schism  in  the  schism. 
Peter  the  Great  (1720)  abolished  the  pa- 
triarchate of  Moscow  and  declared  himself 
the  sole  supreme  head  of  the  Russian 
Church,  and  caused  a  symbol  to  be  drawn 
up  which  fixed  the  belief;  this  act  does 


Schism  of  the  West 


633     Schools  and  Universities 


not  contain  anything  contrary  to  the 
Catholic  belief.  The  reunion  of  the  two 
Churches  would  be  very  easy.  They  dif- 
fer only  on  one  point,  namely,  the  primacy 
of  the  Pope.     See  Russian  Church. 

Schism  of  the  West  (division  which 
afflicted  the  Church  in  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, and  of  which  the  residence  of  the 
Popes  at  Avignon  was  the  main  cause). — 
Seven  Popes,  of  French  origin,  since  the 
death  of  Benedict  XL,  had,  without  inter- 
ruption, resided  at  Avignon.  The  Romans, 
divided  into  several  factions,  demanded 
the  return  of  the  Pope;  Gregory  XI.  com- 
plied with  their  request.  At  his  death 
(1378),  the  cardinals  assembled  in  Rome 
to  elect  a  new  Pope.  The  people,  by  se- 
ditious cries,  declared  that  they  wanted  an 
Italian  Pope.  The  cardinals,  intimidated, 
hastily  elected  the  Archbishop  of  Bary, 
Urban  VI.  Pope.  Five  months  afterwards 
having  retired  to  Fondi  (kingdom  of 
Naples),  they  declared  the  election  null 
and  void,  through  defect  of  liberty,  and 
proclaimed  Robert,  Cardinal  of  Geneva, 
under  the  name  of  Clement  VII.,  Pope. 
The  new  Pope  went  to  establish  himself  at 
Avignon.  The  consequence  was  that  there 
were  now  two  so-called  obediences.  This 
deplorable  situation  of  the  Church  lasted 
almost  half  a  century.  The  death  of  Urban 
VI.  did  not  end  the  schism;  the  cardinals 
of  his  obedience  chose  after  him  an  im- 
mediate successor,  and  they  did  the  same 
thing  in  the  opposite  party.  The  Council 
of  Pisa  (1409)  rendered  the  question  still 
more  perplexing  by  naming  a  third  Pope, 
Alexander  V.  Finally,  the  Council  of 
Constance  put  an  end  to  this  great  schism 
by  forcing  the  three  Popes  to  renounce  the 
office  of  sovereign  Pontiff  and  by  electing 
Martin  V.,  Pope  of  the  universal  Church. 
This  unfortunate  schism  was  only  the  con- 
sequence and  effect  of  human  passions  and 
did  not  hinder  the  great  design  of  God  for 
His  Church ;  there  were  saints  and  eminent 
personages  in  both  obediences. 

Scholastica  (St.). —Sister  of  St.  Bene- 
dict, born  at  Nursia,  Umbria;  lived  near 
him  in  the  monastery  of  Plombariole, 
which  she  caused  to  be  built  about  five 
miles  from  that  of  Monte  Cassino.  F. 
Feb.  loth.     See  St.  Benedict. 

Schools  {Brothers  of  the  Christian). 
See  Brothers. 

Schools  and  Universities.  —  Among  the 
many  sources  of  education  created  by  the 


Church  was  the  parochial  school  system. 
In  its  first  essays  this  system  surely  did  not 
embrace  the  full  range  of  primary  studies, 
nor  the  gradation  of  them,  such  as  it  is,  in 
many  countries,  in  our  time.     There  were, 
in  those  days,  no  primers  of  literature,  or 
of  history,  or  of  science ;  nothing  was  then 
printed,  since  printing  was  invented  many 
hundreds  of  years  later.     A  few  scrolls  of 
parchment,   perhaps,  were    all    the    text- 
books of  the  school ;  and,  as  paper  was  not 
manufactured   until  the  beginning  of  the 
eleventh    century,    materials    for  writing 
were  very  scarce.     To  establish  a  system 
of  primary  schools,  in  spite  of  such  difficul- 
ties, was  an  enterprise  which,  we  venture 
to  say,  no  modern  state  would  enter  upon. 
Nor  do  we  hesitate  to  assert  that  many  of 
those   who   now    rail    against   the  "Dark 
Ages,"  and  declaim  against  the  supposed 
ignorance   of  the   clergy   of   those   times, 
would  not,  had  they  lived  then,  have  faced, 
much    less    overcome,  the    difficulties   of 
teaching.     But,  be    that    as    it    may,  the 
Church,  as  soon  as  she  was  free,  began  to 
organize  primary  education  on  the  basis  of 
Christian  doctrine  and  morals.    Under  her 
care  grew  up  the  parochial  school  system 
of  Italy,  which  the  Council  of  Vaison  in 
France,  in  529,  took  for  its  model  in  legis- 
lating on  the  teaching  of  youth;  and   by 
her  order,  teachers  and  catechists,  accord- 
ing to  Thomassin,  instructed  the  youth  in 
the   towns   and    villages   of    some   of    the 
Christian  provinces  of  the  East.    That  this 
plan  of  instruction,  owing  to  the  disorder 
resulting   from   the  invasion  of   northern 
Barbarians,  was  not  steadily  carried  out,  we 
are  ready  to  admit;  but  for  all  that,  the 
plan  was  there  and  manifested  the  solicitude 
of  the  Church  for  the  education  of  youth. 
During  the  disturbances  which  followed 
the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire  in  the  West, 
and    the   establishment   of   Barbarian    na- 
tions  on   its    ruins,    learning    rapidly  de- 
clined   in    Europe   and  Southern  Europe, 
generally.     The  conquests  of  the  northern 
nations  and  the  ceaseless  incursions  of  the 
Saracens  and    Hungarians,  again  plunged 
the  greatest  part  of  Europe  into  the  bar- 
barity and   ignorance  from  which  it  had 
slowly  emerged  during  the  lapse  of  sev- 
eral centuries.     In  this  ruthless  career  of 
destruction,    nothing    was    spared    by  the 
Barbarian  hordes.     Churches  and  monas- 
teries, those  sanctuaries  of  piety  and  learn- 
ing,   were     destroyed ;     once    flourishing 
schools  were  closed  and  abandoned,  and 
their  libraries  consigned  to  the  flames  — 


Schools  and 


634 


Universities 


an  irreparable  loss  in  those  days,  when  we 
consider  that  obtaining  and  multiplying 
books  was  attended  with  so  much  labor 
and  difficulty.  It  would,  however,  be  un- 
fair to  assert  that  literature  in  those  days 
was  utterly  neglected,  and  that  all  desire 
for  learning  had  died  out.  There  were 
always  some  learned  men,  who  exercised  a 
beneficial  influence  over  their  age ;  zealous 
and  holy  bishops,  who  strove  ardently  to 
promote  learning  and  science ;  and  wise 
rulers,  such  as  Charlemagne,  and  Otho  the 
Great  in  Germany,  and  Alfred  in  England, 
who  counted  it  among  the  first  of  their  du- 
ties to  provide  for  the  instruction  of  their 
people.  That  the  light  of  science  in  these 
ages  was  not  wholly  extinguished,  was 
owing  especially  to  the  solicitude  of  the 
Church,  and  the  industry  of  the  monks, 
who  continued  to  cultivate  knowledge 
with  an  ardor  such  as  religion  alone  can 
inspire.  "  The  preservation  of  ancient 
learning,"  says  Hallam,  "  must  be  as- 
scribed  to  the  establishment  of  Chris- 
tianity. Religion  alone  made  a  bridge, 
as  it  were,  across  the  chaos  and  has  linked 
the  two  periods  of  ancient  and  modern 
civilization.  .  .  .  The  sole  hope  for  litera- 
ture depended  on  the  Latin  language, which 
three  circumstances  in  the  prevailing  re- 
ligious system  conspired  to  maintain  :  The 
papal  supremacy,  the  monastic  institu- 
tions, and  the  use  of  a  Latin  liturgy."  A 
continual  intercourse  was  kept  up  in  con- 
sequence of  the  first,  between  Rome  and 
the  several  nations  of  Europe,  and  made  a 
common  language  necessary  in  the  Church. 
The  monasteries  held  out  the  best  oppor- 
tunities for  study  and  were  the  secure 
repositories  for  books.  All  ancient  manu- 
scripts were  preserved  and  multiplied  in 
this  manner,  and  could  hardly  have  de- 
scended to  us  through  any  other  channel. 
The  Latin  liturgy,  and  the  reading  and 
study  of  the  Latin  Vulgate,  caused  the 
Latin  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  sacred  lan- 
guage, and  contributed  not  a  little  toward 
preservation  of  learning.  But  the 
Church  not  only  saved  science  and  liter- 
ature from  universal  destruction ;  she  also 
caused  the  Barbarian  tribes,  whose  de- 
structive invasions  had  been  so  detrimen- 
tal to  the  cause  of  letters,  gradually  to 
imbibe  and  adopt  the  principles  of  true 
civilization. 

Notwithstanding  the  general  decline  of 
learning,  the  Popes  continued  to  be  dis- 
tinguished for  their  general  attainments, 
as  well  as  for  their  zeal  in  diffusing  knowl- 


edge and  science.  The  praise  of  having 
originally  established  schools,  belongs  to 
them  and  the  Church  in  general.  They 
came  in  place  of  the  imperial  schools, 
overthrown  by  the  Barbarians.  Monaster- 
ies and  episcopal  sees  became  especial 
nurseries  of  knowledge.  Wherever  a 
cathedral,  church  or  a  monastery  was 
erected,  there  also  a  school,  with  a  library 
attached,  was  opened  for  the  education  of 
the  clergy  and  the  literary  improvement  of 
the  people  in  general.  In  some  places,  at 
least,  for  the  instruction  of  the  young, 
primary  schools  were  established.  Pope 
Eugenius  II.  and  Leo  IV.  labored  zeal- 
ously to  dissipate  the  ignorance  which 
then  prevailed.  The  former,  in  a  Roman 
synod,  in  826,  enacted  that  schools  should 
be  opened  in  cathedral  and  parish  churches, 
and  wherever  they  might  be  deemed  neces- 
sary. Flourishing  high  schools  existed  in 
Italy,  at  Rome,  Florence,  Pavia,  Turin, 
Ivrea,  Cremona,  Verona,  Vicenza,  Fermo, 
and  Friuli,  not  to  mention  the  monastic 
schools  of  Monte  Cassino,  Bobbio,  and  else- 
where. Italy  was  still  considered  the  center 
of  literature,  and  students  flocked  thither 
from  all  parts  of  Europe  to  receive  an  edu- 
cation. The  monks  especially  distin- 
guished themselves  by  collecting  and 
compiling  books  and  founding  schools  and 
libraries.  In  every  monastery  a  consider- 
able portion  of  time  was  daily  allotted  to 
the  copying  of  books,  and  thus  by  their 
untiring  industry,  the  monks  preserved 
and  transmitted  to  us  the  precious  treas- 
ures of  the  ancient  classics  and  Christian 
literature.  Libraries  and  schools  for  the 
education  of  youth  were  attached  to  most 
of  the  monasteries,  many  of  which  were 
famed  far  and  near  as  seminaries  of  learn- 
ing and  repositories  of  science.  Most  re- 
nowned were  many  monasteries  in  France 
and  Germany.  Among  others,  Tours, 
Corvey,  Rheims,  Aniane,  St.  Gall,  Fulda, 
Reichenau,  and  Hirsan,  vied  with  one 
another  in  learned  pursuits.  Especially 
famous,  as  a  center  of  ecclesiastical  train- 
ing and  general  culture,  was  the  Abbey  of 
Cluny,  in  France.  Soon  after  her  conver- 
sion to  the  faith,  Ireland  became,  and  for 
three  centuries  continued  to  be,  the  great 
nursery  of  religion  and  science. 

The  foundation  of  the  universities  was 
due  to  the  zeal  of  the  Popes,  and  to  the 
activity  and  liberality  of  Churchmen. 
Almost  in  every  instance  the  founder  was 
either  a  Pope  or  one  of  the  various  Church 
dignitaries.  The  sovereign  Pontiffs,  both  by 


Science  and 


635 


Revelation 


word  and  example  encouraged  the  found- 
ing of  institutions  of  learning;  granted  to 
the  universities  special  charters  and  priv- 
ileges, and  even  provided  them  with 
chancellors  and  professors.  Of  the  uni- 
versities, that  of  Paris  is  perhaps  the  old- 
est; it  was  celebrated  for  philosophy  and 
theology,  and  was  regarded  as  the  model 
and  rule  in  learning,  for  other  universities. 
The  other  French  universities  were  those 
of  Montpellier,  Toulouse,  Lyons,  Avignon, 
Bordeaux,  Valence,  Nantes,  and  Bourges. 
In  Italy,  Salerno  was  famous  for  medicine, 
while  the  University  of  Bologna  became 
the  great  law  school  of  Christendom.  Be- 
sides the  Italian  youths,  at  times  no  fewer 
than  ten  thousand  foreign  students  fre- 
quented the  University  of  Bologna.  In 
1262,  there  were  at  this  university  20,000 
stud^ents.  The  other  Italian  universities 
at  Rome,  Padua,  Naples,  Piacenza,  Ferrara, 
Ferugia,  Pisa,  Pavia,  Palermo,  Turin,  and 
Florence,  were  all  in  a  flourishing  condi- 
tion. The  college  in  Rome,  called  the 
Sapienza,  founded  by  Innocent  IV.  in 
1244,  was  richly  endowed  and  elevated  in 
rank  by  Boniface  VIII.,  from  whose  time 
it  was  known  as  the  Roman  University, 
The  oldest  German  university  is  that  of 
Prague,  which  was  founded  by  Emperor 
Charles  IV.  in  1348.  Its  fame  attracted 
students  even  from  Norway,  Ireland, 
Spain,  Naples,  and  Cyprus.  Besides  the 
Universities  of  Vienna,  Heidelberg,  Co- 
logne, and  Erfurt,  which  arose  in  the 
fourteenth  century,  nine  more  were 
founded  in  the  course  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury. In  the  Scandinavian  kingdoms,  we 
find  the  Universities  of  Copenhagen  and 
Upsala,  and  in  Poland  the  University  of 
Cracow,  which  in  1496,  counted  as  many 
as  15,000  students.  The  oldest  and  most 
celebrated  Spanish  university  was  Sala- 
manca, founded  about  the  middle  of  the 
thirteenth  century.  There  were,  besides 
in  Spain  and  Portugal,  the  Universities  of 
Valladolid,  Coimbra,  Valencia,  Saragossa, 
Avila,  Alcala,  and  Seville.  In  England, 
the  Universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge 
were  modeled  after  the  University  of 
Paris.  Oxford  began  to  be  largely  fre- 
quented in  the  reign  of  Stephen,  in  1231 ; 
it  is  said  to  have  numbered  as  many  as 
30,000  students.  The  first  Scottish  univer- 
sity was  founded  at  St.  Andrew's,  in  141 1, 
by  Cardinal  Henry  Wardlaw.  This  was 
followed  by  the  foundation  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Glasgow  by  Bishop  Turnbull,  in 
1450,   and  by  that  of  Aberdeen  by  Bishop 


Elphiston,  in  1494.  The  establishment  of 
the  University  of  Dublin  was  begun  by 
Archbishop  Leach,  wko,  in  131 1,  obtained 
of  Clement  V.  a  brief  for  the  undertaking. 
During  this  remarkable  epoch  the  arts 
and  sciences  were  cultivated  and  improved 
with  signal  success  throughout  the  Chris- 
tian world.  No  branch  of  literature  seemed 
to  be  neglected.  Theology,  dogmatic,  and 
moral ;  philosophy,  history,  and  all  the 
sciences  which  belong  to  the  respective 
provinces  of  reason,  psychology,  experi- 
ence, and  observation  were  carried  to  a 
high  degree  of  perfection.  Many  famous 
works  on  almost  all  the  sciences,  profane 
as  well  as  sacred,  are  due  to  Catholic  au- 
thors of  this  epoch.  In  philosophy,  as- 
tronomy, physiology,  geology,  mechanics, 
and  mathematics.  Catholic  scholars  hold  a 
pre-eminent  place.  Copernicus,  a  priest 
and  canon,  Galileo,  a  devout  son  of  the 
Church,  and  in  our  days,  Secchi,  a  Jesuit, 
are  recognized  as  the  great  leaders  in  as- 
tronomy and  other  sciences.  For  Catholic 
schools  in  the  United  States,  see  article. 
Church  {Statistics  of  the). 

Science  and  Revelation.  —  The  attitude 
of  Science  toward  Revelation.  —  It  would 
be  a  very  superficial  consideration  of  the 
momentous  struggle  of  the  intellect  in  our 
time,  if  we  failed  to  add :  Is  there  any 
necessary  antagonism  between  science  and 
revelation  ?  In  the  views  of  some  thinkers, 
manifestly  both  theologians  and  scientific 
men,  theology  and  science  are  irreconci- 
lable enemies.  Nay,  in  the  opinion  of  a 
few  prominent  scientists,  the  battle  is 
already  ended ;  for  revelation,  they  say, 
"has  been  relegated  forever  to  the  limbo 
of  witchcraft  and  astrology  and  phre- 
nology." The  comfort  is  that  some  scienti- 
fic men  can  always  draw  the  line  between 
their  hypothesis  and  proven  theory.  This, 
and  other  scientific  points,  manifestly  er- 
roneous, are  explained  in  various  articles 
of  this  work  and  especially  in  the  present 
and  the  next  succeeding  article. 

True  science  cannot  be  in  conflict  with 
revelation,  because  the  same  God  of  truth 
is  manifest  in  nature  as  He  is  in  revelation. 
There  is  unity,  there  is  harmony,  there  is 
order  in  all  God's  works,  and  no  part  of 
His  divine  plan  can  conflict  with  the  other. 
For  let  man  calmly  consider  what  revela- 
tion is,  and  what  science  is,  and  he  will 
speedily  come  to  see  that  any  conflict  be- 
tween them  is  the  result  of  misunderstand- 
ing.     There   are   many   good    and    pious 


Science  and 


67,6 


Revelation 


souls  who  behold  with  dread  the  constant 
progress  of  scientific  research,  and  fear  it 
is  indeed  a  demon  that  would  rob  them  of 
that  which  they  most  value.  We  do  not 
share  this  fear.  No !  all  the  science  of  the 
world  cannot  destroy  religion,  for  as  long 
as  man  remains  as  he  is  to-day,  the  heart 
will  ream  for  religion's  sweet  solace  and 
the  soul  cry  aloud  for  a  God,  within  whose 
loving  arms  man  may  be  at  rest  as  the 
child  in  its  mother's  bosom. 

"Is  there  any  conflict  —  any  necessary 
conflict  bet-ween  theology  and  science  ? " 
asks  a  learned  Hebrew  theologian.  "  I 
fail  to  see  how  there  can  be ;  for,  ridicu- 
lous as  it  may  appear  to  some  to  say  so, 
the  theologian  is  a  man  of  science. 
Every  science  has  four  characteristics. 
One  characteristic  is  that  it  deals  with 
facts.  Another  characteristic  of  a  science 
is,  that  it  strives  to  reach  laws,  principles, 
generalizations,  doctrines,  whichever  name 
be  preferred.  Science  cannot  rest  satis- 
fied with  an  unrelated  series  of  facts ;  its 
endeavor  must  always  be  to  unify  facts; 
from  isolated  facts  it  must  ever  strive  to 
rise  to  general  knowledge.  Yet  a  third 
characteristic  of  science  is,  that  for  scien- 
tific purposes  it  limits  its  view  to  one 
class  of  facts.  Mathematics  concerns  it- 
self with  number  and  space,  not  with  life; 
psj'chology  concerns  itself  with  mind,  not 
with  the  physical  forces.  Science  deals 
with  all  facts.  A  science  deals  with  one 
class  of  facts.  A  fourth  characteristic  is 
that  science  systematizes.  It  adopts  a  cer- 
tain appropriate  order  in  the  investigation 
and  exposition  of  its  subject  matter. 

"  Let  these  four  characteristics  be  pres- 
ent in  any  branch  of  knowledge  and  you 
have  a  science ;  let  any  one  characteristic 
be  absent,  and  the  name  of  science  must 
be  withheld.  Every  science  must  treat  of 
facts,  must  treat  of  a  distinct,  a  related 
kind,  must  seek  to  obtain  generalizations 
from  those  facts,  and  must  arrange  its 
facts  and  doctrines  in  a  due  order.  In- 
quiry which  does  not  deal  with  facts  is 
speculation,  not  science ;  a  series  of  facts 
without  laws  is  a  catalogue,  not  a  science ; 
an  examination  of  facts  and  laws  in  gen- 
eral is  universal  knowledge,  and  not  a  sci- 
ence; an  investigation  into  facts  and  laws, 
which  is  not  digested  into  system,  is  an 
encyclopaedia,  and  not  a  science. 

"  But  if  these  four  are  the  characteristics 
of  a  science,  one  may  venture  with  all 
modesty,  but  with  extreme  firmness,  to 
ask:  I.  Does  not  theology  deal  with  facts? 


2.  Does  not  theology  consist  of  a  genus 
of  facts  sufficiently  well  defined.?  3.  Does 
not  theology  diligently  strive  to  pass 
from  facts  to  laws?  4.  Are  not  arrange- 
ment and  system  peculiarly  manifest  in 
theological  results?  Really,  that  theol- 
ogy is  not  a  science,  is  one  of  the  most 
unscientific  prejudices  of  some  scientific 
men.  Professor  Huxley,  writing  on  this 
subject,  says  :  '  If  any  man  is  able  to  make 
good  the  assertion  that  his  theology  rests 
upon  valid  evidence  and  sound  reasoning, 
then  it  appears  to  me  that  such  theology 
must  take  its  place  as  a  part  of  science.' 

"  Can  it  be  shown,  then,  that  theology 
rests  on  valid  e\idence  and  sound  reason- 
ing? Is  it  not  incontestable,  that  theology 
has  to  do  with  facts  —  facts  as  manifest  and 
relative  as  the  facts  of  number  or  the  facts 
of  life  ?  For  theology,  which  is  the  science 
of  religion,  is  manifestly  concerned  with 
religion,  and  religion  is  itself  a  fact.  I 
mean  by  religion,  that  intuition  of  the  di- 
vine, which,  universal  as  man,  is  at  the 
basis  of  all  the  religious  development  of 
man.  The  universality  of  the  religious 
sense  is  now  commonly  conceded.  An- 
other series  of  facts  with  which  theology 
is  concerned  is  the  facts  of  revelation.  By 
revelation  I  mean  knowledge  about  God 
and  man  divinely  imparted.  Now,  the  re- 
ligious intuition  itself  is,  and  must  be, 
revelation.  The  theory  of  evolution  can- 
not explain  it.  All  sense  of  the  infinite 
must  come  from  the  infinite.  In  a  word, 
the  intuition  of  the  di^•ine  religion  is  really 
a  divine  revelation  —  'that  light  which 
lighteth  every  man  that  cometh  into  the 
world.'  The  existence  of  the  eye  argues 
the  pre-existence  of  the  eternal  world  ;  self- 
consciousness  argues  the  prior  existence  of 
self;  the  fact  of  the  religious  sense  argues 
the  prior  existence  of  the  divine." 

Does  Revelation  extend  to  scientific 
questions? —  For  every  true  Catholic  it  is  an 
established  fact,  that  the  divine  inspiration 
of  the  Bible  extends  itself  to  all  which  in- 
terests religion  and  all  which  touches  faith 
and  morals,  that  is,  all  the  supernatural 
teachings  contained  therein.  But  there  is 
another  question  forced  to  the  front  in  our 
days  :  Does  this  inspiration  also  extend  to 
scientific  questions  —  questions  which  it 
touches  incidentally? 

God  did  not  reveal  scientific  truths  to  the 
sacred  writers,  though  He  could  have  re- 
vealed to  Moses,  the  mysteries  of  nature  in 
their  relation  to  science  when  he  penned 
the  first  chapter  of  Genesis.     Every  pas- 


Science  and 


637 


Revelation 


sage  that  has  reference  to  science  is  in- 
spired like  other  passages,  in  the  sense 
that  God  sustained  the  sacred  writer  in 
recording  truth  and  avoiding  error,  per- 
mitting him  to  speak  the  common  lan- 
guage, and  use  the  ideas  and  idioms  of  the 
times  and  of  the  people,  to  whom  the 
sacred  record  was  addressed,  in  order, 
that  each  word  and  sentence  should  be  fully 
and  clearly  understood  by  the  learned  and 
unlearned. 

Again,  it  is  universally  affirmed,  that  the 
Spirit  of  Truth,  the  Holy  Ghost,  did  not 
reveal  scientific  truths,  directly,  but  reli- 
gious truths,  which  teach  us  how  to  ob- 
tain heaven.  As  the  Kingdom  of  God  is 
not  of  this  world,  and  as  this  is  but  a  tran- 
sitory abiding  place,  why  then  should  we 
ask  from  the  Sacred  Text  a  digest  of  scien- 
tific laws  and  questions,  when  it  only  con- 
cerns the  eternal  salvation  of  man.? 

"  The  intention  of  Holy  Scripture,"  says 
Cardinal  Baronius,  "  is  to  teach  us  how 
one  goes  to  heaven,  and  not  how  heaven 
goes."  Evidently  the  sacred  writers  spoke 
the  common  language  of  the  people  with- 
out any  attempt  at  scientific  accuracy.  An 
instance  of  this  kind  is  found  in  the  famous 
passage  of  Josue,  concerning  the  rotary 
motion  of  the  sun  around  the  earth. 
Though  many  centuries  have  passed  since 
that  memorable  day  when  the  sun  stood 
still  in  the  heavens,  yet,  with  all  our  scien- 
tific knowledge,  we  often  read  of  the  rising 
and  setting  sun,  and  of  its  circling  through 
the  heavens ;  lingering  to  bathe  the  hill- 
tops, or  placid  bosom  of  the  sea,  and  such 
like  expressions.  "Many  things  are  said 
in  Holy  Scripture  according  to  the  opinion 
of  that  time  to  which  the  facts  have  refer- 
ence," says  St.  Jerome,  "and  not  to  the 
real  truth  of  the  facts." 

Again,  we  refer  to  the  passage  in  Job 
xxvi.  7.  "  He  stretcheth  out  the  north  over 
the  empty  space."  On  this  St.  Thomas 
observes  :  "Because  nothing  appears  to  us 
of  the  heavenly  hemisphere  except  space 
full  of  air,  what  the  common  people  look 
upon  as  an  empty  space;  the  sacred  writer 
speaks  according  to  the  opinion  of  the 
common  people,  as  it  is  custom  in  Holy 
Scripture."  This  language  of  Sacred  Writ 
is  spoken  to-day  by  savants.  We  find  in 
popular  lectures  on  science,  expressions 
like  the  following:  "Science  the  modern 
wizard,  broke  the  fetters  that  bound  the 
enchanted  world,  and  behold,  a  new  earth 
and  a  new  heaven  appeared."  "At  the 
command    of    science,    the   veil    that    en- 


shrouded the  little  earth  plain  of  the  an- 
cients was  drawn  aside."  Consistency  is  a 
jewel  which  sparkles  only  on  the  brow  of 
truth. 

Considering  the  times,  peoples,  and  lan- 
guages, there  is  very  little  cause  for  fault- 
finding, and  no  just  reason  at  all  for 
wrongly  interpreting  passages,  and  then 
ridiculing  Sacred  Writ  for  its  scientific  er- 
rors. Where  there  is  an  apparent  con- 
tradiction between  the  Bible  and  certain 
hypothesis  of  savants,  this  is  a  matter  of 
little  importance,  because  a  hypothesis  is 
not  a  scientific  truth.  God  is  the  author 
of  nature,  of  science,  and  of  revelation, 
and  He  cannot  contradict  Himself.  The 
Church  is  far  from  forbidding  the  savants 
to  make  the  most  diligent  research  and  the 
most  exacting  inquiry  in  their  domain,  ac- 
cording to  their  methods,  because  she  is 
convinced  that  truth  will  prevail,  and  the 
certain  results  of  science  will  always  be  in 
harmony  with  revelation. 

It  is  needless  to  say  there  is  a  class  of 
self-styled  scientists  ever  in  the  search  of 
flaws  in  Holy  Writ  who  magnify  every 
trivial  diliFerence,  that,  if  viewed  in  the 
light  of  reason,  or  subjected  to  the  sober 
judgment  of  men  familiar  with  the  lan- 
guage and  mode  of  expressing  opinions  of 
the  people  of  the  Orient  in  ancient  times, 
there  would  be  little  cause  for  these  gra- 
tuitous attacks  on  revelation.  We  will 
cite  an  instance  of  this  kind.  In  Leviticus 
(xi.  6),  the  hare  is  classed  with  ruminating 
animals.  Now,  this  of  itself  is  of  little 
consequence,  but  shows  the  straining  of  a 
point  in  natural  history  to  cast  discredit  on 
the  sacred  character  of  the  Bible.  Surely, 
it  is  unreasonable  to  demand  from  Moses 
or  other  sacred  writers,  a  scientific  classi- 
fication of  animated  nature.  To  all  ap- 
pearance, the  hare  would  naturally  be 
classed  among  the  ruminants.  However, 
the  question  involves  a  fine  point.  Grant- 
ing that  the  Hebrew  word  arnebeth,  signi- 
fies hare,  though  it  is  far  from  being 
absolutely  certain,  we  must  not  under- 
stand the  expression  ruminating  in  its 
physiological  acceptation  —  an  animal  with 
four  stomachs  —  but  rather  in  the  broad 
sense  of  an  animal,  which  masticates  with- 
out eating  and  ruminates  with  its  snout, 
though  really  not  ruminating.  Moses  did 
not  wish  to  give  us  a  scientific  classification ; 
he  classed  the  hare  simply  by  its  habits 
and  appearance. 

Infefttton  of  Holy  Scripture.  —  Theolo- 
gians  warn   us   to   look   for  no   scientific 


Science  and  the  Forma- 


638 


TION  OF  THE   UNIVERSE 


ideas  or  theories  in  the  Bible.  After  St. 
Augustine  and  St.  Thomas,  Pascal  says : 
"  When  the  Scripture  presents  to  us  some 
passage  of  which  the  first  literal  meaning 
finds  itself  contrary  to  what  the  senses  or 
reason  acknowledge  with  certitude,  we 
must  not  undertake  to  disown  them  in 
order  to  submit  them  to  the  authority  of 
this  apparent  meaning  of  Scripture;  but 
we  must  interpret  the  Scripture  and  seek 
therein  another  meaning  which  agrees 
with  the  sensible  truth,  because  the  Word 
of  God  being  infallible  in  the  facts  them- 
selves, and  the  report  of  the  senses  and  of 
reason  acting  in  their  intent  being  also 
certain,  these  two  truths  must  agree ;  and 
since  Scripture  can  be  interpreted  in  dif- 
ferent manners,  instead  that  the  report  of 
the  senses  is  unique,  we  must  in  these 
matters  take  for  the  interpretation  of  the 
Scripture  that  which  agrees  with  the  faith- 
ful report  of  the  senses. 

"  We  must  observe  two  things,  after  St. 
Augustine,"  says  St.  Thomas,  "  the  one 
that  the  Scripture  has  always  a  true  mean- 
ing; the  other,  that,  as  it  can  have  several 
meanings,  when  we  find  one  of  which  rea- 
son convinces  us  as  certainly  false,  we 
must  not  maintain  the  telling  that  this  is 
the  real  meaning,  but  seek  for  another 
which  agrees  with  reason."  He  explains 
this  by  exemplifying  the  passage  of  Gene- 
sis where  it  is  written  "that  God  created 
two  great  lights,  the  sun,  the  moon,  and 
also  the  stars,"  by  which  the  Scriptures 
seems  to  tell  that  the  moon  is  greater  than 
all  the  stars,  though  it  is  evident  through 
unquestionable  demonstrations  that  this  is 
false.  "We  must  not,"  he  continues,  "ob- 
stinately defend  this  literal  meaning,  but 
must  seek  another  one  conformable  to  the 
truth  of  the  fact,  saying :  "  That  the  word 
of  great  light  marks  only  the  greatness  of 
the  light  in  our  regard  and  not  the  great- 
ness of  its  body  in  itself." 

In  theological  matters  versus  science, 
we  submit  some  propositions  on  the  part 
of  theology : 

I.  Religious  truths  are  imparted  to  us  in 
the  Bible;  they  are  stated  decidedly,  and 
we  must  believe  them  with  the  same  de- 
gree of  determination  and  firmness.  In 
the  Interpretation  of  Scripture  on  these 
points,  and  in  matters  of  faith  and  morals, 
we  can  consent  to  be  guided  only  by 
the  authority  of  the  Church ;  in  mat- 
ters of  natural  science,  the  Church  leaves 
us  at  perfect  liberty  to  pursue  our  in- 
quiries. 


2.  It  is  not  the  object  of  the  Bible  to 
give  us  information  on  natural  or  other 
profane  science ;  it  is  not  the  purpose  of 
inspiration  to  reveal  to  us  directly  scien- 
tific truths. 

3.  The  Bible  speaks  of  events,  phe- 
nomena, and  laws  of  nature  in  the  same 
way  as  would  an  ordinary  man  whose  lan- 
guage and  opinions  were  formed  by  what 
he  saw  and  heard ;  therefore,  the  Bible 
does  not  claim  to  speak  scientifically  and 
correctly  of  these  things,  but  only  to  ex- 
press itself  intelligently  and  to  the  purpose. 

Science  and  the  Formation  of  the  Uni- 
verse. —  The  learned  of  all  ages  have 
manifested  much  interest  in  the  creation 
of  the  world,  but  inquiry  regarding  the 
composition  of  the  chaotic  elements  and 
their  primitive  condition,  was  reserved 
for  the  savants  of  modern  times.  There 
is  to-day  both  a  rational  and  irrational 
science,  as  there  is  a  rational  and  irrational 
theology.  Infidels  have  discovered  that 
their  principles  are  untenable  in  the  light 
of  revelation,  and  now  seek  to  defend 
them  behind  the  ramparts  of  "  liberal 
science."  Unquestionably,  "  liberal  sci- 
ence "  is  elastic  and  accommodating; 
overrides  all  logical  deductions ;  coins  new 
phrases;  improvises  fanciful  and  wild 
theories;  jumps  at  conclusions,  and  dei- 
fies matter  as  eternal,  in  its  efforts  to  make 
a  Creator  superfluous. 

Science  can  affirm  nothing  as  to  the 
origin  of  things  without  violating  the  fun- 
damental laws  of  logic  which  constitute 
the  same.  It  can,  however,  by  means  of 
powerful  analogies  and  inductions,  per- 
fectly legitimate  and  rational,  ascend  to 
the  highest  limit  in  the  history  of  their 
formation.  Thus,  in  order  to  explain  the 
first  e\T>lutions  of  matter,  the  cosmic  ele- 
ments, it  was  forced  to  conceive  magnifi- 
cent theories,  or  rather  hypotheses,  in  the 
way  of  confirmation  or  continual  rectifica- 
tion, which  witness  the  power  of  human 
genius,  permit  it  to  penetrate  the  created 
immensity,  and  assist  at  the  genesis  of  the 
globe  —  at  the  development  of  the  entire 
universe. 

Geologists  conclude  from  the  following 
facts  that  the  earth  was  originally  in  a 
fluid  condition  :  i.  The  form  of  the  earth, 
apart  from  the  unevenness  of  the  surface, 
is  that  of  a  figure  resembling  a  ball — a 
spheroid  flattened  at  the  poles.  2.  The 
poles'  diameter  is  two  and  four-fifths  of  a 
geographical  mile  shorter  than  the  equa- 


Science  and  the  Forma- 


639 


TION  OF  THE  UNIVERSE 


torial  diameter.  3.  It  is  believed  tiiat  a 
fluid  mass  revolving  around  its  own  axis, 
invariably  assumes  such  a  spheroidal 
shape ;  and  most  all  geologists  are  of  the 
opinion  that  the  earth  existed  originally  in 
a  state  of  ignus  fusion.  Many  do  not  stop 
at  this,  how^ever,  but  think  it  very  likely 
that  another  nebulous  or  gaseous  condition 
preceded  the  fiery  state,  and  not  a  few  sup- 
port the  hypothesis,  that  our  whole  solar 
system  could  be  traced  back  to  such  a  nebu- 
lous or  gaseous  vapor;  indeed,  "the  hu- 
man mind  itself,  emotion,  intellect,  will, 
were  once  latent  in  a  fiery  cloud.  All  our 
philosophy,  all  our  poetry,  all  our  science, 
all  our  art,  Plato,  Shakespeare,  Newton, 
and  Raphael,  are  potential  in  the  fires  of 
the  sun,"  if  we  believe  Prof.  Tyndall. 
Kant  first  suggested  this  theory ;  Herschel, 
Laplace,  and  others  have  tried  to  support 
it  scientifically. 

Theory  of  Laplace.  —  According  to  this 
theory,  the  matter  of  the  solar  system  was 
originally  one  enormous  ball  of  gas,  "  at 
such  a  temperature,  as  to  be  in  the  condi- 
tion of  vapor  of  great  tenuity."  In  this, 
through  the  concentration  of  substances,  a 
center  was  formed,  which  later  became  a 
solid  nucleus.  To  this,  some  external 
force  imparted  a  motion  around  its  own 
axis,  and  by  degrees  the  whole  of  the 
gaseous  matter  surrounding  it  took  part  in 
this  motion,  so  that  the  whole  ball  of  gas 
rotated  around  itself.  This  motion,  at  first 
slow,  gradually  grew  quicker  and  quicker 
in  consequence  of  the  increasing  density  of 
the  mass  and  the  accompanying  diminu- 
tion of  its  volume ;  the  form  of  this  gaseous 
ball  became  more  and  more  spheroidal  and 
centriform,  because  the  centrifugal  force 
increased  with  the  quicker  motion.  In 
consequence  of  the  increasing  density  of 
the  whole,  and  greater  tendency  in  the  out- 
side of  the  gaseous  body  to  fly  off  from  the 
center,  it  was  inevitable  that  at  some  period, 
the  centrifugal  force  should  prevail  over 
the  centripetal,  and  a  ring-shaped  part 
should  be  separated  from  the  whole.  Later 
on,  this  girdle  or  ring  was  broken  by  dis- 
turbances which  took  place  on  it ;  it  was 
torn  in  one  or  more  places,  and  each  seg- 
ment thus  separated,  rolled  itself  into  an 
individual  ball  and  retained  its  separate 
existence.  The  result  of  this  was,  either 
to  form  one  new  large  spheroid  with  a 
double  motion  —  a  revolution  around  its 
own  axis  and  a  revolution  around  the  origi- 
nal gaseous  ball,  or  a  number  of  small 
spheroids,  which  rolled  on  with  the  same 


double  movement  at  about  an  equal  dis- 
tance from  the  center.  In  the  way  first 
described  were  formed  the  larger  planets, 
and  in  the  second,  the  asteroids.  This  proc- 
ess by  which  rings  were  thrown  off  and 
formed  into  separate  balls,  was  repeated 
many  times,  till  the  central  body  had  be- 
come so  small  that  it  could  throw  off  no 
more  rings.  At  last  the  relation  between 
the  central  sun  and  the  surrounding  flanets 
was  established  forever,  and  the  solar  sys- 
tem was,  in  this  sense,  complete.  But 
meanwhile,  the  planets  had  gone  through 
new  stages  of  development ;  they  also 
showed  a  tendency  to  throw  off  rings,  con- 
sequently, separate  rings  were  formed 
which  shaped  themselves  into  balls  and  be- 
came the  moons  revolving  around  the 
planets.  The  smaller  planets  did  not  form 
rings,  while  the  larger  ones  threw  off 
many,  some  of  which,  perhaps,  have  not 
yet  rolled  themselves  into  balls,  as  the 
double  ring  of  Saturn  seems  to  show. 

Formation  of  the  Earth  into  a  Separate 
Body. —  Now  as  to  the  history  of  the  earth 
in  particular,  let  us  cast  a  glance  at  its 
bygone  ages,  before  arriving  at  its  present 
condition.  When  it  had  become  a  separate 
body,  the  numerous  elementary  substances 
of  which  it  still  consists,  were  mingled 
with  each  other  in  the  form  of  vapor,  in 
the  same  proportions  as  those  in  which 
they  are  actually  the  constituent  elements 
of  the  earth.  The  heaviest  metals  first 
separated  from  the  gaseous  compound  and 
formed  a  solid  or  fluid  nucleus,  which  grew 
larger  by  degrees  through  the  gradual  at- 
traction of  similar  parts.  In  the  further 
stages,  the  earth  was  a  ball  of  igneous  fluid 
surrounded  by  an  atmosphere,  which,  how- 
ever, contained  many  more  substances  than 
ours ;  water,  chlorides,  sulphur,  and  other 
substances  being  then  only  present  in  a 
vaporous  or  gaseous  condition.  The  tem- 
perature in  space  is  very  low,  and  therefore 
had  a  cooling  effect  on  the  hot  ball  of  the 
earth.  The  steam  of  the  upper  regions  of 
the  atmosphere  cooled,  and  was  precipi- 
tated onto  the  hot  earth.  The  water  which 
had  thus  become  fluid  was  again  heated 
with  the  other  substances  which  it  con- 
tained. At  first,  probably  before  it  reached 
the  earth,  it  changed  into  steam  and  again 
ascended.  This  process  must  have  been 
often  repeated,  but  at  last,  the  surface  of 
the  ball  cooled  in  consequence  of  the  con- 
tinued diminution  of  heat,  and  the  first 
solid  crust  was  formed  out  of  the  molten 
masses  of  the  earth's  alkalies  and  metals. 


Scotland 


640 


Sebastian 


The  nucleus  of  the  earth  cooled  continu- 
ally, and  contracted  more  and  more.  Va- 
cant spaces  were  formed  in  the  solid  crust, 
which  had  become  too  large  for  its  con- 
tents, and  the  rocks  that  lay  above  these 
spaces  sank  in  places  and  became  crumbled 
on  the  surface,  forming  splits  and  cracks. 
The  sunken  masses  pressed  on  the  fiery 
core ;  molten  rocks  forced  their  way  to  the 
surface  through  the  cracks  and  fissures, 
they  having  partially  raised  the  masses  of 
the  solid  crust,  and  cemented  those  schist- 
ous masses  together  in  more  or  less  in- 
clined positions.  In  places  where  no  dis- 
ruptions occurred,  the  schistous  rocks 
became  thicker  and  thicker.  The  masses 
which  had  forced  themselves  between  the 
portions  of  the  crust,  and  which  had  cooled 
there,  formed  with  these  the  first  moun- 
tains and  mountain  ranges,  which  probably 
were  of  no  great  height.  But  after  many 
of  these  disruptions  and  cementings,  the 
crust  of  the  earth,  which  from  the  con- 
tinual cooling  of  the  interior  had  become 
much  thicker,  at  last  obtained  a  certain 
amount  of  firmness,  the  disruptions  oc- 
curred less  often,  and  the  surface  became 
more  solid.  The  precipitation  from  the 
atmosphere  which  continued  without  in- 
termission, remained  longer  and  longer 
upon  the  earth.  By  degrees  a  large  ocean 
was  formed  which  possibly  covered  all,  or 
nearly  all,  the  surface  of  the  earth,  so  that 
at  most,  only  a  few  islands  of  granite  ap- 
peared above  it.  It  was  boiling  hot,  and 
contained  many  substances  besides  water, 
that  had  chemically  a  dissolving,  and  me- 
chanically a  destroying  efTect  on  the  crust. 
These  particles,  which  were  contained  in 
the  water,  after  having  been  either  dis- 
solved or  mechanically  broken  up,  were 
deposited  in  quiet  places  in  the  shape 
of  slate  and  graywacke,  and  were  the  first 
Neptunian  formation.  While  these  de- 
posits were  being  formed,  the  crust  of  the 
earth  cooled  so  considerably  that  it  be- 
came fit  for  the  habitation  of  organic  be- 
ings. The  eruptions,  and  Neptunian 
deposits  which  were  always  elevated  by 
them,  increased  the  quantity  of  dry  land, 
or  rather  the  number  of  islands.  At  this 
period  the  earth  received  the  first  garment 
of  vegetation  and  the  first  animals.  Such 
is,  in  summary,  the  theory  of  Laplace  on 
the  evolution  of  the  visible  universe.  See 
Atomism  and  Cosmogoxy. 


Scotland     {Evangelization    of). 

NiNlAN  (.St.). 


See 


Scotland  {Protestantism  in). —  Protes- 
tantism was  introduced  into  Scotland  by 
John  Knox,  who,  in  1542,  began  his  career 
as  a  reformer  by  decrying  Church  and 
crown.  Being  expelled  from  Scotland,  he 
spent  some  years  at  Geneva,  where  he 
became  a  thoroughgoing  Calvinist.  In 
the  year  1559,  he  was  recalled  and  immedi- 
ately began  to  vilify  Mary  of  Guise,  regent 
of  Scotland.  He  also  preached  against  the 
idolatry  of  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass  and 
the  veneration  of  images.  The  inaugura- 
tion of  the  reformed  religion  in  Scotland,  as 
in  every  other  country,  was  preceded  by  the 
sacking  of  churches  and  the  entire  demoli- 
tion of  whatever  pertained  to  the  sacrifice 
of  the  Mass  or  the  veneration  of  the  saints. 
The  Scottish  reformers  formed  a  congrega- 
tion whose  leaders  were  called, "  Lords  of  the 
Congregation."  This  portion  of  the  pop- 
ulation, assisted  by  Elizabeth  of  England, 
engaged  in  a  civil  war  with  the  adherents 
of  the  queen  regent;  the  latter  was  assisted 
by  the  king  of  France.  This  war  was 
marked  by  unusual  severity.  The  queen 
regent  having  died,  both  parties  agreed 
upon  a  truce,  by  the  terms  of  which  the 
settlement  of  their  difficulties  was  left  to 
parliament.  The  Protestant  lords  were 
not  content  with  the  free  exercise  of  their 
religion.  They  demanded  the  suppression 
of  "Idolatrous  worship."  The  parlia- 
ment which  assembled  in  1560,  declared 
the  Catholic  religion  abolished  and  adopted 
the  "  Reformed,"  as  the  established  reli- 
gion of  Scotland.  The  Catholic  faith  was 
replaced  by  rigid  Calvinism. 

Scotland  {The  Church  in).— It  is  diffi- 
cult to  realize  the  oppression  under  which 
the  Catholics  of  Scotland  labored  during 
the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries. 
During  the  last  fifty  years  the  Catholics  of 
Scotland  have  largely  increased,  chiefly 
from  the  influx  of  Irish  population.  They 
number  about  363,000.  There  are  about 
350  priests,  secular  and  regular,  having 
care  of  souls  in  Scotland.  In  1878,  Pope 
Leo  XIII.  restored  the  ancient  hierarchy 
of  Scotland,  creating  or  rather  restoring 
the  two  archbishoprics  of  St.  Andrews  and 
of  Glasgow,  and  four  suffragan  sees, — Aber- 
deen, Argyll,  Dunkeld,  and  Galloway. 

Scotus  (John).     See  Johx  Scotus. 

Scribe.  —  Doctor,  who  taught  the  law 
of  Moses,  and  explained  it  to  the  people. 

Sebastian  (St.)  (sumamed  the  *'  De- 
fender of  the  Church"). — Born  at  Nar- 
bonne,  France;  captain  of   the  Pretorian 


Sebueans 


641 


Secret  of  Confession 


guards  under  Diocletian,  encouraged  the 
martyrs  and  was  himself  put  to  death  for 
the  faith,  at  Rome,  in  288.  He  was  shot 
by  arrows,  and  was  supposed  to  be  slain, 
but  recovered,  and  was  finally  beaten  to 
death  with  clubs,  and  buried  near  the  Cat- 
acombs of  St.  Calixtus,  which  later  on 
took  the  name  of  the  Cemetery  of  St.  Se- 
bastian.    F.  Jan.  20th. 

Sebueans  or  Sebuseans.  —  Sect  of  Sa- 
maritans who  changed  the  time  prescribed 
by  law  for  the  celebration  of  the  great 
festivals  of  the  year.  They  celebrated 
Easter  at  the  beginning  of  autumn,  Pente- 
cost about  the  end  of  the  same  season,  and 
the  feast  of  the  Tabernacles  in  the  month 
of  March.  They  were  called  "  Sebuse- 
ans"  because  they  held  the  Pasch  in  the 
seventh  month,  called  se.ba,  or  from  the 
word  sebua  (the  week),  because  they  cele- 
brated the  second  day  of  each  week  from 
Easter  to  Pentecost;  or  from  the  name  of 
their  chief,  Sebaia. 

Secret  Discipline.     See  Discipline. 

Secret  of  Confession.  —  The  secret  of 
confession,  or  the  obligation  imposed  upon 
the  priest  to  keep  the  most  profound 
silence  concerning  all  he  knows  only 
through  the  confessional,  is  also  called 
"  seal,"  to  mark  that  all  he  knows  through 
the  confessional  is  put  under  seal.  The 
obligation  of  keeping  the  secret  or  seal  of 
confession  is  founded:  i.  On  the  natural 
right,  which  requires  that  the  confessor 
should  not  violate  the  secret  that  has 
been  intrusted  to  him,  and  that  he  should 
fulfill  the  tacit  promise  to  keep  the  secret 
which  he  made  to  the  penitent  by  hearing 
his  confession.  2.  On  the  divine  right. 
It  has  always  been  understood  that  Jesus 
Christ,  in  obliging  sinners  to  open  to  the 
priests  the  secrets  of  their  conscience,  has 
at  the  same  time  prescribed  to  the  latter 
the  most  profound  secrecy.  This  secret 
is,  besides,  a  necessary  consequence  of  the 
institution  of  confession,  which,  without 
this,  would  become  impossible.  3.  On  the 
ecclesiastical  right.  The  Church  com- 
mands her  ministers,  under  pain  of  anath- 
ema, degradation,  and  perpetual  con- 
finement, to  keep  absolute  silence  about 
all  they  have  heard  in  the  sacred  tribunal. 
This  law  is  general  and  admits  of  no  ex- 
ception. For  whatever  reason,  in  what- 
ever case,  and  under  whatever  pretext,  a 
confessor  is  not  permitted  to  speak  of  con- 
fession.    If   there   should   be   question  of 

41 


saving  his  honor,  his  reputation,  or  of 
avoiding  the  most  frightful  torments;  if 
there  should  be  question  of  saving  his  life, 
never  would  he  be  permitted  to  reveal  in 
any  manner,  either  directly  br  indirectly, 
even  the  slightest  fault  that  is  known  to 
him  only  through  confession.  The  priest 
in  the  confessional  holds  the  place  of  Jesus 
Christ;  hence  we  do  not  confess  to  man, 
but  to  God,  in  the  person  of  His  delegate. 
Thus  the  confessor  ought  not  to  remember, 
as  man,  what  has  been  intrusted  to  him  in 
the  tribunal  of  penance  ;  he  must  keep  the 
most  absolute  silence  about  all  the  revela^ 
tions  which  he  has  heard,  the  same  as 
though  he  did  not  hear  them.  The  con- 
fessor knows  nothing  as  man,  hence  theo- 
logians teach  that  he  can  answer,  even  un- 
der oath,  to  the  judge  who  asks  him,  that 
he  knows  nothing  about  the  crime  of  a 
man  accused  when  he  knows  it  only 
through  confession.  "  A  man,"  says  St. 
Thomas,  "  can  be  called  to  witness  only  as 
man ;  hence  he  can  declare,  without 
wounding  his  conscience,  that  he  does  not 
know  anything,  when  he  knows  it  only  as 
God's  minister."  The  learned  Cestius, 
treating  on  this  matter,  remarks  that  if 
some  judge  were  rash  enough  to  ask  a 
priest  whether  the  accused  did  not  confess 
to  him  such  or  such  a  crime,  he  must  sim- 
ply say  that  he  is  not  permitted  to  answer 
that  sacrilegious  and  impious  question. 
But  if  there  is  question  of  general  interest 
to  society,  of  a  conspiracy  against  the  chief 
of  the  State,  etc.,  could  and  should  a  con- 
fessor not  speak.?  No,  he  should  keep 
silence.  The  seal  of  confession  being  of 
divine  right,  and  having  for  foundation 
the  very  institution  of  penance  and  the  ob- 
ligation imposed  upon  the  Faithful  to  con- 
fess their  sins,  no  power  can  dispense  from 
keeping  this  seal  intact,  not  even  if  there 
is  question  of  saving  the  State.  It  is  with- 
out example  that  the  secret  of  confession 
was  ever  violated.  "  It  is  really  wonder- 
ful," says  the  author  of  the  Souvenirs  de 
la  Marquise  de  Crequy,  "  that  among  all 
the  crimes  of  the  French  Revolution,  it 
was  never  heard  that  any  apostate  priest 
revealed  anything  of  what  he  heard  through 
the  confessional."  Similar  facts,  whose 
authenticity  cannot  be  questioned,  prove 
that  there  is  a  Providence  that  watches 
over  the  seal  of  confession  and  does  not 
permit  it  to  be  broken.  There  have  been 
priests,  confessors,  who  had  to  choose  be- 
tween revealing  the  secret  of  confession  or 
death;     they    chose     death.     One    word 


Secret  Societies 


642 


Seminary 


would  have  been  sufficient  to  save  them, 
but  this  word  they  did  not  pronounce,  and 
their  blood  flowed.  The  first  of  these 
martyrs  was  St.  John  of  Nepomuck. 

Secret  Societies.    See  Societiks. 

Secular  Clergy.  —  Name  given  to  the 
priests  in  the  world,  as  distinguished  from 
the  religious  clergy,  who  lead  a  monastic 
or  regular  life. 

Secularization.  —  The  act  by  virtue  of 
which,  a  religious  is  rendered  a  secular 
again,  a  priest  remanded  to  civil  life, 
goods  of  the  Church  secularized  to  the 
circulation  of  property  and  to  the  common 
right  regulated  by  civil  laws.  Among  the 
best  known  secularizations  of  Church 
goods  was  that  which  took  place  in  1803, 
when  nearly  all  the  ecclesiastical  estates, 
the  bishoprics,  abbeys,  and  monasteries 
within  the  empire  were  apportioned  among 
the  German  princes,  as  indemnity  for  the 
losses  they  had  sustained,  in  uniting  the 
right  bank  of  the  Rhine  to  France. 

Sedecias.     See  Zbdbcias. 

Sedulius  (Ccelius).  —  Priest  and  poet, 
of  whose  birth  and  life  little  is  certainly 
known.  He  devoted  himself  for  some  time 
to  the  study  of  profane  sciences,  especially 
philosophy.  Failing  to  find  satisfaction 
either  in  these,  or  in  the  sinful  pleasures 
of  the  world,  he  yielded  to  the  voice  of 
divine  grace,  and  encouraged  by  Mace- 
donius,  a  virtuous  priest,  turned  his  heart 
toward  the  study  of  "  divine  science."  In 
the  course  of  time  he  became  a  priest,  and, 
according  to  some  accounts,  an  anfistes, 
or  bishop,  and  was  rendered  justly  famous 
for  his  beautiful  religious  poems.  He 
flourished  in  the  middle  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury. Among  his  poems  are :  0/>us  fas- 
chale,  describing  the  miracles  wrought  by 
God  under  the  Old  Law  and  by  Christ  in 
the  New;  Elegia  sive  Collect  to  Veteris 
et  Noxn  Testamentt,  showing  how  the 
types  of  the  Old  Testament  have  been 
fulfilled  in  the  New;  Hymnus  Abccedar- 
ius,  describing  the  birth,  life,  and  death 
of  Christ.  Sedulius  devoted  his  great 
poetical  talent  exclusively  to  religious 
subjects,  and  is  not  without  reason  called 
"  Poeta  Cliristianissi'mus.^'  His  style  is 
a  clever  and  successful  imitation  of  that  of 
Virgil.  The  two  hymns  adopted  in  the 
Roman  Breviary  A  Solis  Ortus  Cardine 
and  Hostis  Herodes  imfie,  are  taken  from 
the  Abecedarius. 


Seleucia.  —  A  fortified  city  of  Syria  on 
the  Mediterranean,  16  miles  west  of  An- 
tioch,  whose  seaport  it  was.  Here  St 
Paul  and  St.  Barnabas  embarked  on  their 
first  missionary  journey  (Acts  xii.  4). 
Under  the  Seleucidse  it  was  a  beautiful 
city  with  a  fine  harbor.  The  Arabs  called 
it  Selukiyeh.  It  is  now  in  ruins  and  near 
its  site  is  situated  a  small  village  called 
El-Kalusi. 

Sem. — Patriarch,  son  of  Noe,  was  blessed 
by  his  father  for  having  covered  him  in  his 
tent;  his  sons  Elam,  Assur,  Arphaxad, 
Lud,  and  Aram,  peopled  the  most  beauti- 
ful provinces  of  Asia.  From  Sem  are  de- 
rived the  names  of  languages  and  of  the 
Semitic  peoples. 

Semi-Arians.  —  Name  given  to  those 
Arians  who  denied  that  the  Son  of  God 
was  consubstantial  with  the  Father,  al- 
though they  otherwise  adhered  to  the  opin- 
ions of  the  Arians.     See  Arianism. 

Seminary  (ecclesiasticalinstitute  wherein 
instruction  is  given  to  clerics  destined  for 
the  Church).  —  The  history  of  episcopal 
seminaries  is  divided  chiefly  into  two  pe- 
riods :  one  prior,  the  other  subsequent,  to 
the  Council  of  Trent.  Seminaries,  i.  e., 
houses  set  apart  for  the  education  of  youths 
desiring  to  embrace  the  ecclesiastical  state, 
are  traced  back,  by  some  canonists,  to  the 
very  beginning  of  the  Church  ;  by  others  to 
the  Council  of  Nice  (325 ) ;  and  by  several  to 
St.  Augustine,  who,  according  to  Phillips, 
had  set  apart  a  place  in  his  episcopal  resi- 
dence, where  youths  were  brought  up  for 
the  priesthood.  That  seminaries  already 
existed  in  the  sixth  century  is  indisputable. 
Thus  the  Second  Council  of  Toledo  (531), 
in  Spain,  ordained  that  sons  dedicated  by 
their  parents  to  the  service  of  the  Church 
should  be  brought  up  under  the  tuition  of 
a  director,  in  a  house  belonging  to  the 
cathedral  and  under -the  eyes  or  supervi- 
sion of  the  bishop.  Nay,  it  is  certain  that, 
in  the  sixth  century,  youths  destined  for 
the  sacred  ministry  were  educated  for  the 
priesthood  not  only  in  episcopal  colleges 
or  seminaries,  but  in  every  parish  priest's 
house.  This  was  the  custom  throughout 
almost  the  entire  Latin  Church.  Episco- 
pal seminaries,  which  had,  since  the  eighth 
century,  been  superseded  by  the  universi- 
ties, were  re-established  and  placed  on  a 
more  solid  footing  by  the  Council  of  Trent. 
By  seminaries  we,  at  present,  mean  schools 
or  colleges  where  youths  destined  for  the 


Semi-Pelagians 


643 


Sensualism 


priesthood  are  supported,  religiously  edu- 
cated, and  trained  in  ecclesiastical  dis- 
cipline. According  to  the  enactments  of 
the  Council  of  Trent  in  regard  to  semina- 
ries, a  bishop  may  have  several  semina- 
ries; but  he  is  bound  to  have  at  least  one, 
unless  the  poverty  of  the  diocese  renders  it 
impossible.  A  common  seminary  should 
be  established  by  the  provincial  council  for 
those  dioceses  which,  on  account  of  pov- 
erty, cannot  have  their  own.  Those  stu- 
dents only  should  be  received  into  semina- 
ries, whose  character  and  inclination  afford 
the  hope  that  they  will  always  serve  in  the 
ecclesiastical  ministry.  Hence,  colleges 
where  ecclesiastical  students  are  educated 
promiscuously  with  secular  students,  are 
not  seminaries  in  the  Tridentine  sense  of 
the  term.  Not  only  students  of  theology, 
but  also  of  classics,  should  be  admitted. 
Finally,  youths  to  be  received  should  be  at 
least  twelve  years  of  age  and  wear  the 
clerical  dress. 

Semi-Pelagians.  —  Heretics  of  the  early 
centuries  of  the  Church,  who  held  a 
middle  course  between  the  orthodox  doc- 
trine and  that  of  Pelagius.  They  denied  : 
I.  The  necessity  of  "  prevening  grace" 
(^gratia  frcBveniens)  for  the  beginning  of 
faith,  which  they  maintained  to  be  free 
from  man  himself.  2.  The  "  gift  of  ^&r- 
severance^' {donumperseverantice).  3.  The 
gratuitous  predestination,  maintaining  that 
God  foreordains  some  unto  election,  be- 
cause of  the  foreknowledge  He  has  of 
their  merits  {prcBvisis  mentis).  The  prin- 
cipal advocate  of  Semi-Palagianism  was 
the  pious  abbot,  John  Cassianus  of  Mar- 
seilles (died,  435).  From  this  city,  where 
the  Semi-Pelagians  were  most  numerous, 
they  were  also  called  *'  Massalians."  See 
Pelagianism. 

Sennaar.  —  In  Biblical  geography  t^he 
name  of  Mesopotamia ;  the  plain  on  both 
shores  of  the  Euphrates ;  the  later  Babylonia 
or  Chaldea  (Gen.  xiv.  i). 

Sennacherib  (died  in  806  b.  c).  —  King 
of  Assyria.  Mounted  the  throne  about  704 
B.  c,  succeeding  his  father  Sargon;  waged 
war  against  the  Chaldeans,  Medes,  Egyp- 
tians, Syrians,  Phoenicians,  and  the  Jews. 
Ezechias,  king  of  Juda,  was  obliged  to  pay 
tribute  to  him,  but  freed  himself  in  an- 
other war,  when  he  allied  himself  with  the 
Egyptians.  Sennacherib  was  forced  to 
abandon  the  siege  of  Jerusalem,  about  200,- 
000  of  his  men  having  perished  under  the 


strokes  of  the  angel  of  the  Lord.  This 
king  beautified  Ninive  and  built,  among 
other  monuments,  the  palace  of  Koyound- 
jeck,  whose  ruins  were  discovered  in  1851, 
by  Layard. 

Sensualism  (doctrine  which  places  the 
origin  of  our  ideas  in  our  sensations  and 
sets  up  sensation  as  the  criterion  of  certi- 
tude).—  In  so  far  as  this  system  admits  as 
reality  only  the  material  bodies  or  matter, 
it  is  called  materialism.  The  most  famous 
sensualists  are  found  among  the  ancients: 
Democritus,  Leucippus,  Aristippus,  Epi- 
curus, and  Lucretius ;  among  the  moderns 
we  have  Hobbes,  Gassendi,  Condillac, 
Helvetius,  Cabanis,  Broussais,  Hartley, 
and  Priestley.,  They  often  class,  but  un- 
justly. Bacon  and  Locke  among  sensual- 
ists. The  latter  grant,  it  is  true,  the  prin- 
cipal role  to  experience,  but  at  the  same 
time  they  acknowledge  the  insufficiency  of 
sensation  to  explain  all  our  ideas.  Sen- 
sualism, having  been  founded  by  Epicurus, 
it  seems  that  we  might  call  it  Epicurism  ; 
but  the  latter  term  generally  applies  itself 
to  sensualism  only  in  so  far  as  it  is  consid- 
ered from  the  moral  point  of  view.  How- 
ever, sensualism  was  reduced  to  a  special 
system,  under  this  name,  only  in  modern 
times,  by  the  philosophers  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  The  English  Deists  had  com- 
menced by  questioning  the  object  of 
knowledge.  The  sensualists  examined  the 
faculties  which  serve  to  arrive  at  knowl- 
edge, rejecting  all  that  they  claimed  to  be 
useless  for  knowledge,  especially  political 
and  religious  knowledge.  After  this  comes 
Condillac  and  formulates  the  theory  of 
sensualism.  He  taught:  "Sensation  is 
the  principle  of  all  human  science;  it  is  a 
movement  of  the  cerebral  fibers."  The 
encyclopaedists  drew  the  consequences 
from  these  principles.  Man,  they  said,  is 
nothing  but  an  animal ;  the  soul,  a  secre- 
tion of  the  brain.  It  is  easy  to  understand 
what  grave  consequences  a  similar  system 
entailed.  If  the  senses  fix  our  intellectual 
horizon,  we  are  without  God  and  without 
religion  ;  if  man  is  nothing  but  a  physical 
being  endowed  only  with  sensuousness,  he 
is  evidently  only  a  perfected  animal ;  if  the 
sensation  as  well  as  the  thought  which 
proceeds  from  it  is  only  a  secretion  of  the 
brain,  the  soul  itself  is  nothing  but  a  sim- 
ilar secretion  ;  then  disappears  all  distinc- 
tion between  the  body  and  the  spirit,  and, 
therefore,  there  is  neither  good  nor  evil, 
neither  vice  nor  virtue.     For  the  spring  of 


Separatists 


644 


Sequence 


our  actions  there  remains  only  personal 
interest  or  egoism.  This  system  attempted 
nothing  less  than  to  undermine  the  basis 
of  society,  as  we  shall  see  very  soon.  This 
doctrine  was  a  sign  of  wrath,  an  instru- 
ment of  war  against  religion,  and  not  of 
progress.  Besides,  physiology,  as  well  as 
philosophy,  rises  up  against  the  absurdity 
of  placing  sensation  solely  in  the  senses. 
In  the  face  of  Descartes,  who  absorbed  the 
whole  man  in  the  spirit  and  left  to  mat- 
ter no  life  of  its  own,  sensualism  was 
right;  but,  falling  into  the  contrary  ex- 
cess, it  was  wrong  to  completely  absorb  the 
spirit  into  the  material  being.  When 
these  questions  have  been  more  deeply 
studied,  experience  will  prove,  in  the  long 
run,  the  weakness  of  this  double  point  of 
departure.  Sensualism,  perfectly  true  as 
concerns  matter,  had,  like  the  criticism  of 
Kant,  disowned  the  spirit  and  the  life  that 
is  proper  to  it,  and,  by  this  act,  had  be- 
come insufficient  to  solve  the  grave  prob- 
lems which  Kant  himself  had  often  raised, 
about  the  genesis  of  thought,  on  the  one 
hand,  and  about  the  life  of  matter  or  nature, 
on  the  other.  Finding  itself  face  to  face  with 
Christianity  —  immense  fact  of  history!  — 
sensualism,  not  being  capable  of  under- 
standing it,  contented  itself  by  denying  it. 
But  humanity  does  not  allow  itself  to  be 
served  with  negations,  and  sensualism 
could  not  maintain  itself ;  hence  it  had  to 
return  and  prove  the  existence  of  what  it 
had  denied  shortly  before.  It  was  the 
same  with  criticism.  Kant,  after  having 
expelled  the  idea  of  God  from  the  purely 
intellectual  domain  of  reason,  returned  to 
it  as  to  a  moral  exigency.  They  began  to 
study  the  starting  point  of  their  errors, 
that  is,  the  true  principles  which  serve  as 
basis  to  false  notions.  Anthony  Giinther 
had  already  cleared  up  the  question  by 
acknowledging  to  matter  what  belongs  to 
matter,  and  to  spirit  what  belongs  to 
spirit.  Then  he  proved  that  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  being  that  sustains  the  phe- 
nomena is  the  true  intellectual  proceeding, 
the  real  mode  of  the  thought ;  he  proved 
that  nature  is  independent  from  the  spirit  in 
the  face  of  purely  sensible  life,  as  well  as  the 
reality,  the  independence  both  of  the  life  of 
the  senses  and  of  nature.  Thus  the  false 
and  exclusive  sensualism  disappeared.  In 
summary,  sensualism,  by  the  total  nega- 
tion of  ideas,  falls  into  all  kinds  of  errors; 
those  which  it  favors  the  most  are  athe- 
ism, materialism,  complete  idealism  or 
nihilism,  empiricism  and  skepticism. 


Separatists.     See  Nonconformists. 

Sepharvaim. — A  place  in  Assyria  whence 
colonists  were  transferred  to  Samaria  to  set- 
tle the  country  of  captive  Israel,  about  721 
B.  c.  (IV.  Ki.  xvii.  24),  identified  with  Sip- 
para,  a  town  on  both  shores  of  the  Euphrates 
(whence  its  dual  name  in  Hebrew),  about 
20  miles  north  of  Babylon.  Sennacherib 
mentions  Sepharvaim  (IV.  Ki.  xix.  11,  13) 
as  a  city  subdued  by  the  Assyrians  before 
his  time.  It  was  a  chief  seat  of  the  wor- 
ship of  the  sun.  It  had  a  library  which 
has  been  deciphered  by  George  Smith  and 
others. 

Sephora.  — Wife  of  Moses,  daughter  of 
Jethro,  of  the  country  of  Madian,  whither 
Moses  had  retired  after  he  had  killed  an 
Egyptian  who  ill-treated  a  Hebrew,  and 
where  he  married  and  sojourned  during 
fourteen  years. 

Septuagesima  Sunday  (Lat  septua- 
gesima,'\.  e.  dies,  the  seventieth).  —  The 
third  Sunday  before  Lent,  so  called,  like 
Sexagesima  and  ^uinquagesima ,  from  its 
distance  (reckoned  in  round  numbers)  be- 
fore Easter. 

Septuagint  (Lat.  septuaginta ;  seventy). 
—  Name  under  which  we  generally  under- 
stand the  seventy  or  seventy-two  interpre- 
ters who,  according  to  the  common  opinion, 
translated  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament, 
or  at  least  the  Pentateuch,  from  Hebrew 
into  Greek,  by  order  of  Ptolemy  Philadel- 
phus,  king  of  Egypt.  Their  translation  is 
called  Version  of  Alexandria,  because  they 
made  it  on  the  island  of  Pharos,  near  Alex- 
andria. The  Church  never  did  express 
herself  on  the  divine  inspiration  of  the 
Septuagint.  Though  the  authors  of  this 
version  may  not  have  been  divinely  in- 
spired, it  is  nevertheless  a  precious  monu- 
ment.    See  Bible. 

Sequence.  —  In  liturgy  a  hymn  in 
rhythmical  prose  or  in  accentual  meter 
sung  after  the  Gradual  (whence  the  name) 
and  before  the  Gospel.  In  very  early 
times  the  Alleluia,  after  the  Gradual  in 
Mass,  was  followed  by  a  long  series  of 
jubilant  notes  sung  to  its  last  vowel  with- 
out any  words.  This  series  of  notes  was 
called  the  Sequence,  but  owing  to  the  dif- 
ficulty of  remembering  these  vocaliza- 
tions, experienced  by  even  the  most 
skillful  cantors,  a  custom  arose  in  the 
North  of  Gaul  of  setting  words  to  these 
notes.     About  the  year  860  a  monk  of  the 


Seraphim 


645 


Sermon 


Abbey  of  Jumieges,  which  had  been  laid 
waste  by  the  Normans,  sought  refuge  at 
the  monastery  of  St.  Gall  in  the  diocese  at 
Constance.  He  brought  with  him  the 
Antiphoner  of  his  monastery,  which  con- 
tained several  of  these  Sequences  with 
words  set  to  them.  This  volume  was  a 
source  of  inspiration  to  a  young  monk  of 
St.  Gall  named  Notk6r  (died,  912),  who  at 
once  set  to  work  to  imitate  and  improve 
on  them.  Notker's  work  found  favor,  and 
his  compositions  were  introduced  into  the 
use  of  most  Churches  and  orders,  and  were 
called  ProstE  ad  Scquentia,  and  later  on 
Prosce.  Of  the  many  proses  in  use  during 
the  Middle  Ages,  four  only  were  retained 
in  the  Plan  Missal.  The  first  of  these  is 
the  Victimce  Paschali,  sung  at  Easter,  the 
author  of  which  was  Wipo,  chaplain  of  the 
Emperor  Conrad  II.  and  Henry  III.,  of 
Germany  (died,  1050) ;  the  second  is  the 
Veni  Sancte  Spiritns,  for  Pentecost, 
which,  according  to  Duranti,  is  the  pro- 
duction of  Robert,  king  of  the  Franks 
(died,  1031) ;  the  third  is  the  Lauda  Sion, 
for  the  feast  of  Corpus  Christi,  composed 
by  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  (died,  1274);  the 
fourth  is  the  D/ps  Tree,  ascribed  by  some 
to  Cardinal  Latino  Malabranca,  a  Domini- 
can friar  who  died  in  1294,  ^^^  with  better 
reason  to  Thomas  de  Celano,  a  Francis- 
can who  lived  in  the  middle  of  the  thir- 
teenth century.  The  Stabat  Mater 
Dolorosa,  attributed  by  some  to  Pope  In- 
nocent III.  (died,  1216),  is  derived  more 
probably  by  the  Franciscan,  Jacopohe  da 
Todi  (died,  1306).  It  was  restored  to  the 
Roman  Missal  by  Benedict  XIII.  in  1727. 

Seraphim  (plural  of  seraph). — Celes- 
tial beings  in  attendance  upon  Jehovah, 
mentioned  by  Isaias.  They  are  similar  to 
the  cherubim,  and  are  represented  as  hav- 
ing the  human  form,  face,  voice,  two 
hands  and  two  feet,  but  six  wings,  with 
four  of  which  they  cover  their  face  and 
feet,  as  a  sign  of  reverence,  while  with 
two  they  fly.  Their  office  is  singing  the 
praises  of  Jehovah's  greatness,  and  being 
the  swift  messengers  between  heaven  and 
earth. 

Sergius  (name  of  four  Popes).  —  Ser- 
gius  I.  —  Pope  from  687  to  701.  He  refused 
to  sanction  the  Trullan  Synod,  which  as- 
sembled in  692  at  the  summons  of  the  Em- 
peror Justinian  II.  Irritated  by  this  refusal, 
the  haughty  emperor  sent  orders  for  the 
apprehension  and  transportation  of  the 
Pope  to  Constantinople.     But  the  Romans, 


and  even  the  imperial  soldiery,  rushed  to 
the  defense  of  the  Pope,  and  only  for  the 
Pope's  intervention,  they  would  have  torn 
Zacharias,  the  imperial  officer,  to  pieces. 
Sergius  II.  —  Pope  from  844  to  847.  Suc- 
cessor of  Gregory  IV.  During  his  Pon- 
tificate the  Saracens  ravaged  southern 
Italy,  and  even  threatened  Rome.  It  was 
Sergius  that  built  the  Scala  Sancta  {Sacred 
Stairway)  near  the  Lateran  Basilica. 
Sergius  III.  —  Pope  from  904  to  911.  The 
moral  character  of  this  Pope  is  grievously 
assailed  by  Luitprand,  a  contemporary 
writer,  whose  testimony,  however,  is  weak- 
ened by  his  known  hostility  to  the  counts 
of  Tusculum,  to  whom  Sergius  was  re- 
lated, and  by  his  partial  devotion  to  the 
imperial  interests.  Flodoard  and  Deacon 
John,  other  contemporary  writers,  repre- 
sent Sergius  as  a  favorite  with  the  Roman 
people  and  a  kind  and  active  Pontiff,  who 
labored  strenuously  for  the  restoration  of 
ecclesiastical  discipline.  With  the  excep- 
tion that  he  was  an  opponent  of  Pope  For- 
mosus,  he  is  guiltless  of  the  charges 
brought  against  him  by  the  slanderous 
Luitprand.  Sergius  IV.  —  Pope  from  1009 
to  1012.     Successor  of  John  XVIII. 

Sergius  Paulus.  —  Proconsul  of  the 
island  of  Cyprus,  converted  by  St.  Paul, 
in   spite  of    the   efforts   of    the   magician 

Elymas. 

Sermon  (discourse).  —  The  sermon  as- 
sumes, according  to  the  form  given  to  it, 
the  names  of  homily,  prose,  or  sermon 
properly  speaking.  The  sermon  properly 
so  called  is  a  religious  discourse  which  ex- 
pounds and  develops  a  point  of  moral  or 
dogma  under  a  synthetic  form.  The  ser- 
mon has  become  to-day  the  usual  form 
under  which  the  word  of  God  is  an- 
nounced, that  is,  the  religious  truths, 
while  in  the  primitive  Church,  the  homi- 
letic  form  predominated,  to  which  was 
joined  the  reading  and  explanation  of  the 
Biblical  text,  without  stopping  to  make  it 
the  basis  of  one  sole  subject.  The  sermon 
starts  with  one  proposition  as  its  theme, 
and  constitutes  a  whole  whose  parts  are 
the  ramifications;  the  good  this  method 
has  is,  that  it  presents  the  subject  under 
its  different  aspects,  that  it  follows  a  log- 
ical order,  and  that  thereby  the  truth  is 
easier  understood.  Unfortunately,  often  the 
oratorical  art  takes  the  place  of  evangel- 
ical preaching.  Preaching,  strictly  speak- 
ing, is  not  an  essential  part  of  divine 
worship,  but  a  preparation  for  it,  and  the 


Serpent 


646 


Servites 


Church  recommends  it  and  makes  it  a 
strict  duty  on  her  ministers  to  preach. 
Protestants  have  made  of  the  sermon  the 
essential  part  of  worship ;  with  them 
preaching  has  a  purely  subjective  charac- 
ter, dependent  on  the  manner  in  which 
each  orator  understands  the  doctrine, 
while  Catholic  preaching  always  carries 
the  seal  of  the  objective  doctrine  of  the 
Church,  and  it  is  the  authority  of  the 
teaching  of  the  Church  that  governs 
the  orator.  All  Christian  preaching  is  in 
Christ,  and  the  true  ministry  of  the  Word 
is  that  which,  from  Christ,  has  been 
transmitted  to  the  Apostles  and  their  suc- 
cessors ;  there  is  only  one  Christ  and  there 
can  be  only  one  Christian  teaching.  The 
style  of  preaching  must  be  distinguished 
both  by  simplicity  and  elevation.  Preach- 
ing is  an  art  difficult  to  learn,  for  it  is  as 
much  an  effusion  of  lively  faith  as  it  is  a 
product  of  acquired  skill.  The  style, 
however,  in  a  sermon  as  in  all  other  dis- 
courses, is  of  great  importance.  The  ser- 
mon being  a  peculiar  branch  of  the 
oratorical  art,  it  must  have  a  style  that  is 
proper  to  it,  that  is,  the  homiletic  style  of 
which  we  find  elements  in  both  the  Gospels 
and  the  Fathers.  Preaching  ought  not 
to  permit  itself  to  be  dominated  by  the 
oratorical  element.  The  ministry  of 
preaching,  says  Fl^chier,  is  reserved  to 
the  explanation  of  the  mysteries,  or  to  the 
persuasion  of  the  precepts  of  religion,  and 
not  to  pompous  sermons  where  the  imagi- 
nation plays  a  greater  rdle  than  reason, 
and  where  the  orator  strives  less  to  edify 
than  to  please.  The  orator  should  draw 
the  first  elements  of  his  instructions  from 
Holy  Scripture.  Theology  and  Church 
history  should  not  be  less  familiar  to  him, 
either  to  distinguish  what  is  of  faith,  or  to 
establish  the  truths  of  religion  by  facts. 
He  should  study  rhetoric  only  to  draw 
from  it  the  rules  of  the  discourse,  and  so, 
also,  should  he  study  the  ancient  orators, 
even  profane  ones,  only  with  the  view  to 
find  therein  the  means  of  persuasion ;  for 
the  object  of  the  Christian  orator,  like  that 
of  the  profane  orator,  is  to  move  and  to 
persuade.     See  ELOquENCE. 

Serpent  (^Brazen). — We  read  in  the 
Book  of  Numbers  that,  to  punish  the  mur- 
murings  of  the  Israelites  in  the  desert, 
God  sent  serpents  among  them  which 
caused  the  death  of  many.  Then,  by  the 
Lord's  direction,  Moses  made  a  serpent  of 
brass  and  put  it  on  a  pole,  that  it  might  be 


seen  from  all  parts  of  the  camp,  and  who- 
soever looked  at  it  was  healed  (Num.  xxi.). 

Serra  (  Junipero). —  A  Franciscan  mis- 
sionary; born  in  the  island  of  Majorca, 
Nov.  24th,  1713.  He  entered  the  Francis- 
can Order  in  1731 ;  went  to  Mexico  in  1749, 
where  he  labored  among  the  Indians  until 
1767,  when  he  was  sent  to  California.  The 
Jesuits  had  been  expelled,  and  their  mis- 
sions were  placed  in  charge  of  the  Francis- 
cans. Father  Serra  was  made  president 
of  these,  and  the  development  of  the  Cali- 
fornia mission  is  due  very  largely  to  him. 
San  Diego  was  the  first  mission  founded 
by  him.  This  was  in  1769,  and  many  oth- 
ers followed.  He  died  at  San  Carlos  mis- 
sion, Aug.  28th,  1784. 

Servetus  (Michael)  (1509-1553). — 
Physician  and  learned  Protestant  of  the 
Anti-Trinitarian  sect,  born  at  Villa  Nueva, 
Aragon.  Went  to  Germany  to  be  more  at 
liberty  to  publish  his  works  against  the 
dogma  of  the  Trinity;  returned  to  Lyons; 
went  to  Paris  to  study  medicine,  and  ob- 
tained the  degree  of  doctor  of  medicine. 
He  then  met  Calvin  for  the  first  time, 
with  whom  he  entered  into  a  theological 
dispute.  After  practicing  medicine  for 
short  periods  at  Avignon  and  Charlieu,  he 
settled,  in  1541,  as  medical  practitioner  at 
Vienne.  In  1553  he  published  Christian- 
isnti  Restitutio,  which  caused  him  to  be 
arrested  by  order  of  the  inquisitor  general 
at  Lyons.  He  made  his  escape,  but  was 
apprehended  at  the  instance  of  Calvin  at 
Geneva,  on  his  way  to  Naples,  and  at  Cal- 
vin's instigation,  was  burned  alive  at  Gen- 
eva, in  1553. 

Servites  (religious).  —  The  Order  of  the 
Sers'ants  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  commonly 
called  Servites,  owes  its  origin  to  the  zeal 
and  piety  of  seven  Florentine  merchants. 
After  distributing  their  goods  among  the 
poor,  they  retired  to  Monte  Senario,  near 
Florence,  where  they  dwelt  in  cells  as 
hermits.  This  was  in  1233,  which  is  re- 
garded as  the  date  of  the  foundation  of  the 
order.  They  subsequently  became  a  mo- 
nastic community  under  the  special  patron- 
age of  the  Blessed  Virgin.  They  adopted 
the  Augustinian  Rule,  and  for  their  habit 
wore  a  black  tunic  with  a  scapular  and  cape 
of  the  same  color.  Under  St.  Philip  Beniti, 
the  fifth  general,  the  order  spread  rapidly, 
chiefly  in  Italy  and  Germany.  St.  Juliana 
Falconieri  is  regarded  as  the  foundress  of 
the  Servite  Third  Order.  The  Servites 
were  approved  by  Alexander  IV.,  in  1255. 


Servus  Servorum  Dei 


647 


SiDON 


Innocent  VIII.  declared  the  Servites  a 
mendicant  order,  bestowing  on  them  the 
privileges  enjoyed  by  the  other  mendi- 
cants. 

$ervus  Servorum  Dei  (Latin  words,  the 
servant  of  the  servants  of  God) .  is  the 
official  formula  with  which  the  Pope  signs 
his  name.  It  was  first  adopted  by  Gregory 
the  Great. 

Severians.  —  Followers  of  Tatian  and 
Severius,  heretics  who  rejected  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles  and  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul. 
They  also  maintained  the  corruptibility  of 
the  body  of  Christ. 

Severinus  (St.).     See  Bavaria. 

Severinus  (St.).  —  Pope,  born  at  Rome, 
successor  of  Honorius  I.  Governed  the 
Church  only  two  months  (649)  and  had  for 
successor  John  IV. 

Sexagesima  Sunday  (Lat.  sexagesima, 
i.  e.  dies,  the  sixtieth  day).  —  The  second 
Sunday  before  Lent,  and  roughly  reckoned 
the  sixtieth  day  before  Easter. 

Shakers. — A  Protestant  sect,  so  called 
from  their  practice  of  shaking  and  dancing, 
in  which  their  worship  principally  consists. 
Their  original  name  was  "  Believers  in 
Christ's  Second  Appearing."  They  came 
originally  from  England  and  settled  in  the 
state  of  New  York,  in  1774.  Their  leader 
was  Anna  Lee,  who,  they  ridiculously 
claimed,  was  the  "  elect  lady"  mentioned 
in  Revelation  (xii.  i),  the  "Bride  of  the 
Lamb,"  and  the  "  Mother  of  all  the  Elect 
and  Saints."  In  her  it  is  claimed  that  the 
second  coming  of  Christ  was  realized. 
They  live  in  communities  and  do  not 
marry,  their  society  being  recruited  mostly 
by  young  men  and  girls.  There  are  eight- 
een Shaker  settlements  in  this  country, 
with  a  membership  of  about  seven  thou- 
sand. 

Shalmaneser  III.  —  King  of  Assyria, 
reigned  from  878  to  869  b.  c.  Waged  war 
almost  continually  against  his  revolting 
subjects,  made  several  expeditions  into 
Armenia,  into  Syria  against  the  kings  of 
Hamath  and  Damascus ;  imposed  a  tribute 
upon  Jehu,  king  of  Juda,  upon  the  princes 
of  Chaldea  and  Phoenicia,  and  about  the 
end  of  his  life  had  to  suppress  the  revolts 
of  his  son,  Sardanapal.  Shalmaneser  V. 
—  King  of  Assyria,  successor  of  Teglath- 
Phalasar,  reigned  from  725  to  712  b.  c. 
Attacked  Ossee,  the  king  of  Israel,  impris- 


oned him,  and  led  a  great  number  of  Is- 
raelites into  captivity  on  the  shores  of  the 
Tigris. 

Sheol  (Hebr.  the  place  of  departed  spir- 
its).— The  original  is  in  the  authorized  ver- 
sion, and  means  grave,  hell,  or  pit;  in  the 
revised  version  of  the  Old  Testament  the 
word  Sheol  is  substituted.  It  corresponds 
to  the  word  Hades  in  the  Greek  classic  lit- 
erature.    See  Immortality. 

Shepherd  {Sisters  of  the  Good).  See 
Sisters. 

Shrine.  —  A  casket  or  receptacle  for 
something  held  sacred.  Sometimes  small 
and  portable,  at  others  fixed  in  a  suitable 
place.  Tombs  of  holy  people  were  called 
shrines,  and  the  term  came  to  be  applied 
to  that  with  which  they  were  connected. 

Shrovetide  (Ang.-Sax.  jcr«/a«,  toshrive, 
to  confess,  literally  means  "  confession- 
time"). —  The  name  given  to  the  days  im- 
mediately preceding  Ash  Wednesday, 
which,  indeed,  the  whole  period  after 
Septuagesima  Sunday  appears  to  have  been. 
They  were  days  of  preparation  for  the  peni- 
tential time  of  Lent,  the  chief  part  of 
which  preparation  consisted  in  receiving 
the  sacrament  of  penance,  that  is,  in  "  be- 
ing shriven,"  or  confessing. 

Sichem  (the  modern  Naf louse).  —  An- 
cient city  of  Palestine,  situated  in  the 
midst  of  a  valley  formed  by  mount  Hebal 
and  mount  Garizim,  south  of  Samaria.  It 
was  a  Levitical  city,  of  the  tribe  of 
Ephraim.  Its  inhabitants,  having  insulted 
Dina,  daughter  of  Jacob,  were  massacred 
by  her  brethren.  Achimelech,  son  of 
Gedeon,  to  punish  them  for  revolting,  de- 
stroyed the  city,  which  was  later  on  rebuilt 
by  Jeroboam.  At  Sichem  the  assembly  of 
the  ten  tribes  of  Israel  took  place  and  here 
they  resolved  to  form  a  separate  kingdom. 
Under  the  Persian  kings,  it  was  the  center 
of  the  worship  of  the  Samaritans.  Near  it 
was  Jacob's  well,  where  our  Saviour  talked 
with  the  woman  of  Samaria. 

Sidon  (now  called  Saide). — Celebrated 
city  of  Phoenicia,  on  the  Mediterranean 
sea,  north  of  Tyre  and  Sarepta.  It  is  one 
of  the  most  ancient  cities  in  the  world, 
and  is  believed  to  have  been  founded  by 
Sidon,  the  eldest  son  of  Chanaan.  In  the 
time  of  Homer,  the  Sidonians  were  emi- 
nent for  their  trade  and  commerce,  their 
wealth  and  prosperity.  Upon  the  division 
of   Chanaan   among  the   tribes   by  Josue, 


SiDONIUS  APOLLINARIS 


648 


Simon  Magus 


Sidon  fell  to  the  lot  of  Aser ;  but  that  tribe 
never  succeeded  in  obtaining  possession 
of  it.  The  Sidonians  continued  long  under 
their  own  government  and  kings,  though 
sometimes  tributary  to  the  kings  of  Tyre. 
They  were  subdued  successively  by  the 
Babylonians,  Egyptians,  Seleucidae  and 
Romans,  the  latter  of  whom  deprived  them 
of  their  freedom.  Many  of  the  inhabitants 
became  followers  of  our  Saviour,  and  there 
was  a  Christian  Church  at  Sichem,  when 
St.  Paul  visited  it  on  his  voyage  to  Rome 
(  Acts  xxvii.  3).  Its  present  population  is 
estimated  at  15,000. 

Sidonius  Apollinaris  (St.)  (430-488). — 
Latin  poet,  born  at  Lyons.  Elected  bishop 
of  Clermont  (472),  distinguished  himself  by 
his  virtues  and  courageously  suffered  per- 
secution from  part  of  the  Visigoth  kings. 
His  poems,  panegyrics,  147  letters,  etc.,  are 
full  of  interest  for  the  history  of  his  period. 
F.  Aug.  23d. 

Sig^  of  the  Cross.     See  Cross. 

Sila  or  Silo. —  Town  of  Palestine,  in  the 
tribe  of  Ephraim,  south  of  Sichem  and 
north  of  Bethel.  Capital  of  the  Hebrews 
from  the  time  of  their  entrance  into  the 
Promised  Land  until  the  reign  of  David. 
In  this  city  Josue  divided  the  land  among 
the  twelve  tribes.  Here  they  deposited 
the  Ark  of  the  Covenant  and  the  Taber- 
nacle. The  ruins  of  the  city  are  to-day 
known  under  the  name  of  Kharbet  Siloun. 

Silas  or  Silvanus  (the  former  name 
being  a  contraction  of  the  latter). — One 
of  the  chief  men  among  the  first  disciples 
of  our  Saviour,  which  disciples  have  been 
supposed  by  some  to  have  numbered 
seventy.  On  the  occasion  of  a  dispute  at 
Antioch,  on  the  obsersance  of  the  legal 
ceremonies,  St.  Paul  and  St.  Barnabas 
were  chosen  to  go  to  Jerusalem,  to  ad- 
vise with  the  Apostles ;  they  returned  with 
Judas  and  Silas.  Silas  joined  himself  to 
St.  Paul ;  and  after  Paul  and  Barnabas  had 
separated,  he  accompanied  St.  Paul  to 
visit  the  Churches  of  Syria  and  Cilicia, 
and  the  towns  and  provinces  of  Lycaonia, 
Phrygia,  Galatia,  and  Macedonia. 

Siloe. — A  fountain  under  the  walls  of 
Jerusalem,  on  the  east,  between  the  city 
and  the  brook  Cedron.  It  formed  two 
ponds  or  ptscince  rendered  famous  by  a 
miracle  of  Jesus  who  gave  eyesight  to  a 
man  born  blind.  The  tomb  of  the  Prophet 
Isaias  was  near  by. 


Silverius  (St.). — Pope  from  536  to  538; 
born  at  Frosinone.  Successor  of  St. 
Agapetus,  refused  to  restore  the  Patriarch 
Anthymus  to  the  see  of  Constantinople; 
deposed  as  a  Eutychian  heretic,  was  perse- 
cuted by  the  Empress  Theodora,  carried 
off  by  Belisarius,  and  banished  to  Patara 
(Lycia),  then  on  the  island  Palmaria, 
where  he  died  of  hunger.     F.  June  20th. 

Simeon.  —  Second  son  of  Jacob  and  of 
Lia,  was  retained  as  hostage  by  Joseph, 
when  his  brethren  went  to  buy  grain  in 
Egypt ;  took  part  with  Levi  in  the  massa- 
cre of  the  inhabitants  of  Sichem.  He 
gave  his  name  to  one  of  the  twelve  tribes ; 
but  his  descendants  had  only  a  small  terri- 
tory cut  off  from  the  tribe  of  Juda. 

Simeon  (St.). — Aged  Jew,  to  whom  it 
had  been  revealed  that  he  would  not  die 
before  having  seen  the  Saviour  of  the  world. 
He  was  in  the  Temple  when  the  Blessed 
Virgin  carried  thither  the  Child  Jesus ;  re- 
ceived the  divine  Child  in  his  arms  and 
said :  "Now,  O  Lord,  let  Thy  servant  de- 
part in  peace." 

Simeon  (St.). —  Nephew  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin,  became  a  disciple  of  Jesus  Christ; 
second  bishop  of  Jerusalem  (67).  After 
the  death  of  St.  James  he  was  martyred  by 
order  of  Atticus,  governor  of  Palestine 
under  Trajan,  in  107. 

Simeon,  (St.)  (390-460)  (surnamed  Sty- 
lites). — Anchorite,  born  at  Cisan,  Cilicia. 
Celebrated  for  his  fasts  and  austerities.  He 
spent  thirty  years  on  the  top  of  a  pillar  near 
Antioch,  where  he  led  a  most  austere  life, 
preaching  with  truly  apostolic  power  and 
wonderful  success,  to  the  populous  nomadic 
tribes  that  flocked  to  him  from  the  vast 
Syrian  desert,  Arabia,  and  even  Persia. 
F.  Jan.  5th. 

Simon  (St.). —  One  of  the  twelve  Apos- 
tles of  Jesus  Christ,  surnamed  the  "  Cha- 
naanite"or"  Zealot,"  born  in  Galilee,  per- 
haps at  Cana,  preached  the  faith  in  Egypt 
and  in  several  other  countries  of  Africa, 
especially  in  Mauritanea,  then  returned 
into  the  East  and  carried  the  Gospel  into 
Persia,  where  he  suffered  martyrdom  with 
St.  Jude.     F.  Oct.  28th. 

Simon  Magns  (surnamed  "the  father  of 
all  heresies  ") .  — Was  a  native  of  Gitton,  in 
Samaria.  By  his  skill  in  magic  he  attained 
great  influence  among  his  countrymen  and 
gained  many  followers.     He  received  bap- 


Simon  Stock 


649 


Sin 


tism  from  the  deacon  Philip.  When  St. 
Peter  and  St.  John  came  to  Samaria,  Simon, 
seeing  the  miraculous  gifts  bestowed  by 
these  Apostles,  offered  money  to  them  to 
obtain  the  power  of  conferring  the  Holy 
Spirit,  for  which  he  was  severely  rebuked. 
He  became  the  founder  of  a  sect  named 
after  him  *'  Simonians."  He  pretended  to 
be  the  Messias  who  appeared  in  Samaria 
as  the  Father,  in  Judea  as  the  Son,  and 
among  the  Gentiles  as  the  Holy  Ghost.  A 
certain  Helen,  a  public  prostitute  from 
Tyre,  became  a  follower  of  Simon,  who 
called  her  "  Ennoia,"  that  is,  "the  first 
thought  that  proceeded  from  him."  This 
magician  is  said  to  have  met  a  tragic  end 
in  attempting  to  imitate  the  Ascension  of 
our  Lord.  Another  account  has  it  that  he 
perished  through  wishing  to  rival  Christ 
in  His  resurrection,  and  he  had  himself 
buried  alive.  The  Simonians,  also  called 
Helenians,  were  accused  of  the  vilest  de- 
bauchery, and  worshiped  their  founder  as 
Jupiter,  and  Helen  as  Minerva.  They  soon 
split  into  several  parties,  of  which  the 
Dositheans  and  Menandrians  were  the  most 
notorious. 

Simon  Stock.     See  Scapular. 

Simony  (from  Simoti  the  Magician')  (il- 
licit agreement  by  which  one  gives  or  re- 
ceives a  temporal  reward,  a  pecuniary 
retribution  for  something  sacred  and  spir- 
itual).—  Simony  has  various  forms;  it  al- 
ways constitutes  a  contempt  of  sacred 
things,  for  which  it  finds  an  equivalent  in 
a  perishable  good.  Often  also,  it  would 
cause  disturbance  in  the  Church,  by  call- 
ing unworthy  men  to  the  functions  of  the 
hierarchy.  A  great  number  of  councils 
and  many  sovereign  Pontiflfs  Have  con- 
demned simony.  All  theologians  consider 
it  a  grievous  sin.  Simony  is  one  of  the 
evils  that  has  caused  considerable  struggle 
in  the  Church,  as,  for  instance,  the  so- 
called  quarrel  of  investiture.  Kings  and 
feudal  lords  claimed  to  have  the  right  to 
sell  ecclesiastical  dignities,  or  at  least  to 
confer  them  at  will,  which,  in  practice,  led 
to  the  same  result.  It  was  Pope  Gregory 
VII.,  who  showed  himself  the  most  power- 
ful adversary  of  simony.  See  Investi- 
ture. 

Simplicius  (St.).  —  Pope  from  468  to 
483,  born  at  Tivoli,  successor  of  St.  Hilary, 
caused  the  acceptation,  in  the  East,  of  the 
authority  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon,  and 
combated  with  firmness  the   Eutychians. 


Under  his  Pontificate,  took  place  the  de- 
struction of  the  empire  of  the  West,  through 
the  deposition  of  Romulus  Augustulus. 
F.  March  2d. 

Sin, —  Sin  is  a  voluntary  transgression 
of  the  divine  or  religious  law.  There  are 
several  kinds  of  sin :  Original  sin  in 
which  we  are  born ;  actual  sin  which  we 
commit  ourselves  by  an  act  of  our  own  free 
will ;  sins  of  thought,  desire,  word,  action, 
and  omission ;  sins  of  weakness  and  of 
malice ;  capital  and  noncapital  sins.  Sin 
is  imputable  as  an  offense  against  God,  or 
a  real  disobedience,  only  in  so  far  as  it 
unites  all  the  conditions  required  for  a 
human  act.  Consequently,  all  that  de- 
stroys the  willful  or  free  action,  exonerates 
from  all  sin,  as  also  all  that  weakens  these 
powers  diminishes,  proportionately,  the 
malice  of  our  faults.  Thus,  what  we  do 
through  error,  if  the  error  is  morally  in- 
vincible, cannot  be  imputed  to  us.  It  is 
no  sin,  or  as  it  has  sometimes  been  defined, 
only  a  material  sin.  It  is  the  same  with 
the  indeliberate  movements,  which  scho- 
lasticism calls  motus  frimo  frimi.  As  to 
the  actions  performed  with  half  knowledge, 
such  as,  for  instance,  the  acts  of  a  man 
half  asleep,  either  they  are  not  imputable 
at  all  or  are  imputable  only  under  the  title 
of  venial  sins.  But  the  deliberate  acts,  of 
which  the  understanding  fully  perceives 
the  malice,  even  though  confusedly,  and 
to  which  the  will  freely  consents,  are  cer- 
tainly sins,  and  mortal  sins  in  grievous 
matters.  To  render  ourselves  guilty,  it  is 
not  sufficient  to  know  that  the  action  we 
do  is  forbidden,  or  that  it  is  morally  bad; 
besides  this  knowledge,  there  must  be  ad- 
vertence on  the  part  of  him  who  acts,  that 
is,  as  the  word  indicates,  at  least  the  virtual 
attention  by  which  he  remarks  the  moral 
quality  of  his  action,  its  goodness  or  mal- 
ice. We  can  commit  sin  by  thought,  desire, 
word,  action,  and  omission.  It  is  a  sin  if  the 
will  stops  at  an  evil  thought,  immoratur, 
with  pleasure  and  deliberate  purpose,  and 
with  consent.  If  the  will  goes  as  far  as  the 
desire,  this  is  another  sin.  We  commit  a 
sin  of  desire,  if  we  wish  to  commit  the  act 
which  is  the  object  of  a  bad  thought.  We 
must  not  wish  evil  to  our  neighbor,  nor 
rejoice  in  the  evil  that  befalls  him,  on  ac- 
count of  temporal  advantages  we  may  de- 
rive from  it.  We  are  permitted  to  rejoice 
in  the  inheritance  we  receive,  provided 
that  we  do  not  rejoice  in  another's  death. 
We   are  permitted   to   desire   a  temporal 


Sin 


650 


Sin 


evil  to  our  neighbor,  either  for  his  greater 
good,  or  in  favor  of  the  innocent,  or  for 
the  general  good  of  the  Church  and  State. 
We  sin  by  word  in  holding  discourses 
against  faith,  religion,  charity,  and 
justice;  by  permitting,  for  instance, 
blasphemy,  calumny,  lying,  or  per- 
jury. The  sins  in  words  are  mortal,  in 
grievous  matters,  if  they  are  committed 
with  full  advertence.  We  sin  by  action,  if 
we  perpetrate  that  which  is  forbidden ; 
and  sin  by  omission,  if  we  do  not  do  what 
is  commanded.  We  can  sin  by  omission 
only,  if  the  omission  is  an  act  of  the  will. 
Therefore,  the  omission  must  be  voluntary 
but  it  can  be  this  directly  or  indirectly,  in 
itself  or  in  its  cause.  If  it  is  voluntary  in 
its  cause,  it  is  imputable  from'  the  moment 
the  cause  has  been  posed.  If  we  trans- 
gress a  law  on  account  of  error,  ignorance 
which  does  not  entirely  excuse  from  sin, 
or  by  yielding  to  a  strong  temptation,  the 
sin  is  called  a  sin  of  weakness.  If,  on  the 
contrary,  we  incline  toward  evil  know- 
ingly, of  ourselves,  by  pure  choice  of  the 
will,  then  the  sin  is  a  sin  of  malice.  The 
sin  of  weakness  is  not  always  venial ;  it 
may  be  mortal.  Man  has  duties  to  fulfil 
toward  God,  toward  his  neighbor,  and 
toward  himself.  Hence,  the  distinction  of 
sins  toward  God,  toward  our  neighbor,  and 
toward  ourselves.  However,  there  can  be 
no  sin  that  is  not  against  God,  because 
there  is  no  sin  that  is  not  either  a  trans- 
gression, more  or  less  direct,  of  some  di- 
vine, natural,  or  positive  law.  Sins  are 
distinguished  from  one  another  either  by 
the  species  that  is  proper  to  them,  or 
by  the  number  which  multiplies  them : 
hence,  as  the  school  expresses  itself,  the 
specific  distinction  and  the  numerical  dis- 
tinction of  sins.  Generally,  the  specific 
distinction  of  sins  is  drawn  from  the  nature 
of  the  morally  bad  act.  Heresy,  for  in- 
stance, despair,  blasphemy,  lying,  calumny, 
are  evidently  sins  of  different  species. 
First,  we  consider  whether  sins  differ 
from  one  another  as  to  the  species,  if  they 
are  opposed  to  different  virtues :  thus, 
heresy,  despair,  blasphemy,  are  sins  dis- 
tinct in  their  species,  because  they  are 
opposed  to  different  virtues ;  namely, 
heresy  to  faith,  despair  to  hope,  blas- 
phemy to  religion.  Second,  if  they  are 
opposed  to  different  functions  of  the  same 
virtue.  Under  this  title,  theft  and  homi- 
cide, although  opposed  to  the  same  virtue, 
—  to  the  virtue  of  justice, —  are  neverthe- 
less   sins   of  a   different    nature.      Third, 


if  they  are  opposed  to  the  same  virtue,  but 
in  a  contrary  sense.  Thus  despair  and 
presumption,  avarice  and  prodigality,  form 
different  species  of  sins.  Fourth,  sins 
are  again  distinct  as  to  species,  if  they  are 
opposed  to  the  same  virtue  in  a  different 
manner,  although  not  contrary;  such  are, 
in  regard  to  the  virtue  of  justice,  simple 
theft  {furtu/n),  and  rape  {rapina).  It 
happens  quite  often  that  one  and  the  same 
act  is  opposed  to  different  virtues  and 
contains  several  species  of  sins.  Circum- 
stances change  the  species  of  sin,  if  they 
imprint  upon  it  a  new  character  of  malice, 
which  it  has  not  by  itself.  It  is  certain  that 
we  must  declare  in  confession  all  the  cir- 
cumstances that  change  the  species  of  sin; 
the  Council  of  Trent  is  clear  on  this  point. 
The  penitent  is  also  obliged  to  answer  cor- 
rectly, and  always  conformably  to  the 
truth,  the  questions  which  the  confessor 
deems  necessary  to  put  to  him,  in  order  to 
assure  the  integrity  of  confession.  But  is 
he  obliged  to  make  known  the  notably 
aggravating  circumstances,  that  is,  those 
which,  without  changing  the  species  of 
sin,  notably  aggravate  or  increase  its 
malice.?  This  is  a  controverted  question; 
we  must  as  much  as  possible,  declare  in 
confession  the  number  of  mortal  sins,  both 
interior  and  exterior,  of  which  we  have 
rendered  ourselves  guilty.  Now,  the  nu- 
merical distinction  is  drawn  from  two 
sources,  namely :  from  the  multiplicity  of 
the  acts  of  the  will  morally  interpreted, 
and  from  the  diversity  of  the  objects. 
Mortal  sin  is  thus  designated,  because  it 
deprives  us  of  sanctifying  grace,  which  is 
the  life  of  our  soul,  and  renders  us  worthy 
of  death  or  of  eternal  damnation.  Venial 
sin  is  that  which  does  not  destroy  sanctify- 
ing grace,  but  weakens  it.  For  a  mortal 
sin,  three  things  are  required,  namely:  i. 
The  matter  must  be  grievous,  either  in 
itself,  or  on  account  of  the  circumstances, 
or  on  account  of  the  end  which  the  per- 
petrator has  in  view.  2.  The  actual  or 
virtual,  clear  or  confused  advertence  of 
the  malice  of  the  object,  must  be  plain 
and  perfect.  3.  The  direct  or  indirect 
consent  of  the  will  must  also  be  plain  and 
perfect.  If  one  of  these  three  conditions 
is  wanting,  the  sin  is  only  venial.  Mortal 
sin  in  its  kind,  ex  genere  sua,  may  become 
venial  in  three  ways:  i.  If  there  is  light- 
ness of  matter.  2.  If  there  is  want  of  a 
perfect  consent.  3.  If  the  advertence  is  im- 
perfect. Several  slight  matters  may  form 
a  grave  and  sufficient  matter  for  a  mortal 


Sin 


651 


Sin 


sin ;  such  is  the  case  if  they  are  united  by 
themselves  or  morally,  as  are  the  omis- 
sions of  the  divine  office,  the  violations  of 
fast,  repeated  several  times  within  one 
day.  Also,  it  is  important  to  remark  that 
there  are  sins  which  admit  no  lightness  of 
matter;  such  are,  among  others,  idolatry, 
apostasy,  heresy,  simony,  perjury,  duel- 
ing, homicide,  fornication,  and  adultery. 
Venial  sin,  by  its  nature,  may  become 
mortal  in  five  ways:  i.  By  the  end  we 
have  in  view :  the  one,  for  instance,  who 
uses  somewhat  too  free  language,  with 
the  intention  of  leading  his  neighbor  to 
commit  a  grievous  fault,  sins  mortally.  2, 
If  in  committing  a  slight  fault,  we  com- 
mit this  fault  with  the  actual  disposition 
to  commit  a  mortal  sin,  rather  than  to  ab- 
stain from  it.  3.  By  the  formal  contempt 
of  the  law  or  legislator  considered  as 
such.  4.  On  account  of  scandal  in  regard 
to  children,  domestics,  or  other  persons. 
5.  On  account  of  th(!  proximate  danger  to 
fall  into  a  grievous  fault.  In  this  case  we 
must  declare  in  confession  the  species  of 
the  sin  to  which  we  exposed  ourselves, 
either  committed  or  not  committed. 

Sin  {Original). — We  read  in  Genesis, 
that  Adam,  our  first  father,  was  placed  in 
an  earthly  paradise,  a  place  of  delights 
where  he  lived  happy  and  free  from  the 
miseries  of  this  life  as  long  as  he  preserved 
innocence ;  that  the  devil  assumed  the  form 
of  a  serpent,  and  seduced  Eve,  the  first  wo- 
man, who  ate  of  the  forbidden  fruit  and  en- 
ticed her  husband  to  eat  thereof;  and  that, 
by  this  disobedience,  Adam  drew  upon 
himself  and  upon  his  whole  posterity  the 
disfavor  of  heaven.  "  God,"  says  Bossuet, 
"  regards  all  men  as  a  single  man  in  the 
one  from  whom  He  wishes  all  to  go  forth." 
Now,  the  memory  of  the  innocence  and 
happiness  of  man,  in  the  earthly  paradise, 
has  preserved  itself  in  the  golden  age  of 
the  poets ;  as  also  the  ages  of  silver,  cop- 
per, and  iron  were  less  happy  than  the 
first,  reminding  us  of  the  degradation  of 
mankind  and  of  the  progressive  depravity 
of  men,  such,  as  is  reported  in  the  Sacred 
Books.  The  fall  of  mankind,  the  original 
sin,  is  a  dogma  of  religion,  of  primitive 
revelation.  It  is  the  belief  of  Christians; 
it  was  the  belief  of  the  Jews  and  Patriarchs, 
as  can  be  seen  in  the  Book  of  Job.  We 
also  find  this  belief,  although  greatly  al- 
tered, among  all  the  nations  of  the  earth. 
It  is  of  faith  that,  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary 
excepted,  all  men  are  born  with  the  sin  of 
Adam-    The  Council  of  Trent  has  formally 


decided,  under  pain  of  anathema  :  i.  That 
Adam,  the  first  man,  having  transgressed 
the  commandment  of  God  in  the  earthly 
paradise,  immediately  lost  the  holiness  and 
justice  in  which  he  had  been  created;  that 
he  incurred,  through  the  offense  of  this 
prevarication,  God's  wrath  and  indigna- 
tion, and,  in  consequence  thereof,  death, 
'  with  which  he  had  been  threatened,  and, 
with  death,  the  captivity  under  the  power 
of  the  devil,  who,  since  that  time,  held  the 
empire  of  death ;  adding  that  Adam  fell 
entirely,  both  as  to  body  and  soul,  from  the 
state  in  which  he  had  been  created.  2. 
That  the  evil  has  been  hurtful  even  to  his 
posterity;  that  he  lost  for  himself  and  for 
us  the  justice  and  holiness  which  he  had 
received  from  God;  that  having  soiled 
himself  through  the  sin  of  disobedience,  he 
transmitted  to  all  mankind,  not  only  death 
and  the  pains  of  the  body,  but  also  the  sin 
which  is  the  death  of  the  soul. 

In  regard  to  the  history  of  the  tempta- 
tion and  the  fall  of  our  first  parents,  as 
related  in  Genesis  iii.,  we  must  not  be 
astonished  when  we  find  therein  wonderful 
particulars.  Man,  according  to  the  orig- 
inal design  of  the  Creator,  was  not  to 
have  that  unfortunate  interior  inclination 
towards  evil  which  is  our  sad  inheritance. 
And,  nevertheless,  God,  having  created 
him  free,  wished  to  try  his  fidelity.  How 
could  He  try  him,  since  neither  Adam  nor 
Eve  felt  the  sting  of  concupiscence?  He 
could  do  this  only  by  permitting  a  foreign 
agent,  the  devil,  to  tempt  them.  But  how 
could  the  devil,  a  pure  spirit,  tempt  them, 
except  by  adopting  a  sensible  form  or  by 
making  use  of  an  animate  being?  And, 
finally,  how  could  God  try  the  fidelity  of 
His  reasonable  and  free  creature  in  a  more 
natural,  and,  so  to  say,  more  logical  man- 
ner, than  by  requiring  from  him  an  ex- 
terior act  of  obedience,  easy  in  itself,  con- 
sisting in  not  eating  of  a  forbidden  fruit, 
which  the  obedience  due  to  the  Creator 
forbade  him  to  taste,  but  for  which  every 
human  passion  aroused  by  the  tempter, 
pride,  sensuality,  curiosity,  the  spirit  of 
independence,  prompted  both  the  man  and 
the  woman  to  desire. 

Hence  Catholic  tradition  has  not  been 
unreasonable  in  taking  the  account  of 
Genesis  in  the  literal  sense.  With  right 
has  it  believed  that,  since  what  precedes 
and  follows  this  account  is  historical  and 
not  mythological,  there  was  good  reason 
to  believe  that  the  account  itself  is  no 
myth,  but  the  pure  and   simple  expression 


Sin 


652 


Sin 


of  truth.  Ancient  traditions  of  mankind 
justify  tlie  general  interpretation  of  tlie 
Churcla  in  regard  to  the  subject  in 
question.  One  objects,  it  is  true,  that 
all  the  primitive  remembrances,  among 
whatever  people  they  may  be,  are  alle- 
gorical and  mythological,  and  that  the 
Hebrew  people  cannot  form  an  exception 
to  the  general  rule.  But  we  may  ask : 
Why  not?  Because  all  religions  boast  of 
being  true,  does  it  follow  that  they  are  all 
false  without  exception.?  We  expressly 
maintain  that  tlie  Bible  is  not  a  book  like 
the  others,  just  as  the  Christian  religion 
is  not  a  religion  like  the  others.  We  be- 
lieve that  Genesis  alone  gives  us  the  ex- 
planation of  the  real  origin  of  evil  upon 
earth,  while  all  other  explanations  con- 
ceived with  great  pains  by  the  philoso- 
phers or  invented  spontaneously  by  popular 
imagination  explain  nothing. 

Another  reproach  is  made  to  Genesis : 
that  of  wounding  the  moral  feeling  in 
making  us  responsible  for  a  fault  which 
we  have  not  committed.  Certainly  we 
have  to  admit  that  at  first  sight  there  is 
something  mysterious,  and  even  terrible, 
in  this  solidarity  which  renders  us  partially 
responsible,  after  so  many  elapsed  genera- 
tions, for  a  fault  which  we  have  not  com- 
mitted. But  the  enemies  of  the  Bible  do 
not  obser\'^e,  when  they  attack  this  won- 
derful third  chapter  of  Genesis,  which 
teaches  us  more  about  man  and  human 
nature  than  all  the  philosophers  together 
—  they  do  not  observe  that  Moses  pro- 
claims an  incontestable  truth,  the  law  of 
solidarity,  one  of  the  greatest  laws  that 
govern  the  world. 

The  heavenly  bodies  attract  one  another 
and  move  themselves  reciprocally  accord- 
ing to  the  laws  of  universal  gravitation. 
Men  are  no  more  independent  or  isolated ; 
they  naturally  exercise  upon  one  another 
an  efficacious  influence,  either  for  good  or 
for  evil.  The  entire  universe  is  like  a 
great  organism  in  which  everything  is  con- 
nected and  bound  together;  and  just  as 
every  individual  feels  the  pain  when  one 
of  his  parts  is  attacked,  so  also  a  local  dis- 
order may  beget  a  general  trouble,  extend- 
ing itself  far  beyond  the  sphere  where  it 
took  rise. 

Hence  it  is  not  only  in  the  particular 
case  of  original  sin,  but  in  a  multitude  of 
occasions  and  circumstances,  that  we  are 
solidaries  of  one  another  and  that  the 
Creator  makes  us  carry  the  weight  of  the 
sins  of   our  fathers.     We  rejoice  in  their 


virtues,  we  suffer  for  their  faults  and  vices. 
The  parents  transmit  to  their  children 
their  own  health  or  diseases,  and  now  and 
then  something  of  their  own  good  or  evil 
dispositions.  The  past  has  in  the  history  of 
nations  and  individuals  a  long  re-echoing. 
Glory  and  honor  are  an  inheritance  in  the 
family  like  goods  and  riches,  and  the  in- 
famy of  the  name  imprints  itself  like  a  scar 
of  shame  on  the  forehead  of  the  children. 
In  society,  the  prosperity  of  all  depends 
upon  the  government  of  a  few;  good  or 
bad  laws,  made  by  a  few  men  or  even  by  a 
single  one,  save  or  destroy  the  people ;  the 
faults  of  the  chiefs  fall  as  calamities  on  the 
heads  of  those  whom  they  lead,  and  entire 
nations  groan  during  centuries  under  the 
weight  of  ancient  crimes.  A  victory  or  a 
defeat  may  fix  the  lot  of  a  whole  country 
for  generations.  Those  brilliant  popula- 
tions of  Asia  Minor,  who  shone  so  glori- 
ously at  the  beginning  of  our  era,  have 
seen  their  civilization  disappear,  because 
they  were  wanting  in  strength  to  resist  the 
conquest  of  the  Crescent,  and  their  de- 
graded descendants  are  hardly  to-day  a 
shadow  of  what  their  ancestors  were  in 
ancient  times.  K  Charles  Martel  had  not 
crushed  on  the  fields  of  Poitiers  the  Arabs 
of  Spain,  what  would  have  become  of  the 
European  peoples .''  Would  not  the  Moslem 
invasion  have  dried  up  in  its  source  that 
great  river  of  civilization  which  has  flown 
since  so  abundantly  through  all  Europe? 
Therefore,  the  European  peoples  have 
triumphed  with  the  Franks  of  Charles, 
just  as  the  present  victims  of  the  heavy 
yoke  of  Mohammed  have  been  conquered 
and  enslaved  in  the  person  of  their  an- 
cestors. 

Such  is  the  law  of  human  solidarity,  a 
general  and  universal  law  which  is  limited 
neither  by  time,  nor  by  space ;  which  ap- 
plies to  the  individual,  to  the  family,  and 
to  society;  which  renders  in  a  certain 
measure  the  children  responsible  for  the 
faults  of  their  fathers,  the  subjects  re- 
sponsible for  the  faults  of  their  kings  or 
chiefs,  both  heirs  of  the  merits  and  vices 
of  their  ancestors  and  of  those  whom  they 
have  governed.  It  partly  explains  both 
the  decay  and  the  ennobling  of  races,  the 
prosperity  and  power  of  nations  as  well  as 
their  weaknesses  and  misfortunes. 

"  These  are  facts  which  it  is  impossible 
to  dispute.  The  law  that  governs  them  is 
justified  without  difficulty,  because  this 
solidarity  is  in  itself  a  good  and  wise  in- 
stitution.    Thanks  to  this,  mankind  is  not 


Sins 


653 


Sinai 


merely  an  incoherent  agglomeration  of  in- 
dividuals, strangers  one  to  another,  but  a 
family  intimately  united,  wherein  the 
goods  of  each  one  turn  to  the  advantage  of 
all.  With  this  view  God  has  instituted 
it;  it  is  the  perversion  of  the  human  will 
that  abuses  it  and  draws  pernicious  effects 
from  it.  In  this  regard,  it  is  with  soli- 
darity as  with  liberty,  which  is  also  an 
excellent  thing,  in  spite  of  the  lamentable 
abuse  that  is  made  thereof.  Also,  with 
one  common  accord,  men  accept  these 
facts  without  protesting;  they  even  freely 
conform  their  conduct  accordingly.  The 
guilty  ma'n  is  struck  by  society  in  his 
goods,  in  his  honor,  and  in  his  life,  and 
his  children  are  condemned  to  suffer  from 
the  consequences  of  his  ruin  and  infamy; 
the  whole  population  of  a  city  is  punished 
for  a  rebellion  in  which  many  had  taken 
no  part;  a  people  are  afflicted  with  the 
calamities  of  war  in  revenge  for  an  injury 
of  which  its  representatives  alone  are  per- 
sonally guilty;  and  nobody  decries  this  as 
an  injustice.  The  reason  is  because  all  are 
deeply  impressed  with  the  sentiment  of 
unity  in  the  family,  in  the  city,  and  in  the 
nation. 

"  Original  sin  explains  itself  with  the 
help  of  these  principles,  it  is  the  conse- 
quence of  the  solidarity  which  God,  the 
Creator  and  Sovereign  Master,  was  pleased 
to  establish  between  the  first  man  and  the 
posterity  that  should  arise  from  him.  This 
conduct  of  God  might  offer  some  difficulty, 
if  the  victims  of  original  solidarity  found 
themselves  hurt  in  their  strict  and  indi- 
vidual right  as  creatures.  But,  no;  the 
goods  of  which  mankind  remains  deprived 
through  the  fault  of  its  chief  were  not  due 
to  it.  The  Creator  was  free  to  refuse  them 
purely  and  simply;  with  much  more 
reason  could  He  lix  at  will  the  possession 
thereof  under  such  or  such  a  condition. 
If  therefore  God  had  not  again  raised  the 
posterity  of  Adam  after  the  fall.  He  would 
have  left  it  deprived  of  these  excellent  and 
gratuitous  gifts,  but,  according  to  the 
opinion  of  a  numerous  and  authorized 
theological  school.  He  would  not  have  de- 
prived it  of  anything  that  the  divine  at- 
tributes require  of  the  creature  exempt 
from  sin. 

"  It  is  true  that  the  state  to  which  man- 
kind finds  itself  reduced  is  presented  by 
Catholic  teaching  as  a  real  state  of  sin. 
But  this  point  does  not  involve  any  diffi- 
culty when  we  consider  the  very  peculiar 
kind  of  sin  in  question.     There  is  in  our 


fallen  state  material  for  sin,  because  the  first 
good  of  which  men,  coming  into  the  world, 
are  deprived,  is  a  superior  holiness,  implying 
the  idea  of  moral  rectitude;  but  this  priva- 
tion is  effectively  imputed  to  sin  only  so  far 
as  it  is  voluntary.  Now,  it  is  not  voluntary 
by  the  personal  will  of  each  one,  but  by  the 
will  of  the  whole  race,  morally  personified 
in  its  chief.  Hence,  properly  speaking,  it 
is  a  family  sin,  a  sin  of  race,  and  not  di- 
rectly and  properly  a  personal  sin ;  it  is 
the  sin  of  mankind,  or,  as  St.  Thomas  says, 
whose  doctrine  we  here  follow,  it  is  the  sin 
of  the  nature  and  not  of  the  person.  When 
theology  admits  that  every  man  is  born 
guilty,  it  is  only  in  the  measure  and  man- 
ner which  this  explanation  permits.  In 
fact,  it  contains  nothing  at  which  sound  rea- 
son can  feel  offended."     (M.  Boisbourdin.) 

Sins  {Capital ).  —  We  count  seven  capi- 
tal or  deadly  sins  or  vices.  They  are  so 
called  because  they  are,  as  it  were,  seven 
sources  from  which  all  other  sins  or  vices 
flow.  And  in  fact  seven  such  fountain 
heads  of  sinful  actions  may  be  easily  dis- 
criminated. First,  we  may  distinguish  a 
fourfold  immoderate  appetite  :  of  spiritual 
goods,  namely,  of  praise  and  honor 
{pride);  oi  external  goods  {avarice);  of 
two  distinct  kinds  of  sensual  pleasures , 
{intetnpcrance  and  lust).  Moreover,  we 
may  distinguish  a  twofold  repugnance: 
against  the  difficulties  connected  with  the 
performance  of  good  works  {slotk)  ;  against 
the  good  or  welfare  of  our  neighbor  {envy) ; 
and  this  latter  repugnance,  if  greatly  in- 
tensified, develops  into  a  special  vice 
{ang-er). 

Sinai  (to-day  Djebel-Tor  and  Djebel- 
Mousa).  — Mountain  northwest  of  Arabia, 
northeast  of  Mount  Horeb  and  between 
the  gulfs  of  Suez  and  Akabah.  Here  God 
dictated  to  Moses  the  tables  of  the  law. 
Upon  one  of  its  two  summits,  the  Emperor 
Justinian  built  a  convent  (height  5,400 
feet),  which  still  exists.  It  resembles  a 
small  fortress  and  is  the  seat  of  an  arch- 
bishopric whose  titulary  resides  at  Cairo. 
To-day  this  mountain  is  called  "  Djebel- 
Katherin,"  on  account  of  a  chapel  where 
it  is  believed  the  remains  of  St.  Catharine 
reposed  during  sixty  years,  and  from 
which  place  they  were  transported  into  a 
church  which  is  at  the  foot  of  the  moun- 
tain. Near  this  chapel  flows  a  fountain 
which  is  claimed  to  be  miraculous.  About 
five  or  six  hundred  feet  from  the  chapel  is 
pointed  out  a  stone,  from  four  to  five  feet 


SlON 


654 


Sisterhood 


high,  and  about  three  feet  thick,  which  is 
claimed  to  be  the  rock  from  which  Moses 
caused  water  to  come  forth. 

Sion.  —  One  of  the  mountains  of  Jerusa- 
lem, and  by  extension  this  city  itself. 

Sion  (Missionary  Priests  of  Notre 
Dame  of). — This  community  was  canon- 
ically  erected  in  Paris,  June  20th,  1855,  and 
received  a  first  laudatory  letter  from  the 
Holy  See,  Dec.  14th,  1852.  The  mission 
which  distinguishes  it,  is  that  which  our 
Lord  has  especially  recommended  to  His 
Apostles:  "  Go  rather  to  the  lost  sheep  of 
the  house  of  Israel  "  (Matt.  x.  6). 

Sion  (Notre  Dame  of).  —  The  Institute 
of  Notre  Dame  of  Sion  was  founded  in 
1842.  Its  rule  and  constitutions  received 
the  approbation  of  the  Holy  See,  Sept. 
8th,  1863.  This  congregation  took  rise  in 
consequence  of  the  apparition  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  in  the  Church  of  St.  An- 
drew delle  Fratte,  at  Rome.  The  Israelite, 
converted  by  a  miracle,  Alphonse  Ratis- 
bonne,  and  his  eldest  brother,  the  Abb^ 
Theodore  Ratisbonne,  laid  the  foundation 
of  the  work,  destined  to  second  the  con- 
version of  the  Jews  and  to  procure  Chris- 
tian education  for  the  young  neophytes. 
Such  was  the  first  and  principal  object  of 
this  institute,  which  soon  achieved  consid- 
erable growth.  For  the  members,  becom- 
ing every  day  more  numerous,  the  congre- 
gation founded,  besides Jthe  establishments 
for  Catechumens,  several  academies  for 
young  Christian  girls,  as  well  as  homes 
for  orphans  and  industrial  establishments 
for  the  poor.  The  mother  house  of  the 
Daughters  of  Sion  is  at  Paris.  The  con- 
gregation possesses  houses  in  the  Holy 
Land,  in  Turkey,  in  Moldavia,  and  in  Eng- 
land. But  the  most  remarkable  of  these 
colonies  is  that  of  Jerusalem,  where  it  oc- 
cupies the  Monastery  of  Ecce  Homo,  built 
on  the  site  of  the  palace  of  Pontius  Pilate. 
Not  far  from  the  holy  city,  the  religious 
direct  a  large  orphan  asylum,  known  under 
the  name  of  Saint-Jean-in-Montana. 

Siricius  (St.).  —  Pope  from  384  to  398, 
born  at  Rome;  successor  of  St.  Damasus. 
Combated  the  different  sects  which  deso- 
lated the  Church  during  his  Pontificate, 
the  Manicheans,  Priscillianists,  Novatians, 
etc.  He  was  the  first  Bishop  of  Rome  who 
assumed  the  title  of  Pope.      F.  Nov.  26th. 

Sirmium  (Councils  of). —  Sirmium,  in 
ancient  geography,  was  an  important  city 


of  Lower  Pannonia,  situated  on  the  Save. 
Here  four  ecclesiastical  councils  were  held, 
from  349  to  359.  The  second,  composed 
of  Arian  bishops,  published  a  formula  of 
faith  which  was  accepted  by  many  Cath- 
olics ;  but  the  third  drew  up  a  distinctly 
heretical  formula. 

Sisara.  —  General  of  Jaban,  king  of 
Asor.  He  was  conquered  by  Barac,  near 
Mount  Thabor,  and,  troubled  in  his  mind 
on  account  of  the  defeat  of  his  troops, 
jumped  from  his  chariot  to  flee  on  foot. 
He  took  refuge  in  the  tent  of  Haber  the 
Cinite,  and,  while  asleep,  Jahel,  the  wife 
of  Haber,  drove  a  nail  into  his  head  and 
killed  him. 

Sisinnius. —  Pope,  born  in  Syria,  succes- 
sor of  John  VII.,  in  708;  reigned  only  a 
few  days. 

Sisterhood.  —  Sisters  collectively,  or  as 
a  society  of  sisters,  in  religious  usage  an 
association  of  women  who  are  bound 
by  monastic  vows  or  are  otherwise  de- 
voted to  religious  work  as  a  vocation.  The 
members  of  a  sisterhood  may  be  bound  by 
irrevocable  vows  of  poverty,  chastity,  and 
obedience,  and  are  then  called  "  nuns,"  or 
may  be  merely  under  a  rule  and  bound  by 
revocable  vows.  Among  the  more  impor- 
tant of  these  religious  communities,  be- 
sides those  described  throughout  this 
work,  are : 

Sisters  of  Charity  (of  Cincinnati, 
Ohio).  —  They  are  a  branch  of  the  com- 
munity founded  by  Mother  Seton  at  Em- 
mittsburg,  Maryland.  In  1850,  when  the 
Emmittsburg  Sisters  affiliated  with 
France,  the  community  in  Cincinnati,  not 
wishing  to  adopt  the  French  dress  and 
customs,  became  independent.  Mother 
house  at  Mt.  St.  Joseph,  Ohio. 

Sisters  of  Notre  Dame  de  Bon  Secours, 
established  in  1882  by  sisters  from  Troyes, 
France,  where  the  mother  house  was  be- 
gun by  Rev.  Sebastian  Millet,  who  was 
the  founder  of  this  religious  order  in  1840. 
The  sisters  of  this  order  devote  themselves 
to  the  care  of  the  sick  in  their  own  homes. 
They  undertake  any  kind  of  nursing  for 
physical  or  mental  diseases,  without  dis- 
tinction of  creed.  The  community  has  no 
fixed  terms  of  remuneration  for  the  sis- 
ters' services;  however,  the  families  re- 
ceiving such  services  are  expected  to  do 
what  they  can  toward  supporting  the 
institution,  the  poor  being  attended  free 
of  charge ;  consequently,   the  community 


Sisterhood 


655 


Sisterhood 


has  no  other  support  than  that  which  the 
sisters  receive  from  private  nursing.  Gen- 
eral mother  house  at  Troyes,  France ;  con- 
vent at  1 195  Lexington  Avenue,  New 
York  city. 

Sisters  of  Charity  of  the  United  States. 
—  This  sisterhood  was  founded  by  the 
saintly  Mother  Eliza  A.  Seton.  This  de- 
voted lady  was  the  daughter  of  Protestant 
parents,  in  whose  faith  she  was  educated. 
She  received  the  gift  of  faith  in  1805  at 
Rome,  Italy,  and  on  June  2d,  1809,  she  es- 
tablished at  Emmittsburg,  Maryland,  a 
community  which  she  called  "  St.  Joseph's 
Sisterhood."  Her  first  companions  were 
Misses  Cecilia  O'Conway  and  Mary 
Murphy,  both  of  Philadelphia.  Mother 
Seton  and  her  ecclesiastical  superiors  hav- 
ing determined  to  found  the  community 
on  the  plan  of  the  Daughters  of  St.  Vincent 
de  Paul,  she  applied  to  France  for  sisters 
to  aid  the  undertaking.  The  mother  gen- 
eral consented,  and  four  sisters  were 
deputed  to  come  to  America  and  take 
charge  of  the  work;  but  their  journey  was 
prevented  by  the  government  of  Bona- 
parte, which  refused  to  permit  the  sisters 
to  leave  France.  A  copy  of  the  French 
rule  was,  however,  obtained,  and  the  sis- 
ters began  to  observe  it  with  certain  modi- 
fications suited  to  the  circumstances  of  the 
country.  The  saintly  Mother  Seton 
passed  to  her  reward  Jan.  4th,  1821.  In 
1850  a  union  was  effected  between  St. 
Joseph's  Sisterhood  at  Emmittsburg,  and 
the  Daughters  of  Charity  in  Paris,  and 
Dec.  3d,  1850,  the  Community  of  Emmitts- 
burg assumed  the  habit  worn  by  the  sisters 
in  France.  Mother  house  at  St.  Joseph's 
Academy,  Emmittsburg,  Maryland. 

Sisters  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  for 
Indians  and  colored  people.  This  congre- 
gation was  founded  in  1889.  The  object 
of  the  institute  is  the  elevation  and  Chris- 
tianizing of  the  Indians  and  colored  races. 
The  work  of  the  institute  embraces  the 
nursing  and  visitation  of  the  sick,  the 
charge  of  schools,  and  orphanages,  and 
the  instruction  of  adults  in  the  princi- 
ples of  Christian  doctrine.  Mother  house 
and  novitiate  at  Cornwells,  Maud  P.  O., 
Pennsylvania 

School  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame.  —  These 
sisters  came  from  Europe  in  1847,  and  es- 
tablished their  first  convent  at  Baltimore, 
Maryland.  In  1850  they  went  to  Milwau- 
kee and  founded  the  mother  house  in  that 
city;  in  1876  two  provinces  were  formed 
and  the  first  convent  at  Baltimore  became 


the  mother  house  of  the  Eastern  province ; 
in  1897,  the  Golden  Jubilee  Year  of  the 
Sisters  in  America,  a  third  province  was 
formed  of  the  southern  missions.  Sancta 
Maria  in  Ripa,  the  mother  house  of  the 
new  province,  is  situated  on  the  Missis- 
sippi near  the  southern  suburbs  of  St. 
Louis,  Missouri. 

Sisters  of  Providence. —  The  Order  of 
Sisters  of  Providence  from  Ruille,  France, 
opened  the  first  institute  of  their  order  in 
America,  Oct.  22d,  1840,  at  St.  Mary's, 
near  Terre  Haute,  Indiana.  Their  object 
is  the  higher  education  of  young  ladies. 
Mother  house  at  Brightside,  Holyoke, 
Massachusetts. 

Ladies  of  the  Sacred  Heart. — The  So- 
ciety of  the  Sacred  Heart  was  founded  at 
Amiens  in  the  year  1800,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Father  Joseph  Varin,  S.  J.,  by 
Mademoiselle  Madeleine  Sophie  Barat.  It 
was  approved  by  Pope  Pius  VII.  in  1826. 
The  community  is  semi-cloistered,  and 
follows  the  Rule  of  the  Society  of  Jesus. 
The  members  of  this  society  devote  their 
lives  to  the  Christian  education  of  youth 
by  conducting  boarding  schools  and  paro- 
chial schools,  as  well  as  taking  charge  of 
the  orphan  asylums  for  girls.  The  society 
was  introduced  in  the  United  States  in  the 
year  1818.  General  mother  house  at  Paris, 
France. 

Visitation  Nuns. —  The  Order  of  the 
Visitation  was  founded  at  Annecy,  Savoy, 
in  1610,  by  St.  Francis  de  Sales,  Bishop  of 
Geneva,  and  St.  Jane  Frances  Fremiot  de 
Chantal,  for  the  purpose  of  opening  a  re- 
treat to  persons  desirous  of  the  religious 
life,  but  too  infirm  to  enter  an  austere  or- 
der, and  in  which  they  might  sanctify 
themselves  by  prayer  and  good  works,  and 
help  in  the  salvation  of  souls.  The  Visi- 
tation was  introduced  in  America  in  1799 
when  the  first  monastery  was  established 
at  Georgetown,  District  of  Columbia.  In 
this  country  the  members  make  the  educa- 
tion of  young  girls  the  principal  object  of 
their  order. 

Sisters  of  Charity  of  Nazareth. — A  sis- 
terhood whose  object  is  similar  to  that  of 
the  Sisters  of  Charity  of  St.  Vincent  of 
Paul.  Its  mother  house  and  novitiate  is 
near  Bardstown,  Kentucky,  where  the  sis- 
terhood was  founded  in  1812,  by  Father 
John  B.  David,  afterwards  Bishop  of  Bards- 
town. 

Sisters  of  Christian  Charity. — A  com- 
munity established  in  1849  at  Paderborn, 
Germany,  by  Paulina  Mallinkrot.      Their 


Sisterhood 


656 


Sisterhood 


first  house  in  the  United  States  was  opened 
in  1873  ill  New  Orleans,  by  Mother  Pau- 
lina herself,  who  the  same  year,  established 
the  mother  house  of  the  North-American 
province  at  Wilkesbarre,  Pennsylvania. 
At  present  they  have  many  houses  in  the 
United  States,  and  are  engaged  in  the  care 
of  hospitals  and  orphanages,  or  in  the 
work  of  parish  and  boarding  schools. 

Sisters  of  the  Holy  Cross,  whose  Amer- 
ican mother  house  is  at  Notre  Dame,  In- 
diana. This  community  arose  in  France 
in  1834,  ^"^  ^^^  introduced  into  the  United 
States  in  1843.  They  are  engaged  in  teach- 
ing in  parish  and  boarding  schools. 

Sisters  of  the  Institute  of  the  B.  V.  M. 
or  Loretto  Nuns.  — This  community  orig- 
inated with  some  pious  English  ladies, 
exiles  from  their  country  on  account  of 
their  religion,  who  formed  themselves  into 
a  community  at  Munich,  Bavaria,  about 
the  year  1631.  The  "English  Virgins," 
as  they  were  popularly  called,  were  not 
approved  by  the  Holy  See  until  1703.  In 
1669,  a  colony  of  these  sisters  returned  to 
England  and  opened  a  convent  in  London, 
but  on  account  of  persecutions  removed  to 
York.  The  community  has  convents  in 
most  of  the  British  colonies  and  are  prin- 
cipally devoted  to  the  care  of  boarding 
schools. 

Sisters  of  Loretto.  —  A  sisterhood 
founded  in  Kentucky  by  Father  Charles 
Nerinks.  The  object  of  the  community, 
which  now  numbers  more  than  five  hun- 
dred members,  is  the  instruction  of  girls 
in  parish  and  boarding  schools. 

Sisters  of  the  Most  Precious  Blood.  — 
This  congregation  was  founded  in  Italy,  in 
1814,  by  Father  Gaspar  del  Bufalo,  and 
was  approved  by  the  Holy  See  in  1820.  In 
1844,  a  colony  arrived  in  the  United  States 
and  the  mother  house  of  the  American 
province  is  at  Maria  Stein,  Mercer  county, 
Ohio. 

Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Mary.  — 
A  congregation  founded  in  1848,  at  Be- 
ziers,  France,  and  was  soon  after  intro- 
duced into  the  United  States.  Its  first 
establishment,  now  its  mother  house,  was 
in  Fordham,  New  York  city.  This  com- 
munity mostly  has  charge  of  orphans  and 
parish  schools. 

Sisters  of  Our  Lady  of  Charity  of  Re- 
fuge, called  Good  Shepherd. —  This  com- 
munity has  for  its  chief  object  the  reforma- 
tion of  fallen  women.  It  was  founded  in 
France,  in  1646,  by  Father  Eudes  and 
Marguerite  L'   Amy.     The  habit  consists 


of  a  robe,  scapular,  and  mantle,  all  of  a 
white  color,  with  a  black  veil  and  silver 
heart  on  the  breast.  Pope  Alexander  VII. 
erected  the  Congregation  as  a  religious 
Order  by  a  Bull  of  January  2,  1666.  Their 
first  house  was  at  Caen,  France.  It  has 
more  than  a  hundred  houses  scattered 
throughout  the  Catholic  world. 

Sisters  of  Our  Lady  of  the  Good  Shep- 
herd.  —  Mother  Mary  of  St.  Euphrasia 
Pelletier,  the  first  Superior-General  of  this 
Congregation,  entered  the  community 
of  the  Sisters  of  Our  Lady  of  Charity  of 
Refuge  at  Tours,  France,  in  1815.  She 
was  so  well  adapted  for  the  work  among 
the  penitents,  that  before  she  had  com- 
pleted her  twenty-first  year,  she  was  put 
in  charge  of  them.  A  few  years  later  she 
was  elected  prioress  of  the  Monastery,  the 
Pope  granting  the  required  dispensation, 
as  she  had  not  attained  the  canonical  age. 
In  1827  she  was  invited  by  the  clergy  of 
Angers  to  take  charge  of  a  Refuge,  which 
they  were  foiuiding  on  the  bequest  of  a 
pious  widow,  and  having  obtained  due  au- 
thorization from  the  ecclesiastical  authori- 
ties, she  accepted  the  call.  The  House 
being  successfully  established,  she  under- 
took the  reorganization  of  the  Order  to 
further  its  missionary  development.  Orig- 
inally each  house  was  an  independent 
institution.  There  was  no  center  for  con- 
sultation, no  source  whence  weak  and 
struggling  foundations  might  claim  aid 
and  sympathy,  no  way  of  distributing  and 
interchanging  the  religious  so  as  to  place 
each  sister  in  the  position  where  the  Insti- 
tute would  obtain  from  her  the  best  service. 
Mother  Mary  of  St.  Euphrasia's  plan  was 
the  centralization  of  the  Order,  Angers 
should  be  made  the  Motherhouse,  and  the 
general  government  of  all  houses  which 
should  be  founded  from  Angers,  should  be 
intrusted  to  the  Superior  of  said  house. 
She  won  for  her  plan  the  approval  and 
approbation  of  the  Bishop  of  Angers  and 
other  churchmen,  also  the  substantial  aid 
of  several  noblemen,  as  the  means  which 
she  proposed  to  realize  her  plan  were  emi- 
nently practical  and  her  disinterestedness 
and  rectitude  of  intention  evident.  In  1835 
the  Pope  approved  of  the  change  in  the 
government  of  the  Order,  and  also  the  new 
title.  Our  Lady  of  Charity  of  the  Good 
Shepherd  of  Angers,  and  declared  that  the 
religious  were  to  continue  to  enjoy  all  the 
rights  and  privileges  granted  to  the  ancient 
Order  of  the  Refuge.  The  growth  of  the 
Order  of  Our  Lady  of  Charity  of  the  Good 


Sisters  of  the  Free  Spirit    657      Slavery  and  the  Church 


Shepherd  of  Angers  was  so  rapid  and  ex- 
tensive that  in  1857  Pope  Pius  IX.  issued 
a  decree  dividing  the  Order  into  Provinces, 
The  Provincial  Superiors,  as  well  as  the 
Local  Superiors,  to  be  appointed  by  the 
Superioress-General,  residing  at  Angers. 
In  the  United  States  there  are  eight  Prov- 
inces, viz.:  Louisville,  St.  Louis,  New 
York,  Philadelphia,  Cincinnati,  Baltimore, 
New  Orleans,  and  St.  Paul. 

Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor. — This  most 
charitable  institute  was  founded  in  1840  by 
the  Abb^  of  St.  Servan,  ( M.  le  Pailleur) 
aided  by  four  ladies  of  humble  birth,  for  the 
support,  relief,  and  nursing  of  aged  or  in- 
firm persons.  He  soon  organized  them 
into  a  community.  In  1883  the  sisterhood 
counted  3,500  members  and  maintained 
25,000  old  people,  in  223  houses,  or 
"Homes."  Their  first  house  in  the 
United  States  was  opened  in  1868  in  Brook- 
lyn, and  now  the  community  has  a  house  in 
almost  every  large  city  of  the  country. 

Sisters  of  the  Humility  of  Mary. — This 
community  was  founded  in  the  diocese  of 
Nancy,  France,  in  the  year  1855,  by  Rev. 
John  Joseph  Begel,  parish  priest  of  Laitre. 
In  1864  the  founder,  with  the  whole  com- 
munity, immigrated  to  the  United  States, 
and  by .  order  of  Rt.  Rev.  A.  Rappe, 
Bishop  of  Cleveland,  settled  near  the  vil- 
lage of  New  Bedford,  Lawrence  county, 
Pennsylvania.  The  convent  grounds  and 
vicinity  are  now  known  by  the  name  of 
"  Villa  Maria."  Miss  Antoinette  Poitiers, 
in  religion  Mother  Mary  Magdalene,  was 
the  foundress  and  first  superioress,  after 
whose  death,  March  7th,  1864,  Mother  M. 
Anna  became  superioress.  The  principal 
good  works  in  which  the  sisters  are  en- 
gaged are  teaching,  the  care  of  the  sick, 
and  the  maintenance  and  education  of  or- 
phans. For  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  see 
Joseph. 

Sisters  of  the  Free  Spirit.  See  Breth- 
ren. 

Sixtus  (name  of  five  Popes).  —  Sixtus 
I. —  Pope  from  1 17  to  127  ?  Born  at  Rome, 
where  he  suffered  martyrdom  under  Ha- 
drian. Sixtus  II.  —  Pope  from  257  to 
258.  Born  at  Athens,  suffered  martyrdom 
at  Rome  under  Valerian.  Sixtus  III.  — 
Pope  from  432  to  440.  Born  and  died  at 
Rome.  Labored  together  with  St.  Cyril 
at  the  reunion  of  the  Churches  of  the  Ori- 
ent. Sixtus  IV. — Pope  from  1471  to 
1484.  Was  a  patron  of  literature  and 
largely  increased  the  Vatican  library. 
42 


Built,  besides  several  other  churches,  the 
celebrated  Sixtine  chapel,  and  adorned 
Rome  with  many  magnificent  edifices. 
He  placed  the  "  Seraphic  Doctor,"  Bona- 
venture,  on  the  calendar  of  saints,  sought 
to  put  an  end  to  the  controversies  be- 
tween the  Thomists  and  Scotists  and  con- 
demned the  errors  of  Peter  of  Osma,  a 
professor  of  Salamanca.  His  principal 
efforts  were  directed  toward  uniting  the 
Christian  princes  in  a  league  against  the 
Turks.  But  he  met  with  hardly  any  suc- 
cess ;  the  greater  powers  refused  to  obey 
his  call.  Sixtus  V. — Pope  from  1585  to 
1590.  Was  a  man  gifted  with  an  extraor- 
dinary capacity  for  government;  the 
states  of  the  Church  were  governed  with 
admirable  skill  and  tact.  He  established 
fifteen  congregations  for  the  administra- 
tion of  public  affairs,  enlarged  the  Vati- 
can library,  and  established  new  printing 
offices  for  the  purpose  of  securing  im- 
proved editions  of  the  "  Church  Fathers." 
He  had  obelisks  brought  from  Egypt;  he 
completed  the  cupola  of  St.  Peter's  ca- 
thedral, constructed  a  superb  aqueduct 
on  the  Quirinal  Hill,  and  left  an  ample 
revenue  to  his  successor. 

Slavery  and  the  Church.  —  The  Church 
could  not  have  abolished  slavery  all  at 
once,  both  in  principle  and  practice  with- 
out shaking  society  to  its  foundations,  and 
inflicting  untold  misery  on  the  slaves  them- 
selves. She  was  bound  to  carry  out  the 
doctrine  laid  down  by  St.  Paul.  But  she 
cleared  the  way  for  its  gradual  abolition, 
by  opening  her  gates  to  those  wretched  be- 
ings, and  by  striving  to  make  them  spirit- 
ually and  morally  free.  Heedless  to  the 
scoffs  and  gibes  of  the  heathen,  Christians 
confess  *'  that  their  aim  is  to  train  all  men 
in  the  Word,  although  Celsus  is  opposed 
to  their  so  doing.  Accordingly  we  teach 
slaves  how  to  awaken  within  themselves 
nobler  sentiments,  and  thus  to  be  made 
free  through  the  Word  "  {Origen  C.  Cels., 
iii.  44).  Thus  Christianity  succeeded  in 
the  work  which  heathenism  had  declared 
to  be  impossible.  Many  slaves  were  con- 
verted into  virtuous  Christians,  and  armed 
with  patience  and  fortitude,  proved  them- 
selves worthy  followers  of  Christ,  amid  all 
the  dangers  and  difficulties  that  encom- 
passed them.  Not  a  few  became  saints  and 
martyrs.  How  many,  too,  of  whom  the 
world  has  not  heard,  suffered  martyrdom 
in  the  houses  of  their  masters  and  mis- 
tresses ! 


Suppers  and 


658 


Stockings 


The  Church  exhorted  Christian  masters 
to  treat  their  slaves  as  brothers  and  Chris- 
tians, and  recommended  their  manumis- 
sion as  a  work  most  pleasing  to  God.  For 
as  slavery  sprung  from  sin  (Ham),  redemp- 
tion from  sin  necessarily  entailed  the  abo- 
lition of  slavery.  The  sinner  is  the  only 
slave ;  those  who  are  morally  born  again 
are  free  and  noble.  Hence  masters,  when 
converted,  gladly  gave  liberty  to  their 
slaves,  in  order  to  celebrate  the  feasts  of 
the  Lord  with  pomp  and  splendor. 
Hermes,  prefect  of  Rome,  in  the  reign  of 
Trajan,  was  converted  with  his  wife  and 
children  and  1,250  slaves.  On  Easter  day, 
when  they  were  baptized,  he  gave  them 
their  civic  freedom,  and  also  the  means  to 
enable  them  to  make  use  of  their  privilege. 
It  is  related  by  Salvian,  that  slaves  were 
daily  receiving  the  rights  of  Roman  citi- 
zens, and  that  they  were  free  to  take  with 
them  what  they  had  earned  as  slaves  in  the 
houses  of  their  masters.  The  Church  also 
encouraged  these  manumissions  by  allow- 
ing them  to  take  place  within  the  sacred 
precincts ;  by  practically  obliterating  the 
distinction  of  class  or  rank,  and  by  open- 
ing her  offices  to  all  alike,  although  due 
regard  for  the  existing  order  imposed  upon 
her  the  duty  of  a  certain  amount  of  dis- 
cretion. In  the  Eastern  empire  the  Greek 
monasteries  worked  particularly  hard  for 
the  abolition  of  slavery.  To  keep  slaves, 
they  declared,  was  unworthy  of  man.  St. 
Chrysostom  delivered  discourses  to  this 
effect.  He  wished  Christians  to  be  their 
own  servants,  even  as  Christ  suffered  not 
others  to  minister  to  Him,  or  at  any  rate 
to  keep  only  such  servants  as  were  neces- 
sary ;  but  in  no  case  to  keep  a  number  of 
slaves  for  show.  Later  on,  slaves  were  to 
be  found  in  the  monasteries  and  with 
priests;  but  they  were  gently  treated  and 
were  set  free  on  very  easy  terms.  In  the 
time  of  St.  Louis  most  of  the  episcopal 
sees  in  the  Prankish  empire  were  filled 
by  manumitted  slaves.  Ebbo,  Archbishop 
of  Rheims,  the  first  prelate  in  the  king- 
dom, was  a  bondman  by  birth.  To  the 
Middle  Ages  belongs  the  honor  of  abolish- 
ing slavery  proper.  By  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury slaves  had  disappeared  from  the  Chris- 
tian states  of  Europe. 

Islam  gave  slavery  a  new  lease  of  life. 
Many  Christians,  taken  prisoners  in  war, 
were  carried  into  slavery  by  the  Moham- 
medans ;  others  were  sold  by  Jewish  or 
Christian  slave  dealers  to  heathens  or 
Mohammedans.  The  Church  fought  against 


this  evil.  She  strove  to  stir  up  the  secular 
powers  to  undertake  expeditions  to  liberate 
the  Christian  slaves,  and  sought  to  effect 
their  ransom  through  the  instrumentality 
of  her  own  orders.  Unfortunately,  with 
the  advent  of  modern  times,  the  detesta- 
ble system  has  once  more  obtained  a  foot- 
ing among  Christian  peoples.  After  the 
discovery  of  America,  negro  slavery  spread 
with  frightful  rapidity.  Las  Casas's  well- 
meant  advice  to  spare  the  weak  and  sickly 
Indians,  and  to  employ  for  hard  labor  those 
more  powerfully  built,  has  had  a  fatal  result. 
For  three  hundred  years  the  slave  traffic 
has  depopulated  the  coast  of  Western 
Africa.  As  Eugenius  IV.,  Pius  II.,  Sixtus 
IV.,  Innocent  VIII.,  and  Leo  X.,  had  en- 
deavored to  suppress  slavery,  so  Paul  III. 
(1537)  took  the  human  rights  of  the  In- 
dians and  other  heathen  under  his  protec- 
tion. Urban  VIII.  (1630)  worked  for  the 
same  end.  In  the  Encyclical,  In  Plurimis, 
dated  May  5th,  1883,  Leo  XIII.,  described 
the  abolition  of  slavery  in  Brazil  as  the 
most  welcome  present  he  had  received  on 
the  j  ubilee  of  his  priesthood.  Missionaries, 
like  the  Jesuit  Peter  Claver,  have  devoted 
their  lives  to  watching,  with  fatherly  solic- 
itude, over  these  unhappy  beings.  Pro- 
vincial councils  urged  upon  maeters  the 
duty  of  treating  them  gently,  and  in  par- 
ticular secured  for  those  who  were  married 
the  right  of  living  together.  Thus  the  lot 
of  slaves  in  the  Catholic  countries  of  the 
South  was  far  better  than  that  of  the  ne- 
groes in  Africa.  In  the  English  colonies 
of  the  North  the  lot  of  the  slaves  was  in- 
comparably harsher.  Nevertheless,  Eng- 
land has  rendered  yeoman's  service  in 
the  slave  question. 

Leo  XIII.  took  the  opportunity  of  urg- 
ing upon  the  European  powers  to  work  for 
the  abolition  of  slavery  in  such  countries 
as  Asia  and  Egypt.  And,  indeed,  the  ac- 
counts of  the  slave  traffic  in  the  Soudan 
are  heartrending  and  bloodcurdling.  Yet 
Islam  has  never  dreamt  to  this  day  of  rais- 
ing a  finger  against  the  plague  spot  of  hu- 
man civilization. 

Slippers  and  Stockings.  —  The  foot  cov- 
ering of  the  ancients,  especially  the  Ro- 
mans, consisted  of  a  sole  held  fast  by 
leather  strings,  which  crossed  on  the  upper 
part  of  the  foot  and  passed  around  the  leg. 
Under  the  emperors,  this  covering  was 
replaced,  for  people  of  rank,  especially 
princes  and  senators,  by  another  of  a 
richer  description  called  campagia,  adorned 


Smet 


659 


SOCINIANISM 


with  gold  and  purple,  and  hiding  the  foot 
much  better.  To  show  by  every  means 
possible  her  veneration  for  holy  things, 
the  Church  hastened  to  give  her  Pontiffs 
the  senatorial  foot  covering,  the  most  dis- 
tinguished then  known ;  it  was  her  aim  to 
have  the  august  mysteries  celebrated  with 
such  outward  splendor  as  would  command 
respect  and  excite  sentiments  of  piety. 
When  not  engaged  in  their  functions,  the 
bishops  wore  the  ordinary  foot  covering. 
This  is  the  reason  why,  even  to  this  day, 
the  bishop  having  reached  the  church  and 
ascended  his  throne,  assumes  the  ancient 
foot  covering,  and  lays  it  aside  again  after 
the  holy  sacrifice. 

Smet  (Peter  John  de),  —  A  Belgian 
Jesuit  and  missionary;  born  in  Dender- 
monde,  Dec.  31st,  1801.  In  1821,  together 
with  five  other  theological  students,  he 
sailed  from  Amsterdam  in  company  of  Bis- 
hop Nerinckx.  In  1828  he  went  to  St.  Louis 
and  assisted  in  establishing  the  University 
of  St.  Louis,  and  in  1838  was  sent  to  estab- 
lish a  mission  among  the  Flatheads,  west  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  who  had  repeatedly 
asked  for  a  missionary,  and  in  the  course 
of  a  few  years  established  flourishing 
missions  among  them  and  other  tribes. 
On  different  occasions  he  eflSciently  inter- 
ceded to  prevent  strife  between  the  United 
States  government  and  the  Indians ;  he 
was  also  instrumental  in  ending  the  Sioux 
war.  He  wrote  The  Oregon  Missions  and 
Travels  over  the  Rocky  Mountains  ;  In- 
dian Letters  and  Sketches;  Western  Mis- 
sions and  Missionaries,  and  New  Indian 
Sketches.  He  died  in  St.  Louis,  Missouri, 
May  23d,  1872. 

Socialism,  is  the  Utopian  doctrine  or 
system,  according  to  which  a  community 
or  State  possesses  all  land  and  capital,  and 
distributes  to  each  individual  his  portion 
of  the  land  and  his  occupation.  This  is 
indeed  a  Utopian  idea.  For  how  could 
the  State  portion  out  work  and  goods,  ac- 
cording to  the  abilities  and  merits  of  each 
individual,  without  thoroughly  knowing 
all,  which  is  a  thing  impossible?  Would 
not  the  most  serious  complaints  of  unjust 
distribution  be  raised,  if  one  received  fer- 
tile, another  barren,  land  ;  if  one  received 
an  honorable, another  a  lowly,  occupation? 
The  consequence  would  be,  that  whenever 
one  person  achieved  greater  results  than 
another,  in  order  to  maintain  the  equality 
a  new  distribution  would  have  to  be  made 
yearly,  or  even  daily,  and  thus  grounds  for 


fresh  complaints  would  be  given.  More- 
over, how  could  the  State  arbitrarily  dis- 
pose of  the  private  property  already  existing, 
since  the  individual  and  family  are  prior  to 
the  State,  have  acquired  their  possessions 
independently  of  it,  and  would,  therefore, 
be  violently  deprived  of  their  lawful  right? 
See  Property. 

Societies  {Secret). — We  designate  un- 
der this  name  the  associations  whose  ends 
and  means  their  adherents  dissimilate, 
either  entirely  or  partially,  to  both  re- 
ligious and  civil  authority.  These  asso- 
ciations actually  have  for  their  type  and 
center  Freemasonry,  whose  danger  Pope 
Clement  XII.  first  pointed  out  in  1738. 
The  most  of  his  successors  have  imitated 
him,  and  Leo  XIII.,  in  his  Encyclical,  Hu- 
manutn  Genus,  has  fully  treated  on  this 
subject. 

According  to  this  learned  Pope,  the  Ma- 
sonic sects  are,  first,  in  opposition  with  nat- 
ural justice  and  honesty,  by  the  very  fact 
of  their  secret  organization,  their  rigorous 
discipline,  which  goes  so  far  as  to  impose 
crimes  on  the  sectarians.  How  can  any 
one  pretend  that  there  is  no  great  danger 
to  fear  from  these  societies  on  the  part  of 
the  State?  Secondly,  they  are  imbued 
with  principles  of  naturalism,  and  try  to 
apply  them  universally;  they  unchristian- 
ize  the  civil  authority  and  diminish  the  in- 
fluence of  the  Church ;  they,  especially, 
attack  the  Holy  See,  and  shake  the  re- 
ligious and  spiritual  belief;  they  brag 
about  lay  and  independent  morality,  loosen 
the  reins  to  the  passions,  favor  civil  mar- 
riage and  divorce,  secularize  education, 
introduce  revolutionary  principles  into  the 
public  mind,  and  knowingly  or  unknow- 
ingly prepare  the  way  for  communism  and 
socialism. 

Also  Leo  XIII.  has  energetically  con- 
firmed the  measures  taken  against  them  by 
his  predecessors,  and  which  especially 
carry  the  decree  of  excommunication 
against  "  those  who  associate  themselves 
to  the  sect  of  Freemasonry  or  Carbinari, 
or  other  sects  of  the  same  kind,  who 
machinate,  openly  or  secretly,  against  the 
Church  or  against  legitimate  authority." 
Excommunication  strikes  also  "those  who 
favor,  in  any  manner,  the  above  men- 
tioned sects,  and  those  who  do  not  denounce 
the  coryphees  or  occult  heads,  until  de- 
nunciation is  made  "  {Constit.  AfostoliccB 
Sedis,  ch.  ii.,  §  4). 

Socinianism.    See  Unitarians. 


Socrates 


660 


SORIN 


Socrates .  —  A  scholastic  or  lawyer  of 
Constantinople,  under  Theodosius  II.  He 
wrote  a  Church  History,  a  continuation 
of  that  of  Eusebius  in  seven  books,  ex- 
tending from  A.  D.  305  to  450.  He  died 
about  the  year  400. 

Sodom.  —  Very  ancient  city  of  Pales- 
tine, capital  of  Pentapolis.  Its  crimes 
became  so  great  that  the  Lord  caused  it  to 
be  destroyed  by  fire  and  brimstone,  to- 
gether with  the  four  neighboring  cities  of 
Gomorrha,  Seboim,  Adama,  and  Segor, 
accomplices  in  its  iniquities. 

Solomon  (Hebr.  the  peaceful)  (1033-975 
B.  c).  —  King  of  Israel,  son  of  David  and 
Bethsabee,  succeeded  to  his  father  in  1016. 
From  the  beginning  of  his  reign  he  was 
compelled  to  struggle  against  the  preten- 
sions of  his  brother  Adonias,  whom  he  put 
to  death,  together  with  his  principal  fol- 
lowers, the  generals  Joab  and  Semei,  and 
suppressed  an  insurrection  of  the  Idu- 
means  with  the  help  of  the  king  of  Egypt, 
whose  daughter  he  married.  From  1012 
to  1004,  he  erected  the  magnificent  temple 
of  Jerusalem,  surrounded  his  capital  with 
a  strong  wall,  adorned  it  with  palaces,  also 
fortified  the  principal  cities  of  his  king- 
dom, subdued  the  neighboring  nations  of 
Judea,  and  imposed  a  tribute  on  them.  His 
kingdom  extended  from  Egypt  to  the 
Euphrates,  He  was  in  alliance,  political 
and  commercial,  with  Hiram  of  Tyre  and 
with  other  powers,  and  extended  Israeli - 
tish  commerce  to  all  parts  of  the  known 
world.  In  his  old  age,  Solomon  fell  into 
idolatry  and  debauchery.  Punishment 
closely  followed  his  crimes:  Syria  with- 
drew itself  from  his  obedience ;  Jeroboam, 
one  of  his  generals,  excited  the  tribes,  and 
after  Solomon's  death  his  kingdom  was 
divided.  Solomon  is  the  author  of  sev- 
eral Sacred  Books  :  The  Canticle  of  Can- 
ticles;  Ecclesiastes,  and  the  Book  of 
Proverbs.  Some  writers  also  attribute  to 
him  the  Book  of  Wisdom. 

Somaschians.  —  Clerics  Regular  of  the 
Congregation  of  St.  Mayeul,  under  the 
Rule  of  St.  Augustine,  whose  principal 
house  is  at  Somasca,  Italy.  Founded  about 
the  year  1528,  by  Father  Emiliani,  ap- 
proved by  Paul  III.,  in  1540  and  by  Pius 
VI.,  in  1563,  they  were  erected  into  a  reli- 
gious order  by  Pius  V.,  in  1568.  Their 
principal  aim  is  the  education  of  orphans. 
They  have  also  the  direction  of  the  Clem- 
entine College  at  Rome. 


Sophonias.  —  The  ninth  of  the  minor 
Prophets,  son  of  Chusi  and  nephew  of 
Godolias.  He  commenced  to  prophesy 
under  Josias,  king  of  Juda,  about  the  year 
624  B.  c.  His  prophecies,  written  in  He- 
brew, contain  three  chapters.  Great  con- 
formity of  style  may  be  remarked  between 
Sophonias  and  Jeremias,  and  they  foretell 
nearly  the  same  things. 

Sophronius  (St.). — Was  born  at  Da- 
mascus, about  the  year  560.  He  was  a  soph- 
ist, or  rhetorician,  and  the  friend  of  John 
Moschus,  a  distinguished  hermit  of  Pales- 
tine, who  dedicated  to  him  his  work  en- 
titled, Pratum  Spirituale  {Spiritual 
Meadow).  After  the  death  of  his  friend, 
Sophronius  became  a  monk  of  St.  Sabas, 
about  620.  In  him.  Providence  had  pro- 
vided the  Church  with  a  faithful  champion 
against  the  rising  heresy  of  the  Monothe- 
lites.  Sophronius  strenuously  but  vainly 
opposed  the  adoption  of  the  Monothelite 
formula,  composed  by  Cyrus  and  Sergius, 
the  Patriarchs  of  Alexandria  and  Con- 
stantinople, respectively.  Being  soon  after- 
wards chosen  patriarch  of  Jerusalem  (633), 
he  held  a  synod  and  issued  a  synodal  letter, 
in  which  he  ably  defends  the  Catholic  faith 
against  the  new  heresy.  He  also  sent 
Bishop  Stephen  of  Dora,  to  Rome,  to  warn 
the  Pope  and  the  Western  bishops  of  the 
rising  heresy.  Besides  the  synodal  letter, 
we  have  by  this  Father  seven  sermons,  a 
liturgical  commentary  on  the  ceremonies 
of  the  Mass,  and  a  collection  of  prayers 
and  hymns.     He  died  about  the  year  637. 

Sorbonne. — A  celebrated  school  of  the- 
ology, founded  in  Paris,  about  the  year 
1257,  by  Robert  de  Sorbon,  chaplain  and 
confessor  of  Louis  XI.  The  College  of 
the  Sorbonne  became  one  of  the  four  con- 
stituent parts,  and  also  the  predominant 
one  of  the  theological  faculty  in  the  Uni- 
versity. It  exercised  a  great  influence  in 
ecclesiastical  affairs,  and  on  the  public 
mind,  especially  in  the  sixteenth  and  sev- 
enteenth centuries.  During  the  Revolu- 
tion it  was  suppressed  and  deprived  of  its 
endowments.  At  the  reconstruction  of  the 
University,  under  Napoleon  I.,  the  build- 
ing erected  for  it  by  Cardinal  Richelieu, 
and  still  called  the  Sorbonne,  was  given  to 
the  theological  faculty  in  connection  with 
the  faculties  of  science  and  belles-lettres. 

Sorln  (Edouard)  (surnamed  "Father 
Sorin").  —  Catholic  clergyman  and  edu- 
cator; born  in  Ahuille,  near  Laval,  France, 


SOTER 


66 1 


South  Africa 


Feb.  6th,  1814;  came  to  the  United  States 
in  1841  to  organize  a  branch  of  the  reli- 
gious Congregation  of  the  Holy  Cross.  He 
labored  long  among  the  Indians  of  western 
Indiana.  The  Bishop  of  Vincennes  gave 
him  some  land  in  1842,  upon  which  to 
erect  the  first  buildings  of  what  was  to 
become  the  Notre  Dame  University.  He 
was  its  first  president,  and  remained  con- 
nected with  it  till  his  death.  Died  in 
Notre  Dame,  Indiana,  Oct.  31st,  1893.  See 
Holy  Cross  Congregation. 

Soter  (St.).  —  Pope  from  162  to  170; 
born  at  Fondi.  Successor  of  St.  Anicetus. 
He  combated  the  heresy  of  the  Montanists, 
and  was  martyred  at  Rome,  under  Marcus 
Aurelius.     F.  Feb.  loth. 

Soul  (spiritual  and  immortal  substance, 
united  with  the  human  body  during  life, 
and  which  separates  from  it  at  the  moment 
of  death).  —  I  am  conscious  in  my  being 
of  two  orders  of  distinct  phenomena :  the 
one,  like  those  of  digestion,  of  locomotion, 
are  material  and  fall  under  the  senses. 
These  are  p/iysio/ogt'cal  iacts.  The  others, 
such  as  thought  and  its  different  forms, — 
memory,  reasoning,  pleasure,  pain,  pas- 
sion, deliberations,  resolutions,  etc.,  are 
immaterial ;  they  do  not  fall  under  the 
senses ;  they  are  revealed  to  me  only 
through  consciousness ;  they  are  psycho- 
logical facts.  The  subject  which  produces 
these  immaterial  phenomena,  which  feels 
itself  producing  them,  which  has  the  fac- 
ulty to  produce  them,  is  the  immaterial  / 
{Ego),  it  is  the  Soul.  In  connection  with 
the  subjects.  Intelligence,  Sensibility, 
Will,  we  treat  of  the  faculties  with  which 
the  soul  is  endowed,  of  the  laws  that  rule 
them,  and  of  the  phenomena  that  refer  to 
them.  When  our  will  exercises  itself  in  a 
normal  and  regular  manner,  we  have 
the  power  to  determine  and  to  make  a 
choice  by  ourselves,  without  anything  con- 
straining us,  and  we  are  conscious  of  this 
liberty.  We  feel  that  we  are  responsible 
for  our  free  acts,  and  this  constitutes  our 
personality,  —  that  which  distinguishes 
man  from  the  animals.  Organic  matter, 
like  brute  matter,  is  deprived  of  spon- 
taneousness ;  it  is  not  conscious  of  the 
phenomena  which  it  presents,  and  it  can- 
not present  immaterial  ones.  That  which 
in  us,  thinks,  judges,  wills,  is  conscious  of 
its  acts,  of  its  responsibility,  and  therefore 
distinct  from  the  body:  it  is  a  spirit.  The 
spirituality  of  the  soul  is  incontestable ; 
this  is  proved  by  each  of  the  operations,  of 


the  manner  of  being,  and  of  the  faculties 
of  the  Ego.  Thus  I  feel  my  personal 
identity;  I  feel  that  I  remain  the  same  in 
all  the  moments  of  my  existence ;  with- 
out this  I  could  not  reason,  could  not  re- 
member and  be  responsible  to-day  for  that 
which  I  did  twenty  years  ago,  for  the  body 
renews  itself  continually.  Therefore,  only 
a  simple,  non-composed  being,  can  have 
personal  identity.  Also  the  consciousness 
of  the  Ego  can  reside  only  in  one  single, 
simple  being,  and  not  in  the  reunion  of 
several  beings  composing  a  machine;  for  I 
feel  that  it  is  the  same  Ego  that  thinks, 
suffers,  is  the  subject  of  numerous  psycho- 
logical phenomena,  —  phenomena  among 
which  reigns  a  harmony,  a  wonderful  con- 
nection. Distinct  from  one  another,  the 
soul  and  body  are  united.  There  reigns 
between  them  the  most  intimate  relation; 
they  form,  so  to  speak,  only  one.  In  the 
psychological  facts,  the  soul  does  not  act 
alone;  it  needs,  during  our  actual  organ- 
ization, the  concurrence  of  the  physical 
organs ;  and  we  have  a  proof  of  this  fact, 
when  the  organic  machine  is  out  of  order, 
all  the  psychological  phenomena  are  greatly 
modified.  So,  also,  the  soul  does  not  ap- 
pear to  be  a  stranger  to  any  of  our  physical 
functions ;  it  presides  over  both  the  opera- 
tions of  our  physical  organs  and  those  of 
the  mind.  It  is  at  once  vegetative,  sensi- 
tive, and  intellective.  (See  Animism.) 
The  soul  survives  the  body,  "the  dust  re- 
turns to  the  earth  out  of  which  it  was 
taken,  and  the  spirit  returns  to  God  Who 
hath  given  it."  For  proofs  of  this,  see 
Immortality. 

South  Africa  ( Catholicity  in) . — When  the 
Dutch  Calvinists  arrived  in  South  Africa, 
they  drove  out  the  Catholic  Portuguese, 
who  had  been  in  possession  of  the  land 
since  Vasco  da  Gama's  discovery.  Under 
the  Dutch  rule.  Catholicity  was  proscribed, 
and  remained  so  even  under  English  rule 
up  to  1810.  The  few  French,  German, 
Belgian,  and  Irish  Catholics  there,  were 
visited  off  and  on  by  missionaries  from 
Mauritius,  to  which  apostolic  vicariate 
South  Africa  belonged.  Since  1837,  the 
Cape  Colony  forms  a  distinct  mission.  In 
1850  we  find  there  three  vicariates :  East 
and  West  Cape,  and  Natal.  Natal  was 
from  the  beginning  given  over  to  the 
Oblate  Fathers,  who  had  charge  of  what 
is  now  known  as  Natal,  Caferaria,  Zulu- 
land,  Basutoland,  Transvaal,  and  the 
Orange  Free  State. 


South  Africa 


662 


South  Africa 


In  1886,  the  Orange  Free  State  was 
erected  into  a  vicariate  and  the  Transvaal 
into  a  prefecture  apostolic. 

1.  The  Vicariate  of  Natal.  —  In  1851 
Mgr.  AUard,  with  a  feve  Oblate  Fathers, 
left  Marseilles  for  Natal,  where  they  found 
but  few  European  Catholics,  and  these  few 
soon  left  for  Transvaal,  upon  the  discovery 
of  the  goldfields.  Twenty-five  years  ago 
there  were  not  800  Catholics  in  all  Natal, 
to-day  there  are  12,000,  among  a  million 
infidels.  The  present  vicar  apostolic,  Mgr. 
Jolivet  (bishop  since  1874),  is  assisted  in 
the  pastorate  of  that  vast  district  by  20 
Oblate  Fathers,  four  lay  brothers,  and  five 
secular  priests.  Besides  the  Trappists  and 
their  Third  Order  of  Sisters,  there  are  six 
religious  congregations  doing  service  in 
the  missions.  The  Sisters  of  the  Holy 
Family  (Bordeaux)  have  charge  of  houses 
at  Pietermaritzburg  and  Durban.  The 
Dominican  Sisters  teach  in  the  schools  at 
Oakford,  Newcastle,  and  in  the  Zululand. 
The  Sisterhood  of  the  Holy  Cross  (Switzer- 
land)have  founded  four  houses  in  Caferaria. 
The  Hospital  Sisters  of  St.  Augustine  have 
houses  at  Durban,  Pietermaritzburg,  Est- 
court,  and  Ladysmith.  Of  late  there  have 
arrived  also  seven  sisters  from  the  diocese 
of  Vannes,  called  Daughters  of  Jesus. 

The  Oblate  Fathers,  besides  tending  to 
eight  Zulu  missions,  are  in  charge  of  the 
European  and  Indian  population  of  Natal. 
Their  principal  missions  are  at  Durban, 
Estcourt,  Ladysmith,  Newcastle,  Oakford, 
Kokstat,  and  Umstata. 

The  main  effort  of  the  Oblate  Fathers  is 
directed  to  the  conversion  of  the  blacks. 
But  their  zeal  is  too  often  frustrated  by 
the  fidgety  character  of  the  Zulus,  their 
polygamy,  and  prejudices  sown  among 
them  by  Protestant  missioners.  An  An- 
glican bishop,  to  reconcile  the  blacks  with 
the  Christian  religion,  publicly  allowed 
polygamy.  "  Why  should  that  be  con- 
trary to  the  Christian  religion,  since  the 
Patriarchs  of  old,  Abraham,  Isaac,  and 
Jacob,  practiced  it  .?  " 

A  splendid  success  is  the  Trappist  mis- 
sion in  Natal.  They  have  24  priests,  250 
brothers,  and  an  almost  equal  number  of 
Sisters  of  the  Third  Order.  They  have 
taught  the  natives  useful  trades  and  there- 
fore have  workmen  whom  they  can  employ 
in  the  construction  of  substantial  buildings 
at  small  cost.  Through  all  this.  Catholic 
influence  is  on  the  increase  in  Natal. 

2.  The  Apostolic  Prefecture  of  Basuto- 
land.  —  The     apostolic      prefect,     Father 


Cenez,  is  assisted  by  14  Oblate  Fathers 
and  104  brothers.  Some  thirty  Sisters  of 
the  Holy  Family  are  teaching  in  the 
schools.  There  are  about  6,000  Catholics 
in  all.  The  main  missions  are  at  Roma, 
St.  Michael,  Thaba-Bosiho,  Korokoro,  St. 
Monica,  etc.  A  great  drawback  at  pres- 
ent (1899)  is  the  suffering  caused  by  the 
cattle  pest.  Of  all  the  missions  only  Roma 
has  any  horned  cattle  left. 

3.  The  Vicariate  of  the  Orange  Free 
State. — This  comprises  also  West  Griqua- 
land  and  Bechuanaland.  Mgr.  Graughan, 
with  two  secular  priests  and  15  Oblate 
Fathers,  takes  care  of  the  4,500  Catholics 
that  are  scattered  among  the  14,000  ( ?) 
heretics  and  1,000,000  heathen.  There 
are  eight  churches  and  13  schools,  taught 
by  religious  and  eight  lay  teachers.  About 
1,000  children  frequent  the  Catholic 
schools.  Kimberly,  the  residence  of  the 
vicar  apostolic,  has  a  population  of  about 
40,000,  of  all  nations,  tongues,  colors,  and 
religions.  The  Catholics  number  about 
2,000.  At  the  school  of  the  sisters  are  300 
pupils,  and  at  that  of  the  brothers,  but 
lately  opened,  more  than  100. 

At  Bloemfontein,  the  capital  of  Orange, 
the  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Family  have  an 
academy  with  more  than  a  hundred 
boarders  —  the  largest  in  all  South  Africa. 
Mafeking  and  Taunys  are  prosperous  mis- 
sions. Other  important  missionary  cen- 
ters are  Jagersfontein,  Harrismith,  and 
Beaconsfield. 

4.  The  Prefecture  of  Transvaal,  also 
in  charge  of  the  Oblate  Fathers,  comprises 
the  whole  state  of  that  name,  and  contains 
about  6,000  Catholics.  With  the  Oblates 
are  working  Trappists,  Marist  Brothers, 
Loretto,  Holy  Family,  Nazareth,  Domini- 
can, and  Ursuline  Sisters.  Missions  exist 
at  Johannesburg,  Pretoria,  Barbeton, 
Potchefstroom,  Lydenburg,  and  Vleesch- 
fontein.  Johannesburg  is  the  most  im- 
portant mission  of  the  prefecture.  The 
town  has  100,000  inhabitants,  of  whom 
3,000  are  Catholics.  They  have  a  church, 
a  school  for  boys,  and  another  for  girls, 
frequented  in  all  by  800  children.  Johan- 
nesburg is  the  only  place  in  Transvaal 
where  Catholic  sisters  are  in  charge  of  the 
government  hospital.  They  have  an  aver- 
age daily  number  of  250  patients. 

The  vast  influx  of  strangers,  the  example 
of  Catholic  missionaries  and  sisters,  have 
gradually  done  away  with  the  former 
hatred  and  bigotry  of  the  Boers,  who  are 
learning  to  appreciate  the  Catholic  schools 


SOZOMENUS 


663 


Station 


and  eagerly  send  their  children  to  them. 
Thereby  will  be  gradually  extirpated  a 
number  of  prejudices  still  existing  among 
them.  —  "The  Review,"  St.  Lout's,  Mis- 
souri. 

Sozomenus  (Hermias).  —  Church  his- 
torian, born  about  the  end  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, at  Gaza,  Palestine,  died  about  443. 
Lawyer  at  Constantinople.  He  has  left: 
Church  History  from  323  to  439,  dedicated 
to  Emperor  Theodosius  II. ;  Abridgment 
of  Church  History  from  the  ascension  of 
our  Lord  to  the  death  of  Lucinius.  It  has 
been  lost. 

Spain  (  Worship  in).  —  Catholicity  is  the 
religion  of  Spain.  The  decrees  of  1835 
and  1836  have  suppressed  the  convents, 
corporations,  military  orders,  etc.  The 
number  of  the  members  of  the  actual 
clergy  is  about  70,000.  Spain  is  divided 
into  59  dioceses,  of  which  there  are  8  arch- 
bishoprics and  51  bishoprics.  The  popula- 
tion consists  (according  to  the  census  of 
1890)  of  16,603,959  Catholics ;  6,654  Protes- 
tants ;  402  Israelites ;  9,645  Rationalists ; 
271  Mohammedans,  etc. 

Spalding  (Martin  John)  (1810-1872). 
—  An  American  Catholic  prelate,  born  in 
Marion  county,  Kentucky,  died  at  Balti- 
more. He  was  bishop  of  Louisville  and  be- 
came archbishop  of  Baltimore,  in  1864.  As 
apostolic  Delegate  he,  in  1866,  convened 
the  Second  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore, 
which  was  attended  by  seven  archbishops 
and  thirty-eight  bishops.  He  wrote  Ex>i- 
dences  of  Christianity  (1847),  History  of 
the  Protestant  Reformation  in  Germany, 
Sivitzerland,  etc.  (i860),  etc. 

Spener  (Philip  James).     See  Pietism. 

Spiritualists.  —  Sectarians  who  profess 
to  hold  intercourse  with  the  spirits  of  the 
unseen  world,  and  who  are  striving,  in 
union  with  the  spirits  of  darkness,  to  sub- 
stitute a  "  devil-begotten  "  superstition  for 
the  revealed  truths  of  Christianity.  "  Mod- 
ern spiritualism  is  substantially,  but  a 
revival  of  ancient  pagan  practices,  known 
many  years  before  Christ,  and  condemned 
as  abominable  by  Moses.  Clairvoyants 
take  the  place  of  ancient  sooth-sayers ;  the 
alleged  spirits  of  the  departed  now  take 
the  place  of  the  ancient  Pythonic  spirits, 
and  spiritualists  now  believe  to  learn  facts 
or  truths,  secret  to  men,  from  the  dead,  as 
pagans  did  thousands  of  years  ago  "  (Rev. 
J.  Gmeiner,  Spirits  of  Darkness,  p.  226). 


Sponsors.     See  Baptism. 

Stabat  Mater.  —  A  celebrated  Latin 
hymn  on  the  Crucifixion,  forming  part  of 
the  service  of  the  Catholic  Church  during 
Passion  Week.  Its  authorship  has  been 
assigned  to  Jacobone,  a  Franciscan,  who 
flourished  in  the  thirteenth  century.  It 
has  been  set  to  music  by  many  composers 
of  eminence. 

Staff  or  Crosier  ( pastoral  staff  of  a 
bishop  or  of  an  abbot) . — The  crosier  has  ex- 
isted from  the  earliest  times  of  the  Church. 
At  first  it  was  a  simple  staff,  generally  of 
cypress  wood,  ending  by  a  head  in  the 
form  of  a  crutch  orT,  the  so-called  St.  An- 
thony's cross.  This  kind  of  staff  existed 
until  the  seventh  century  in  the  Latin 
Church,  but  then  the  wood  of  the  stem 
was  covered  with  plates  of  gold,  of  silver, 
or  gilt  copper,  often  ornamented  with  col- 
ored stones,  and  the  head  was  made  of 
ivory  or  sculptured  metal.  At  the  same 
time  there  existed  also  the  spiral  staff, 
reminding  one  of  the  lituus  of  the  augurs 
and  which  soon  replaced  the  St.  Anthony's 
cross.  The  spiral  forms,  at  first  little 
prominent,  continually  increased  in  di- 
mensions. The  first  represented  serpents 
encircling  the  "  Lamb^  of  God  "  ;  then 
others,  the  stems  of  which  ornamented 
with  flowers,  presented  an  expanded 
flower  on  top.  About  the  end  of  the 
twelfth  century,  they  encased  personages, 
religious  scenes,  and  the  stem  be- 
came longer.  In  the  thirteenth  century, 
the  crosiers  presented  architectural  dec- 
orations: at  the  rise  of  the  spiral  form, 
the  stem  is  surrounded  with  an  aediculum 
{little  temple)  with  miniature  turrets  and 
pinacles.  The  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  cen- 
turies mark  the  apogee  of  the  richness  and 
luxury  of  ornamentation  of  the  crosiers. 
The  Renaissance  produces  the  leaves  of 
the  acanthus  and  the  pagan  decorations 
(heads  of  satyrs,  etc.).  In  the  seven- 
teenth century,  the  crutch  assumes  the 
bended-back  form  as  we  see  it  to-day. 
The  Eastern  Church  never  adopted  the 
spiral  form ;  it  adheres  to  the  primitive 
staff,  surmounted  by  a  globe  or  St.  An- 
thony's cross,  or  terminates  by  serpents 
entwined  face  to  face. 

Station. —  In  the  early  times  of  Chris- 
tianity it  was  usual  for  the  people  to  as- 
semble in  a  particular  church  on  fast  days, 
but  especially  during  seasons  of  public  ca- 
lamity, in  order,  afterwards,  to  proceed  in 


Stations 


664 


Stephen 


regular  procession  to  another  church,  pre- 
viously determined  upon,  for  the  celebra- 
tion of  what  was  called,  in  the  language  of 
the  period,  a  "Station."  The  ceremony 
was  denominated  Station  because  it  was  at 
the  second  church  that  the  procession 
stopped  to  hear  Mass  and  to  listen  to  the 
sermon.  It  was  on  occasion  of  these  Sta- 
tions that  Pope  St.  Gregory  the  Great 
preached  the  greater  number  of  his  '*  Hom- 
ilies "  to  the  Roman  people. 

Stations  or   Way  of  the  Cross. —  The 

"Stations"  or  "Way  of  the  Cross,"  in 
Latin  Via  Cruets,  is  a  devotional  exer- 
cise instituted  by  the  Church,  to  which 
are  attached  abundant  indulgences.  The 
fourteen  pictures  or  images  ranged  around 
churches,  and  called  "  Stations  of  the 
Cross,"  represent  fourteen  scenes  of  our 
Lord's  Passion,  from  the  palace  of  Pilate  to 
the  summit  of  Mount  Calvary,  and  to  the 
tomb.  Before  each  of  these,  the  Faithful 
kneel  in  prayer  and  pious  meditation ;  a 
practice  of  devotion  in  memory  of  the  path 
trodden  by  our  Saviour  when  going  to  His 
Crucifixion.  The  origin  of  this  custom,  as 
tradition  tells  us,  is  that  the  Blessed  Virgin, 
after  the  death  of  Christ,  frequently  fol- 
lowed the  road  sanctified  by  His  Passion 
and  cruel  death.  Her  example  was  followed 
by  the  Faithful  of  Palestine,  and  after- 
wards by  numberless  devout  pilgrims  from 
all  parts  of  the  world.  To  encourage  this 
act  of  piety,  the  Church  has  accorded  in- 
dulgences to  such  as  prayed  devoutly  at 
the  scenes  of  Christ's  sufferings  and  death ; 
but  as  the  favor  did  not  extend  to  those 
unable  to  visit  the  Holy  Land,  the  devo- 
tion known  as  the  "Way  of  the  Cross" 
was  permitted,  having  the  like  indulgences 
annexed  to  this  pious  exercise  as  those  ac- 
corded to  the  visiting  of  the  actual  scenes 
of  our  Lord's  Passion.  Persons  who  are 
sick,  infirm,  or  otherwise  incapacitated 
from  praying  at  the  different  Stations  of 
the  Cross  in  churches,  may  gain  the  indul- 
gences of  the  Via  Cruets  by  using  a 
crucifix,  to  which  the  blessing  of  these 
indulgences  is  attached,  for  their  personal 
use,  only,  by  some  one  specially  author- 
ized. 

The  customary  manner  of  following  the 
Way  of  the  Cross  is  to  kneel  at  each  of 
the  fourteen  Stations,  and  meditate  upon 
the  subject  represented,  saying  one  Our 
Father,  Hail  Mary  and  Glory  be  to  the 
Father,  etc.,  and  after  each  meditation. 
To  gain  the  indulgences,  some  inclination, 


at  least,  should  be  made  towards  the  differ- 
ent Stations  in  turn,  none  of  them  being 
omitted,  nor  any  interruption  of  long  dura- 
tion allowed.  At  the  end,  five  Our  Fathers, 
Hail  Marys,  and  Glory  be  to  the  Father, 
etc.,  may  be  said  for  the  intention  of  his 
Holiness  the  Pope ;  or  six,  if  the  person  be 
a  member  of  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis 
of  Assisi.  These  prayers  are  not  essential, 
except  when  the  Way  of  the  Cross  is  said 
with  the  aid  of  the  crucifix  only.  For 
those  who  are  incapable  of  concentrating 
their  attention  sufficiently  to  meditate  at 
length,  a  thought  in  an  affectionate  and 
grateful  remembrance  of  the  circumstance 
they  are  contemplating,  is  sufficient. 

Stephen  (name  of  ten  Popes).  —  Stefhen 
I.  —  Pope  and  martyr,  born  at  Rome,  died 
in  257.  Stephen  II.  —  Born  at  Rome,  died 
in  752,  two  days  after  his  election,  which 
took  place  on  March  27th.  He  had  never 
been  consecrated.  By  some  he  is  not 
counted  among  the  Popes.  Stephen  III. — 
Pope  from  752  to  757.  Neglected  no  means 
to  induce  Aistulph,  king  of  the  Lombards, 
to  desist  from  his  project  of  making  him- 
self master  of  Rome;  but  Aistulph  re- 
mained inexorable.  Abandoned  by  the 
Greek  emperor,  and  unable  to  cope  with 
the  Lombards,  Stephen  formed  the  reso- 
lution of  visiting  in  person  the  court  of 
Pepin  to  implore  the  assistance  and  pro- 
tection of  that  gallant  prince.  Pepin,  in 
two  expeditions  (754  and  756),  compelled 
the  Lombard  to  surrender  the  Exarchate 
and  all  the  cities  which  he  had  taken  from 
the  Roman  Church.  (See  Pepin  the 
Short.)  Stephen  IV.  —  Pope  from  768  to 
772.  His  Pontificate  was  much  disturbed 
by  the  rivalries  between  the  Prankish  and 
Lombard  factions,  who,  contending  for 
the  mastery  in  Rome,  committed  mjiny 
acts  of  violence,  which  the  Pope  was  not 
always  able  to  prevent.  A  Council  held, 
in  St.  John  Lateran,  under  his  Pontificate, 
decided  that,  in  future,  no  one  should  be 
elected  Pope,  without  being  priest  or 
deacon.  Stephen  V.  —  Pope  from  816  to 
817.  Successor  of  Leo  HI.  Anointed 
Louis  the  Kind.  Stephen  VI.  —  Pope 
from  886  to  891.  Roman,  raised  to  the 
Pontificate  in  spite  of  him.  He  crowned 
Guido,  Duke  of  Spoleto,  in  the  quality  of 
emperor,  and  received  from  him  the  con- 
firmation of  the  gifts  made  by  Pepin  and 
Charlemagne  to  the  Holy  See.  Stephen 
VII.  —  Pope  from  896  to  897.  He  was  the 
first   Pope  who   grievously  disgraced  his 


Stephen 


665 


Stole 


high  office.  Yielding  to  party  spirit,  he 
had  the  body  of  Formosus  unearthed,  and 
in  a  council  assembled  for  that  purpose, 
declared  his  election  to  the  papacy  irregu- 
lar; after  cutting  oflf  three  fingers  of  the 
right  hand,  the  body  was  cast  into  the 
Tiber.  The  ordinations  which  Formosus 
had  conferred  were  declared  invalid.  The 
barbarity  of  this  act,  which,  it  is  consoling 
to  know,  was  committed  by  an  intruder, 
aroused  the  indignation  of  the  people,  by 
whom  the  perpetrator  of  the  outrage  was 
seized  and  strangled  in  prison.  Stephen 
VIII.  —  Roman,  elected  in  929,  died  in 
931.  Stephen  IX.  —  Roman,  elected  in 
939,  died  in  942.  Stephen  X.  —  Pope  from 
1057  to  1058.  A  man  of  the  loftiest  and 
most  determined  spirit.  Continued  the 
measures  of  reform  adopted  by  his  pred- 
ecessors against  ecclesiastical  abuses ;  only 
men  of  merit  were  raised  to  ecclesiastical 
dignities,  among  whom  Peter  Damian  was 
created  by  him  bishop  and  cardinal  of  Ostia. 

Stephen  (St.). — First  deacon  and  first 
martyr.  Stoned  about  the  year  35.  A 
young  man,  called  Saul,  who  watched  the 
garments  of  his  executioners,  was  touched 
by  grace  and  became  the  apostle  St.  Paul. 
The  body  of  St.  Stephen  was  found  in  415, 
and  the  Church  celebrates  the  Invention 
of  his  remains  on  Aug.  3d.     F.  Dec.  26th. 

Stephen  (St.)  (979-1038).  —  First  king 
of  Hungary.  His  first  act,  on  ascending 
the  throne  (997-1038),  was  to  unite  himself 
to  Latin  Christendom.  By  his  marriage 
with  Gisela,  the  sister  of  Emperor  Henry 
n.,  he  became  closely  connected  with 
Catholic  Germany  whose  civilization  he 
sought,  by  every  means,  to  introduce 
among  his  subjects.  Assisted  by  German 
and  Bohemian  priests,  Stephen  succeeded 
in  extending  the  Christian  religion  over 
the  whole  kingdom ;  throughout  the  land 
churches  and  monasteries  rose.  He  sent 
an  embassy  to  Pope  Sylvester  H.,  and  re- 
ceived from  him  the  present  of  a  royal 
crown  and  a  papal  edict  empowering  him 
to  regulate  the  ecclesiastical  affairs  of  his 
realm.  His  religious  zeal  gained  him  the 
title  of  "Apostolic  King"  from  Pope 
Sylvester  H.,  with  the  right  of  having  the 
cross  borne  before  him.     F.  Sept.  2d.^ 

Stephen  Harding  (St.).  See  Cister- 
cians. 

Stigmata  (brands  or  marks  upon  the 
body).  —  After  the  vision  of  St.  Francis  of 


Assisi,  the  hands  and  feet  of  the  saint  were 
found  to  be  marked  as  with  nails,  and  there 
was  a  wound  in  his  side.  The  wounds 
were  seen  by  many  persons,  among  whom 
was  Pope  Alexander  IV.,  during  the  life- 
time of  the  saint. 

Stole.  —  The  word  stole  comes  from  the 
Greek  stole  and  was  employed  anciently  to 
signify  clothing  in  general,  and  especially 
the  outer  or  best  robe.  This  outer  robe 
was  usually  a  short-sleeved  white  tunic 
which  fell  in  folds  and  reached  nearly  to 
the  feet.  It  was  adorned  with  two  verti- 
cal stripes  or  bands,  and  was  worn  origi- 
nally by  both  men  and  women,  but  among 
the  Romans  it  was  thought  eflfeminate  for 
men  to  wear  it,  and  it  became  the  charac- 
teristic dress  of  the  matron.  It  was,  how- 
ever, worn  by  the  early  Christians  of  both 
sexes.  Over  the  stole  and  around  the  neck 
was  worn  an  oblong  piece  of  linen  called 
the  Orarium,  which  served  the  purpose  of 
a  handkerchief,  and  was  by  females  spread, 
in  time  of  prayer,  over  the  head  and 
shoulders,  falling  around  the  body  like  a 
veil.  The  Orarium  worn  by  ecclesiastics 
was  bordered  with  stripes  of  purple,  and 
when,  in  course  of  time,  its  dimensions 
were  contracted,  those  ornaments  were  re- 
tained as  marks  of  honor,  while  the  plain 
linen  portions  were  cut  away  in  such  a 
manner,  that  it  was  reduced  to  a  band 
which  surrounded  the  neck  and  fell  down 
below  the  knees  on  both  sides  of  the  body. 
It  afterwards  exchanged  the  denomination 
of  Orarium  for  that  of  stole,  by  which 
name  it  is  now  known.  Before  the  use  of 
the  tunic  called  Colobium  and  the  later 
privilege  of  wearing  the  Dalmatic  were 
granted  to  the  deacons  in  general,  the 
stole  was  the  insignia  of  their  order. 
When  the  stole  became  peculiar  to  the 
ministers  of  the  altar,  it  ceased  to  be  made 
of  linen,  and  was  composed  of  the  same 
materials  as  the  chasuble  or  upper  gar- 
ment. As  in  the  Latin,  so  in  the  Greek 
and  Oriental  Churches,  the  stole  is  a  very 
conspicuous  ornament  among  the  vest- 
ments peculiar  to  the  higher  ministers  of 
the  altar.  It  is  mentioned  in  all  their  lit- 
urgies. The  mystic  signification  which 
the  Church  attaches  to  this  vestment  is 
beautifully  expressed  in  the  words  of  the 
prayer  which  the  priest  is  directed  by  her 
to  recite  when  he  puts  it  on :  "  Restore 
to  me,  O  Lord,  the  robe  of  immortality, 
which  was  forfeited  by  the  prevarication 
of  our  first  parents ;  and  though  unworthy 


Stylites 


666 


Suicide 


to  celebrate  so  august  a  mystery,  grant 
that  I  may  attain  to  everlasting  glory."' 

Stylites.  —  Surname  given  to  a  class  of 
solitary  ascetics  who  had  built  their  cells 
on  ruined  porticos  or  colonnades.  The 
institute  of  the  Stylites  was  honored  in  the 
Eastern  Church,  and  one  was  admitted 
only  with  religious  ceremonies.  St.  Sim- 
eon was  the  first  of  the  Stylites,  and  he 
had  successors  who  continued  this  kind  of 
life  in  Syria  until  the  twelfth  century,  we 
still  find  some  traces  thereof  in  Meso- 
potamia, in  the  fifteenth  century. 

Suarez  (Francis)  (1548-1617). —Jesuit 
and  theologian,  born  at  Grenada.  Taught 
at  Segovia,  Valladolid,  Rome,  Alcala, 
Salamanca,  and  Coimbra.  Two  of  his 
works  refer,  more  especially,  to  philosophy  : 
the  Metaphysical  Disputes  and  his  Treatise 
on  Laivs.  But  his  most  famous  work  was 
his  Defense  of  the  Chtholic  Faith  against 
the  Errors  of  A  nglicanism.  He  wrote  the 
work  at  the  request  of  Pope  Paul  V. 

Subdeacon  (minister  of  the  Church  who 
ranks  next  to  the  deacon).  —  "No  one," 
says  the  Council  of  Trent,  "  shall  for  the 
future  be  promoted  to  the  order  of  sub- 
deaconship  before  the  twenty-second  year 
of  his  age.  .  .  .  Such  as  have  good 
testimonial,  and  have  been  already  tried  in 
minor  orders,  and  are  instructed  in  letters 
and  in  those  things  which  belong  to  the 
exercise  of  their  orders,  shall  be  ordained 
subdeacons  and  deacons.  They  shall  have 
a  hope,  with  God's  help,  to  be  able  to  live 
continently"  (Sess.xxiii.  c.  13).  The  func- 
tions of  the  subdeacons  may  be  reduced  to 
six  :     I.  To  take  care  of  the  sacred  vessels. 

2.  To  pour  wine  and  water  into  the  chalice, 

3.  To  sing  the  Epistle  at  high  Mass.  4. 
To  hold  the  book  of  the  Gospel  to  the 
deacon  and  to  carry  it  to  the  celebrant  to 
kiss.  5.  To  carry  the  cross  in  processions. 
6.  Assist  the  deacon  in  all  his  functions 
and  receive  the  offerings  of  the  people. 
In  the  primitive  Church  they  served  as 
secretaries  to  the  bishops,  instructed  the 
Catechumens,  and  guarded  the  entrance 
of  the  sanctuary.  At  their  ordination,  the 
subdeacons  contract  the  obligation  to  ob- 
serve continence,  to  say  the  Breviary  and 
to  wear  the  ecclesiastical  garment. 

Subunists.  —  Communicants  under  one 
kind.     See  Hussites. 

Suffragan.  —  The  name  given  to  a  bishop 
in  an  ecclesiastical  province,  relatively,  to 


the  metropolitan,  primate,  or  patriarch,  in 
whose  province  he  is ;  also  to  a  titular 
bishop,  or  bishop  in  partibus,  who  is  ex- 
ercising the  Pontifical  functions  and  ordi- 
nations for  the  ordinary  bishop  whom  he 
has  been  invited  to  assist;  also  to  a  titular 
bishop,  who  is  under  a  titular  patriarch  or 
archbishop.  Such  are  Suffragans,  nomi- 
nally. 

Suicide  (action  of  one  killing  himself). — 
The  suicide  commits  :  i.  An  attack  against 
God  whose  holy  laws  he  violates  and  whose 
power  he  audaciously  usurps.  God  has 
said:  "Thou  shall  not  kill."  The  one 
who  renders  himself  guilty  of  suicide 
tramples,  therefore,  on  the  laws  of  God. 
Holy  Scripture  tells  us  that  "  the  life  of 
man  upon  earth  is  a  warfare";  the  one 
who  leaves  his  post  without  the  orders  of 
His  chief,  before  He  has  relieved  him,  is  no 
soldier  of  Jesus  Christ,  but  a  coward  who 
flies  before  having  combated.  God  hav- 
ing given  life  to  us,  it  does  not  belong  to 
us,  but,  properly  speaking,  belongs  to 
God,  like  our  whole  being;  it  is  a  deposit 
which  He  has  placed  in  our  hands;  conse- 
quently, we  are  no  more  permitted  to 
dispose  thereof,  than  a  trustee  is  per- 
mitted to  dispose  of  a  trust  that  was  com- 
mitted to  him,  than  any  man  is  permitted 
to  dispose  of  a  good  of  which  he  is  not  the 
proprietor.  Suicide  is:  2.  A  crime 
against  society.  After  God,  it  is  to  so- 
ciety that  we  owe  almost  all  our  advan- 
tages. In  return  of  what  it  has  done  for 
us,  has  society  not  a  right  that  we  should 
be  useful  to  it,  and  not  become  injurious 
to  it  ?  But  the  one  who  puts  an  end  to  his 
days,  deprives  society  of  all  the  services  it 
has  a  right  to  expect.  Suicide,  so  prej- 
udicial to  civil  society,  has,  for  domestic 
society,  still  more  immediate  and  una- 
voidable consequences.  Suicide  is :  3. 
A  cruelty  towards  oneself,  because  to  ren- 
der oneself  guilty  of  this  crime,  is  com- 
promising his  happiness  in  this  world  and, 
in  the  other,  his  eternal  salvation.  Con- 
sidering the  crime  of  suicide  under  such 
odious  feature  peculiar  to  it,  can  we  be 
astonished  that  it  was  always  held  in  ab- 
horrence, and  that  both  civil  and  religious 
legislation,  branded  it  with  the  most  infam- 
ous punishment?  At  Athens  and  Thebes 
they  pressed  the  seal  of  ignominy  on  the 
corpse  of  the  suicide  and  in  pagan  Rome 
they  deprived  it  of  religious  burial.  The 
Church  denies  Christian  burial  to  the  one 
who  has  died  by  his  own  hand,  unless  in- 


SULPICIANS 


667 


Surplice 


sanity  had  rendered  him  irresponsible.  The 
refusal  of  the  burial  rites  is  not  intended  as 
a  condemnation  of  the  individual,  but  to 
express  horror  of  the  crime,  and  to  act  as 
a  deterrent  to  others.  The  prevalence 
of  suicide  is  principally  and  generally  to 
be  ascribed  to  the  lack  of  religion,  of  a 
firm  belief  in  a  future  life,  of  confidence  of 
God's  willingness  to  aid  the  unfortunate, 
and  to  pardon  the  repentant  sinner.  Ex- 
perience teaches  that  as  religion  in  a  land 
decreases,  the  number  of  suicides  in- 
creases. Also  the  godless  press  of  the  day 
contributes  largely  towards  suicide  by 
praising  the  self-murderer,  saying :  He 
expiated  his  crime  with  his  life.  Instead 
of  expiating  a  crime,  he  adds  another  to  it. 

Sulpicians,  or  "  Priests  of  the  Congre- 
gation of  St.  Sulpice."  A  community 
founded  by  the  sainted  Jacques  Olier,  in 
1642.  Their  chief  object  is  the  direction 
of  ecclesiastical  seminaries  and  the  train- 
ing of  candidates  for  the  priesthood. 
They  came  to  the  United  States  in  1790; 
have  charge  of  St.  Mary's  Seminary,  Bal- 
timore, Maryland. ;  Brighton  Seminary, 
Boston,  and  St.  Joseph's  Seminary  of  Dun- 
woodie.  New  York. 

Sulpicius  Severus. —  Ecclesiastical  his- 
torian, born  in  Gaul,  about  the  year  363. 
Was  a  famous  lawyer,  but,  on  the  death  of 
his  wife,  he  embraced  an  ascetic  life.  He 
died  in  406.  His  writings  comprise :  The 
Life  of  St.  Martitt;  Three  Dialogues  on 
the  virtues  and  miracles  of  St.  Martin,  and 
on  the  virtuous  example  of  the  Oriental 
monks;  A  Sacred  History,  in  two  books, 
from  the  beginning  of  the  world  to  the 
year  400,  in  which  he  furnishes  much  in- 
formation respecting  the  ancient  Church  of 
Gaul;  and  a  collection  of  letters  to  St. 
Paulinus  and  others.  His  pure,  classical 
style  has  merited  for  him  the  name  of  the 
"  Christian  Sallust." 

Sunday  (the  first  day  of  the  week,  con- 
secrated to  the  practice  of  the  Christian 
religion). —  The  Jewish  Christians  in  the 
early  Church,  after  the  example  of  our 
Lord,  continued  to  keep  holy  the  ancient 
or  legal  Sabbath,  but  afterwards,  in  its 
stead,  the  first  day  of  the  week,  or  Sunday 
was  observed,  as  appears  from  the  Scrip- 
ture (Acts  XX.  7;  I.  Cor.  xvi.  2),  by  the 
Apostles  themselves,  who  called  it  the 
Lord's  Day  (Apoc.  i.  10),  and  was  espe- 
cially consecrated  to  divine  worship  in 
honor  of  the  Resurrection  of  our  Lord. 


Supererogation  (  Works  of)  (Lat.  sufer- 
rogata,  over  and  above  things  required). 
—  A  class  of  works,  which,  in  the  Catholic 
system,  are  described  as  not  absolutely  re- 
quired of  each  individual  as  conditions  to 
his  eternal  salvation.  A  consequence  of 
this  doctrine  is,  that  God  may  accept  the 
superabundant  works  of  one  in  atonement 
for  the  defective  service  of  another;  and 
hence,  in  the  Catholic  indulgences,  along 
with  what  they  regard  as  the  infinite  and 
inexhaustible  treasure  of  the  merits  of  our 
Lord,  they  also  regard,  although  in  a  de- 
gree infinitely  inferior,  the  superabundant 
merits  of  the  saints  as  forming  part  of 
that  "treasure  of  the  Church"  which  is 
applied  in  the  form  of  indulgences. 

Superstition  (false  ideas  which  one  has 
of  certain  practices  of  religion,  to  which 
one  attaches  a  too  great  fear  or  a  too  great 
confidence).  —  We  understand  sometimes 
by  superstition  the  divine  worship  ren- 
dered to  creatures,  although  it  belongs  to 
God  alone.  In  this  sense  the  pagan  peo- 
ples were  given  up  to  all  kinds  of  supersti- 
tion. On  the  other  hand,  the  theologians 
apply  the  same  denomination  to  the  wor- 
ship rendered  to  the  real  God,  but  in  a 
manner  which  He  does  not  approve  of  and 
which  constitutes  a  vain  ceremony.  It  is 
principally  in  matters  of  worship  that  there 
is  question  of  superstition.  A  false  wor- 
ship, such  as  the  veneration  granted  to 
false  relics,  is  a  superstition.  To  add  to 
the  rites  of  the  Church  ceremonies  or  words 
of  which  she  does  not  make  use,  would  be 
also  a  superstition.  Or  again,  it  is  a  su- 
perstitious practice,  if  one  attaches  in  his 
mind,  to  an  object,  words  or  rites,  some 
power  which  is  not  attached  to  it  either  by 
the  institution  of  God  or  by  the  Church. 
Superstition  being  an  excessive  credulity, 
arises  principally  from  ignorance  and  dis- 
appears with  religious  instruction. 

Supralapsarians.  —  Calvin's  rigid  theory 
on  predestination  encountered  much  oppo- 
sition even  in  the  bosom  of  his  own  sect. 
A  very  violent  contest  arose  on  that  ques- 
tion among  his  followers  in  Holland.  There 
the  parties  of  "  Supralapsarians  "  and  "  In- 
fralapsarians  "  stood  opposed  to  each  other 
in  battle  array.  The  former  asserted  that, 
prior  to  the  fajl  of  Adam,  the  predestina- 
tion to  eternal  felicity  and  damnation  was 
already  decreed ;  the  latter,  that  it  was 
subsequent  to  the  event. 

Surplice.  —  The  surplice  is  a  white  linen 
garment  which    is  worn  not  only  by  all 


Susanna 


668 


Switzerland 


clerics,  but  also  by  those  who,  in  the  ab- 
sence of  clerics,  are  allowed  to  assist  in 
the  choir  or  sanctuary  during  the  celebra- 
tion of  divine  service.  The  use  of  white 
garments  by  the  members  of  the  sanctuary 
is  continually  referred  to  by  the  holy  Fa- 
thers. Honorius  of  Autun  (died,  1130) 
describes  the  surplice  as  a  white  loose 
vestment,  that  reached  down  to  the  feet ; 
and  from  several  passages  in  the  works  of 
ecclesiastical  writers,  and  in  the  canons  of 
various  provincial  synods,  it  would  appear 
that  the  surplice  was  a  variation  of  the  alb, 
from  which  it  differed,  during  a  long  pe- 
riod of  years,  merely  by  being  somewhat 
shorter  and  having  wider  sleeves.  Duranti, 
who  composed  his  work  on  the  Divine  Of- 
fices about  the  year  1286,  traces  up  the 
etymology  of  the  Latin  suferpellicium, 
whence,  it  is  obvious,  our  English  appella- 
tion, surplice,  is  derived,  to  a  custom  of 
wearing  tunics  which  anciently  prevailed 
in  the  Church,  made  from  the  skins  of 
such  animals  as  the  country  furnished, 
over  which  was  cast  a  white  linen  alb  or 
vestment,  denominated,  from  that  circum- 
stance of  its  being  worn  over  fur,  sufer- 
fellicium.  While  indicating  the  derivation 
of  its  name,  Duranti  has  also  pointed  out 
the  spiritual  meaning  of  the  surplice, 
which,  as  he  remarks,  has  been  regarded 
as  symbolical  of  that  robe  of  innocence, 
purity,  and  righteousness  that  our  divine 
Redeemer  purchased  for  the  human  race 
by  the  price  of  His  glorious  atonement, 
and  with  which  He  arrays  the  soul  of  the 
regenerated  or  repentant  sinner,  and  ef- 
faces man's  iniquities,  figured  by  the  skins 
of  animals,  since  it  was  with  garments 
formed  from  such  materials  that  fallen 
Adam,  after  being  chased  from  Paradise, 
was  covered. 

Susanna.  —  Jewish  woman  of  the  tribe 
of  Juda,  famous  on  account  of  her  chas- 
tity ;  wife  of  Joachim,  whom  she  had  fol- 
lowed to  Babylon  during  the  captivity ; 
was  accused  of  adultery  by  two  aged  men, 
whose  impure  proposals  she  had  rejected, 
and  was  condemned  to  death.  The  young 
Daniel  proved  her  innocence,  and  the  two 
old  men,  convicted  of  imposture,  suflfered 
capital  punishment. 

Suspension  is  a  censure  inflicted  on  a 
cleric,  designed  for  remedial  purposes, 
and  takes  away  for  a  fixed  time,  or  until 
he  repents  and  makes  satisfaction,  the 
right  to  exercise  his  sacred  functions  in 
his  office  or  benefice.    The  term  suspension 


is  not  earlier  than  the  fourteenth  century, 
but  the  discipline  is  far  more  ancient. 
Traces  of  suspension  are  found  in  the 
Councils  of  the  sixth  century;  in  some 
cases,  V.  g-.,  an  ordination  before  a 
canonical  age,  suspension  was  a  penalty 
inflicted  on  account  of  the  fault  of  another. 
It  was  thus  that  Pope  Honorius  HI.  sus- 
pended a  deacon  until  he  had  attained  the 
canonical  age.  There  are  three  kinds  of 
suspension:  1.  Ab  ordine,  when  a  cleric 
cannot  exercise  his  ministry.  2.  Ab  of- 
ficio, when  he  is  forbidden  to  exercise  it 
in  his  official  charge  or  congregation.  3. 
A  beneficio,  when  he  is  deprived  of  the 
revenues  of  his  benefice.  In  all  these  cases 
the  incumbent  retains  his  orders,  rank, 
and  benefice  in  contradiction  to  the  pen- 
alty of  solemn  deposal  and  degradation, 
by  which  he  forfeits  all  rights  of  his  or- 
ders and  benefice.  See  Deposal  ;  Degra- 
dation. 

Sweden  {The  Church  in).  See  Den- 
mark. 

Svredenborg  (Emanuel  Svedberg  of) 
(1688-1772).  —  Famous  theosophist,  born 
at  Stockholm,  died  in  London.  Son  of  a 
Lutheran  bishop,  he  at  first  occupied  him- 
self with  poetry  and  learned  inquiries, 
cultivated  all  the  natural  sciences,  es- 
pecially mineralogy,  was  named  assessor 
of  mines  (17 16),  received  letters  of  no- 
bility (1719),  and  became  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  of  Upsal  (1729). 
His  visions  commenced  in  1743.  He  pre- 
tended to  have  communications  with  the 
souls  of  the  dead,  with  angels,  with  God 
Himself,  and  to  be  charged  with  the  re- 
generation of  Christianity.  He  became 
the  founder  of  a  new  sect,  "  The  New 
Church  of  Jerusalem,"  which  still  counts 
adherents  in  Sweden,  Russia,  England,  in 
the  United  States,  etc.  A  Swedenborgian 
society  was  established  in  London  (1783). 
The  system  of  this  dreamer  is  a  kind  of 
pantheism.  It  was  condemned  as  hereti- 
cal, even  by  the  Protestants. 

Swithin  (St.). —  Anglo-Russian  prelate, 
died  in  823.  Chaplain  of  King  Egbert, 
chancellor  under  Ethelwulf,  whose  pre- 
ceptor hp  had  been,  became  bishop  of 
Winchester  in  852,     F.  July  2d. 

Switzerland     {Christianity    in).      See 

COLUMBAN  AND   GaLL. 

Switzerland  {Worship  in). — According 
to  the  census  of  1890  there  are  in  Switzer- 
land, 1,667,109  Protestants  of  the  so-called 


Syllabus 


669 


Synod 


Helvetic  communion;  1,160,782  Catholics; 
6,373  Israelites,  and  10,838  of  different  re- 
ligions. 

Syllabus  (Latin  word  which  signifies 
record,  list,  role). —  It  is  employed  in  the 
Catholic  language  to  designate  a  collec- 
tion or  catalogue,  under  ten  heads,  of 
eighty  current  errors,  or  erroneous  propo- 
sitions, condemned  by  Pope  Pius  IX.  at 
various  times  — theories,  which  under  the 
specious  names  of  Liberalism,  of  Progress, 
and  of  modern  Civilization,  have  been 
more  or  less  extensively  adopted  of  late  in 
the  various  countries  of  Europe.  While 
on  the  one  hand  the  publication  of  the 
Syllabus  was  hailed  with  joy  and  admira- 
tion, its  appearance  excited  the  anger  and 
hatred  of  the  enemies  of  the  Church. 

Sylvester  (name  of  three  Popes.)  — 
Sylvester  I. —  Pope  from  314  to  335.  Gov- 
erned the  Church  in  the  first  years  of  her 
temporal  prosperity  and  triumph  over  her 
persecuting  enemies.  His  long  and  glori- 
ous Pontificate  is  marked  by  the  First  Ecu- 
menical Council,  that  of  Nice,  and  by  the 
suppression  of  the  Arian  heresy.  In  his 
reign  also  occurred  the  happy  discovery  of 
the  true  cross  and  holy  tomb  of  our  Lord, 
by  the  Empress  St.  Helena,  in  326.  To 
the  Pontificate  of  Sylvester  is  assigned  the 
pretended  donation  of  Constantine.  Syl- 
vester II. —  Pope  from  999  to  1003.  No 
Pope  so  truly  great  had  occupied  the  Pa- 
pal Chair  since  the  time  of  Nicholas  I.  He 
displayed  great  zeal,  talent,  and  severity 
in  his  administration,  especially  in  reform- 
ing and  elevating  the  clergy.  His  un- 
common knowledge  of  the  fine  arts  and 
sciences,  and  his  rapid  elevation  to  the 
highest  dignities  in  the  Church,  caused 
him,  in  a  barbarous  age  to  pass  for  a 
magician.  To  King  Stephen  of  Hungary 
and  his  successors  he  gave  the  title  of 
"Apostolic  Majesty,"  and  the  right  to 
have  the  cross  borne  before  him.  Sylves- 
ter was  the  first  Pope  that  conceived  the 
idea  of  arming  Christendom  for  deliver- 
ing the  Holy  Land  from  the  hands  of  the 
Mussulmans.  But  this  plan  perished  with 
the  death  of  Otho  III.,  in  1002,  whom  the 
Pope  followed  to  the  grave  in  the  suc- 
ceeding year.  Sylvester  III. — Bishop  of 
Sabina.  Antipope,  born  at  Rome.  The 
Romans  elected  him  in  1044,  after  having 
driven  away  Benedict  IX.,  but  three 
months  afterwards,  the  latter  returned  to 
Rome,  and  expelled  his  competitor. 


Symachus.  —  Pope  from  498  to  514,  born 
in  Sardinia.  Successor  of  Athanasius  II., 
he  had  for  rival  the  archdeacon  Lawrence, 
who  was  upheld  by  King  Theodoric;  ap- 
proved several  Councils,  zealously  com- 
bated the  heresies  of  Nestorius  and 
Eutyches.  They  attribute  to  him  the  in- 
troduction into  Mass  of  the  '■^Gloria  in 
Excelsis." 

Symachus.  —  Greek  writer,  born  at  Sa- 
maria. He  lived  under  Emperor  Severus 
and  belonged  to  the  sect  of  the  Ebionites. 
His  Greek  version  of  the  Old  Testament 
was,  according  to  St.  Jerome,  excellent. 
Only  few  fragments  thereof  are  left  to  us. 

Symbol.     See  Creed. 

Synagogue. — An  organization  of  the 
Jews  for  the  purpose  of  religious  instruc- 
tion and  worship.  Also  the  building  where 
such  instruction  and  worship  are  main- 
tained. The  synagogue  came  into  prom- 
inence in  the  religious  life  of  the  Jewish 
people  during  the  exile,  and,  since  the  de- 
struction of  the  temple  and  the  dispersion 
of  the  Jews,  constitutes  their  customary 
place  of  worship.  The  organization  of  a 
synagogue  consists  of  a  board  of  elders 
presided  over  by  a  ruler  of  the  synagogue 
(Luke  iii.  41,  49,  xiii.  14).  The  worship  is 
conducted  according  to  the  prescribed 
ritual,  in  which  the  reading  of  the  Scrip- 
ture constitutes  a  prominent  part.  For- 
merly the  officers  of  the  synagogue 
exercised  judicial  functions,  and  the  syna- 
gogue itself  was  the  place  of  trial  (Luke  xii. 
II,  xxi.  12),  but  this  is  no  longer  the  case. 

Synaxis.  —  Name  given  to  the  reunions 
of  the  primitive  Christians,  and  to  holy 
communion. 

Syncellus( George).  —  Byzantine  chron- 
icler of  the  ninth  century.  He  wrote  a 
chronicle  from  Adam  to  Diocletian. 

Synesius.  —  Bishop  of  Ptolemais  in 
Egypt.  Was  born  at  Cyrene,  in  Africa, 
died  in  414.  Of  his  many  writings  there 
remain  one  hundred  and  fifty-five  letters, 
besides  several  homilies  and  minor  trea- 
tises. 

Synod  {Diocesan). — Diocesan  synods, 
we  call  those  meetings  where  the  bishop 
assembles  the  clergy  of  his  diocese  in  or- 
der to  treat  of  matters  that  relate  to  the 
pastoral  charge  or  the  care  of  souls.  The 
enactments  of  diocesan  synods  are  called 
statutes,  decrees,  constitutions.  Diocesan 
synods  are  to  be  held  in  the  United  States 


Syrian  Christians 


670 


Tache 


once  every  year,  wherever  this  is  feasible. 
Bishops  or  administrators  of  dioceses, 
alone,  have  the  right  to  convene  diocesan 
synods.  To  attend  diocesan  synods  are 
obliged :  first,  all  the  priests  v*fho  have  the 
care  of  souls,  whether  they  are  seculars  or 
regulars ;  secondly,  all  superiors  of  monas- 
teries situated  in  the  diocese  and  not  gov- 
erned by  a  general  chapter.  In  these 
assemblies  the  bishop  is  the  sole  law-giver, 
and  therefore  he  alone  has  a  decisive  vote, 
the  other  members  having  but  a  consultive 
vote.    See  Council. 


Syrian  Christians,  or  Catholics,  who  are 
converts  from  the  Jacobite,  or  Monophysite 
Church  in  Syria,  in  1840,  were  catalogued 
at  30,000,  which  number  has  since  been  con- 
siderably increased  by  wiany  conversions. 
They  have  four  archbishops  and  eight 
bishops  under  the  "  Syrian  Patriarch  of 
Antioch."  The  number  of  Catholics  in 
Syria,  including  all  rites,  exceeds  800,000, 
while  the  Catholic  population  of  the  Latin 
Patriarchate  of  Jerusalem  is  given  at  22,- 
000.  For  more  particulars,  see  Oriental 
Rites. 


Tabernacle  (Hebr.  tent  of  meeting). — 
In  Jewish  history  a  tent,  constructed  to 
serve  as  the  portable  sanctuary  of  the  na- 
tion before  the  final  settlement  in  Palestine. 
This  "  Tabernacle  of  the  Congregation  " 
is  fully  described  in  Ex.  xxv.-xxvii.  and 
xxxvi.-xxxviii.  It  comprised  besides  the 
tent,  an  inclosure  or  yard,  in  which  were 
the  altar  of  burnt  offerings  and  the  laver. 
The  tabernacle  proper  was  a  tent  divided 
into  two  chambers  by  a  veil  —  the  inner 
chamber,  or  Holy  of  Holies,  containing  the 
Ark  of  the  Covenant  and  the  Seat  of  Mercy ; 
the  outer  department  contained  the  altar 
of  incense,  the  table  of  the  showbreads, 
the  golden  candlestick.  The  tabernacle 
was  of  a  rectangular  figure  45  feet  by  15, 
and  15  feet  in  height.  The  court  or  yard 
was  150  feet  in  length  by  75  feet,  and  sur- 
rounded by  screens  7)^  feet  high.  The 
people  pitched  their  tents  around  the  taber- 
nacle by  tribes  in  a  fixed  order  during  the 
wanderings,  and  the  pillar  or  cloud  of  fire, 
denoting  Jehovah's  presence,  rested  upon 
it,  or  was  lifted  from  it  according  as  they 
were  to  remain  stationary  or  were  to  go  for- 
ward. After  the  arrival  into  the  Promised 
Land  it  was  set  up  in  various  places,  espe- 
cially at  Siloe,  but  gradually  lost  its  ex- 
clusive character  as  the  center  of  national 
worship  by  the  building  of  Solomon's  Tem- 
ple, in  which  its  contents  were  eventually 
placed. 

Tabernacle  {Eucharistic)  is  the  name 
given  to  a  species  of  small  tower  erected 
on  the  central  part  of  the  high  altar,  to 
preserve  therein  the  Blessed  Eucharist, 
not  only  for  the  use  of  the  sick,  but  also, 
to  be  occasionally  exposed  to  the  adora- 
tion of  the  people  and  to  be  perpetually 


present  to  excite  their  devotion  and  to 
draw  the  Faithful  to  the  house  of  God. 

Tabor.  —  A  mountain  of  northern  Pal- 
estine, rising  solitarily  in  the  northeastern 
part  of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  to  about  the 
height  of  one  thousand  feet,  and  command- 
ing the  most  extending  view  in  the  Holy 
Land. 

Taborites.     See  Hussites. 

Tach6    (Alexandre    Antonine). — 

Canadian  prelate ;  a  son  of  the  Canadian 
statesman.  Sir  Etienne  Paschal  Tach^; 
born  in  Riviere-du-Loup,  Canada,  July 
23d,  1823.  After  graduating  at  the  college 
of  St.  Hyacinth,  and  studying  theology 
in  the  Seminary  of  Montreal,  he  became 
professor  of  mathematics  at  his  old  college. 
Remaining  at  St.  Hyacinth  but  a  few 
months,  he  went  to  Montreal,  and  there 
became  monk  of  the  Oblate  Order.  He  at 
once  began  laboring  as  a  missionary  among 
the  Indians  of  the  Red  river.  Suffering 
privations  of  every  kind,  cold,  hunger,  and 
fatigue,  he  reached  St.  Boniface  on  Aug. 
25th,  1845.  Here  he  was  raised  to  the 
priesthood,  and  was  the  first  priest  or- 
dained on  the  banks  of  the  Red  river.  He 
spent  but  a  few  months  at  this  mission,  and 
then  went  seeking  other  fields  of  labor. 
His  piety  and  zeal  attracted  attention,  and 
later  he  was  summoned  to  France  by  the 
superior  of  the  Oblate  Fathers,  and  conse- 
crated bishop  of  Arath  in  the  cathedral  of 
Viviers,  on  Nov.  23d,  1851.  He  made  a 
visit  to  Rome,  and  then  returned  to  Can- 
ada to  his  missionary  work.  He  founded 
new  missions,  and  through  him  many 
chapels  and  schools  were  built.  About 
this  time  the  Metis  had  some  grievances, 
which  Bishop  Tache  laid  before  the  Cana- 


Tadmor 


671 


Taxa  Innocentiana 


dian  government,  but  to  them  no  attention 
was  paid.  He  was  obliged  to  go  to  Italy 
to  take  part  in  the  Council  of  the  Vatican 
at  Rome,  and  during  his  absence  the 
troubles  came  to  a  crisis.  He  at  once  re- 
turned and  quieted  the  Insurrection.  On 
Sept.  22d,  1871,  St.  Boniface  was  erected 
into  a  see  and  Bishop  Tachewas  appointed 
archbishop.  He  died  at  Winnipeg,  June 
22d,  1894. 

Tadmor.  —  Ancient  name  of  Palmyra,  a 
city  situated  on  the  oasis,  in  the  desert 
east  of  Syria,  said  to  have  been  built  by 
Solomon. 

Tanchelin.  —  A  heretic  of  Antwerp,  an 
illiterate  and  fanatical  demagogue,  became 
the  founder  of  a  sect  in  the  Netherlands. 
He  proclaimed  himself  the  Son  of  God 
and  the  spouse  of  the  Blessed  Virgin.  He 
rejected  the  priesthood  of  the  Church,  and 
the  Sacraments,  especially  the  Holy  Eucha- 
rist, as  unnecessary  for  salvation ;  and  was 
guilty  of  all  sorts  of  blasphemy  and  the 
greatest  licentiousness,  seducing  many  wo- 
men, who,  in  their  frenzy,  delivered  to 
him  their  daughters.  He  surrounded  him- 
self with  a  bodyguard  of  three  thousand 
armed  men,  and  feasted  sumptuously  on 
the  spoils  of  plundered  churches  and 
monasteries.  Tanchelin  was  slain  in  1124, 
but  his  sect  survived  him.  St.  Norbert 
preached  against  these  sectaries,  and  suc- 
ceeded in  bringing  back  the  deluded  citi- 
zens of  Antwerp  to  the  Church. 

Tantum  Ergo.  —  In  Catholic  liturgy,  the 
last  two  stanzas  of  the  hymn,  beginning 
^^F'ang-e.  Lingua"  which  are  sung  when- 
ever the  Blessed  Eucharist  is  carried  in 
procession  and  in  the  office  of  the  Church 
at  the  Benediction  with  the  Blessed  Sacra- 
ment. The  "Pattge  Lingua''^  was  com- 
posed by  St.  Thomas  Aquinas. 

Tarasius  (St.).  —  Patriarch  of  Constan- 
tinople, born  in  this  city,  where  he  died  in 
806.  Of  a  patrician  family,  secretary  of 
State  and  consul,  became  the  successor  of 
Paul  III.  on  the  patriarchal  see  of  Con- 
stantinople, in  784.  Caused  the  condemna- 
tion of  the  Iconoclasts  in  the  Second 
Council  of  Nice  (787)  and  opposed  the  di- 
vorce of  Emperor  Constantine  V.  We  owe 
to  him  Letters  inserted  in  the  Collection  of 
Councils  by  Labbe.     F.  Feb.  23d. 

Taschereau  (Elzi^ar  Alexandre). — 
Cardinal  and  archbishop  of  Quebec,  was 
born  at  Sainte  Marie  de  la  Beauce,  Quebec, 
Feb.  17th,  1820.  He  was  educated  at  the 
Seminary  of  Quebec  and  in  Rome,  receiv- 


ing the  tonsure  at  the  age  of  eighteen.  In 
1842  he  was  ordained  priest  at  Quebec, 
and  from  that  year  until  1854  occupied  the 
chair  of  moral  philosophy  at  the  Quebec 
Seminary.  He  resumed  his  studies  in 
Rome  in  1854,  ^"'^  ^^  ^^56  the  degree  of 
doctor  of  canon  law  was  conferred  upon 
him  in  Rome.  Returning  to  Quebec,  he 
was  director  of  the  Petit  Seminaire  until 
1859,  when  he  became  director  of  the  Grand 
Seminaire  and  a  member  of  the  Council  of 
Public  Instruction  for  Lower  Canada.  He 
was  made  superior  of  the  Grand  Seminaire 
and  rector  of  Laval  University  in  i860, 
and  vicar  general  of  the  diocese  of  Quebec 
in  1862.  He  was  consecrated  archbishop 
of  Qiiebec  in  187 1,  and  in  1886  was  made 
cardinal,  being  the  first  Canadian  to  re- 
ceive this  dignity,  and  was  congratulated 
alike  by  the  Protestant  and  by  the  Catho- 
lic press,  his  advancement  being  regarded 
as  the  merited  reward  of  a  long  life  de- 
voted to  educational  progress.  Died  at 
Quebec,  April  12th,  1S98. 

Tatian.  —  Apologist ;  was  born  in  As- 
syria, about  the  year  130,  had  received  a 
heathen  education  and  had  been  a  teacher 
in  pagan  schools,  when,  by  reading  the 
Holy  Scriptures,  he  was  converted  to 
Christianity.  After  the  death  of  Justin, 
his  master,  he  returned  to  the  East, 
adopted  Gnostic  views  and  became  the 
founder  of  a  sect  known  as  "  Tatianists." 
Of  his  many  writings  only  his  Discourse 
to  the  Greeks  has  been  preserved,  in  which 
he  contrasts  Christianity  with  Paganism, 
censures  the  Greeks  for  rejecting  the 
Christian  religion, and  criticizes  the  morals, 
religion,  and  philosophy  of  the  pagans. 
Tatian  died  in  170. 

Taxa  Innocentiana.  —  By  authority  of 
Pope  Innocent  XL,  a  decree,  written  in 
Italian,  was  issued  in  1678,  fixing  the  emolu- 
ments that  can  be  asked  or  received  for  the 
various  acts,  instruments,  or  writings  of 
the  episcopal  chancery.  The  object  of 
this  decree,  usually  named  "  Taxa  In- 
nocentiana," was  to  introduce  as  far  as 
possible,  a  uniform  rate  of  taxation  into 
all  episcopal  chanceries.  Its  chief  regula- 
tions are :  Neither  bishops  nor  their  vicars 
general  or  other  officials  can  ask  or  receive 
anything,  even  though  it  be  voluntarily  of- 
fered :  (i)  For  the  conferring  of  orders  or 
for  other  acts  pertaining  to  ordination, 
V.  g.,  for  permission  to  receive  orders 
from  some  other  bishop.  (2)  For  appoint- 
ments to  benefices  or  parishes.     (3)  For 


Te  Deum 


6"]: 


Tenebrae 


dispensations  from  impedirpents  of  mar- 
riage or  from  the  publication  of  the  bans 
and  the  like. —  Though  bishops,  in  granting 
matrimonial  dispensations,  cannot  accept 
any  honorary,  they  are,  as  a  rule,  allowed 
to  receive  suitable  alms,  to  be  applied  for 
charitable  purposes. 

However,  the  chancellor  of  the  bishop 
may  receive  a  moderate  fee  for  his  labor  in 
drawing  up  the  requisite  papers  in  the 
above  cases.  As  a  rule,  the  chancellor's 
fee  for  each  instrument  should  not  exceed, 
at  the  highest  calculation,  one  dollar.  But 
he  cannot  receive  any  fee  for  letters  giving 
permission  to  say  Mass,  administer  the 
sacraments,  preach,  and  the  like. 

Te  Deum.  —  An  ancient  hymn  in  the 
form  of  a  Psalm,  sung  at  matins,  or  morn- 
ing prayer,  and  also  separately  as  a  service 
of  thanksgiving  on  special  occasions.  The 
Te  Deum  is  first  mentioned  early  in  the 
sixth  century.  Its  authorship  is  popularly 
attributed  to  St.  Ambrose  and  St.  Augus- 
tine. The  Te  Deum  is  sung  at  the  close  of 
matins  on  Sundays  and  feast  days,  but  not 
in  Advent  nor  from  Septuagesima  to  Eas- 
ter, except  on  feasts,  and  also  during  the 
octaves  of  Easter  and  Pentecost. 

Teglath-Phalasar.  —  Second  king  of  the 
second  Assyrian  empire ;  reigned  at  Ninive 
from  742  to  724  B.  c. ;  entered  into  an  al- 
liance with  Achaz,  king  of  Juda,  and  con- 
quered a  part  of  Syria  and  Palestine.  He 
had  for  successor,  his  son  Salmanasar. 

Telesphorus  (St.). —  Pope  from  127  to 
138.  Greek  by  birth,  anchorite  of  Mount 
Carmel,  became  the  successor  of  Sixtus  I. 
and  died  a  martyr  in  Rome  under  Hadrian. 
He  instituted  the  practice  of  saying  three 
Masses  on  Christmas  Day.     F.  Jan.  5th. 

Temperance  is  a  virtue,  which  regulates 
and  moderates  our  tastes  for  those  things 
that  appeal  to  our  senses,  thereby  prevent- 
ing any  excessive  indulgence.  It  teaches 
restraint  in  all  things,  abstinence  in  food, 
sobriety  in  drink.  Also,  chastity  in  main- 
taining the  purity  of  that  state  of  life  to 
which  we  are  called,  whether  virginity, 
celibacy,  matrimony,  or  widowhood. 
Temperance  embraces  mortification  in 
words  and  actions,  "  as  becometh  saints  " 
( Eph.  v.  3) ;  for  no  "  obscenity,  or  foolish 
talking,  or  scurrility  ...  no  fornica- 
tor, or  unclean  or  covetous  person,  hath 
inheritance  in  the  kingdom  of  Christ" 
(Eph.  V.  5).     See  Matthew  (Theobald). 


Templars.     See  Knights. 

Temple  of  Jerusalem. —  The  religious 
edifice  of  the  Jews  in  Jerusalem.  There 
were  three  buildings  successively  erected 
on  the  same  spot,  and  entitled,  from  the 
names  of  the  builders,  the  Temple  of  Solo- 
mon, the  Temple  of  Zorobabel,  and  the 
Temple  of  Herod.  The  first  was  built  by 
Solomon  and  destroyed  by  Nabuchodono- 
sor  about  586  b.  c.  The  second  was  built 
by  the  Jews  on  their  return  from  captivity 
(about  537  B.  c.)  and  was  pillaged  or  partly 
destroyed  several  times,  especially  by  Anti- 
ochus  Epiphanes,  Pompey,  and  Herod. 
The  third,  the  largest  and  most  magnifi- 
cent of  the  three,  was  begun  by  Herod  the 
Great,  and  was  completely  destroyed  at 
the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Romans 
(a.  D.  70).  Various  attempts  have  been 
made  towards  the  restoration  of  the  first 
and  third  of  these  temples,  but  all  to  no 
purpose.  The  ornament  and  design  were 
in  any  case  of  severe  and  simple  character, 
though  rich  materials  were  used.  The 
successive  temples  all  consisted  of  a  com- 
bination of  buildings,  comprising  courts 
separated  from  and  rising  one  above  an- 
other, and  provided  also  with  chambers  for 
the  use  of  the  priests,  and  for  educational 
purposes.  The  inclosure  of  Herod's  tem- 
ple covered  nineteen  acres.  It  comprised 
an  outer  court  of  the  Gentiles,  a  court  of 
the  women,  a  court  of  Israel,  a  court  of  the 
priests,  and  the  temple  building  with  the 
holy  place,  and,  within  all  (entered  only 
once  a  year  by  the  high  priest)  the  Holy 
of  Holies.  Within  the  court  of  the  priests 
were  the  great  altar  and  the  laver;  within 
the  holy  place,  the  golden  candlestick,  the 
altar  of  incense,  and  the  table  of  the  show- 
bread;  and  within  the  Holy  of  Holies,  the 
Ark  of  the  Covenant  and  the  Seat  of 
Mercy. 

Temporal  Power  of  the  Pope.  See 
Power. 

Tenebrae  is  the  name  given  to  the  matins 
and  lauds,  which  are  usually  sung  on  the 
afternoon  or  evening  of  Wednesday, 
Thursday,  and  Friday  of  Holy  Week. 
The  "■Gloria  Patri"  at  the  end  of  the 
Psalms  and  in  the  responsories,  the  hymns, 
antiphones  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  etc.,  are 
omitted  in  sign  of  sorrow.  The  lessons  of 
the  first  nocturnes  are  taken  from  the 
Lamentations  of  Jeremias,  the  Hebrew 
letter  which  begins  each  verse  in  the  acros- 
tic poems  being  retained  in  Latin.     At  the 


Tertiary 


673 


Theatines 


beginning  of  the  office,  fifteen  lighted  can- 
dles are  placed  on  a  triangular  candela- 
brum, and  at  the  end  of  each  Psalm  one  is  put 
out,  till  only  a  single  candle  is  left  lighted 
at  the  top  of  the  triangle.  During  the 
singing  of  the  Benedictus  the  candles  on 
the  high  altar  are  extinguished,  while  at 
the  antiphon  after  the  Benedictus  the  sin- 
gle lighted  candle  is  hidden  at  the  Epistle 
corner  of  the  altar,  to  be  brought  out 
again  at  the  end  of  the  office.  The  extinc- 
tion of  lights  (whence  probably  the  name 
Tenebree,  or  darkness)  is  best  explained  by 
Amalarius  Fortunatus,  who  says:  "It 
figures  the  growing  darkness  of  the  time 
when  Christ,  •the  light  of  the  world,'  was 
taken."  The  last  candle,  according  to 
Benedict  XIV.,  is  hidden,  not  extin- 
guished, to  signify  that  death  could  not 
really  obtain  dominion  over  Christ,  though 
it  appeared  to  do  so.  The  clapping  heard 
at  the  end  of  the  office,  is  said  to  symbolize 
the  confusion  consequent  of  Christ's  death. 

Tertiary  (Lat.  Tertiarius,  one  of  the 
third  rank) .  —  A  name  given  by  the  Church 
writers  to  a  class  in  the  Catholic  Church 
who,  without  entering  into  the  seclusion 
of  a  monastery,  aspire  to  practice  in  or- 
dinary life  all  the  substantial  obligations 
of  chastity  and  poverty.  It  was  under  St. 
Francis  and  the  mendicant  orders,  that  the 
Tertiary  institute  reached  its  full  develop- 
ment. 

Tertullian  (160-240).  —  Doctor  of  the 
Church,  was  born  at  Carthage,  and  was 
brought  up  a  pagan.  Tertullian  is  the  first 
writer  of  the  Latin  Church.  He  was  an 
advocate  by  profession,  a  man  of  great 
learning  and  of  remarkably  strong  intel- 
lect and  character.  His  conversion  took 
place  in  mature  life,  about  the  year  190, 
being  ordained  priest  soon  after.  He  was 
a  zealous  and  valiant  champion  of  Catho- 
licity against  all  forms  of  infidelity  and 
heresy  until  the  year  203,  when,  captivated 
by  the  exaggerated  austerity  and  severe 
morality  of  the  Montanists,  he  was  drawn 
into  their  heresy.  That  he  afterwards  be- 
came reconciled  with  the  Church,  is  sur- 
mised by  some,  but  cannot  be  ascertained. 
As  a  writer,  Tertullian  was  profound  and 
fruitful  and  showed  great  acuteness  and 
dialectic  dexterity;  but  the  style,  resem- 
bling the  asperity  of  his  mind,  is  inelegant 
and  intricate.  He  first  used  the  terms, 
"substantia,"  "  trinitas,"  "  satisf  actio," 
"  sacramentum,"  etc.  His  numerous  writ- 
ings relate  to  the  most  varied  points  of 

43 


Christian  doctrine  and  of  Christian  life; 
they  were  well  known  and  highly  appre- 
ciated in  the  early  Church.  St.  Cyprian, 
who  read  them  daily,  in  asking  for  them 
was  accustomed  to  say :  Da  magistrum 
{^Give  me  my  master).  His  most  impor- 
tant works  are :  The  Apology,  On  the 
Prescription  of  Heretics,  and  On  Penance, 
which  were  written  before  the  author  be- 
came a  Montanist.  Yet,  even  the  works 
which  Tertullian  wrote  after  his  apostasy, 
are  highly  valuable,  because  of  the  testi- 
mony they  contain  as  to  the  faith  and  prac- 
tices of  the  early  Church.  Among  these 
are  the  works:  Against  Valentinian; 
Against  Marcion ;  On  the  Body  of 
Christ;  On  the  Resurrection  of  the  Body^ 
and  a  number  of  other  treatises. 

Testament.     See  Bible. 

Tetrarch  (ruler  of  a  fourth  part).  —  A 
title  at  first  given  to  one  who  governed  a 
fourth  part  of  a  province,  but  afterwards  to 
one  who  governed  any  portion  of  a  given 
territory  (Luke  iii.  i).  Herod  Antipas 
was  tetrarch  of  Galilee  and  Peraea  (Matt, 
xiv.  I ;  Acts  xiii.  i).  ' 

Tetzel  (John)  (1470-1519).  —  A  Ger- 
man Dominican  monk  and  inquisitor; 
born  at  Leipsic.  Pope  Leo  X.  had  en- 
trusted him  with  the  publication  of  the  in- 
dulgence in  Germany.  Tetzel  was  a  moral 
man,  charges  to  the  contrary  are  without 
foundation ;  the  stories  of  his  greed  origi- 
nated with  his  enemies.  He  preached  in 
ardent  and  energetic  language  on  indul- 
gences, always  insisted  on  a  worthy  con- 
fession and  true  sorrow,  as  may  be  seen 
from  Protestant  extracts  of  his  sermons 
still  extant,  and  his  wholesome  instruc- 
tions to  the  confessors  of  the  Church. 

Teutonic  Knights.     See  Knigh.ts. 

Thabor.     See  Tabor. 

Thaddeus.     See  Jude. 

Thanksgiving  Day.  —  An  annual  festi- 
val of  thanksgiving  for  the  mercies  of  the 
closing  year.  Practically,  it  is  a  national 
harvest  festival,  fixed  by  proclamation  of 
the  President  of  the  United  States  and 
ranks  as  a  national  holiday. 

Theatines.  —  Members  of  a  monastic 
order  of  clerks  regular  founded  at  Rome, 
by  St.  Cajetan  and  Archbishop  Peter 
CarafTa  of  Theate,  afterwards  Pope  Paul 
IV.  Besides  taking  the  usual  monastic 
vows,  the  Theatines  bound  themselves  to 


Theban  Legion 


674 


Theodicy 


abstain  from  the  possession  of  property 
and  from  soliciting  alms,  and  to  trust 
wholly  in  Providence  for  support,  expect- 
ing, however,  that  this  support  would  be 
derived  from  the  voluntary  contributions 
of  the  charitable.  There  were  also  Thea- 
tine  nuns.  The  order  flourished  to  some 
extent  in  Spain,  Bavaria,  and  Poland,  but 
its  influence  is  now  confined  chiefly  to  Italy. 

Theban  Legion.     See  Legion. 

Thecla  (St.)  —Christian  virgin,  born  at 
Iconium  in  the  first  century,  converted  to 
the  faith  by  St.  Paul.  Exposed  to  ferocious 
beasts,  she  miraculously  escaped  martyr- 
dom.    F.  Sept.  23d. 

Theiner  (Augustin)  (1804-1874). — 
Catholic  theologian,  born  at  Breslau,  died 
in  Rome.  Dragged  along  for  a  short  time 
by  the  ideas  of  his  brother  Johann  Anton 
(professor  of  exegesis  and  canon  law) 
against  Roman  Catholicity,  he  separated 
himself  from  him  and  went  to  Rome, 
where,  after  staying  with  the  Jesuits  for 
some  time,  he  became  a  member  of  the 
Oratory.  Keeper  of  the  secret  archives  of 
the  Holy  See  until  1870.  He  published 
quite  a  number  of  historical  works. 

Theism  —  The  word  theism  is  taken  in 
opposition  to  that  of  atheism,  which  is 
the  system  of  those  who  deny  the  existence 
of  God,  as  deism  is  opposed  to  the  belief 
of  a  revealed  religion.  The  two  words  are 
not  synonymous ;  we  may  understand  the 
word  theism  in  an  orthodox  sense,  because 
deism  is  an  error  condemned  by  the  Church, 
and  which  designates  the  system  of  those 
who  reject  all  revelation,  believing  only  in 
the  existence  of  God,  joining  to  this  belief, 
the  natural  religion.  Deism,  it  is  true, 
acknowledges  a  God  like  theism,  or  rather, 
it  names  God  ;  but  its  God,  purely  abstract 
and  ideal,  is  blind,  deaf,  and  dumb.  The- 
ism and  atheism  are  the  two  extreme  terms, 
the  one  positive,  the  other  negative.  De- 
ism would  like  to  be  the  middle  term,  be- 
tween two  contraries  that  do  not  admit  a 
middle  term.  Theism  admits  the  dogma 
of  the  creation,  of  Providence,  and  of  rev- 
elation. Some  Deists  admit  a  God  creator, 
but  deny  divine  Providence;  if  they  ad- 
mit the  presence  of  the  Deity,  this  presence 
is  purely  ideal ;  the  god  of  the  Deists  is  a 
sluggish  god ;  he  assists  at  the  march  of 
the  universe  without  directing  it;  he  is  in- 
sensible, inactive,  and  powerless.  Hence, 
the  reason  Bossuet  said  :  *'  Deism  is  only 
a  disguised  atheism." 


Theocatognosts.  —  Name  given  by  John 
Damascene  to  heretics  who  condemned 
certain  words  attributed  to  God  in  the 
Scripture. 

Theocracy.  —  A  form  of  government  in 
which  God  is  recognized  as  the  supreme 
civil  ruler  of  the  State,  and  His  laws  are 
taken  as  the  statute-book  of  the  kingdom. 
Usually  applied  to  the   Jewish  common- 
wealth from   the  time  of  its  organization 
under  Moses  until  the  inauguration  of  the 
monarchy  under  Saul.     Josephus   Flavius 
was    the   first   who,    in   his    book    against 
Apion,  the  Grammarian,  made  use  of  the 
term    Theocracy   to    characterize    the    re- 
ligioso-political  constitution  of  the  Hebrew 
people,  in  opposition  to  the  forms  of  mon- 
archic, oligarchic,  and  democratic  govern- 
ments   of  other  nations.     Theocracy  was 
the  first  and  the  most  ancient  of  all  the 
political  constitutions  among  the  chief  na- 
tions of  antiquity.     It  obtained   its  apogee 
in  the  revealed  law  of  God,  promulgated 
by  Moses  and   realized  by  the  people  of 
Israel,  and  essentially  distinguishes  itself 
from  all  the  pagan  theocracies.     It  has  for 
peculiarity,  that  it  identifies  both  the  re- 
ligious  sphere  and    the  political  sphere; 
every  law,  every  religious  obligation  is  at 
the  same  time  a  law,  a  political  obligation, 
and  vice  versa,  so   that  every  violation  or 
omission    of    any    prescription,     even     a 
most  superficial  one,  is  a  direct  infraction 
of   the   divine   will,   and,   consequently,  a 
sin.     All  the  laws  emanate  from  God  and 
His  holy  will;  God  is  the  supreme  end  of 
all    ordinances.      Theocracy,    besides    its 
immediate  object  concerning  Israel,  had  a 
universal    object,    which    determines    the 
place  and  indicates  the  peculiar  nature  of 
the  chosen  people,  in  the  history  of  Re- 
demption.     Israel    chosen,    receives    the 
Law  and  its  institutions.     God  is  its  king, 
its   master,  and    legislator;    theocracy   is 
founded   in  order  that,  in  its  bosom  and 
through  it,  the  salvation  of  mankind  may 
be  prepared ;  the  Law  is  to  be  the  peda- 
gogue of  mankind  in  view  of  the  Christ ; 
it  becomes  this  by  pointing  towards  sin, 
the  fall  of  man,  the  need  of  a  redemption, 
and  the  desire  of  the  Messias  promised  to 
sinful  mankind. 

Theodicy.  —  An  exposition  of  the  theory 
of  divine  Providence  with  the  view  to  the 
vindication  of  the  attributes,  particularly, 
of  the  holiness  and  justice  of  God,  in  es- 
tablishing the  present  order  of  things,  in 
which   civil,    moral,   as   well    as    physical 


Theodore 


675 


Theodore 


order,  largely  exists.  Theodicy  has  for  ob- 
ject to  justify  God's  providence  by  refut- 
ing the  objections  drawn  from  the  exist- 
ence of  evil,  both  physical  and  moral. 
Leibnitz  is  the  first  that  made  use  of  the 
term  Theodicy.  But  the  idea  which  it 
represents  is  very  ancient.  It  generally 
signifies  justification  or  apology  of  God ; 
there  is  question  of  reconciling  the  exist- 
ence, especially  God's  unity,  with  the  ex- 
istence of  evil.  The  most  important  texts, 
in  regard  to  this  subject,  are  found  in  the 
Book  of  Job,  in  St.  Paul,  and  in  the  City 
of  God  of  St.  Augustine.  Already  the 
ancient  philosophers  had  posed  the  ques- 
tion of  the  origin  of  evil.  From  the  more 
general  point  of  view  of  God's  existence, 
the  Eleatic  School  places  God  on  top  of 
the  beings  to  govern  them  :  timis  est  Deus 
deorum  hominumque  summus.  On  the  top 
of  the  world,  said  the  Pythagoreans,  is  the 
unity,  the  pure  monade;  and  below  it  the 
beings  are  arranged  according  to  grada- 
tion. Empedocles  of  Agrigentum  admits 
above  the  sensible  world,  inferior  genii  and 
deities,  and  above  these  a  superior  God,  a 
pure,  holy,  perfect,  and  unchangeable 
spirit,  whose  rapid  thought  overlooks  all 
things.  This  philosopher  teaches  "that 
there  is  in  nature,  as  in  the  animals,  an  in- 
telligent cause  of  the  arrangement  and  of 
the  order  of  the  universe."  Socrates  goes 
a  step  farther:  "There  exists  an  eternal 
and  immense  God,  regulator  and  governor 
of  the  world";  and  the  proof  for  this,  he 
draws  from  the  efficient  and  final  causes. 
Plato  perfected  the  science  of  the  Theodicy. 
He  said:  "He  who  knows  God,  is  really 
wise;  he  who  does  not  know  Him  is  evi- 
dently ignorant  and  wicked."  Again  he 
says :  "  We  must  hold  the  existence  of 
God  above  all  demonstration."  Plato  had 
already  a  correct  notion  of  Providence. 
Aristotle  arrives  at  formulating  the  prin- 
ciples of  Theodicy.  The  principal  argu- 
ment he  brings  forward  in  favor  of  God's 
existence  is  the  proof  drawn  from  the 
movement. 

Both  the  middle  and  the  scholastic  ages 
embraced  about  this  subject  the  ideas  of 
Plato  and  of  Aristotle.  In  the  seventeenth 
and  eighteenth  centuries,  the  question  was 
debated  more  lively  than  ever.  The  con- 
troversies of  Jansenism,  says  V.  Cousin, 
caused  a  debate  on  the  highest  philoso- 
phical questions,  liberty,  and  grace,  the 
reason  for  the  good  and  evil,  the  nature  of 
God,  the  end  of  creation,  etc.  Spinoza 
believed  to  solve  the  question  by  admitting 


one  sole  substance.  Bayle,  resuscitating 
Manicheism,  maintained  that,  in  the  face 
1  of  the  evil,  reason  is  in  some  sort  forced 
to  admit  two  principles,  the  one  good  the 
other  evil ;  that  a  blind  faith  alone  could 
adhere  to  the  Christian  idea  of  the  Deity. 
The  most  remarkable  work  on  this  subject 
was  the  Essay  on  the  Theodicy,  by  Leib- 
nitz, a  work  which  had  for  its  object  the 
solving  of  the  great  problem  of  the  origin 
of  evil,  a  book,  says  V.  Cousin,  which  is 
the  twelfth  book  of  the  Metaphysics  of 
Aristotle  and  the  seventh  of  the  Republic 
of  Plato.  The  fundamental  thought  we 
can  draw  from  it,  is  that  God  has  per- 
mitted sin,  because  it  had  been  involved 
in  the  best  plan  of  the  universe.  The  ob- 
ject of  this  book  was  to  justify  God's  jus- 
tice and  man's  liberty,  and  to  show  that 
evil  is  compatible  with  both  of  these  at- 
tributes. There  is  no  antinomy  between 
the  human  liberty  and  the  divine  attributes. 
The  evil,  according  to  Leibnitz,  is  derived 
from  the  very  nature  of  the  created  beings, 
which  cannot  be  perfect  without  confound- 
ing themselves  with  the  Creator  and  with- 
out becoming  indiscernible.  Perfection 
cannot  realize  itself  ex  abrupto.  Nothing 
is  done  at  once ;  the  end  supposes  the 
means,  which,  evil  in  themselves,  may  be- 
come good  to  arrive  at  a  perfect  end. 

This  explanation  is  insufficient*,  it  ends 
by  placing  the  origin  of  evil  in  the  eternal 
laws  of  the  intelligence  to  which  God 
would  be  forced  to  subject  Himself  as  to  a 
kind  of  destiny.  There  are  always  two 
great  problems  that  await  an  explanation 
and  a  definitive  solution :  How  does  the 
evil,  even  the  provisory  evil,  reconcile  it- 
self with  God's  power  and  goodness  ?  How 
does  God's  prescience  reconcile  itself  with 
human  liberty?  These  truths  are  mys- 
teries, and,  consequently,  only  an  object  of 
faith.  Leibnitz  does  not,  properly  speak- 
iug,  give  the  proof  of  the  truth  of  God's 
existence ;  he  supposes  it  a  priori,  on  the 
ground  of  the  existence  of  the  contingent 
beings. 

Theodore  (name  of  two  Popes).  —  Theo- 
dore I.  —  Pope  from  642  to  649;  born  at 
Jerusalem,  but  Greek  by  nation.  Suc- 
cessor of  John  IV. ;  vigorously  combated 
Monothelism.  Theodore  II.  —  Pope  in 
898;  Roman  by  birth ;  reigned  only  twenty 
days. 

Theodore  (Ascidas).  —  At  first  head  of 
a  monastery  in  Palestine,  came  to  Con- 
stantinople  (535)   to  propagate  there  the 


Theodore  of  Canterbury     6^6 


Theodotus 


heresy  of  the  Origenists.  Upheld  by  the 
Empress  Theodora,  who  named  him  bishop 
of  Caesarea,  he  came  in  conflict  with  Pope 
Vigilius.  In  563,  the  Council  of  Con- 
stantinople solemnly  condemned  him. 
Abandoned  by  Theodora,  he  lived  from 
that  time  in  retreat. 

Theodore  of  Canterbury  (St.)  (602- 
690). — Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  a 
Greek  monk  of  Tarsus  in  Cilicia.  Named 
by  Pope  Vitalian  to  the  see  of  Canter- 
bury, and  primate  of  Great  Britain  (668). 
Created  schools,  propagated  the  arts  and 
sciences,  introduced  the  Gregorian  chant 
into  his  diocese  and  presided  over  the 
Council  of  Hetfield  (680).  Has  left  a 
Penttentiale,  a  collection  of  canons  regu- 
lating the  time  of  public  penances.  F. 
Sept.  19th. 

Theodore  of  Heraclea.  —  Greek  prel- 
ate, born  at  Heraclea,  died  about  355. 
Named  by  Constantine  bishop  of  his  na- 
tive city,  he  became  one  of  the  chiefs  of 
the  Arian  party,  was  charged  to  oppose 
St.  Athanasius  (336),  presented  to  Con- 
stantius  the  constitution  of  Antioch  (342) 
and,  although  deposed  by  the  Council  of 
Sardica  (347),  kept  his  episcopal  see  and 
continued  to  spread  Arianism. 

Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  (350-429).  — 
Greek  ecclesiastical  writer,  born  at  Anti- 
och. Bishop  of  Mopsuestia  in  Cilicia. 
St.  Chrysostom,  his  schoolfellow,  induced 
him  to  embrace  the  monastic  and  clerical 
state.  As  interpreter  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures, he  gained  great  renown.  Nes- 
torius,  the  heresiarch,  was  among  his 
pupils.  In  his  writings  On  the  Incar- 
nation against  the  ApoUinarian  heresy, 
Theodore  laid  the  seeds  of  Nestorianism. 
He  is  likewise  accused  of  having  favored 
Pelagianism.  Of  his  numerous  writings, 
which  were  condemned  by  the  Fifth  Gen- 
eral Council  (553),  only  fragments  have 
been  preserved .  He  died,  it  is  said,  in 
communion  with  the  Church. 

Theodore  of  Pharan.  —  Bishop  of  Pharan 
in  Arabia,  in  626.  He  is  looked  upon  as 
the  author  of  Monothelism,  heresy  which 
attributes  to  Jesus  Christ  two  n^ures,  but 
only  one  will  and  one  sole  operation.  His 
writings  were  condemned  in  the  Lateran 
Council  (649),  and  this  sentence  was  con- 
firmed by  the  Sixth  General  Council  in  680. 

Theodore  the  Reader.  —  Historian  of 
the    sixth    century.     Was    reader    of    the 


Church  of  Constantinople.  Has  left  a 
Church  History  which  extends  from  the 
twentieth  year  of  Constantine  to  Julian  the 
Apostate. 

Theodoret  of  Cyrus  (386-457).  — Bishop 
of  Cyrus  in  Syria,  was  born  at  Antioch. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his 
age.  His  friendship  for  Nestorius  em- 
broiled him  with  St.  Cyril  of  Alexandria. 
When  the  Ecumenical  Council  of  Ephesus 
met  in  431,  he  refused  to  enter  it  and  took 
part  in  the  schismatical  conventicle  which 
pretended  to  excommunicate  the  Fathers 
of  the  lawful  Council.  After  a  prolonged 
controversy  with  St.  Cyril,  he  finally  sub- 
mitted and,  at  the  Council  of  Chalcedon 
in  451,  subscribed  to  the  condemnation  of 
Nestorius.  Theodoret  is  esteemed  as  a 
profound  exegetist  and  eminent  historian. 
He  wrote,  besides  various  exegetical  works, 
an  Ecclesiastical  History  from  A.  d.  320  to 
328,  an  Epitome  of  Heretical  Fables,  and  a 
Religious  History  containing  the  lives  of 
thirty-three  hermits.  In  addition  to  these 
there  are  extant  179  letters.  His  writings 
against  St.  Cyril  and  the  Council  of 
Ephesus,  together  with  those  of  his  master, 
Theodore,  were  condemned  at  Constanti- 
nople, in  553. 

Theodosius  the  Great  (346-395).  —  Born 
at  Cauca,  in  northern  Spain,  died  at 
Milan.  Roman  Emperor,  son  of  Flavius 
Theodosius,  a  general  (chiefly  noted  for 
his  campaigns  in  Britain)  of  Valentinianl. 
He  commanded  in  Moesia  in  374;  was 
made  joint  emperor  by  Gratian  and  ruler 
over  the  East  in  379.  From  him  the  ex- 
piring paganism  received  the  heaviest 
blows.  Apostates  from  Christianity  were 
disqualified  either  to  make  or  receive  tes- 
tamentary bequests,  divination  by  the 
entrails  of  victims  were  forbidden,  and 
numbers  of  heathen  temples  destroyed. 
At  last,  in  392,  pagan  worship  was  formally 
proscribed  and  declared  high  treason.  He 
also  took  the  churches  from  the  Arians, 
restoring  them  to  the  Catholics,  and  pro- 
hibited the  assemblies  of  heretics,  Theo- 
dosius I.  subjected  himself  to  a  humiliating 
penance  imposed  upon  him  by  St.  Am- 
brose, for  the  indiscriminate  massacre  of 
about  7,000  persons,  which,  in  a  moment  of 
irritation,  he  had  ordered  at  Thessalonica, 
in  390,  for  having  killed  the  governor  and 
several  imperial  officers. 

Theodotus  (name  of  two  heretics  of  the 
third  century).  —  Theodotus  the  Elder  was 


Theology 


e-jy 


Theology 


a  tanner  of  Byzantium.  Having  denied 
Christ  in  time  of  persecution,  in  order  to 
extenuate  his  guilt,  maintained  that  he  had 
denied  only  a  man  and  not  God.  He 
claimed  Jesus  to  have  been  mere  man  until 
at  his  baptism,  Christ  descended  upon 
Him.  He  was  excommunicated  by  Pope 
Victor.  His  disciples  were  Asclepiades 
and  the  younger  Theodotus,  surnamed  the 
Banker,  who  was  the  author  of  the  Mel- 
chisedechian  heresy,  teaching  that  Mel- 
chisedech  was  greater  than  Christ.  Natalis, 
a  confessor  of  the  faith,  was  won  over  by 
these  sectaries  and  made  bishop  of  their 
party,  but  returned  to  the  communion  of 
the  Church,  under  Pope  Zephyrinus. 

Theology  (science  which  has  for  its  ob- 
ject divine  things,  the  dogmas,  and  reli- 
gious precepts).  —  Science  which,  founded 
upon  the  principles  furnished  to  us  by 
faith,  draws  consequences  on  the  super- 
natural truths  and  the  divine  things,  that 
is,  on  all  that  has  relation  to  God,  as  the 
effect  to  its  cause :  for  instance  the  crea- 
tures ;  as  the  means  to  their  end  :  the  human 
acts ;  as  the  way  to  the  end  :  Jesus  Christ, 
through  whom  we  go  to  God ;  as  instru- 
ment of  grace :  the  sacraments ;  these  are 
so  many  branches  that  enter  the  plan  and 
frame  of  theology.  The  material  object 
of  theology  is  God  Himself,  and  all  that 
has  reference  to  God ;  the  formal  object  is 
the  divinity,  the  divine  Being  considered 
in  His  attributes  and  proprieties,  that  is, 
theology  considers  its  object  in  so  far  as  it 
is  essentially  or  relatively  divine.  Its 
first  foundation  is  revelation,  which  is,  at 
the  same  time,  its  principal  criterion  of 
certitude.  We  say  that  theology  is  a  sci- 
ence, for,  to  use  the  terms  of  the  School, 
although  it  has  not  the  evidence  conse- 
quent, it  has,  however,  the  evidence  of 
consequence,  that  is,  it  is  evident  that  the 
conclusions  which  it  draws  from  the  prin- 
ciples of  faith  are  necessary  consequences 
thereof,  although  its  truths  are  not  evident 
in  themselves.  Theology  has,  therefore, 
all  that  is  necessary  to  constitute  a  science 
whose  principles  are  not  of  the  natural  or- 
der; but  this  does  not  hinder  us  from  say- 
ing that  it  is,  also,  a  science  of  the  natural 
order,  because  the  order  in  which  it  is  a 
science,  is  not  taken  from  the  quality  of 
the  principles  which  it  employs,  but  from 
the  manner  it  proceeds.  Now,  theology 
proceeds  by  way  of  argumentation,  a  pro- 
ceeding which  belongs  to  a  purely  natural 
order. 


Division.  —  Theology  in  regard  to  its 
principal  object,  God,  is  a  speculative  sci- 
ence ;  in  regard  to  its  second  object,  it  is  a 
practical  science,  for  by  the  rules  of  morals 
which  it  prescribes,  it  directs  the  will  of  man 
towards  God,  as  his  final  end.  From  the 
standpoint  of  doctrinal  teaching,  it  is  posi- 
tive or  scholastic ;  the  first  is  a  simple  ex- 
position of  the  truths  which  naturally  flow 
from  the  principles  of  faith ;  this  was  the 
method  of  the  Fathers ;  the  second  gives 
rules,  draws  consequences  and,  by  a  series 
of  reasonings,  proves  the  truths  that  flow 
from  the  premises ;  the  latter,  although  it 
is  not  absolutely  necessary  like  the  other,  is, 
however,  of  great  usefulness  to  refute  the 
sophisms  of  error.  The  model  far  excel- 
lence of  this  method  is  St.  Thomas. 

Historical.  —  The  word  theology  has  a 
much  more  extensive  sense  than  its  etymol- 
ogy indicates.  The  Greeks  called  theo- 
logians the  ancient  poets, who  had  identified 
the  development  of  nature  with  that  of  the 
gods;  cosmogony  with  theogony:  such 
were  Orpheus,  Hesiod,  Homer,  to  whom 
they  opposed,  later  on,  the  philosophers  and 
the  physiological  naturalists.  Then  they 
designated  as  theology  that  part  of  phi- 
losophy which  occupies  itself,  especially, 
with  the  absolute.  Aristotle  calls  philosoph- 
ical theology,  the  metaphysics  or  science 
of  the  principles  in  opposition  to  the  mathe- 
matical or  physical  philosophy.  However, 
the  name  theology  remained,  especially, 
consecrated  to  ancient  mythology.  In  the 
first  centuries  of  the  Christian  era,  they 
gave  the  name  philosophy  to  the  science  of 
faith;  but  since  it  might  be  confounded 
with  Greek  philosophy,  the  term  was 
abandoned,  and  in  St.  Irenseus,  Tertullian, 
Clement,  and  Origen,  the  Christian  science 
soon  became  the  antithesis  of  philosophy; 
it  did  not  yet  take  the  name  theology.  At 
first  they  reserved  this  name  to  that  branch 
of  Christian  science  which  treats  exclu- 
sively of  God ;  thus  for  St.  Athanasius 
the  doctrine  on  the  Trinity  belongs  to 
theology.  The  doctrine  on  the  creation 
and  gcTvernment  of  the  world  they  called 
economy.  About  the  end  of  the  patristic 
period,  the  word  theology  commences  to 
be  employed  in  a  more  extensive  sense ;  it 
is  not  only  the  doctrine  on  God,  but  in 
general,  every  doctrine  having  relation  to 
God.  As  far  back  as  St.  Augustine,  the 
word  theology  is  taken  as  a  synonym  of 
Christian  doctrine,  and  in  the  same  sense 
as  we  understand  it  to-day.  During  the 
Middle     Ages     this     denomination     was 


Theology 


678 


Theology 


reserved  to  that  part  of  doctrine  which  treats 
especially  of  God.  About  the  end  of  the 
Middle  Ages  they  applied  that  name  to  the 
whole  sacra  doctrina,  preserving,  for  a 
long  time,  the  latter  expression.  The  idea 
itself  being  profoundly  modified,  a  new 
classification  of  the  sacred  science  made 
itself  felt.  Scholasticism  embraced  both 
dogmatic  and  moral  theology,  and  yet 
these  two  parts  were  then  not  very  dis- 
tinct; they  comprise  several  branches, 
such  as  cannon  law,  liturgy,  pastoral  the- 
ology, etc.  They  had  not  yet  arrived  at 
an  understanding  whether  theology  was  a 
speculative  or  practical  science.  Later  on, 
the  heresies  attacking  several  points  of 
Catholic  doctrine,  determined  the  devel- 
opment of  other  branches  of  the  sacred 
science.  Thus  arose  apologetic,  exegesis, 
biblical  criticism.  Church  history,  and 
later  on,  hermeneutic,  the  science  of  the 
rubrics,  homiletic,  etc.  In  the  course  of 
time  it  was  found  that  all  these  sciences  were 
constituitive  parts  of  one  and  the  same 
doctrinal  body  which  they  called  Theology. 
We  distinguish  natural  theology,  which 
is  founded  upon  the  lights  of  reason,  from 
revealed  theology,  which  supports  itself 
upon  the  belief  in  revelation.  Theology, 
concerning  reason  and  faith,  owes  to  each 
its  share.  It  is  evident,  that  if  each  one 
remains  in  its  proper  sphere,  there  can  be 
no  conflict  between  faith  and  reason.  (See 
Science  and  Faith.)  This  has  always 
been  the  belief  of  the  Church.  Only  in 
our  days  did  reason  proclaim  its  au- 
tonomy. Not  only  the  Rationalists  reject 
revelation,  but  also  the  Naturalists,  Posi- 
tivists.  Freethinkers,  Critics,  Progress- 
ists, Deists,  and  Spiritualists ;  then  there 
are  others  who,  on  the  contrary,  maintain 
the  opposite  thesis,  namely,  that  reason 
cannot,  by  its  own  powers,  acquire  any 
certitude  of  the  natural  truths,  but  that  it 
must  receive  this  from  tradition,  that  is, 
from  divine  revelation  or  from  a  social 
transmission  :  these  are  the  Traditionalists 
or  Fideists.  The  first  sacrifice,  faith  to 
reason,  the  second,  reason  to  faith.  The 
Council  of  the  Vatican  has  condemned  the 
doctrine  of  those  who  pretend  that  reason  is 
completely  independent  and  that  faith  can- 
not be  imposed  upon  it  by  God  (C.  vat. 
de  fide,  c.  iii.).  Since  created  reason  is 
naturally  and  necessarily  subject  to  uncre- 
ated reason,  we  are  bound  to  give  the  as- 
sent of  our  intelligence  to  God  who 
reveals.  This  assent  is,  besides,  so  rea- 
sonable   that    it   appears    surprising  that 


Rationalists,  who  proclaim  that  our  rea- 
son has  a  right  a  friore  to  reject  the  act 
of  faith.  Is  it  not  reason  itself  which, 
adds  Leo  XIII.  (Encyclc.  yEterni  Pa- 
tris,  Aug.  4th,  1884),  declares  to  us  that 
the  evangelical  doctrine  was  confirmed 
from  the  beginning  by  miracles,  sure  ar- 
guments of  a  sure  truth .?  Moreover,  the 
Church,  on  account  of  her  wonderful  prop- 
agation, eminent  holiness,  and  inex- 
haustible fruitfulness  for  every  good,  on 
account  of  her  Catholic  unity  and  invinci- 
ble stability,  constitutes  herself  a  great 
and  perpetual  argument  of  credibility. 
To  believe  in  the  word  of  another,  there 
must  be  reasons ;  now  these  reasons  are 
none  other  than  the  motives  of  credibility; 
whence  it  results  that  the  exercise  of  rea- 
son must  precede  faith,  as  both  the 
Church  and  theology  teaches.  Therefore, 
the  act  of  faith  is  rational,  and  if  it  is  ra- 
tional, God  can  propose  it  to  reason. 
If  we  consider  the  manifold  condemna- 
tions fulminated  by  Leo.  XIII.  against 
modern  errors,  the  same  conclusion  must 
impose  itself.  The  Roman  Pontiffs  in 
condemning  rationalism,  have  condemned, 
at  the  same  time,  the  doctrines  akin  to  it, 
like  Lamennesianism, which  pretended  that 
reason,  having  for  criterion  of  certitude 
the  universal  and  traditional  belief  of  man- 
kind, is  the  only  rule  by  which  we  can 
have  knowledge  of  the  truths  necessary 
for  salvation;  Hermesianism  or  semi- 
rationalism  of  Germany  which  placed  the 
methodic  doubt  as  basis  of  theological 
science  and  posed  as  principle,  that  rea- 
son is  the  sovereign  rule  and  only  means 
to  acquire  the  knowledge  of  the  super- 
natural truths;  the  Progressists,  who  make 
of  the  Catholic  religion  a  purely  human 
work  or  a  purely  philosophical  discovery, 
which  one  can  perfect  by  human  means. 

Conclusion.  —  Catholic  theology  is  a 
science  which  has  for  its  end  a  knowledge 
of  the  Catholic  religion  and  to  show  that 
it  is  founded  upon  reason.  In  the  Catho- 
lic religion  we  can  distinguish :  i.  Faith 
which  is  the  foundation  thereof.  2.  The 
manifestation  of  this  faith  in  the  Church. 
3.  The  confirmation  of  this  faith  in  life 
and  in  all  the  free  and  moral  acts  of  man. 
These  three  parts  constitute  the  theoret- 
ical, ecclesiastical  and  practical  part  of  re- 
ligion. Whence  it  results  that  Catholic 
theology  has  one  sole  object  under  a 
triple  form,  namely:  the  science  of  faith 
as  such ;  the  science  of  ecclesiastical  life ; 
and  the  science  of  Christian  life. 


Theophanes 


679 


Theresa 


Theophanes  (Isaurus)  (758-818). —  Byz- 
antine historian,  abbot  of  the  monastery 
Ager,  in  Mysia,  Asia  Minor;  defended  the 
veneration  of  images  in  the  Council  of 
Nice  (787),  was  imprisoned  by  order  of  the 
Iconoclast  Emperor  Leo  V.,  banished  on 
the  island  of  Samothracia,  where  he  died. 
He  continued  the  Chronology  of  George 
Syncellus. 

Theophilus  (St.).  —  Bishop  of  Antioch 
and  one  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Church, 
born  and  raised  in  paganism,  embraced  the 
Christian  faith  by  reading  the  Scriptures ; 
became  bishop  of  Antioch  about  168,  and 
combated  the  errors  of  the  Gnostics ;  died 
in  181.  Of  his  works  which  he  wrote  in 
defense  of  the  Christian  faith,  we  have  en- 
tire, his  Three  Books  of  Antolycus,  which 
contain  an  apology  for  the  Christian  reli- 
gion and  which  appeared  during  the  reign 
of  Commodus.  He  composed  also,  a  com- 
mentary on  Holy  Scripture. 

Theophilus  of  Alexandria.  —  Patriarch 
of  Alexandria  in  385.  His  zeal  against  the 
Origenists  animated  him  against  St.  John 
Chrysostom,  whom  he  believed  to  be  an 
adherent  to  them.  He  died  in  412,  after 
having  reconciled  himself  with  the  Saint. 

Theosophy. —  Doctrine  of  certain  mys- 
tics who  pretend  to  enter  into  communica- 
tion with  God,  and  to  receive  from  Him 
particular  lights  and  special  gifts.  The 
theosophists,  without  following  the  method 
of  philosophers  and  theologians,  claim  to 
arrive  directly  at  the  knowledge  of  God ; 
to  believe  them,  God  manifests  Himself  to 
them  immediately,  that  is,  without  any  in- 
termediary. Theosophy  forms  a  part  of 
mysticism,  but  only  of  non-Christian  mys- 
ticism. For  Christian  mysticism  does  not 
cease  to  adhere  to  the  belief  of  the  Church, 
as  the  fundamental  basis  of  all  divine 
science,  while  the  non-Christian  mysti- 
cism, as  soon  as  it  occupies  itself  with 
God,  becomes  theosophic.  It  was  Aristo- 
bulus,  an  Alexandrian  Jew  (in  the  first  cen- 
tury), who  founded  theosophy.  Philo, 
following  in  his  footsteps,  explained  the 
Old  Testament  by  allegories  or  in  a  mys- 
tical manner.  It  was  his  desire  to  recon- 
cile philosophy  with  the  dogmas  of  Scrip- 
ture; there  exists,  according  to  him,  two 
worlds:  one  only  intelligible,  and  which 
is  of  the  domain  of  pure  intelligence ;  and 
the  other  sensible,  formed  after  an  ideal 
type,  unchangeable,  coeternal  like  God 
Himself.     Philo    personified    these    ideas 


under  the  name  of  log-os  or  -word,  and  con- 
sidered this  word  as  an  emanation  of  God 
and  son  of  God.  He  was  the  precursor  of 
Neoplatonism.  The  best  known  chiefs  of 
this  school  were  Plotinus,  Jamblicus,  and 
Proclus.  Later  we  see  these  ideas  re- 
newed in  a  number  of  visionaries  gone 
forth  from  Protestantism,  as  the  disciples 
and  followers  of  Paracelsus,  who,  however, 
died  a  Catholic;  Valentin,  Weigel  and  his 
followers.  We  can  count  among  the  theos- 
ophists the  Illuminati  of  all  kinds.  Spir- 
itism has  its  direct  filiation  in  theosophy. 
Theosophy  rests  upon  principles,  whose 
application  annihilates  human  reason  by 
submitting  it  entirely  to  the  passion  of  a 
delirious  imagination,  profanes  the  Sacred 
Scriptures  by  delivering  them  to  the  cab- 
ala, which  seeks  secrets  therein  which 
they  do  not  contain.  Reason  regulates 
the  limits  which  separate  religion  from 
philosophy,  but  at  the  same  time  it  calls 
upon  faith  as  an  indispensable  auxiliary ; 
it  understands  that  we  must  receive  through 
the  Church  the  real  sense  of  the  Sacred 
Books,  under  pain  of  finding  therein  a 
source  of  ridiculous  and  sometimes  crim- 
inal inspiration. 

Theotokos  (G  r .  God-bearing) .  —  The 
mother  of  God;  a  title  of  the  Blessed  Vir- 
gin Mary. 

Therapeutae.  —  Jewish  monks,  who  de- 
livered themselves  to  a  contemplative  and 
mortified  life.  The  Therapeutae  were 
spread  in  diverse  places ;  but  most  of  them 
lived  in  Egypt,  near  Alexandria.  They  led 
a  more  solitary  and  contemplative  life 
than  the  Essenes,  occupying  themselves 
only  with  prayer,  reading  and  meditating 
upon  the  law.  Ordinarily,  they  ate  noth- 
ing else  but  bread,  and  this  only  in  the 
evening.  They  assembled  on  the  day  of 
the  Sabbath  and  on  Pentecost,  to  pray  and 
eat  together. 

Theresa  (St.)  (1515-1582).  —  One  of  the 
most  remarkable  of  the  female  saints  of 
the  modern  Roman  calendar,  born  at 
Avila,  in  Old  Castile;  was  the  daughter 
of  Alphonso,  of  the  noble  house  of  Sanchez 
de  Ceyeda.  In  her  eighteenth  year  she 
entered  a  convent  of  the  Carmelite  Order 
in  her  native  city,  where  she  continued  to 
reside  for  nearly  thirty  years.  The  most 
noble  fruit  of  the  enthusiastic  spirituality 
of  Theresa,  is  the  reform  of  the  Carmelite 
Order,  of  which  she  became  the  instru- 
ment.    Theresa    was   canonized   in    1621. 


Thessalonians 


680 


Thomas  a  Becket 


She  left  a  number  of  works  which  have  at 
all  times  maintained  a  high  reputation. 
F.  Oct.  15th. 

Thessalonians  {Epistles  to  the). — St. 
Paul,  having  been  obliged  to  leave  Thes- 
salonica,  a  city  of  Macedonia,  learned  at 
Corinth,  through  Silas  and  Timothy,  of 
the  state  of  the  Church  in  that  city.  They 
told  him  that  several  were  not  sufficiently 
detached  from  the  world,  nor  instructed 
enough  about  the  coming  of  the  Lord  and 
and  the  last  judgment.  They  also  notified 
him  that  there  were  some  idle,  curious 
and  restless.  These  advices  gave  occasion 
to  the  Apostle  to  write  to  them  two  Epis- 
tles. We  can  regard  as  certain  that  the 
first  was  written  from  Corinth  in  the  year 
52  or  53.  The  Apostle  in  this  letter  wished 
to  excite  the  Thessalonians  to  persevere 
■with  courage  in  the  faith  and  not  to  per- 
mit themselves  to  be  discouraged  by 
obstacles  and  tribulations,  to  instruct  of 
certain  truths  those  who  still  doubted,  to 
chide,  but  with  mildness,  those  that  erred 
in  evil  ways.  The  second  Epistle  was  also 
written  from  Corinth,  shortly  after  the 
first.  The  end  and  subject  have  great  re- 
lation to  those  of  the  first. 

Thomas  (St.)  (also  called  Didymus). — 
One  of  the  twelve  Apostles.  He  is  rarely 
mentioned  in  the  New  Testament.  Ac- 
cording to  Origen  and  Sophronius,  he 
preached  in  Parthia,  Media,  Persia,  Car- 
mania,  Hyrcania,  and  Bactria,  extending 
his  missionary  labors  as  far  as  India.  The 
Persian  Magi,  who  adored  Christ  our  Lord 
in  Bethlehem,  are  also  numbered  among 
those  who  were  baptized  by  this  Apostle. 
The  Roman  martyrology  represents  him 
as  suffering  martyrdom  by  a  lance  at 
Calamina,  near  Madras,  in  India.  The 
*'  Christians  of  St.  Thomas"  in  East  India 
claim  the  Apostle  St.  Thomas  for  their 
founder.  Apocryphal  Acts  and  a  Gospel 
were  published  at  Leipsic,  in  1823.  F. 
Dec.  2ist. 

Thomas  Aquinas  (St.)  (1225-1274). — 
The  angel  of  the  school,  Doctor  Angelicus , 
born  at  Aquino,  a  town  near  Naples.  His 
family  was  connected  by  marriage  with  the 
Hohenstaufen.  His  early  education  was 
entrusted  to  the  care  of  the  Benedictines 
of  Monte  Cassino.  After  completing  his 
studies  at  the  University  of  Naples,  he  en- 
tered the  Dominican  Order,  and  became 
the  scholar  of  Albertus  Magnus.  He 
taught  with  universal  admiration  at  Co- 


logne, Paris,  Bologna,  Naples,  and  other 
places ;  he  was  equally  famous  as  a  preacher. 
He  persistently  refused  any  ecclesiastical 
dignity.  Called  by  Gregory  X.  to  assist 
at  the  Ecumenical  Council  of  Lyons,  in 
1274,  he  fell  sick  on  the  journey  and  died 
in  the  Cistercian  monastery  of  Fossanova, 
before  he  had  completed  his  fiftieth  year. 
He  was  solemnly  canonized  by  John  XXII., 
in  1323,  and  ranked  among  the  great  Doc- 
tors of  the  Church,  by  Pius  V.,  in  1567. 
His  most  renowned  work  is  the  Summa 
Theologice.  He  composed  many  touching 
prayers,  such  as  the  Office  of  Corpus 
Christi,  and  hymns  :  Pange  Lingua,  Sacris 
Solemnis,  Verbiim  Supernum,  Adoro  Te 
Devote,  l^auda  Sion  Salvatorem.  See 
Thomism. 

Thomas  i  Becket  (St.)  (1118-1170). 
—  An  English  prelate,  born  at  London, 
The  son  of  a  wealthy  merchant,  he  was 
early  introduced  into  the  household  of 
Archbishop  Theobald,  whose  favorite  he 
soon  became.  To  improve  himself  in 
every  knowledge,  especially  in  civil  and 
ecclesiastical  law,  Thomas,  with  the  per- 
mission of  his  patron,  frequented  the 
University  of  Paris,  and  then  went  to 
Bologna,  where  he  attended  the  lectures 
of  the  celebrated  Gratian.  On  his  return 
to  England,  he  was  employed  in  some  im- 
portant negotiations,  and  gradually  rose 
to  the  archdeaconry  of  Canterbury.  When 
Theobald  died,  in  1161,  King  Henry  II. 
resolved  to  raise  his  esteemed  chancellor 
to  the  vacant  see.  Only  at  the  instance 
of  the  legate,  Cardinal  Henry  of  Pisa, 
Thomas  at  last  yielded  in  accepting  the 
dignity  and  was  consecrated  in  1162. 
From  that  time  he  became  a  strong  advo- 
cate of  the  Church's  rights,  defending  her 
against  the  king,  who  aimed  at  the  com- 
plete subjection  of  the  hierarchy  to  the 
Crown.  He  refused  to  consent  to  the 
constitutions  of  the  Council  of  Clarendon, 
which  restrained  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
bishops  and  attempted  to  bring  the  clergy 
under  secular  jurisdiction.  After  a  fruit- 
less resistance,  Thomas  was  persuaded  to 
sign  the  constitutions.  Soon  after,  how- 
ever, he  repented  of  his  condescension  and 
withdrew  his  assent.  Henry  cited  him 
before  a  Council  at  Northampton  to  an- 
swer for  the  charge  of  high  treason.  In 
this  struggle  for  the  liberties  of  the 
Church,  Thomas  stood  alone ;  he  was  de- 
serted even  by  his  brother  bishops.  See- 
ing that  the  king  was  determined  to  crush 


Thomas  a  Kempis 


68 1 


Thomism 


him,  he  appealed  to  the  Pope,  and  then, 
secretly  leaving  the  kingdom,  fled  to 
France  for  shelter.  Henry  confiscated  the 
property,  and  banished  all  the  kindred 
of  the  fugitive  archbishop.  From  France, 
Thomas  went  to  Rome,  where  Pope  Alex- 
ander III.  received  the  saint  with  every 
mark  of  respect  and  veneration.  Anxious 
to  end  the  quarrel.  Pope  Alexander  made 
every  possible  effort  to  accomplish  a  rec- 
onciliation between  the  English  King  and 
the  Primate.  King  Louis  of  France  did 
the  same.  Finding  all  efforts  fruitless, 
the  Pope,  at  last,  gave  permission  to  em- 
ploy the  weapon  of  ecclesiastical  censures 
against  his  persecutors.  Accordingly,  at 
Vezelay,  in  1166,  the  Primate  solemnly 
condemned  the  constitutions  of  Claren- 
don, and  excommunicated  all  advisers  and 
supporters  thereof,  and  all  invaders  of 
Church  property.  Fearing  that  the  Pri- 
mate would  lay  the  kingdom  under  an  in- 
terdict, Henry  began,  at  last,  to  show  a 
sudden  desire  for  peace.  Thomas  returned 
to  England,  where  he  was  greeted  by  the 
people  with  transports  of  joy.  He  had 
received  letters  from  the  Pope,  suspend- 
ing and  excommunicating  three  prelates. 
The  conduct  of  these  bishops  obliged  the 
Primate  to  carry  out  the  Pope's  inten- 
tions. When  Henry  heard  of  this,  he 
broke  out  into  one  of  his  usual  fits,  say- 
ing: "Is  there  no  one  to  rid  me  of  that 
troublesome  priest  ? "  Four  knights,  act- 
ing on  these  words,  immediately  set  out 
for  England,  and  murdered  the  holy  arch- 
bishop, Dec.  29th,  1 170.  Thomas  was 
canonized  in  1172,  and  in  1220  his  remains 
were  removed  to  Trinity  Chapel,  where 
they  were  for  several  centuries,  the  object 
of  pilgrimages.  Henry  VIII.  destroyed 
the  Chapel,  and  burned  and  scattered  his 
bones. 

Thomas  k  Kempis.     See  A  Kempis. 

Thomas  of  Celano. — A  native  of  Celano, 
southern  Italy,  and,  about  1221,  general  of 
the  Franciscan  Order  in  Germany,  is  gen- 
erally recognized  as  the  author  of  the 
oldest  biography  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi, 
and  of  the  celebrated  hymn  or  Sequence 
Dies  tree,  dies  ilia. 

Thomas  of  Villanova  (St.)  (1488-1555). 
—  Prelate,  born  at  Fuenlana  (Leon),  Spain, 
died  at  Valencia.  Professor  in  the  Uni- 
versities of  Alcala  and  Salamanca ;  Augus- 
tinian  religious,  preacher  at  the  court  of 
Charles  V.,  Archbishop  of   Valencia,   in 


1545,    merited    the    glorious    surname   of 
"  Father  of  the  Poor." 

Thomism.  —  Doctrine  of  St.  Thomas 
Aquinas.  Theological  and  philosophical, 
it  comprises  the  method,  the  theodicy, 
metaphysic,  psychology,  and  moral.  I. 
Ordinary  Thomistic  Method. —  i.  St. 
Thomas  always  starts  by  metaphysical 
questions  and  only  finally  arrives  at  the 
point  of  fact  and  detail.  Proceeding  he 
naturally  draws  the  conclusion  from  the 
method  he  has  followed ;  he  employs  the 
syllogistic  and  deductive  method,  a  method 
whose  model  and  type  we  find  in  his  Sum 
of  Theology.  II.  Theodicy. —  Existence  of 
God ;  divine  attributes ;  relations  to  God 
and  the  world,  i.  Existence  of  God.  St. 
Thomas  proves  the  existence  of  God  by  the 
movement,  existence,  gradation,  and  order 
of  the  contingent  beings,  by  the  traces  of 
intelligence  found  even  in  the  unreasonable 
beings.  He  does  not  separate  the  will 
from  the  other  divine  perfections ;  reject- 
ing the  error  of  those  who  attribute  the 
creation  to  an  arbitrary  decree,  he  con- 
siders the  world  and  the  laws  that  govern 
it,  as  a  manifestation  of  the  wisdom  and 
goodness  of  the  First  Cause.  He  puts  the 
question  what  God  is,  or  rather  what  He 
is  not.  2.  Divine  attributes.  As  to  the 
essential  nature  of  God,  St.  Thomas,  like 
Plato,  subordinates  the  will  to  the  intelli- 
gence; the  philosophy  of  St.  Thomas  was 
the  philosophy  of  intelligence  and  of  rea- 
son, while  Duns  Scotus  founded  his  upon 
the  will.  Man,  it  is  true,  cannot  know  the 
divine  essence;  however,  he  can,  even  by 
his  sole  natural  powers,  know  the  attributes 
essential  to  the  Deity,  understanding,  will, 
science,  activity,  and  liberty.  God  know- 
ing Himself,  knows  at  the  same  time  with- 
in Himself  the  beings  that  are  not  Him. 
For  us,  we  know  in  time;  but  God  per- 
ceives all  things  all  at  once,  from  all  eter- 
nity; for  Him  there  is  neither  past  nor 
future.  The  first  object  of  the  will  in  God 
is  His  own  essence.  This  will,  in  so  far  as 
it  exercises  itself  outside  of  Him,  is  essen- 
tially free.  God  was  not  under  the  neces- 
sity to  will  His  creatures.  He  wills  them 
only  on  account  of  their  relations  in  so  far 
as  they  contribute  to  the  general  good  of 
the  universe ;  this  will  is  not  arbitrary, 
but  always  exercises  itself  according  to  the 
order  of  His  wisdom  ;  the  same  holds  good 
in  regard  to  His  power,  which  implies  no 
contradiction.  3.  Relations  of  God  with 
the  world.    God  is  the  creator  and  preserver 


Thomism 


682 


Thomism 


of  the  world.  God  is  present  in  the  world 
and  distinct  from  the  world.  God  has  cre- 
ated the  world  willingly  and  ex  nihilo.  This 
nothingness  is  neither  the  matter,  nor  the 
cause  of  the  creation,  it  is  only  the  simple 
relation  of  time :  the  being  succeeded 
nothingness,  like  day  succeeds  the  dawn. 
God  creating  the  world  had  to  create  it  per- 
fect, in  its  whole  and  in  its  parts.  Thus, 
concludes  St  Thomas,  a  natural  justice  pre- 
sides at  the  creation  and  propagation  of  the 
beings.  Here  the  question  of  the  eternal 
creation  presents  itself.  Creation  is  not  a 
question  of  science,  for  human  reason, 
which  can  destroy  the  arguments  contrary 
to  the  dogma,  cannot,  however,  establish 
its  dogma  directly.  Creation  is  an  object 
of  faith.  God,  absolutely  speaking,  could 
have  created  from  all  eternity.  In  regard 
to  the  preservation  of  the  world,  St. 
Thomas  arises  against  the  system,  accord- 
ing to  which  the  creatures  would  be  de- 
spoiled of  all  real  activity.  In  regard  to 
the  question  of  the  will  and  its  relations 
with  the  action  of  the  almighty  power.  St. 
Thomas  wished,  in  his  theory  of  the  phys- 
ical premotion  or  natural  predetermination, 
to  reconcile  the  liberty  with  a  sort  of  de- 
terminism. This  theory  consists  in  main- 
taining that  the  sovereign  and  irresistible 
impulse  of  the  Divine  will,  may  obtain 
from  the  human  will  acts  which  neverthe- 
less remain  free,  for  "  God  moves  all  the 
beings  conformable  to  their  nature  "  ;  and 
since,  if  He  moves  the  natural  causes.  He 
does  not  hinder  the  acts  to  be  unnatural ; 
so  also  if  He  acts  on  the  voluntary  causes. 
He  does  not  hinder  their  actions  to  be 
voluntary :  thus  I  am  naturally  moved  be- 
forehand, as  the  word  premotion  indicates, 
I  am  predetermined,  but  predetermined  to 
act  freely.  Always  the  questions  remain  : 
How  our  acts  can  be  at  once  necessary  and 
free?  What  constitutes  the  proper  and 
distinct  existence  of  each  being  ?  Since  St. 
Thomas,  philosophy  has  made  great  prog- 
ress in  the  study  of  the  will ;  having  only 
an  imperfect  knowledge  of  this  faculty,  St. 
Thomas  could  not  have  an  adequate  idea 
of  the  principle  of  individuality.  Duns 
Scotus  was  the  first  who  preoccupied  him- 
self with  this  principle.  The  solution  of 
this  problem  was  the  consequence  of  the 
dispute  between  the  Realists  and  Nomi- 
nalists. To  discover  the  nature  of  the 
universal  ideas,  they  had  to  inquire  at  the 
same  time  about  the  nature  of  the  indi- 
vidual existences.  According  to  Duns 
Scotus,  the  individuality  is  the  principle 


of  the  action,  and,  consequently,  the  will  is 
the  foundation  of  the  being  and  not  reason, 
chained  to  its  unchangeable  forms  and  sub- 
ject to  determination  and  necessity,  as  the 
Thomists  maintain.  According  to  St. 
Thomas,  on  the  contrary,  the  form  of  the 
beings,  considered  independently  from  all 
matter,  is  universal.  What,  therefore, 
constitutes  the  distinction  of  the  indi- 
viduals.? It  is  matter  where  the  form 
manifests  itself,  that  is  to  say,  the  limita- 
tion, the  relations  in  space  and  time.  In 
the  solution  which  he  gives  of  the  problem 
of  evil,  St.  Thomas  shows  himself  an  opti- 
mist, but  not  according  to  the  manner  of 
Malebranche  and  Leibnitz.  God's  good- 
ness is  not  tied  to  the  production  of  the 
actual  world  ;  but  the  actual  world,  such  as 
it  is,  is  the  most  faithful  expression  of  the 
designs  of  the  Creator;  no  hand  could  add 
to  the  perfection  of  one  single  being  with- 
out troubling  the  harmony  of  the  whole. 
III.  Metaphysic. —  Metaphysic  has  for  ob- 
ject the  being  in  so  far  as  being.  There 
are  two  kinds  of  beings:  the  beings  really 
existing,  that  is,  objectively  {esse  in  re), 
and  the  beings  which  are  only  abstractions 
of  the  mind,  like  poverty,  blindness,  the 
defect  in  general,  which  are  entta  but  not 
essentice.  The  essences  are  simple  or  com- 
posed ;  there  is  only  one  simple  essence  or 
pure  form  without  mixture  of  matter,  this 
is  God.  All  the  rest  is  composed  of  form 
and  matter,  both  of  beings  {eniia).  The 
form  is  in  actu  and  matter  in  potentia.  It 
is  the  form  that  gives  the  being ;  it  is  sub- 
stantial or  accidental.  The  union  of  mat- 
ter and  form  is  the  substantial  or  acci- 
dental generation;  the  diversity  of  the 
forms  constitutes  the  kinds,  the  species 
and  the  individuals.  IV.  Thomistic  Psy- 
chology.—  St.  Thomas,  like  Descartes,  ad- 
mits only  one  principle  for  thought  and 
life.  He  is  inclined  to  derive  all  our 
knowledge  from  sensible  experience ;  he 
admits,  however,  the  first  notions,  which 
are  the  basis  of  reasoning ;  he  forcibly  de- 
fends, against  Averroism,  the  personality, 
the  activity,  and  liberty  of  the  thinking 
subject.  The  starting  point  of  knowledge 
is  the  sensible  perception  by  the  means  of 
the  five  faculties ;  the  exterior  senses,  the 
common  sense,  judgment,  imagination,  and 
memory.  Above  the  sensible  perception 
is  the  understanding,  which  is  peculiar  to 
man.  The  Thomistic  psychology  does  not 
behold  any  difference  of  nature  between 
passion  and  will ;  both  enter  the  appetitive 
faculty;  thus  will  and  liberty  are  one  and 


Thomism 


683 


Tiberias 


the  same  power  diversely  applied.  The  will 
attaches  itself  to  the  general  good,  liberty 
to  the  particular  good.  V.  Thomistic 
Moral. — The  moral,  in  St.  Thomas,  is 
equally  connected  with  the  intellectual 
and  rational  principles.  He  acknowledges 
an  eternal  law  which  has  its  foundation  in 
divine  reason,  a  law  which  is  the  origin 
and  basis  of  all  others.  The  civil  law  "is 
an  order  of  reason  imposed  for  the  com- 
mon good."  The  essential  attribute  of 
the  sovereignty  is  the  power  to  make  laws 
(Sum.  1-2,  90,  4),  and  this  power  belongs 
to  the  people  or  to  its  representatives.  If 
the  power  be  unjust,  the  subjects  have  the 
right  to  reject  it.  The  tyrannical  govern- 
ment is  not  just,  because  it  is  not  ordained 
for  the  common  good,  but  for  the  good  of 
the  one  who  governs  (Sum.  1-2,  105,  i,  2-2, 
42,  3).  St.  Thomas  upheld  a  correct 
medium  between  the  principle  of  authority 
and  liberty,  by  leaving  the  predominant 
role  to  the  first.  His  system  is  a  learned 
organization  which  expresses,  even  in 
philosophy,  the  Catholic  organization  and 
discipline. 

Thomism,  they  also  called  the  school 
founded  by  Banez,  Dominican  (died,  1604). 
It  claims  to  rest  on  the  authority  of  St. 
Thomas;  represents  that  there  are  two 
species  of  grace,  the  one  which  is  given 
more  abundantly  than  the  other.  To  the 
first  the  much-abused  name  of  sufficient 
grace  is  given :  this  makes  it  possible  for  a 
man  to  do  the  salutary  act,  but  if  no  more 
be  given,  he  will  not  use  the  grace  offered. 
But  so  often  as,  in  virtue  of  a  Divine  de- 
cree of  premotion,  the  act  is  to  be  done, 
then  the  second  kind  of  grace  is  given,  and 
the  act  is  done  under  its  influence,  for 
which  reason  it  is  said  to  be  efficacious. 
Billuart  was  the  leading  supporter  of  this 
view. 

Three  Chapter  Controversy.  See  Chap- 
ters. 

Thummim.     See  Urim. 

Thurible.     See  Censer 

Thurificati,  they  called  those  Christians, 
in  the  early  Church,  who,  during  persecu- 
tion, had  offered  incense  to  pagan  deities. 

Thursday  (//o/y) .  — The  Thursday  before 
Easter.  On  this  day  only  one  Mass  can 
be  said  in  the  same  church,  and  that  Mass 
must  be  a  public  one.  The  Mass  is  cele- 
brated in  white  vestments,  because  the  in- 
stitution   of    the     Eucharist    is    joyfully 


commemorated,  but  at  the  same  time  there 
are  certain  signs  of  the  mourning  proper 
to  Holy  Week.  The  bells,  which  are  rung 
at  the  Gloria,  do  not  sound  again  till  the 
Gloria  of  Holy  Saturday,  and  the  Church 
returns  to  her  ancient  use  of  summoning 
the  Faithful  or  arousing  their  attention  by 
a  wooden  clapper.  Nor  is  the  embrace  of 
peace  given.  The  celebrant  consecrates 
an  additional  host,  which  is  placed  in  a 
chalice  and  borne  in  procession,  after  the 
Mass,  to  a  place  prepared  for  it.  The 
"Pange  Lingua^^  is  sung  during  the  pro- 
cession, and  the  place  to  which  the 
Blessed  Sacrament  is  removed  —  often 
called  the  sepulchre,  but  properly  the  re- 
pository—  is  decked  with  flowers  and 
lights.  Afterwards  the  altars  are  stripped, 
to  remind  the  Christians  of  the  way  in 
which  their  Master  was  stripped  of  His 
garments.  In  some  churches,  the  priest  or 
prelate,  assisted  by  deacon  and  subdeacon, 
washes  the  feet  of  twelve  poor  men,  in 
imitation  of  our  Saviour  who  washed  the 
feet  of  His  Apostles.  Since  the  seventh 
century  the  holy  oils,  formerly  consecrated 
at  any  time,  have  been  blessed  by  the 
bishop  in  the  Mass  of  this  day.  See  Holy 
Week. 

Thyatira.  —  Ancient  city  of  Lydia,  in 
Asia  Minor,  near  the  river  Lycus,  between 
Sardis  and  Pergamos,  founded  bySeleucus 
Nicator.  Dyeing  was  an  important  branch 
of  its  business.  Here  the  Christians  estab- 
lished one  of  their  first  churches. 

Tiara.  —  'The  triple  crown  of  the  Pope, 
which  is  considered  to  be  symbolical  of 
his  temporal,  as  the  keys  are  of  his  spirit- 
ual authority.  It  is  composed  of  a  high  cap 
of  gold  cloth,  encircled  by  three  coronets, 
with  a  mound  and  cross  of  gold  on  the 
top.  From  the  cap  hang  two  pendants, 
embroidered  and  fringed  at  the  end.  The 
original  Papal  crown  consisted  of  the 
cap  alone,  and  was  first  used  by  Pope 
Damasus  II.,  in  1048.  Pope  Boniface 
VIII.  added  the  second  crown  and  Bene- 
dict XII.  the  third.  Hence  it  was  only  in 
the  fourteenth  century  that  the  Tiara  ob- 
tained its  actual  form. 

Tiberias.  —  An  ancient  town  in  Pales- 
tine, situated  on  the  western  shore  of  the 
sea  of  Galilee,  in  the  tribe  of  Zabulon, 
seventeen  miles  east-northeast  of  Nazareth, 
the  modern  Tabariya.  It  was  founded  by 
Herod  Antipas  in  the  first  half  of  the  first 
century  a.  d.     Population  3,000. 


Tiberias 


684 


Titus 


Tiberias  (Sea  of).     See  Genesarkth. 

Timothy  (St.). —  Disciple  of  St.  Paul, 
bishop  of  Ephesus  and  martyr,  died  in  97. 
Born  at  Lystra,  Lycaonia;  attached  him- 
self about  the  year  51  to  St.  Paul,  who  as- 
sociated him  in  all  his  apostolic  labors; 
became  the  first  bishop  of  Ephesus  in  65, 
where,  being  opposed  to  the  celebration  of 
a  feast  in  honor  of  Diana,  he  was  stoned. 
We  have  two  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  to 
Timothy.     F.  Jan.  24th. 

Tithes  (from  the  Lat.  decimus,  tenth). 
—  The  Israelites  were  subject  to  three 
kinds  of  Tithes :  the  lit/ie  of  the  Levites, 
which  had  to  be  paid  under  pain  of  death ; 
the  tithe  of  all  revenues,  payable  at  Jeru- 
salem and  applicable  to  the  expenses  while 
stopping  in  the  city ;  the  tithe  of  the  poor, 
payable  every  third  year,  even  by  the 
Levites,  but  which  fell  into  disuse.  Among 
the  first  Christians  it  was  a  duty  of  con- 
science to  support  the  priests,  and  this  duty 
soon  became  a  canonical  law  and  during 
the  time  of  Charlemagne  it  became  a  State 
law,  under  the  form  of  tithe.  Limited  at 
first  to  the  crops,  it  was  soon  extended  to 
cattle,  products  of  labor  and  commerce 
(Council  of  Aries,  813),  then  the  soldier 
and  artisan  became  subject  to  it  (Council 
of  Trosly,  909).  The  obligation  of  the 
tithe  was  absolute ;  only  the  Crusaders 
were  excepted.  In  England  and  Ireland, 
the  tithes  still  constitute  the  salary  of  the 
clergy,  but  are  no  longer  paid  in  natural 
products.  Their  value  was  fixed  in  1835, 
after  an  estimation  of  the  crops,  figured  on 
an  average  of  seven  years  and  amounting 
to  about  forty  million  dollars. 

Title  {Catholic). —  According  to  the  or- 
der of  precedence  to  which  dignitaries  in 
the  Church  are  entitled,  the  following  are 
the  ecclesiastical  titles  in  use  and  the  forms 
of  address  proper  to  the  several  dignitaries  : 
The  Pope  is  called  "His  Holiness,"  and 
addressed  "  Your  Holiness,"  or  '*  Holy 
Father."  A  Cardinal  is  entitled  "His 
Eminence, "  and  addressed  in  letters, 
"  Most  Eminent  and  Most  Reverend  Sir." 
If  a  Cardinal  is  also  a  bishop  of  some  resi- 
dential see,  the  address  may  be,  "To  His 

Eminence,    Cardinal    ,    Bishop     of 

."     A    Patriarch    is    entitled  "His 

Excellency,   the  Most   Reverend  A 

B ,  Patriarch  of ."  The  Vice- 
Chamberlain  of  the  Holy  Roman  Church, 
the  Auditor  of  the  Camera  and  the  Major- 
Domo  of  His  Holiness  have  the  same  title 


and  address.  Custom  has  sanctioned  a 
similar  form  for  Papal  Nuncios  and 
Delegates  Apostolic,  though  in  practice 
of  the  Roman  court  they  are  addressed 
like  an  archbishop  or  bishop,  the  words 
used  being  Amplitudo  Ttia,  "  Your  Gran- 
deur," "  Your  Lordship,"  "  Your  Grace." 
A  letter  to  them  is  begun  "  Most  Illustri- 
ous and  Most  Reverend  Sir,"  or  "  Your 
Excellency."  An  Archbishop,  or  Bishop, 
is  entitled  "  His  Grandeur,"  "  His  Lord- 
ship," "  His  Grace,"  in  Latin  Amplitudo, 
and,  in  this  coutry,  the  archbishop  is  ad- 
dressed   "The    Most    Reverend   A 

B ,  Archbishop  of ."    A  bishop 

"The  Right  Reverend  - 


— ,  Bishop  of 

."     However,    P.    A.    Baart   claims 

that  it  is  an  abuse  to  call  a  bishop  "  Right 
Reverend,"  and  he  wants  both  a  bishop  and 
archbishop  to  be  addressed  "  The  Most 
Reverend."  So,  also,  this  same  author 
claims  that  the  letters  D.  D.  (Doctor  of 
Divinity)  to  a  bishop's  name,  is  not  only 
against  Roman  practice  and  condemned 
by  the  best  authorities,  but  is,  moreover, 
redundant,  for  the  reason  that  a  bishop  is 
ex  officio  a  teacher  of  divinity.  A  Vicar 
General  is  entitled  "  The  Very  Rever- 
end "  ;  Abbots  or  inferior  Prelates  are 
called  "  Most  Reverend  Father  Abbot." 
The  Latin  is  Reverendissimus,  which  word 
by  custom  has  been  rendered  "  Right  Rev- 
erend "  in  English.  Roman  Prelates,  con- 
sisting of  pronotaries  apostolic,  domestic 
prelates  of  the  Pope,  private  chamberlains 
of  the  Pope,  are  entitled  "  Monsignor." 
Diocesan  Dignitaries  and  other  inferior 
dignitaries  are  entitled  "  Very  Reverend,'* 
and  addressed  "Very  Reverend  Father" 
or  "  Very  Reverend  Sir."  A  Prtest  is 
entitled  "Father"  or  "His  Reverence" 
and  addressed  "  Reverend  Sir  "or"  Rever- 
end Father."  A  Doctor's  degree  "D.  D  "  ;■ 
"LL.  D.";  "Ph.D.";  etc.,  entitles  the 
holder  to  be  addressed  as  "Doctor." 

Titular  Bishop.  —  His  Holiness  Leo 
XIII.,  by  a  decision  given  several  years 
ago  substituted  the  phrase  "  titular  bishop" 
for  "  bishop  in  partibus,''  which  applies  to 
such  bishops  that  have  jurisdiction  over 
certain  countries  where  no  longer  any,  or 
very  few  Catholics  are  found,  partes  in- 
fdelium. 

Titus  (St.).  —  Titus  was  a  Greek  by 
birth  and  the  son  of  gentile  father  and  a 
Jewish  mother.  He  accompanied  St.  Paul 
to  Jerusalem  to  the  Council,  and  on  his 
various  extensive  journeys,  and  was  finally 


Tobias 


685 


Toleration 


established  hy  him,  Bishop  of  Crete,  about 
the  year  62.  He  died  about  105,  at  the  ad- 
vanced age  of  94  years.  St.  Paul  wrote  an 
Epistle  to  him,  which  contains  instructions 
for  his  disciple.     F.  Jan  4th. 

Tobias.  —  Name  of  two  Jews,  the  father 
and  the  son,  of  the  city  of  Cades,  in  the 
tribe  of  Nephtali.  Both  led  away  into 
captivity  to  Ninive  by  Salmanasar,  re- 
mained there  faithful  to  the  law  of  Moses. 
The  father,  attached  to  the  house  of  Sal- 
manasar, out  of  favor  by  Sennacherib,  on 
account  of  his  attachment  to  the  faith  of 
his  Fathers  and  his  zeal  in  relieving  his 
compatriots,  assisting  the  one,  consoling 
the  others,  burying  the  dead,  he  was  obliged 
to  hide  himself  to  save  his  life.  He  reob- 
tained  his  goods  at  the  death  of  Sennacherib 
(712  B.  c),  but  lost  his  eyesight.  Believ- 
ing his  death  to  be  near,  he  charged  his 
son  to  go  to  Rages,  Media,  to  claim  from 
his  relative  Gabelus  ten  talents  of  silver. 
Led  by  the  angel  Raphael,  who  had  as- 
sumed the  figure  of  a  young  man,  the 
younger  Tobias  happily  accomplished  his 
voyage.  At  Ecbatana  he  married  his 
cousin  Sara,  daughter  of  Raguel,  who  was 
delivered  from  a  demon,  thanks  to  the 
counsels  of  Raphael.  On  his  return,  fol- 
lowing the  advice  of  the  angel,  he  restored 
his  father's  eyesight,  by  rubbing  the  eyes 
with  the  gall  of  an  enormous  fish,  which 
he  had  captured  in  the  Tigris.  The  elder 
Tobias  died  at  Ninive,  at  an  age  of  102 
years;  his  son  retired  to  his  father-in- 
law  at  Ecbatana,  and  died  there  at  the  age 
of  99  years. 

Tobias  {Book  of). — One  of  the  Deu- 
terocanonical  Books  of  the  Old  Testament. 
The  Jews  did  not  accept  it  among  the 
canonical  books,  because  it  was  not  writ- 
ten in  Hebrew.  It  was  translated  into 
Latin  by  St.  Jerome  after  a  Chaldaic  ver- 
sion. According  to  the  general  opinion, 
the  two  Tobias  wrote  the  book  which  car- 
ries their  name  until  the  account  of  the 
death  of  Tobias  the  Younger,  an  account 
which  very  probably,  was  added  by  one 
of  his  relatives. 

Toleration  {Religious).  —  Very  often 
our  Protestant  brethren  tell  us  that  the 
Catholic  Church  is  and  was,  at  all  times, 
very  intolerant.  But  we  may  ask,  what 
was  the  teaching  of  the  Reformers  on  this 
head.?  Did  not  they  follow  the  very 
maxim  that  Protestants  of  to-day  censure 
so  severely.?  Did  not  Luther  find  his 
chief  delight  in  cursing  the  Pope?     Did 


he  not  call  upon  Christians  '*  to  seize  the 
Pope,  and  all  the  popish  entourage  of 
idolatry .?  to  tear  out  the  tongues  of  the  ac- 
cursed crew  by  the  roots?"  To  pitch 
into  the  sea  "  all  the  hateful  scoundrels, 
bag  and  baggage  —  Pope,  and  Cardinals, 
and  the  whole  papal  rabble?"  Kohler 
cooly  remarks :  *'  Luther,  as  well  as  the 
whole  age  of  Reformation,  had  not  dis- 
covered the  golden  means  between  the 
principle  of  liberty  of  conscience  and  the 
moral  duty  of  rulers  to  protect  religion ; 
hence  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at,  if  he  has 
strongly  contradicted  himself  on  this 
point."  Luther,  Brenz,  Bucer,  Capito, 
teach  that  all  heretics  should  be  extirpated, 
and  the  "  meek  and  gentle  "  Melanchton 
seeks  to  defend  this  doctrine.  Dollinger, 
an  unprejudiced  witness,  thus  writes : 
"  The  Protestant  theory  of  the  absolute 
authority  of  the  State  in  ecqlesiastical 
matters  made  it  impossible  for  the  civil 
power  to  be  tolerant.  Historically,  noth- 
ing can  be  less  true  than  the  assertion  that 
the  Reformation  was  a  movement  in  favor 
of  liberty  of  conscience.  The  precise  con- 
trary is  the  truth.  Lutherans  and  Calvin- 
ists,  indeed,  like  all  men  in  every  age, 
claimed  liberty  of  conscience  for  them- 
selves, but  it  never  occurred  to  them,  when 
they  had  the  upper  hand,  to  extend  it  to 
others.  The  complete  suppression  and 
extirpation  of  the  Catholic  Church  was 
the  goal  of  all  the  Reformers.  From  the 
very  first  they  called  upon  princes  and 
magistrates  to  abolish  by  force  the  ritual  of 
the  ancient  Church.  In  England,  Ire- 
land, Scotland,  and  Sweden,  they  pro- 
ceeded to  such  extremes  as  to  punish 
every  exercise  of  the  Catholic  religion 
with  death."  Were  authentic  statistics 
forthcoming  as  to  the  number  of  those 
who  suflFered  for  the  Catholic  faith  in 
these  countries,  the  number  of  victims, 
would  at  the  very  least,  be  as  great  as 
those  who  suffered,  often  on  purely  secu- 
lar grounds,  at  the  hands  of  the  Inquisi- 
tion.    (See  this  word.) 

Did  not  something  similar  take  place  in 
our  country?  Maryland  was  to  be  some- 
thing more  than  a  Catholic  colony.  It 
was  to  be  *' a  free  soil  for  Christianity." 
Lord  Baltimore  purposed  to  make  all 
creeds  equal  in  his  province.  To  this 
'*  Land  of  the  Sanctuary,"  therefore  came 
the  Puritans  who  were  whipped  and  op- 
pressed in  Anglican  Virginia,  and  the 
Quakers  and  Prelatists  who  fled  from  Puri- 
tan New  England.  The  Maryland  Catholics, 


Toleration 


686 


Toleration 


however,  were  ill  requited  for  their  magna- 
nimity by  their  Protestant  guests.  Allying 
themselves  to  Clay  borne,  the  sworn  enemy 
of  Baltimore,  the  ungrateful  Puritans,  in 
1645,  raised  an  insurrection  against  the 
Catholics  and  their  governor,  and  made 
themselves  masters  of  the  province.  The 
Jesuit  missionaries  were  sent  in  chains  to 
England,  and  many  Catholics  were  de- 
prived of  their  possessions  and  banished. 
"The  Puritans,"  says  Bancroft,  ''had 
neither  the  gratitude  to  respect  the  rights 
of  the  government  by  which  they  had  been 
received  and  fostered,  nor  magnanimity 
to  continue  the  toleration  to  which  alone 
they  were  indebted  for  their  residence  in 
the  colony."  After  the  execution  of 
Charles  I.,  the  Puritan  faction  hastened  to 
espouse  the  fortunes  of  Cromwell.  They 
rose  against  and  deposed  the  governor  ap- 
pointed by  Lord  Baltimore,  and  estab- 
lished a  government  of  their  own  liking, 
one  of  whose  first  acts  was  to  revoke  the 
Toleration  Act.  The  Provincial  Assembly, 
called  together  in  1654,  from  which  Cath- 
olics were  rigidly  excluded,  passed  an  act 
concerning  religion  which  declared  that 
"  none  who  professed  and  exercised  the 
Popish  (commonly  called  the  Roman 
Catholic)  religion,  could  be  protected  in 
the  province,  but  to  be  restrained  from 
the  exercise  thereof."  On  the  restora- 
tion of  the  monarchy  in  England  (1660), 
Lord  Baltimore  regained  his  rights  as 
proprietor,  and  the  Toleration  Act  was  re- 
vived to  its  fullest  extent.  Peace  and 
tranquillity  once  more  reigned  in  Mary- 
land, and  remained  undisturbed  until  the 
accession  of  William  and  Mary  (1688), 
when  the  Puritans,  under  Coode,  for  the 
third  time  rose  in  arms,  formed  an  "As- 
sociation for  the  defense  of  the  Protestant 
religion,"  and  abolished  the  authority  of 
Lord  Baltimore.  Maryland  became  and 
remained  a  royal  province  for  a  quarter  of 
a  century.  The  Maryland  Catholics  now 
entered  on  a  period  of  great  trial.  Reli- 
gious liberty  and  political  equality  of  all 
Christians  were  abolished.  In  1692,  the 
colonial  Legislature  declared  the  Church 
of  England  to  be  the  established  religion 
of  Maryland ;  disfranchised  Catholics  and 
compelled  them  to  pay  tithes  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  Anglican  Establishment.  By  a 
law  passed  in  1702,  all  Protestant  dissenters 
■were  entitled  to  the  full  benefit  of  the  acts 
of  toleration  passed  under  William  by  the 
English  parliament.  But  this  grace  was 
strictly   withdrawn    from   Catholics,   who 


had  been  the  first  to  grant  toleration  to 
other  people.  In  1704,  an  "Act  to  prevent 
the  increase  of  Popery  in  the  Province," 
forbade  all  bishops  and  priests  to  say  Mass 
or  exercise  any  functions  of  their  ministry 
in  public,  and  enacted  that  any  Catholic 
priest  attempting  to  convert  a  Protestant, 
or  undertaking  upon  himself  the  education 
of  youth,  should  be  transported  to  Eng- 
land, that  he  might  there  undergo  the 
penalties  which  English  Statutes  inflicted 
on  such  actions.  Catholics  could  hear 
Mass  only  in  their  own  houses,  and  it  was 
only  under  this  restriction  that  Catholic 
worship  could  be  practiced  in  Maryland  for 
a  period  of  seventy  years.  Another  law 
declared  Catholics  incompetent  to  pur- 
chase lands,  or  to  take  lands  by  inheritance, 
and,  moreover,  provided  that  a  Catholic 
child,  by  becoming  a  Protestant,  could  ex- 
act his  share  of  property  from  his  parents 
"as  though  they  were  dead."  Catholics 
were  taxed  twice  as  much  as  Protestants. 
A  law  passed,  in  1615,  placed  "  Irish  Pa- 
pists "  on  a  footing  with  negro-slaves  and 
imposed  a  tax  on  the  importation  of  serv- 
ants from  Ireland  "to  prevent  importing 
too  great  a  number  of  Irish  Papists  into 
the  Province." 

Anti-Catholic  legislation  was  not  con- 
fined to  Maryland ;  the  penal  laws  of  the 
other  colonies  against  the  Catholics  were 
equally,  if  not  more,  severe.  In  Virginia 
the  original  settlers,  who  professed  the  reli- 
gion of  the  English  Episcopal  Church, 
embodied  in  their  code  all  the  ferocious 
laws  of  the  mother  country  against  the 
Catholics.  Attendance  at  the  Anglican  ser- 
vice was  compulsory ;  nonconformists,  in- 
cluding Protestants  of  other  denominations, 
were  fined  or  expelled.  Lord  Baltimore, 
who,  in  1629,  visited  Virginia  on  a  tour  of 
observation,  was  promptly  ordered  to  leave 
because  he  was  a  Catholic.  A  Catholic 
was  not  permitted  to  hold  office,  to  vote  or 
to  keep  arms;  he  could  not  even  own  a 
horse  worth  over  £5.  An  act  of  1705,  un- 
paralled  in  history,  declared  Catholics  in- 
competent as  witnesses,  and  this  fearful 
law  was,  in  1753,  extended  to  all  cases 
whatever.  The  Dutch,  who  settled  in 
"  New  Netherland,"  now  the  State  of  New 
York,  were  zealous  Calvinists,  and  Calvin- 
ism was  the  acknowledged  religion  of  the 
colony.  Yet  no  special  intolerance  was 
evinced  towards  other  creeds.  In  16S3, 
after  the  country  had  passed  into  the  hands 
of  the  English,  a  Catholic,  Colonel  Dun- 
gan,  was  appointed  governor  by  the  Duke 


Toleration 


687 


Toleration 


of  York  —  afterwards  James  II.  —  from 
whom  it  received  its  name.  Under  him 
the  first  New  York  Legislature  convened 
and  enacted  a  "Charter  of  Liberties," 
securing  freedom  of  conscience  and  reli- 
gion to  all  peaceable  persons  who  profess 
faith  in  God  by  Jesus  Christ.  Thus,  in 
New  York,  also,  religious  liberty  was  first 
proclaimed  by  Catholics.  But  the  acces- 
sion of  William  and  Mary  to  the  throne 
blasted  all  hopes  of  the  true  faith  in  New 
York.  In  1691,  the  General  Assembly  en- 
acted a  law,  the  so-called  •'  Bill  of  Rights," 
annulling  the  "  Charter  of  Liberties  "  of 
1683,  and  denying  "  liberty  to  any  person 
of  the  Romish  religion  to  exercise  their 
manner  of  worship,  contrary  to  the  laws 
of  England."  By  a  law  passed  in  1700  for 
the  purpose  of  checking  the  Catholic  mis- 
sions among  the  Indians,  it  was  enacted 
that  every  Jesuit  or  Popish  priest,  coming 
into  the  province,  should  be  subjected  to 
personal  imprisonment,  and  in  case  of  es- 
cape and  recapture,  to  the  punishment  of 
death.  Another  law  excluded  Catholics 
from  office  and  deprived  them  of  the  right 
to  vote.  As  late  as  1778,  Father  de  la 
Motte  was  cast  into  prison  in  New  York 
for  saying  Mass. 

The  laws  of  the  New  England  colonies 
against  Catholics  were  equally  severe. 
By  a  statute  of  Massachusetts,  passed  in 
1647,  "  Jesuits  and  Popish  priests,"  were 
subjected  to  banishment,  and  in  case  of 
their  return,  to  death.  In  Rhode  Island, 
Catholics  were  excluded  from  the  rights 
of  citizenship.  Among  the  Blue  Laws  of 
Connecticut  we  find  enacting  that  "  no 
priest  shall  abide  in  the  dominion;  he 
shall  be  banished  and  suffer  death  on  his 
return.  Priests  may  be  seized  by  anyone 
without  a  warrant."  Although  the  Puri- 
tans had  fled  from  England  on  account 
of  religious  persecutions,  they  refused  to 
grant  to  others  the  liberty  of  conscience 
which  they  claimed  for  themselves.  The 
only  approved  churches  in  the  New  Eng- 
land colonies  were  those  organized  on  the 
congregational  system;  all  others,  the 
English  Episcopal  Church  included,  were 
illegal.  None  but  members  of  the  ap- 
proved Church  could  be  admitted  free- 
men. To  be  a  freeman  one  had  to  be  a 
Puritan.  Every  year  Guy  Fawkes  Day 
(5th  of  November)  was  celebrated  through- 
out New  England  by  burning  the  Pope  in 
effigy.  George  Washington  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  War  of  Independence,  checked 
*'  the  ridiculous  and  childish  custom  "  as 


it  was  called  by  him.  Religious  intoler- 
ance was  carried  to  such  an  extent  by  the 
New  England  Puritans,  that  they  actually 
tormented  and  even  put  to  death  persons 
holding  dissenting  doctrines.  By  a  law  of 
Massachusetts,  passed  in  1657,  "  Quakers 
and  other  blasphemous  heretics "  were 
prohibited  from  emigrating  into  the 
colony;  if  they  did,  they  were  to  have 
one  of  their  ears  cut  off;  and  for  a  third 
offense,  they  were  to  have  their  tongue 
bored  through  with  a  hot  iron.  In  1629 
four  Quakers  were  executed  on  Boston 
Common.  Persons  who  conformed  to  the 
Anglican  Church,  or  who  disapproved  of 
infant  baptism,  were  banished  from  the 
colonies.  Roger  Williams,  the  first  of 
American  Baptists,  was  obliged  to  flee 
from  Puritan  intolerance  in  Massachusetts 
on  account  of  his  theological  views, 
especially  for  denying  the  authority  of 
the  magistrates  in  matters  of  religion. 
But  New  Plymouth  disgraced  itself  es- 
pecially by  the  many  judicial  murders 
attending  the  witchcraft  frenzy.  Four 
persons  were  put  to  death  for  *'  crime  of 
witchcraft,"  in  Massachusetts,  in  1645, 
and  three  in  Connecticut,  in  1662.  In 
1692,  nineteen  of  twenty-eight  supposed 
witches,  who  had  been  capitally  convicted, 
were  hanged  in  Salem,  and  one,  who  re- 
fused to  plead,  was  pressed  to  death,  while 
150  persons  were  in  prison  on  the  same 
charge,  and  complaints  against  200  others 
had  been  presented  to  the  magistrates. 
Most  disgraceful,  and  truly  worthy  of  bar- 
barians, was  the  policy  that  guided  the 
Protestant  colonists  in  their  dealings  with 
the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  our  country. 
Populous  Indian  tribes,  who  might  have 
been  easily  won  to  Christianity  and  civili- 
zation, were  literally  exterminated.  In 
Rhode  Island  the  poor  savages  were  sold 
like  cattle,  while  in  Massachusetts  it  was 
the  same  to  shoot  a  wolf,  as  an  Indian.  It 
is  calculated  that  upwards  of  180,000  of 
the  poor  savages  were  slaughtered  in 
Massachusetts  and  Connecticut  alone. 
While  the  tribes  evangelized  by  the  French 
and  Spanish  subsist  to  this  day,  except 
where  brought  in  contact  with  the  English 
colonists,  all  the  Indian  tribes  which 
formerly  inhabited  the  territory  of  New 
England  have  wholly  disappeared  and 
exist  only  in  memory.  Cf.  J.  Grahame, 
History  of  the  United  States  of  North 
America,  Book  II.  ch.  v.  Bancroft,  II.  564. 
With  regard  to  the  intolerant  spirit  in 
other   countries   see   the   various  articles, 


Tonsure 


688 


Tradition 


V.  g..  Reformation    in    England,  Scot- 
land, Germany,  Sweden,  etc. 

Tonsure.  —  The  candidate  for  the  priest- 
hood is  initiated  into  the  ranks  of  the 
clergy  by  a  ceremony,  which  is  called 
Tonsure.  It  is  thus  named,  because  the 
hair  is  cut  in  the  form  of  a  crown,  sol- 
emnly made  by  the  bishop.  With  it  the 
bishop  gives  to  the  candidate  the  surplice 
or  ecclesiastical  dress,  to  indicate  "  the 
putting  off  of  the  old,  and  the  clothing 
with  the  new  man,"  but  imparts  no  spirit- 
ual powers.  It  is  a  sort  of  preparation 
and  noviceship  for  orders,  in  which  per- 
sons are  to  strive  to  render  themselves 
worthy  to  be  elevated  to  the  rank  of  sa- 
cred ministers.  Hence,  it  ought  to  be 
conferred  only  on  such  as  have  this  inten- 
tion. Whatever  was  the  time  and  manner 
of  its  origin,  it  is  customary  in  the 
Church  for  all  who  aspire  to  orders,  to 
commence  by  receiving  the  Tonsure.  The 
Second  General  Council  of  Nice  speaks  of 
it  as  a  thing  received  in  the  Church,  and 
some  writers  date  its  origin  to  the  time  of 
the  Apostles. 

Tractarians(English  tract,  treatise,  little 
works  in  which  a  doctrine  is  exposed).  — 
Name  given  to  Anglo-Catholics,  a  new 
sect  which  admits  the  Catholic  unity  with- 
out acknowledging  the  supremacy  of  the 
Pope,  and  which  repudiates  the  alliance 
of  Church  and  State  such  as  it  exists  in 
England. 

Tractus.  —  In  all  Masses  from  Septua- 
gesima  till  Holy  Saturday,  on  week  days 
in  Advent,  and  on  all  vigils,  observed  as 
feasts,  the  Alleluia  is  omitted,  and  re- 
placed by  a  portion  of  a  Psalm,  called 
Tract  (Lat.  Tractus),  that  is,  without 
break  or  interruption  of  other  voices. 

Tradition  (action  by  which  one  delivers 
something  to  another).  —  In  the  theological 
sense  it  is  a  testimony  attesting  to  the 
truth  of  a  fact,  of  a  dogma,  or  of  a  custom. 
Tertullian  (7L»3.  de  Cor.,  iv.)  defines  it: 
"A  doctrine  received  by  living  voice  and 
deriving,  by  way  of  succession,  from  the 
holy  Fathers  to  us  "  ;  according  to  him,  it 
carries  a  triple  testimony:  it  is  as  the  in- 
ventory of  Holy  Scripture,  and  at  the  same 
time  its  most  authorized  commentary,  the 
perpetual  custom  of  the  Church  confirms 
it;  faith  always  made  use  of  it  as  a  funda- 
mental basis.  Besides  oral  tradition,  which 
is  tradition,  properly  speaking,  we  admit 


also  the  written  tradition.  We  distinguish 
again  the  doctrinal  tradition  or  faith, 
which  disposes  in  favor  of  truths  that  form 
a  part  of  the  dogmas :  tradition  of  dis- 
cipline and  tradition  of  rites.  There  are 
also  the  divine  traditions,  the  apostolic 
traditions,  and  the  ecclesiastical  traditions. 
Tradition  is,  together  with  Holy  Scripture 
and  the  decisions  of  the  Church,  the  basis 
of  the  Catholic  religion.  The  great  ques- 
tion between  Catholics  and  Protestants,  is 
to  know  whether  tradition  must  be  consid- 
ered as  rule  of  faith.  From  the  Catholic 
point  of  view,  tradition  is  the  constant  and 
perpetual  teaching  of  the  universal  Church, 
known  through  the  uniform  voice  of  its 
pastors  which  she  calls  the  Fathers; 
through  the  decisions  of  the  councils,  the 
practices  of  public  worship,  the  prayers 
and  ceremonies  of  liturgy,  and  even 
through  the  testimony  of  profane  and 
heretical  authors.  It  is  tradition,  whose 
deposit  has  been  intrusted  to  the  Church, 
which  makes  us  accept  the  canon  of  the 
Scriptures  and  their  interpretation.  Hence, 
the  Church  always  protested  against  hav- 
ing departed  from  the  sense  of  the  holy 
Fathers,  and  never  promulgated  any 
dogma  which  is  not  conformable  with  tra- 
dition. Jesus  Christ,  having  written  noth- 
ing, has  established  His  doctrine  solely  on 
preaching.  The  Apostles  founded  the  first 
Church,  and  during  a  long  time  it  sup- 
ported itself  solely  on  tradition.  Both  the 
Jews  and  pagans  become  converted,  and  it 
is  the  unwritten  word,  that  is,  tradition, 
"which  has  rendered  them  Christians.  Tra- 
dition has,  therefore,  been,  in  the  order  of 
time,  the  first  rule  of  faith  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church ;  it  made  known  to  them,  in  a 
certain  manner,  the  doctrine  of  Jesus 
Christ,  His  miracles,  the  miracles  of  the 
Apostles  and,  in  general,  all  the  facts  that 
have  reference  to  the  establishment  of 
Christianity.  Since  the  beginning  of  the 
Church,  error  was  often  mingled  with 
truth ;  then  the  Apostles,  either  by  living 
voice,  or  by  writing,  each  one  individually 
or  united  in  council,  cleared  up  the  facts, 
refuted  the  doctrinal  errors  and  always 
prescribed  to  the  Faithful  to  keep  faith- 
fully the  traditions  (II.  Thess.  ii.  14). 
Such  was  the  origin  of  the  books  of  the 
New  Testament;  they  were  the  work  of 
tradition.  They  were  originally,  according 
to  St.  Justin,  simple  memoirs,  addressed 
to  some  particular  churches,  to  relate 
and  explain  the  facts  collected  by  tra- 
dition.     These    writings,    once    admitted 


Traditionalism 


689 


Traditionalism 


by  the  universal  Church,  became  a  new 
rule  of  faith.  Tertullian  refutes  the 
erroneous  interpretations  of  the  heretics, 
by  simply  opposing  to  them  tradition ; 
it  is  constant,  he  answers  them,  that  what 
is  the  most  ancient  is  the  most  true  and 
that  what  is  the  most  ancient  is  that  what 
is  since  the  beginning.  The  Church  has 
always  followed  this  rule  :  thus  when  she 
wishes  to  solve  doctrinal  questions,  she 
consults  the  writings  of  the  holy  Fathers 
and  of  the  holy  Doctors,  who,  in  their  en- 
semble, form  a  chain  whose  first  ring  goes 
back  to  the  apostolic  times.  The  Church 
also  professes  that  she  teaches  nothing  of 
herself  and  that  she  invents  nothing  new 
in  the  doctrine.  The  Council  of  Trent 
(4th  Sess.),  has  defined,  against  the  Prot- 
estants, that  we  must  receive  and  revere 
the  apostolic  traditions  just  like  the  Sacred 
Scriptures.  The  authenticity  of  the  his- 
torical books  can  be  established  only  by 
the  authority  of  tradition,  to  which  we 
ought  to  apply  the  rules  of  historical 
criticism.  Why,  therefore,  when  there  is 
question  of  the  Sacred  Books,  ought  we  to 
refuse  the  testimony  of  the  same  tradition  ? 
I  would  not  believe  in  the  Gospel,  said  St. 
Augustine,  if  I  were  not  determined  to 
this  by  the  authority  of  the  Christian  so- 
ciety. The  Protestants  themselves,  if  they 
are  sincere,  are  they  not  forced  to  avow 
that  when  they  possess  Holy  Scripture, 
they  owe  this  to  tradition  faithfully  pre- 
served in  the  Catholic  Church.?  Vincent 
of  Lerins  said  that  tradition  must  be  pro- 
gressive, not  that  the  Church  can  increase 
the  number  of  truths  transmitted  by  tradi- 
tion, but,  in  the  sense,  that  these  truths 
develop  themselves  successively  and,  in  a 
given  moment,  formulate  themselves  more 
clearly.  We  must  remark,  in  fact,  that 
the  dogmas  of  faith  have  been  defined 
only  according  to  the  measure  they  were 
attacked  by  the  heresiarchs,  and  that,  in 
order  to  define  them,  the  Church  acts  just 
the  contrary  to  heresy :  Nestorius  had 
maintained  that  Mary  was  not  the  Mother 
of  God,  the  Church  proclaimed  in  the 
Council  of  Ephesus  that,  henceforth,  Mary 
should  be  called  the  Mother  of  God.  At 
the  commencement  of  the  Reformation, 
when  the  Protestants  had  yet  preserved 
most  of  the  fundamental  truths  of  the  reli- 
gion of  Jesus  Christ,  they  accepted  tradi- 
tion, at  least  that  of  the  first  five  centuries ; 
but,  since  that  time,  they  have  rejected  it 
entirely  and,  thereby,  have  put  into  ques- 
tion   all    the   dogmas   of    faith,  and   thus 

44 


opened  the  gate  to  rationalism.  To-day, 
in  face  of  increasing  infidelity,  the  doctors 
of  the  Anglican  Church,  returning  to  their 
first  steps,  behold  only  one  dam  to  oppose 
to  the  rising  flood  of  impiety,  namely,  that 
of  tradition ;  hence  the  University  of  Ox- 
ford teaches  that  tradition,  in  harmony 
with  Scripture,  must  be  considered  a  rule 
of  faith. 

Traditionalism  (attachment  to  the  tradi- 
tions, to  the  ancient  customs). — Tradition- 
alism teaches  the  original  dependence  of 
reason  and  the  necessity  of  a  primitive 
revelation,  even  before  the  fall.  This  doc- 
trine, without  having  been  condemned  by 
the  Church,  not  even  censured  like  Fide- 
ism,  has  been  blamed  and  its  principal 
authors  received  warnings.  Both  faith 
and  reason,  says  St.  Thomas,  having  God 
for  authors,  cannot  contradict  themselves. 
Reason  must  demonstrate  the  truth  of 
faith,  uphold  and  defend  it;  faith,  for  its 
part,  must  present  itself  to  reason  to  free 
it  from  all  error,  and  to  perfect  it,  through 
the  knowledge  of  divine  things.  Thus,  by 
the  sole  light  of  reason,  philosophy  may  dis- 
cover the  truths  of  the  natural  order  and 
take  hold  of  the  testimonies  which  demon- 
strate the  existence  of  a  supernatural  order. 
But  the  existence  of  a  supernatural  order 
once  established,  it  cannot, without  impiety, 
maintain  that  the  purely  philosophical 
and  natural  doctrine  gives  to  men  the  last 
word  about  their  destiny,  and  place  hu- 
man science  above  revelation.  Man  has 
been  created  good  and  perfect,  in  his  or- 
der, but,  to  use  the  terms  of  the  school,  in 
fotentia,  sed  non  in  actu,  as  the  spiritualists 
pretend,  who  say  that  man  has  been  cre- 
ated in  a  state  of  natural  and  continued 
perfection.  He  has  been  created,  not  in  a 
state  of  absolute  perfection,  in  the  best  of 
the  worlds  possible,  as  the  optimists  claim, 
but  in  a  relative  and  progressive  per- 
fection (which  the  traditionalists  deny). 
The  system  of  traditionalism  is  connected 
with  the  question  of  the  supernatural  ori- 
gin of  language,  propagated  by  M.  de 
Bonald.  Traditionalism  destroys  the  na- 
ture of  man,  for  it  runs  counter  to  the 
state  of  primitive  perfection.  The  tradi- 
tionalists suppose  a  primordial  revelation, 
in  the  earthly  Paradise.  The  Church 
teaches,  it  is  true,  that  man  has  never  been 
in  a  state  of  pure  nature  and  that  at  his 
creation,  he  was  raised  to  a  supernatural 
order,  but  this  is  far  from  the  doctrine 
of  Bonald  and  Condillac,  who  deny  the 


Traditores 


690 


Transubstantiation 


innate  ideas  and  who  pretend  tliat  God  did 
directly  transmit  to  man  both  thought 
and  language.  God  had  created  man  per- 
fect, in  his  order;  according  to  St. 
Thomas,  he  comprises  in  himself  the  most 
perfect  degree  of  life,  and  when,  in  the 
garden  of  Eden,  He  communicates  with 
man,  it  is  as  with  a  being  already  in  full 
possession  of  the  intelligence  and  word. 
Thus  God  does  not  outline  His  work, 
there  is  no  mutilated  creation.  When  ra- 
tionalism grants  too  much  to  reason,  we 
can  say  that  traditionalism  does  not  grant 
enough  to  it.  There  is  a  certain  relation- 
ship between  fatalism  which  denies  the 
fall,  and  traditionalism  which  denies  the 
power  of  reason.  Both  derive  the  ideas 
from  the  outside  and  lead  to  sensual- 
ism ;  in  placing,  at  the  beginning,  on  the 
one  side,  ignorance,  and  on  the  other, 
misery,  they  destroy  or  darken  the  idea  of 
creation  and  thereby  run  counter  to  the 
true  traditions  of  mankind. 

Traditores. —  Name  given  to  those  who, 
in  time  of  persecution,  gave  up  to  the  offi- 
cers of  the  law  the  Scriptures,  or  any  of  the 
sacred  vessels,  or  the  names  of  their  breth- 
ren. 

Transubstantiation  (change  of  one  sub- 
stance into  another). —  Before  consecra- 
tion, there  is  upon  the  altar  only  bread 
and  wine.  But,  through  consecration,  the 
word  of  the  Lord  made  itself  heard ;  God 
has  spoken  through  the  mouth  of  His  min- 
ister, and  the  effect  has  been  produced ; 
the  Lord  has  ordained,  and  the  prodigy 
has  been  operated.  After  consecration, 
Jesus  Christ  is  upon  the  altar.  We  call 
this  change  Transubstantiation,  that  is, 
change  of  one  substance  into  another. 
The  Body  of  Jesus  Christ,  present  in  the 
Eucharist  (see  Real  Presence),  is  not 
present  with  the  substance  of  the  bread, 
which  would  be  called  "  Consubstantia- 
tion";  nor  in  the  bread,  which  might  be 
named  '*  Impanation."  Consecration  re- 
places the  substance  of  the  bread,  which  is 
destroyed  and  changed  into  the  body  of 
our  Lord,  as  the  substance  of  the  wine  is 
changed  into  His  blood ;  this  is  what  we 
call  Transubstantiation.  This  truth  is 
proved  from  the  words  of  the  institution 
of  the  Eucharist.  In  fact,  Jesus  Christ 
said  to  His  Apostles :  This  is  My  Body, 
•which  shall  be  delivered  for  you;  this  is 
My  Blood,  the  Blood  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, which  shall  be  shed  for  many  unto 
remission  of  sins.     Now  then,  in  the  body 


which  Jesus  Christ  went  to  deliver  for  his 
Apostles,  there  was  no  mixture  of  bread ; 
and  in  the  blood  which  was  to  be  shed, 
there  was  no  mixture  of  wine. 

Transubstantiation  is  a  mystery,  and  per- 
haps the  most  astonishing  of  mysteries ;  but, 
to  operate  this  miracle,  an  infinite  power, 
the  power  of  God  intervenes ;  therefore,  rea- 
son can  allege  nothing  against  it.  Hence, 
after  consecration  there  is  no  longer  any 
bread  and  wine  upon  the  altar;  only  the 
species  or  appearances  remain,  that  is,  what 
appears  to  our  senses,  like  the  color,  figure, 
and  taste.  The  exterior  qualities  of  the  bread 
and  wine,  that  we  call  species  or  appear- 
ances, like  the  form  or  figure,  the  odor 
and  taste,  still  remain  after  the  consecra- 
tion. What  we  see  upon  the  altar  has  the 
resemblance  of  bread  and  wine,  has  the 
taste  of  bread  and  wine ;  the  host  is  round, 
is  white,  like  before  consecration,  but,  in 
reality,  there  is  neither  bread  nor  wine, 
since  through  the  power  of  the  words  pro- 
nounced by  the  priest,  at  the  moment  of 
consecration,  these  two  substances  have 
been  changed  into  the  body  and  blood 
of  Jesus  Christ.  As  long  as  the  species  or 
appearances  of  bread  and  wine  remain  in 
their  integrity,  the  sacrament  continues  to 
exist  and  Jesus  Christ  is  really  present : 
hence  the  custom  of  the  Church  has  always 
been  to  preserve  the  Blessed  Sacrament  for 
the  wants,  consolation  and  happiness  of 
the  Faithful.  Jesus  Christ,  being  alive  in 
the  Eucharist,  is  whole  and  entire  under 
the  appearance  of  bread  and  whole  and 
entire  under  the  appearance  of  wine. 
Jesus  Christ,  in  the  Eucharist,  is  alive  as 
He  was  when  He  said  to  His  Apostles: 
This  is  My  Body.  Now  then,  when  He  pro- 
nounced these  words,  His  body  was  united 
with  His  soul ;  it  was  also  united  with 
His  divinity;  thus  the  sacrament  of  the 
Eucharist  contains  not  only  the  body  of 
Jesus  Christ,  but  also  His  soul  and  divinity. 
The  body  of  Jesus  Christ  is,  under  the 
Eucharistic  species,  a  living  body;  but, 
that  a  body  may  be  alive,  both  the  blood 
and  the  soul  must  be  united  therein ;  thus, 
wherever  there  is  the  body  of  Christ,  there 
are  also  His  soul  and  His  blood  ;  and,  in  vir- 
tue of  the  ineffable  union  of  the  divine  na- 
ture, with  the  human  nature,  wherever  there 
is  the  body,  the  blood  and  soul  of  Jesus 
Christ,  there  is  also  His  divinity.  When 
the  priest  divides  the  host,  he  does  not 
divide  the  body  of  Jesus  Christ,  but  only 
the  appearances,  and  Christ  remains  whole 
and  entire    in  each    particle  of    the   host 


Trappists 


691 


Trent 


divided.  Jesus  Christ  raised  from  among 
the  dead,  can  die  no  more;  His  body,  con- 
sequently, cannot  be  divided,  separated 
into  several  parts.  Therefore,  when  the 
priest  divides  the  host,  not  the  body  of 
Christ  is  divided,  but  solely  the  species  or 
appearances.  When  the  species  are  di- 
vided, each  particle  occupies  a  less  extent, 
but  they  are  always  Eucharistic  species ; 
thus,  they  still  contain  the  body  and  blood 
of  Jesus  Christ,  who  is  whole  and  entire 
under  each  particle  of  each  species. 

Trappists.  —  Members  of  a  monastic 
body,  a  branch  of  the  Cistercian  order. 
Its  name  is  derived  from  the  village  of 
Soligny-la-Trappe,  in  the  department  of 
Orne,  France,  where  the  abbey  of  La 
Trappe  was  founded  in  1140  by  Rotrou, 
Count  of  Perche.  The  abbey  soon  fell 
into  decay,  and  was  governed  for  many 
years  by  titular  or  commendatory  abbots. 
De  Ranee  (died,  1700),  who  had  been 
commendatory  abbot  of  La  Trappe  from 
his  boyhood,  became  its  actual  abbot  in 
1664,  and  thoroughly  reformed  and  reor- 
ganized the  order.  The  rules  of  this 
order  are  noted  for  their  extreme  aus- 
terity, and  inculcate  extended  fasts,  se- 
vere manual  labor,  almost  perpetual 
silence,  abstinence  from  flesh,  fish,  etc., 
and  rigorous  asceticism  in  general.  The 
order  was  suppressed  in  France  during 
the  Revolutionary  and  Napoleonic  pe- 
riods. At  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  Don  Au- 
gustin.  Abbot  at  Val-Sainte,  bought  La 
Trappe,  and  gradually  the  ancient  monas- 
teries were  restored  and  new  ones  founded. 
There  are  branch  monasteries  in  France, 
Belgium,  Great  Britain,  Italy,  etc.,  and 
two  in  the  United  States  (Abbey  of  Geth- 
semane,  Kentucky,  and  Mellery,  Iowa). 

Trent  {Council  of)  (1545-1563).  — 
Nineteenth  Ecumenical  Council,  held 
against  Protestantism.  At  first  it  had 
been  provoked  by  the  demands  of  the  Prot- 
estants, who,  later  on,  according  to  the 
ordinary  proceeding  of  heretics,  refused 
to  submit  to  it.  The  Church,  by  ordain- 
ing to  reform  itself  in  her  head  and  mem- 
bers, not  in  denying  itself  in  her  essence, 
but  by  returning  to  the  primitive  spirit, 
distinguished  herself  from  the  so-called 
Reformation,  which,  in  defiance  of  all 
tradition,  wished  to  do  away  with  all  the 
Christian  institutions.  For  some  time  the 
need  of  a  General  Council  had  made  itself 
felt,  and,  already.  Pope  Clement  VII.  had 
projected  its  holding,  from   1530;  but  the 


wars  of  Charles  V.,  emperor  of  Ger- 
many, and  of  Francis  I.,  king  of  France, 
as  well  as  the  invasion  of  the  Turks,  de- 
layed its  reunion.  After  negotiations 
which  lasted  ten  years,  between  the  Pope 
and  the  Emperor,  they  finally  agreed  upon 
an  Ecumenical  Council  to  be  held  at 
Trent,  on  Nov.  ist,  1542.  New  difficulties 
having  supervened,  this  project  was  pro- 
rogued until  March  15th,  1545.  In  view  of 
the  small  number  of  bishops  who  indi- 
cated their  presence,  the  Council  could 
not  be  opened  on  the  date  appointed  in 
the  Bull  of  Pope  Paul  III.  The  project  of 
convoking  a  General  Council  was  assented 
to  by  the  Catholics,  but  obstinately  op- 
posed by  the  Protestants.  Assembling  at 
Smdlkald,  in  1537,  the  Lutheran  princes 
drew  up  the  pretexts  upon  which  they  re- 
jected the  proposed  Council.  They  were 
upheld  in  their  opposition  by  Henry  VIII. 
of  England,  who  refused  to  acknowledge 
any  synod  summoned  by  the  Pope,  claim- 
ing that  to  princes  alone  pertained  the 
right  of  summoning  such  an  assembly. 
The  Peace  of  Crespy,  which  put  an  end  to 
the  bloody  war  between  Charles  V.  and 
Francis  I.,  at  length  rendered  the  Council 
possible,  which  Paul  had  summoned  to 
meet  at  Trent,  a  city  on  the  confines  of 
Germany  and  Italy.  The  Holy  Ecumen- 
ical Council  of  Trent  opened  Dec.  13th, 
1545.  Its  1st  Session  was  devoted  to  the 
solemn  opening  of  the  assembly  and  to 
the  formation  of  the  different  committees. 
In  the  2d  Session  (Jan.,  1546),  a  discourse 
in  Latin  was  held,  exhorting  the  Fathers 
to  sanctify  themselves ;  decided  on  the  or- 
der of  the  questions  to  be  treated  by  each 
of  the  particular  or  general  committees, 
and  passed  a  decree  on  the  conduct  of  the 
Fathers  and  Faithful  during  the  Council. 
In  the  3d  Session  (Feb.,  1546),  the  Fathers 
made  a  profession  of  the  faith.  They  also 
read  therein  the  decree  which  ordained  to 
inscribe  at  the  head  of  the  acts  of  the 
Council  the  Symbol  of  Nice  and  of  Con- 
stantinople. In  the  4th  Session  (April  8th, 
1546),  they  treated  on  the  sources  of  faith. 
The  important  decree  on  Scripture  and 
tradition  was  adopted.  The  Council  de- 
clared that  it  received  both  the  Written 
Word  of  God  and  the  unwritten  traditions 
"with  an  equal  affection  of  piety  and  rev- 
erence," and  ordained  that  the  Vulgate 
version  should  everywhere  be  accepted  as 
authentic,  and  that  no  one  should  "  pre- 
sume to  interpret  the  Sacred  Scriptures 
contrary  to  the  declared  sentiment  of  the 


Trinitarians 


692 


Trinity 


Church,  or  the  unanimous  consent  of  the 
Fathers."  In  the  5th  session,  the  doctrine 
of  Original  Sin  was  defined.  In  the  6th 
Session,  the  synod  promulgated  the  cele- 
brated decree  on  justification,  giving  in 
clear  and  precise  terms  the  teaching  of  the 
Church  on  that  important  subject.  The 
Lutheran  errors  on  free-will,  grace  and 
justification  were  condemned  in  thirty- 
three  canons.  The  decrees  of  the  7th 
Session  (March  3d,  1547)  defined  the 
Catholic  doctrine  on  the  Sacraments 
in  general,  and  on  Baptism  and  Con- 
firmation in  particular.  An  epidemic 
which  broke  out  at  Trent,  necessitated  the 
removal  of  the  Council  to  Bologna.  But 
as  the  imperial  bishops  refused  to  leave 
Trent,  the  Pope,  who  had  some  apprehen- 
sions of  a  schism,  would  not  allow  the 
Fathers  at  Bologna  to  publish  any  decrees, 
and,  at  length,  in  Sept.,  1547,  suspended 
the  Council.  Two  Sessions,  the  9th  and 
10th  had  been  held  at  Bologna.  Pope 
Paul  III.  died  in  Nov.,  1549.  His  successor 
Julius  III.  (1550-1555),  reopened  the  Coun- 
cil at  Trent  on  May  ist,  1551.  During  this 
second  period  of  the  Council,  extending 
from  the  nth  to  the  i6th  Session,  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Sacraments  of  the  Altar,  Pen- 
ance and  Extreme  Unction  were  defined, 
and  two  reformatory  decrees  on  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  bishops  and  the  reformation  of  the 
clergy  were  passed.  The  war  which  had 
broken  out  between  the  Protestant  princes 
and  the  emperor  caused  the  Pope,  in  April, 
1552,  to  suspend  the  Council  for  two  years. 
But  the  time  of  suspension  had  to  be  ex- 
tended and  lasted  six  years.  Pope  Pius 
IV.  (1559-1565)  again  convoked  the  Coun- 
cil of  Trent,  which  was  reopened,  at  the 
17th  Session,  in  January,  1562.  The  de- 
crees adopted,  during  this  period  of  the 
Council,  ordered  an  "  Index  of  Prohibited 
Books"  to  be  made,  and  defined  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  of 
Christian  Marriage,  of  Purgatory,  of  the 
Invocation  and  Veneration  of  Saints  and 
Holy  Images,  and  of  Indulgences.  With 
the  25th  Session,  the  Fathers  of  Trent  con- 
cluded their  labors.  The  decrees  of  the 
Council  were  signed  by  255  Fathers,  that 
is :  4  legates  of  the  Pope ;  2  cardinals ;  3 
patriarchs ;  25  archbishops ;  168  bishops ;  39 
representatives  of  bishops  absent ;  7  abbots 
and  7  generals  of  religious  Orders.  Its  de- 
crees were  confirmed  by  Pope  Pius  IV.,  in 
his  Bull,  "Benedictus  Deus,''  Jan.  26th, 
1564,  and  were  accepted  by  all  Catholic  na- 
tions without  restriction.    France  objected 


to  some  of  the  decrees  on  discipline  as  being 
opposed  to  the  liberties  of  the  Galilean 
Church  or  to  the  rights  of  the  Crown.  It 
was  only  after  protracted  delays  that  the 
disciplinary  enactments  of  Trent  were  in- 
troduced in  France. 

The  Council  of  Trent  must  ever  be  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  most  important  ever 
held  in  the  Church.  No  former  synod 
treated  so  many  important  and  difficult 
subjects  with  such  marked  ability,  and  de- 
fined so  many  doctrines  with  such  precision 
and  clearness.  By  its  dogmatical  defini- 
tions, it  confirmed  the  Faithful  in  their 
adherence  and  loyalty  to  the  Church,  and 
instructed  them  in  the  clearest  manner  con- 
cerning many  articles  of  faith.  By  its  disci- 
plinary enactments,  it  inaugurated  a  gen- 
uine reformation  of  all  classes  and  awoke 
new  life  and  zeal  in  the  Church.  And 
though  its  eflForts  to  reunite  those  who  were 
separated  from  the  Church  were  vain,  yet 
it  stamped  the  new  heresies  with  the  seal  of 
condemnation,  and  thus  opposed  a  power- 
ful barrier  to  their  further  progress.  Before 
the  Council,  entire  nations  abandoned  the 
faith  of  their  fathers ;  after  the  Council,  no 
single  instance  can  be  adduced  of  any  ex- 
tensive revolt  from  the  authority  of  the 
Church. 

Trinitarians. —  Members  of  a  religious 
order  who  had  for  end  the  redeeming  of 
Christian  captives  from  the  hands  of  infi- 
dels. This  order,  founded  (1198)  by  two 
Frenchmen,  St.  John  of  Matha  and  St. 
Felix  of  Valois,  had  for  cradle  Cerfroid. 
Was  approved  by  Innocent  III.,  and  counted 
in  the  fifteenth  century  more  than  800 
houses  spread  all  over  Christendom.  The 
religious  wore  a  white  habit  with  a  red 
and  blue  cross  on  the  breast.  After  having 
established  themselves  in  Paris,  in  1228,  in 
an  ancient  Benedictine  Abbey  dedicated  to 
St.  Mathurin,  they  took  the  name  Mathu- 
rins.  The  order  was  driven  from  Ger- 
many by  the  Reformation  and  counted  94 
houses  in  France  when  it  was  suppressed 
in  1789. 

Trinity  (one  God  in  three  Persons :  The 
Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost). — 
We  unite  here,  at  least  as  enunciations,  the 
principal  dogmatic  truths  on  God.  God  is 
the  infinitely  perfect  Being,  Creator  and 
Sovereign  of  all  things.  God  is  one,  and  can 
be  only  one ;  there  is  only  one  God  and  there 
can  be  but  one  God.  God  is  simple,  be- 
cause He  is  one ;  He  is  simple  because  He 
is  not  composed ;  He  is  simple,  because  He 


Trinity 


693 


Trinity 


is  indivisible ;  He  is  simple,  because  He  is 
unchangeable;  in  one  word,  He  is  abso- 
lutely simple  in  His  essence.  God,  being 
simple  by  nature,  is  thereby  also  neces- 
sarily incorporal,  immaterial.  He  is  a 
pure  spirit;  has  no  body  and  does  not 
form  part  of  any  body.  God  is  eternal.  He 
is,  always  has  been,  and  always  will  be. 
He  had  no  beginning  and  will  have  no  end. 
He  is  of  Himself;  He  could  not  give  ex- 
istence to  Himself,  nor  receive  it  from 
another.  As  necessary  Being,  He  is  neces- 
sarily what  He  is ;  whatever  we  might  sup- 
pose, we  cannot  conceive  Him  as  not 
existing.  God  is  eternal,  because  He  is  in- 
finite; He  is  immense,  because  His  nature 
is  without  limits.  His  immensity  com- 
prises eminently  all  the  existing  and  pos- 
sible places,  without  being  circumscribed 
by  space.  God  is  everywhere,  He  is 
present  to  all.  He  substantially  fills  every- 
thing. He  penetrates  all,  without  ceasing 
to  be  simple,  without  dividing  Himself 
with  the  creatures.  God  is  unchangeable; 
He  is  the  One  who  is ;  He  is  of  Himself ;  He 
is  necessarily  all  that  He  is,  necessarily  all 
ihat  can  be ;  He  is  independent,  of  an  abso- 
lute independence,  independent  from  time 
which  He  has  created  and  from  space  which 
He  has  formed,  independent  from  all  things 
that  are  outside  of  Him,  depending  Him- 
self only  upon  His  nature,  which  is  sover- 
eignly simple,  sovereignly  indivisible.  God 
is  all  powerful.  Almighty,  that  is.  He  can 
will  everything  that  is  not  contrary  to  His 
nature.  God  is  intelligent  and  sovereignly 
intelligent ;  having  the  plenitude  of  the  Be- 
ing, as  necessary  Being,  He  has  necessarily 
the  plenitude  of  intelligence ;  all  that  is  God, 
all  that  is  in  God,  all  that  belongs  to  God, 
is  infinite  like  God  Himself.  Hence,  God 
knows  all,  absolutely  all.  He  knows  Him- 
self; He  knows  all  that  exists  and  all  that 
may  exist,  all  that  is  and  all  that  may  be: 
the  past,  the  present  and  the  future ;  the 
future  things,  absolute  or  conditional.  God 
is  sovereignly  free.  He  has  the  faculty  to 
will  or  not  to  will,  to  act,  to  do  such  or 
such  a  thing  or  not  to  do  it,  without 
necessity  or  restraint.  It  is  a  Catho- 
lic dogma  that  God  is  free  in  regard 
to  the  creation  and  to  the  government  of 
the  universe.  God  is  infinitely  wise  and 
infinitely  holy.  God  is  sovereignly  just, 
sovereignly  good,  and  sovereignly  merci- 
ful. It  is  a  Catholic  dogma  that  God  is  the 
Creator  of  the  universe ;  every  Christian 
believes  in  one  sole  almighty  God,  Creator 
of  heaven  and  earth,  of  all  the  visible  and 


invisible  things.  Every  Catholic  pro- 
fesses, with  the  Fathers  of  the  Fourth  Gen- 
eral Council  of  Lateran,  that  there  is  only 
one  God,  principle  of  all  things,  Creator 
of  the  visible  and  the  invisible  things, 
who,  by  His  almighty  power,  has,  at  the 
beginning  of  time,  made  from  nothing 
both  substances,  the  spiritual  substance 
and  the  corporal  substance,  the  angelic 
substance  and  the  material  substance. 
God  has  created  the  angels  and  man. 
He  created  the  latter  composed  of  a 
body  and  of  a  soul,  after  His  own  image 
and  likeness,  spiritual,  free,  immortal.  He 
created  man  in  the  state  of  original  justice 
and  holiness.  God  occupies  Himself  with 
His  creatures,  and  governs  the  world. 
Notwithstanding  the  fall  of  man,  God  de- 
sires to  save  all  men.  He  punishes  those 
who  die  impenitent.  He  rewards  the  just 
in  another  life.  The  just  who  have  not  en- 
tirely satisfied  divine  justice,  will  complete 
their  salvation  in  purgatory.  Finally,  in 
order  that  man  in  his  entirety  may  be 
punished  or  rewarded,  the  bodies  will  rise 
again  and  God  will  judge  all  men. 

The  Mystery  of  the  Blessed  Trinity  is 
one  sole  God  in  three  Persons :  the 
Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost. 
The  Father  is  God,  the  Son  is  God,  and 
the  Holy  Ghost  is  God ;  and  nevertheless 
they  are  not  three  Gods.  The  three  di- 
vine Persons  are  only  one  and  the  same 
God,  having  all  three  one  and  the 
same  nature,  only  one  and  the  same  di- 
vinity. There  is  only  one  God ;  this  truth 
is  the  foundation  of  the  Christian  faith. 
But  this  same  faith  also  teaches  us  that 
the  unity  of  God  is  a  fruitful  one ;  that  the 
divine  nature,  without  ceasing  to  be  nu- 
merically one,  communicates  itself  by  the 
Father  to  the  Son,  and  by  the  Father  and 
the  Son  to  the  Holy  Ghost.  These  three 
Persons  are  really  distinct :  the  Father  is 
not  the  Son  nor  the  Holy  Ghost;  the  Son 
is  not  the  Father  nor  the  Holy  Ghost;  the 
Holy  Ghost  is  not  the  Father  nor  the  Son; 
but  the  Person  of  the  Father,  and  the  Per- 
son of  the  Son,  and  the  Person  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  exist  in  the  divine  nature,  which  is 
one  sole  and  same  nature  in  the  three  Per- 
sons. 

Among  the  ancient  heretics,  who  sepa- 
rated themselves  from  the  Catholic  dogma 
in  regard  to  the  mystery  of  the  Blessed 
Trinity,  we  remark  in  the  second  and 
third  century,  Praxeas  of  Phrygia,  Noe- 
tus  of  Ephesus  or  of  Smyrna,  Sabellius  of 
Lybia,  and  Paul  of   Samosata,   bishop  of 


Trinity  Sunday 


694 


Ulfilas 


Antioch ;  they  rejected  the  distinction  be- 
tween the  three  divine  Persons.  The 
fourth  century  saw  arise  successively, 
Arius,  priest  of  Alexandria,  who  attacked 
the  dogma  of  the  Trinity,  in  attacking  the 
divinity  of  the  Son ;  and  Macedonius, 
bishop  of  Constantinople,  who  in  denying 
the  divinity  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  denied 
equally  the  dogma  of  the  Trinity.  These 
errors  were  renewed  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, by  the  Socinians;  and,  in  modern 
times,  by  the  Deists  and  Rationalists  who, 
accepting  only  reason  for  guide  in  matters 
of  religion,  absolutely  reject  all  the  mys- 
teries of  Christianity.  We  establish  the 
mystery  of  the  Blessed  Trinity  by  Holy 
Scripture,  the  Ancient  Fathers,  the  Coun- 
cils, and  the  universal  and  perpetual  belief 
of  the  Church. 

Trinity  Sunday  we  call  the  first  Sunday 
after  Pentecost. 

Trisag^on  (Gr.  thrice  holy ^  name  given  to 
the  hymn  Sanctus,  Sanctus,  Sanctus,  called 
also  Cherub  Hymn). — This  hymn  is  chanted 
in  the  Latin  Church  on  Good  Friday,  dur- 
ing the  adoration  of  the  cross.  It  was  first 
introduced,  as  a  public  prayer,  at  Constan- 
tinople, in  the  reign  of  Theodosius  the 
Younger,  during  the  supplications  made  to 
God  by  the  whole  city  to  avert  the  horrors 
of  an  earthquake. 

Troas. — A  city  of  Lesser  Mysia.  It  was 
visited  twice  by  St.  Paul  and  possessed 
a  bishopric  from  the  first  century  of 
Christianity. 

Truce  of  God.  —  Agreement  which  the 
Church  established  in  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury, among  the  fuedal  lords,  and  in  virtue 
of  which  all  hostilities  should  cease  among 
them,  beginning  with  the  eve  of  Thursday, 
until  Monday  morning,  through  respect  of 
the  days  on  which  were  accomplished  the 
last  mysteries  of  the  life  of  Christ. 


Trullan  Synods.  —  By  the  Trullan  Syn- 
ods we  understand :  i.  The  Sixth  Ecu- 
menical Council  held  in  the  imperial 
palace  in  Constantinople,  Nov.  7th,  680  to 
Sept.  i6th,  681,  so  named  from  the  place 
of  meeting,  which  was  a  vaulted  hall.  In 
this  Council  the  Dogmatic  Epistle  of  Pope 
Agatho,  defining  the  Catholic  doctrine  of 
the  two  Wills  in  Christ,  were  received  by 
the  assembled  fathers  with  acclamations 
as  "the  voice  of  Peter."  In  conformity 
with  the  papal  letter,  the  Council  con- 
demned the  Monothelite  heresy,  and  ex- 
communicated the  dissenters,  with  their 
chiefs.  Pope  Honorius  was  also  con- 
demned, not,  however,  for  heresy,  but  for 
conniving  with  heretics ;  by  his  untimely 
silence,  he  emboldened  the  Monothelites. 
See  (HoxoRius  II.).  2.  The  Second 
Trullan  Synod  took  place  in  692,  and  had 
been  summoned  by  the  Emperor  Justinian 
II.  It  made  celibacy  obligatory,  only,  on 
monks  and  bishops.  Pope  Sergius  I.  re- 
fused to  sanction  this  synod. 

Tunic.  —  The  Tunic  is  a  vestment  as- 
signed to  the  subdeacon  in  his  ministry 
about  the  altar.  Were  the  regulations  of 
the  Church  followed  in  all  their  precision, 
this  garment  would  be  longer  than,  but 
not  so  ample  as  the  dalmatic  of  the  deacon. 
According,  however,  to  a  custom  which 
prevails  almost  everywhere,  both  these 
vestments  are  exactly  alike.  The  Tunic, 
denominated  "Tunicella"  by  liturgical 
writers,  was  also  known  by  the  term  "  Sub- 
tile." 

Turibius  (St.)  —  Third  archbishop  of 
Lima.  Died  in  1606,  and  is  regarded  as 
the  Apostle  of  Peru.  With  unwearied  zeal 
he  traversed  his  extensive  diocese,  to  re- 
vive or  propagate  religion.  The  glorious 
St.  Rose  of  Lima,  a  Dominican  Tertiary, 
the  first  canonized  saint  of  America,  flour- 
ished under  his  episcopate.     F.  April  27th. 


u 


Ubiquitarians.  —  Name  given  to  those 
Lutherans  who,  to  defend  the  Real  Pres- 
ence of  Jesus  Christ  in  the  Blessed  Eucha- 
rist, without  admitting  the  transubstantia- 
tion,  maintain  that  the  body  of  Jesus  Christ 
is  everywhere,  as  well  as  His  divinity. 

Ulfilas.  —  Apostle  of  the  Goths  born 
310  or  311  in  the  northern  Gothic  country 


of  the  Donau,  of  Greek  Christian  parents, 
whom  Goths  had  carried  off  from  their 
Cappadocian  home ;  became  Arian  bishop 
in  341.  When  Athanarich  (348)  began  a 
persecution  of  the  Christians,  Ulfilas,  to- 
gether with  Arian  Goths,  took  refuge 
under  the  East-Roman  emperor,  converted 
many  pagan  Ostrogoths,  and  died  at  Con- 
stantinople, in  381.     Ulfilas  rendered  him- 


Unigenitus 


695 


Unity  of  God 


self  famous  by  inventing  the  Gothic  char- 
acters of  the  alphabet,  and  by  translating 
the  Bible  into  the  Gothic  language,  the 
greater  part  of  this  work  being  still  extant. 

Unigenitus  (Bull).  —  Constitution  of 
Pope  Clement  XI.  given  in  the  month  of 
September,  1713,  and  which  commences 
with  the  words:  Unigenitus  Dei  Filius, 
and  which  condemns  loi  propositions 
drawn  from  the  book  of  Pasquier-Quesnel, 
priest  of  the  Oratory,  entitled  :  "The  New 
Testament  translated  into  French,  with 
moral  reflections."  These  reflections  re- 
duce themselves  to  sixty  heads  of  doctrine 
which  are  so  many  errors  and  which  had 
been  already  condemned  in  the  writings 
of  Bajus  and  of  Jansenius. 

Unitarians  (Sectarians) .  —  Unitarianism, 
which  asserts  the  unity  of  persons  in  God, 
was  first  propagated  in  Poland,  whither  it 
had  penetrated  almost  contemporaneously 
with  the  heresies  of  Luther  and  Calvin. 
The  two  most  noted  Unitarians  were  the 
two  Italians,  Laslius  Socinus,  who  died  in 
1562,  and  his  nephew  Faustus  Socinus, 
who  died  in  1604.  They  succeeded  in 
elaborating  the  Unitarian  doctrine  respect- 
ing the  Trinity  into  a  system,  and  in  form- 
ing its  adherents  into  a  community. 
Henceforth  the  Unitarians  changed  their 
name  for  that  of  "  Socinians."  Socinian- 
ism  is  essentially  rationalistic;  its  funda- 
mental principle  being,  that,  both  in  the 
interpretation  of  the  Scripture  and  in  ex- 
plaining and  demonstrating  the  truths  of 
religion,  reason  alone  must  be  consulted ; 
that,  consequently,  anything  contrary  to 
'♦  Right  Reason,"  that  is  to  say,  to  the  un- 
derstanding of  the  Socinians,  must  not  be 
considered  a  revealed  doctrine.  Respect- 
ing God  and  the  person  of  Christ,  the 
Socinians  hold  the  Father,  6nly,  to  be  God ; 
the  Son  of  God  to  be  a  mere  man,  who  was 
conceived  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  there- 
fore called  the  Son  of  God ;  the  Holy 
Ghost  to  be  a  power  and  eflSciency  of  the 
Deity.  Christ  was,  before  beginning  His 
public  ministry,  raised  into  heaven  where 
He  received  His  commission  relative  to 
mankind.  They  reject  the  vicarious  satis- 
faction on  the  part  of  Christ,  and  the  im- 
putation of  His  merits  as  pernicious  to 
morality.  They  declare  justification  to  be 
a  mere  judicial  act  of  God,  whereby  man 
is  acquitted  and  absolved  from  all  guilt ; 
finally,  they  deny  original  sin  and  the  per- 
petuity of  hell-punishment,  and  teach  an 
annihilation  of  the  damned. 


Unitarianism  was  introduced  into  the 
United  States  about  the  end  of  the  eight- 
eenth century.  In  1796  a  Unitarian  con- 
gregation was  formed  in  Philadelphia.  In 
1895,  there  were  in  the  United  States  and 
Canada,  455  Unitarian  societies,  519  minis- 
ters, and  a  total  estimate  of  membership, 
as  given  in  the  tables  of  the  "  Independent," 
of  68,500. 

United  Armenians,  Copts,  Greeks,  etc. 
See  ( Oriental)  Rites. 

United  Brethren  in  Christ.  —  A  reli- 
gious denomination  founded  in  the  Sus- 
quehanna Valley,  Pennsylvania,  in  1800. 
Its  inception  was  due  to  Philip  William 
Otterbein,  a  minister  of  the  German  Re- 
formed Church,  and  of  Martin  Boehm,  a 
Mennonite  pastor  in  Pennsylvania,  who, 
in  a  series  of  "revival"  meetings,  drew 
large  accessions  to  the  churches  they 
served.  Other  Protestant  ministers  joined 
Otterbein  and  Boehm,  and  with  some  of 
their  followers  met  in  formal  conference 
at  Baltimore,  Maryland,  in  1789.  The 
fellowship  increased  until,  in  1800,  at  a 
conference  held  in  Frederick  county, 
Maryland,  it  was  decided  to  organize  a 
separate  denomination  under  the  title  of 
•'  United  Brethren  in  Christ."  Their  doc- 
trines were  Arminian,  the  confession  con- 
sisting of  thirteen  articles,  setting  forth  the 
general  faith  of  the  Methodist  Church, 
belief  in  the  Trinity,  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
justification  and  regeneration.  In  1889 
some  changes  were  adopted  in  the  disci- 
pline, which  resulted  in  a  split  in  the 
denomination.  The  two  branches  have 
since  maintained  a  separate  organization. 
The  membership  is  strongest  in  Ohio,  In- 
diana, and  Pennsylvania. 

Unity  of  God.  —  God  is  one.  He  can  be 
only  one;  there  is  only  one  God,  and  there 
can  be  but  one  God.  When  Moses  pre- 
sents himself  from  the  part  of  God  before 
the  children  of  Israel,  he  says  to  them : 
The  One  who  has  sent  me  to  you.  He  does 
not  say :  Those  who  are,  but  the  One  who 
is,  the  one,  the  one  whose  Being  is  the  es- 
sential, eternal,  incommunicable  name.  "/ 
am  -who  am,  is  my  name  for  all  eternity : 
Ego  sum  qui  sum;  hoc  nomen  mihi  est  in 
eternum.^'  Also  the  Lord  said  to  the  Jew- 
ish people:  "Consider  that  I  am  the  only 
God,  and  that  there  is  no  other  God  but 
Me."  Such  is,  besides,  the  belief  of  the 
patriarchs,  of  the  Israelites  and  Christians. 
The  belief  of  the  different  peoples,  although 


Unity  of  the  Church 


696 


Urban 


altered  through  the  superstitions  of  pagan- 
ism, is  in  accord,  as  to  the  unity  of  God, 
with  primitive  tradition.  God  is  the  one 
who  is,  the  one  who  is  through  Himself, 
who  necessarily  exists,  who  is  independ- 
ent, infinite,  and  sovereignly  perfect.  Now, 
the  one  who  is  through  Himself,  who  neces- 
sarily exists,  who  is  independent,  infinite, 
sovereignly  perfect,  is  one,  and  He  can  be 
but  one.  To  suppose  several  infinites,  is 
evidently  denying  the  infinite ;  to  suppose 
several  beings  infinitely  perfect,  is  to  deny 
the  sovereign  perfection ;  to  suppose  several 
gods,  would,  therefore,  also  be  the  denial 
of  the  Deity:  Deus  si  non  unus  est,  non 
est,  says  Tertullian.  Finally,  the  wonder- 
ful order  which  reigns  in  the  universe,  of- 
fering to  us  one  of  the  most  striking  proofs 
of  the  existence  of  God,  offers  to  us  at  the 
same  time  a  no  less  sensible  proof  of  His 
unity.  Everything,  in  both  the  physical 
and  moral  world,  shows  us  the  unity  of 
thought,  the  unity  of  will,  and  the  unity  in 
execution.  Now  then,  this  unity  necessarily 
supposes  that  there  is  but  one  supreme  in- 
telligence, only  one  supreme  legislator, 
only  one  Providence  which  governs  all, 
which  extends  itself  over  all,  and  which 
provides  for  all.     See  Trinity. 

Unity  of  the  Church.  —  It  is  certain  that 
Jesus  Christ  speaks  of  His  Church  as  One. 
"  On  this  rock  I  will  build  my  Church  " 
(Matt.  xvi.  18),  not  churches.  There  can, 
consequently,  be  only  one  society,  which 
is  His  organ,  and  represents  Him  :  "  One 
body  and  one  spirit,"  as  **  there  is  but  one 
Lord,  one  faith,  and  one  baptism  —  there  is 
but  one  God,  the  Father  of  us  all "  (Eph. 
iv.  5,  6).  The  unity  of  the  Church  is  es- 
sential to  its  nature  and  to  its  end.  The 
Church  is  the  Christian  religion  embodied, 
and  in  action  under  an  exterior  visible 
form.  The  Christian  religion  is  one, 
teaches  to  mankind  one  faith,  aggregates 
men  under  Christ,  and  makes  them  mem- 
bers of  one  household,  termed  by  the 
Apostles  "the  house  of  God."  If  a  per- 
son is  not  a  member  of  this  one  society,  he 
is  not  in  union  with  Christ,  the  Head,  be- 
cause the  head  presides  only  over  the 
members  of  the  body.  The  doctrines,  the 
spirit,  the  virtues  of  Jesus  Christ  are  with 
His  Church,  and  cannot  be  claimed  by 
mere  human  societies  and  organizations. 
Hence  all  Christendom,  except  such  as 
from  interest  or  passion  were  found  sep- 
arated from  the  society  which  Christ 
founded,  has  subscribed  to  the  declaration 


of  St.  Cyprian :  "  He  who  leaves  the 
Church  will  not  obtain  the  recompense  of 
Christ.  He  is  a  stranger,  a  profane  per- 
son, an  enemy.  No  one  can  have  God  for 
his  Father  who  has  not  the  Church  for  his 
mother"  {De  Unitate  Eccles.).  Only  one 
society  has  inherited  the  promise,  the 
graces,  and  the  merits  of  Christ.  That 
society,  which  was  in  embryo  under  the 
patriarchs,  and  shown  to  the  world  amid 
types  and  figures  under  the  Jewish  dispen- 
sation, and  in  fulfillment  of  promises  and 
prophecies,  was  "purchased  by  the  blood 
of  Christ"  on  Calvary,  and  being  organ- 
ized under  the  visible  headship  of  St. 
Peter,  received  the  Holy  Ghost  on  the  Day 
of  Pentecost,  in  order  to  become  "  a  city 
upon  the  mountain,"  for  the  salvation  of 
all  the  nations  upon  the  earth,  is  the  only 
society  that  can  truly  claim  to  be  the 
Church  of  Christ.  It  is  a  doctrine  of  faith 
that  there  is  only  one  Church  of  Christ. 
The  Church  is  one  only,  or  else  there  is  no 
Church  of  Christ,  says  St.  Augustine : 
Aut  una,  aut  nulla. 

Universalists.  —  Name  given  to  those 
among  the  Protestants  who  maintain  that 
God  gives  graces  to  all  men  to  arrive  at 
salvation.  This  opinion,  which  is,  they 
say,  that  of  all  the  Arminians,  is  opposed 
to  that  of  the  Calvinists,  called  by  them 
Particularists,  who  claim  that  God  by  an 
eternal  and  irrevocable  decree,  has  pre- 
destinated certain  men  to  salvation  and 
consigned  the  others  to  damnation,  without 
regard  to  their  future  merits  or  demerits; 
that,  consequently.  He  gives  to  the  pre- 
destinated irresistible  graces  by  which 
they  infallibly  obtain  eternal  happiness, 
whereas  He  refuses  these  graces  to  the 
reprobates,  who,  for  want  of  assistance, 
are  infallibly  damned.  The  Universalists 
in  the  United  States  trace  their  origin  to 
John  Murray,  a  native  of  Alton,  England 
(1741-1815),  who  came  to  America  in  1770. 
In  1895  the  Universolists  in  this  country 
counted  a  membership  of  47,986  persons. 

Universities.     See  Schooi-s. 

Ur.  —  Locality  of  Chaldea,  country  of 
Abraham  and  of  Thare.  They  kept  up 
there  a  sacred  fire  in  honor  of  the  sun. 
The  site  of  this  place  is  disputed ;  the 
terms  of  Genesis  (xii.  28)  do  not  even  per- 
mit us  to  decide  whether  it  was  a  city  or 
a  country. 

Urban  (name  of  eight  Popes). — Urban 
I.  —  Pope  in  230.     Successor  of  Calixtus  I. 


Urias 


697 


URSU  LINES 


They  attribute  to  him  a  letter  and  some  de- 
crees. Urban  II. —  Pope  from  10S8  to  1099. 
A  most  active  and  influential  Pope.  He 
convened  no  less  than  twelve  Councils.  He 
passed  stringent  laws,  especially  in  the 
Council  of  Melfi,  in  1089,  against  simony, 
clerical  marriage,  and  lay  investiture.  To 
liberate  the  priesthood  from  the  shackles 
of  feudal  servitude,  in  the  celebrated  Coun- 
cil of  Clermont,  1095,  he  passed  a  canon 
which  prohibited  bishops  and  priests  to 
take  the  oath  of  fidelity  to  either  king  or 
layman.  He  excommunicated  Philip  I.  of 
France,  Henry  IV.  of  Germany,  the  anti- 
pope  Guibert,  and  furthered  the  first  Cru- 
sade. Urban  III.  —  Pope  from  1185  to 
1187.  When  told  of  the  taking  of  Jerusa- 
lem by  Saladin,  he  died  of  grief.      Urban 

IV.  —  Pope  from  1261  to  1264.  He  insti- 
tuted the  feast  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament, 
whose  office  he  caused  to  be  composed  by  St, 
Thomas  Aquinas ;  deposed  Manfred  of  Sicily 
and  published  a  crusade  against  him.  Urban 

V.  —  Pope  from  1362  to  1370.  Himself  a 
pattern  of  every  virtue,  strove  to  make  the 
papal  court  a  model  of  Christian  life.  He 
was  a  magnificent  patron  of  learned  men, 
and  most  liberal  to  the  poor.  One  of  his 
first  cares  was  to  carry  on  the  expedition 
for  the  recovery  of  the  Holy  Land,  begun 
by  his  predecessor.  Innocent  VI.  Con- 
vinced that  the  residence  of  the  Popes  at 
Avignon  was  injurious  to  the  interests  of 
the  Church,  he  returned  to  Rome,  in  1367, 
and  was  received  amid  great  rejoicings. 
The  factious  and  turbulent  spirit  of  the 
Italians  induced  him  to  retransfer  the  papal 
residence  to  Avignon,  in  1370.  Urban  VI. 
—  Pope  from  1378  to  1389,  was  a  stern  re- 
former, and  a  man  of  great  merit  and  in- 
tegrity, but  his  seeming  harshness  and 
severe  reproaches  soon  alienated  from  him 
the  minds  of  the  cardinals.  A  number  of 
them,  under  the  pretext  that  the  election 
of  Urban  was  void,  retired  to  Anagni,  de- 
clared the  Holy  See  vacant  and  chose  the 
warlike  Cardinal  Robert  of  Geneva,  who 
took  the  name  of  Clement  VII.  Thus  be- 
gan the  great  schism  which  divided  the 
Western  Church  for  thirty-nine  years  (1378- 
1417).  Urban  VII.  — Pope  in  1590,  for  13 
days.  He  was  the  successpr  of  Sixtus 
V.  Urban  VIII.  —  Pope  from  1623  to 
1644,  was  a  man  of  letters,  and  an  elegant 
writer  and  poet,  and  a  generous  patron  of 
learning.  He  enlarged  the  powers  of  the 
Propaganda  and  founded  the  college  that 
bears  his  name,  Collegium  Urbanum,  where 
young  men  of  every  nationality  might  be 


trained  and  prepared  for  the  missions 
among  the  heathens  and  heretics.  In  the 
Pontificate  of  Urban  VIII.,  the  celebrated 
case  of  Galileo  occured,  which  hostile 
writers  have  always  used  to  represent  the 
Church  as  an  enemy  of  science. 

Urias.  —  Hebrew  officer.  David  having 
seduced  Bethsabee,  the  wife  of  Urias, 
wrote  to  Joab,  his  general  in  chief,  to  ex- 
pose him  in  a  battle  and  allow  him  to 
perish,  which  was  executed.  David  then 
married  Bethsabee.  Later  on,  he  sin- 
cerely bewailed  his  fault. 

Urim  and  Thummim.  —  Breast-plate  of 
the  Jewish  high-priest  and  by  means  of 
which  he  gave  oracular  responses.  The 
true  nature  of  the  urim  and  thummim 
(literally  "lights  and  perfections")  is  not 
known.  They  seem  to  have  been  small 
objects  inside  the  so-called  "  breast- 
plate," which  was  folded  double,  and  many 
authorities  believe  them  to  have  been 
precious  stones  or  figures,  used  as  lots  or 
otherwise.  There  is  no  indication  of  their 
use,  after  the  time  of  David,  and  after  the 
captivity  they  are  alluded  to  as  lost. 

Ursula  (St.).  —  Virgin  and  martyr, 
daughter  of  a  prince  of  Great  Britain,  was 
put  to  death  by  the  Huns,  with  a  great 
number  of  other  virgins,  at  Cologne  (383). 
They  show  in  the  Church  of  St.  Ursula  of 
Cologne,  not  only  the  tomb  of  the  saint, 
but  also  the  arrow  with  which  she  was 
pierced,  and  in  the  same  church  are  num- 
berless relics  of  her  companions.     F.  Oct. 

2ISt. 

Ursulines  (members  of  a  religious  com- 
munity).—  The  Ursulines  were  at  first  an 
association  of  pious  ladies,  formed  at 
Brescia  about  the  year  1537,  by  Angela 
de'  Merici,  a  native  of  Desenzano,  a  town 
on  Lake  Garda.  This  angelic  soul,  who  is 
better  known  as  Angela  of  Brescia,  found 
her  only  joy  in  communing  with  God, 
forgeting  self  and  ministering  to  the 
wants  of  others.  In  this  spirit  of  self- 
denial,  she  gathered  about  her  a  few  ladies 
as  unselfish  and  generous  as  herself,  and 
placing  the  little  band  under  the  patronage 
of  St.  Ursula  (Nov.  25th,  1535),  began  the 
work  of  reclaiming  unfortunate  women. 
The  members  of  the  Association,  while 
tending  the  sick,  relieving  the  poor,  in- 
structing young  girls,  and  doing  other 
works  of  charity,  continued  to  reside  in 
the  homes  of  their  parents  and  relatives. 
After  the  death  of  the  foundress,  January 


Utraquists 


698 


Vatican  Council 


27th,  1540,  the  Association  soon  grew  to 
be  an  Order,  and  was  approved  June  9th, 
1544,  by  Paul  III.,  who  also  gave  the  mem- 
bers leave  to  make  such  changes  in  their 
rules  as  circumstances  might  require.  The 
leading  object  of  the  Order  was  now  the 
education  of  young  ladies.  The  organi- 
zation of  the  Ursulines  being  still  further 
perfected  by  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  their 
special  patron,  was  again  approved  by 
Gregory  XIII.  From  Upper  Italy  the 
Order  spread  to  France,  where  it  was  in- 
troduced by  the  accomplished  widow 
Madeleine  de  St.  Beuve.  She  established 
a  mother  house  in  Paris,  to  which  many 
affiliated  convents  were  soon  attached. 
Their  Rule,  drawn  up  by  Father  Gontery, 
assisted  by  other  Jesuits,  and  approved  by 


Paul  v.,  for  the  use  of  the  Congregation 
Regular  of  Ursulines  (1612),  was  based 
upon  the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine,  but,  in 
its  present  form,  embraces,  besides  twenty- 
five  chapters  of  "Admonitions"  and 
eleven  "  Legacies,"  so  called  because  they 
were  drawn  from  the  posthumous  writings 
of  St.  Ursula  of  Brescia.  From  this  time 
forth  the  education  of  young  girls  of  every 
age  from  childhood  up  was  almost  wholly 
in  their  hand,  and  their  presence  was 
hailed  with  joy  in  every  country  of  Chris- 
tendom. Before  1789,  the  Order  counted 
in  France  more  than  300  houses.  The 
Ursulines  have  many  houses  in  the  United 
States. 

Utraquists.     See  Hussites. 


Valentinians.  —  A  Gnostic  sect,  who  had 
for  founder  a  certain  Valentinus,  an  Alex- 
andrian by  birth  (died,  161).  Valentinus' 
system  of  Gnostic  ideas  is,  of  all,  the  most 
elaborate  and  ingenious,  and  his  sect  was 
the  most  widely  spread.  He  asserted 
**  Gnosis,"  or  knowledge  to  be  superior  to 
faith  and  good  works,  the  latter  being  nec- 
essary to  the  Psychites,  or  Catholics,  but 
not  to  the  Gnostics.  The  doctrine  of  the 
Valentinians,  concerning  the  redemption 
and  the  person  of  Christ,  was  similar  to 
that  of  the  Basilidians. 

Valentinus.  —  Pope  in  827.  Died  six 
weeks  after  his  election.  He  was  the  suc- 
cessor of  Eugene  II. 

Valesians. — Heretics,  disciples  of  Vale- 
sius,  philosopher  of  Arabia,  who  appeared 
about  the  year  250.  Valesius  believed  that 
concupiscence  acted  upon  man  with  such 
a  violence  that  he  cannot  resist  it,  even 
with  the  help  of  grace;  and,  upon  this 
false  principle,  he  taught  that  man  cannot 
be  saved  except  he  is  an  eunuch.  This  sect 
spread  considerably  in  Arabia. 

Vallombrosa  ( Order  of) .  —  A  celebrated 
abbey,  in  Tuscany,  founded  in  the  year 
1038  by  St.  John  Gualbert,  a  member  of  a 
noble  Tuscan  family.  Our  saint  had  been 
charged  by  his  father  to  take  a  bloody  re- 
venge upon  the  murderer  of  his  brother 
Hugh,  and,  coming  up  with  the  object  of 
his  search  on  Good  Friday,  in  a  narrow 
defile,  where   escape  was   impossible,    he 


made  directly  for  him.  The  murderer 
threw  himself  upon  his  knees,  and,  ar- 
ranging his  arms  in  the  form  of  a  cross, 
besought  his  antagonist  to  show  mercy  out 
of  love  of  Him  who  that  day  suffered  for 
all.  From  respect  for  the  symbol  of  sal- 
vation, and  touched  with  the  beauty  of  the 
appeal,  John  not  only  granted  the  prayer 
of  the  murderer,  but  took  him  to  his  bosom 
and  adopted  him  in  place  of  the  brother 
he  had  lost.  He  then  withdrew  to  pray  in 
the  neighboring  monastery  of  San  Miniate, 
and,  while  kneeling  there  before  a  crucifix, 
saw  the  figure  of  our  Saviour  incline  its 
head  towards  him.  Accepting  this  as  a 
token  of  divine  approval  of  what  he  had 
done,  he  at  once  entered  upon  an  ascetic 
life,  commenced  the  practice  of  great 
austerities,  and  ended  by  founding  an  or- 
der, whose  members  were  clothed  in  an 
ash-colored  garment  and  observed  the  Rule 
of  St.  Benedict  in  its  more  severe  form. 
At  the  death  of  St.  John  Gualbert  (1072), 
the  community  counted  twelve  monas- 
teries. 

Vatican  Council.  —  Twentieth  General 
Council  and  the  First  Council  of  the  Vati- 
can. It  was  convened  by  Pope  Pius  IX., 
by  the  Bull  yEterni  Pair  is,  published  on 
June  29th,  1868,  who  summoned  the  Coun- 
cil to  meet  at  Rome  on  Dec.  8th  of  the 
ensuing  year.  The  chief  objects  of  the 
Council  as  stated  in  the  Bull  of  indiction 
were :  To  examine  and  decree  what  per- 
tained to  the  integrity  of  faith,  and  splen- 


Vatican  Palace 


699 


Vatican  Palace 


dor  of  divine  worship;  to  enforce  the 
observance  of  ecclesiastical  laws  ;  to  efTect 
a  general  reformation  of  customs ;  to  pro- 
vide remedies  for  the  ills  of  both  Church 
and  Society;  and  to  bring  back  to  the 
Church  those  wandering  outside  her  pale. 
With  this  view  Pius  IX.  invited  also  "all 
bishops  of  the  Churches  of  the  Oriental 
rite  not  in  communion  with  the  Apostolic 
See,"  and  "  all  Protestants  and  non-Cath- 
olics "  to  attend  the  Council,  exhorting  the 
latter  in  particular,  "to  consider  whether 
they  were  walking  in  the  way  marked  out 
by  Christ  and  leading  to  eternal  salvation." 
When  the  Council  was  opened,  there  were 
present  719  Fathers,  which  number  in- 
creased to  769.  At  the  second  public  ses- 
sion, on  Jan.  6th,  1870,  the  Pope  made  his 
profession  of  faith,  after  which  all  the 
Fathers  followed,  declaring  at  the  Chair 
of  St.  Peter  their  adhesion  to  the  one  com- 
mon faith  pronounced  by  the  Pastor  and 
Teacher  of  all.  The  other  constitution, 
the  "  First  on  the  Church  of  Christ,"  in 
three  chapters  treats  of  the  institution,  the 
perpetuity,  and  nature  of  the  primacy  of 
the  Roman  Pontiff;  the  fourth  and  last 
chapter  defines  the  infallible  teaching  of 
the  Pope  in  matters  of  faith  and  morals. 
On  July  i8th,  the  fourth  public  session  was 
held  and  the  constitution  Pater  .^ternus, 
containing  the  definition  of  the  Papal  In- 
fallibility was  promulgated.  Of  the  535 
Fathers  who  were  present  on  this  mo- 
mentous occasion,  533  voted  Placet,  and 
two  only  —  one  from  Sicily,  the  other  from 
the  United  States  —  Anhyvtred  JVon-Placet. 
Fifty-five  bishops,  who,  indeed,  accepted 
the  doctrine  of  Infallibility,  but  deemed 
its  definition  "  not  opportune,"  had  ab- 
sented themselves  from  this  session.  The 
Pope  sanctioned  with  his  supreme  author- 
ity, the  action  of  the  Council,  and  pro- 
claimed officially  the  decrees  and  canons  of 
the  "  First  Dogmatic  Constitution  on  the 
Church  of  Christ."  The  two  above-men- 
tioned bishops  who  had  voted  in  the  nega- 
tive, as  well  as  all  the  others  who  had  ab- 
stained from  voting,  or  bad  been  called 
h£me  before  the  vote  was  taken,  subse- 
quently sent  in  their  adhesion  to  the  con- 
stitution. 

On  the  same  day  that  the  Vatican  Coun- 
cil defined  the  dogma  of  the  Infallibility, 
Napoleon  III.  declared  war  against  Prus- 
sia. The  withdrawal  of  the  French  troops 
from  Rome  and  the  occupation  of  that  city 
by  the  Piedmontese  king,  Victor  Em- 
manuel, caused   the   Pope   (Oct.  20th)   to 


indefinitely   suspend    the   sessions   of   the 
Council  of  the  Vatican. 

Vatican  Palace.  —  The  Vatican  Palace 
in  Rome  is  the  principal  residence  of  the 
Pope,  and  the  seat  of  the  great  library  and 
the  museums,  and  collections  of  art,  an- 
cient and  modern,  which,  for  visitors,  con- 
stitute one  of  the  chief  attractions  of  the 
city  of  Rome.  The  Popes,  very  soon 
after  the  establishment  of  the  peace  of  the 
Church  under  the  Emperor  Constantine, 
had  a  residence  at  the  Vatican,  which  they 
occupied,  although  at  certain  intervals, 
conjointly  with  that  of  the  Lateran.  For 
a  long  time,  however,  through  the  me- 
diaeval and  especially  the  late  mediaeval 
period,  the  Vatican  appears  to  have  been 
neglected.  It  was  Nicholas  V.  who  began 
the  systematic  scheme  for  the  improve- 
ment and  embellishment  of  the  Vatican, 
which  has  resulted  in  what,  taken  alto- 
gether, may  be  regarded  as  the  noblest  of 
princely  residences.  The  Popes  Paul  II., 
Paul  III.,  Sixtus  IV.,  Leo  X.,  Sixtus  V., 
Benedict  XIV.,  Clement  XIV.,  Pius  VL, 
and  Pius  VII.  pursued  the  same  plan. 
It  forms  a  long  square,  from  the  south  to 
the  north.  It  has  three  stories;  they 
count  therein  20  courts,  8  great  staircases, 
200  staircases  for  service,  13,000  rooms 
(the  underground  apartments  included). 
Most  remarkable  therein  is  the  Sistine 
Chapel  (with  the  Last  Judgment  of 
Michael  Angelo)  and  the  Pauline  Chapel, 
which  is  reached  by  the  royal  staircase 
{scala  regia),  built  by  Bernin ;  the  court 
of  St.  Damasus,  surrounded  on  three 
sides  by  several  portico-stories  {loggia), 
who  have  given  their  name  to  a  series  of 
52  paintings  called  Loggia  of  Raphael; 
the  Stanza  or  chambers  of  Raphael  j 
chambers  of  the  Fire  of  Bourg  (France), 
of  the  School  of  Athens  or  of  the  Signa- 
ture, of  Helodorus  and  of  Constantine; 
the  Pinakothek  or  gallery  of  tablaus  (with 
the  Transfiguration  oi  Raphael);  the  gal- 
lery of  the  A  razzi  or  tapestries  of  Raphael ; 
the  Borgia  apartment  (books  and  engrav- 
ings);  the  Chamber  of  the  Aldobrandinian 
Nuptials  (antique  paintings) ;  the  Vatican 
Library  (24,000  manuscripts) ;  the  Chiara- 
monti  and  Pio-Clementino  museums  (the 
latter  occupying  the  part  of  the  palace 
called  the  Belvedere),  which  contain  the 
most  beautiful  antique  marble  monuments ; 
several  other  museums;  sacred,  profane, 
Etruscan,  Egyptian  museums,  a  stone  gal- 
lery, etc.      On  the  west  of  the  palace  is 


Vaughan 


700 


Vespers 


situated  the  great  Vatican  Garden,  with 
the  Pia  villa. 

Vaughan  (Herbert).  —  An  English  Ro- 
man Catholic  prelate ;  born  at  Gloucester, 
April  15th,  1832.  He  was  educated  at 
Stonyhurst  College,  and  at  Rome,  where 
he  attended  the  Accademia  Del  Nobili  Ec- 
clesiastici ;  was  ordained  priest  in  1854,  re- 
turned to  England,  founded  and  became 
president-general  of  St.  Joseph  Foreign 
Missionary  College,  Mill  Hill,  Middlesex, 
and  in  1871  accompanied  to  Maryland  the 
first  detachment  of  priests  who  were  sent 
on  a  special  mission  to  the  colored  popula- 
tion of  the  United  States.  He  was  elected 
bishop  of  Salford  in  1872.  In  March,  1892, 
he  succeeded  the  late  Cardinal  Wiseman  as 
archbishop  of  Westminster,  and  in  1893 
was  himself  created  a  cardinal.  He  iden- 
tified himself  with  the  movement  against 
intemperance,  took  an  active  part  in  the 
rescue  of  children  and  in  commercial  edu- 
cation, in  the  interest  of  which  he  built  St. 
Bede's  College.  He  was  appointed  Pri- 
mate of  the  Catholic  Church  in  England, 
and  is  the  proprietor  of  the  Tablet  and  the 
Dublin  Revieiv. 

Veil  of  the  Religious.  — We  distinguish 
several  kinds  of  veils :  the  veil  of  profes- 
sion, the  veil  of  consecration,  the  veil  of 
ordination,  the  veil  of  prelature,  the  veil  of 
continence  and  of  observance ;  lately  they 
have  added  the  veil  of  probation,  i.  The 
veil  of  profession  is  that  which  is  given  to 
the  religious  when  they  pronounce  their 
vows.  2.  The  veil  of  consecration  is  that 
which  the  bishop  gave  to  the  virgins,  with 
certain  ceremonies  which  are  no  longer  ob- 
served in  the  ordinary  profession  and  which 
formerly  took  place  on  the  day  of  Epiphany, 
during  the  octave  of  Easter  and  on  the 
feasts  of  the  Apostles.  The  bishop  gave  a 
ring  to  the  religious  who  contracted  an  al- 
liance with  Jesus  Christ  and  observed 
other  ceremonies  which  are  seldom  ob- 
served to-daj',  except  among  the  Carthusian 
nuns,  and  some  others.  3.  The  veil  of  or- 
dination is  that  of  the  deaconesses  who,  in 
virtue  of  particular  blessings  which  the 
bishop  gave  to  them,  could  solemnly  sing 
the  Gospel  at  matins,  but  not  during  high 
Mass.  4.  The  veil  of  prelature  or  of  su- 
periority was  that  given  to  abbesses  when 
they  were  blessed.  5.  The  veil  of  conti- 
nence and  of  observance  is  that  which  they 
gave  to  the  widows  and  married  ladies 
separated  from  their  husbands,  and  who 
engaged  themselves  to  pronounce  religious 


profession.  6.  The  veil  of  probation  is  the 
one  still  given  to-day  to  young  novices  at 
their  first  reception,  and  which  is  generally 
white. 

Veil  ( The)  in  Liturgy.  —  At  solemn  high 
Mass,  the  subdeacon  during  the  part  of  the 
ceremony,  has  his  arms  and  shoulders  muf- 
fled with  a  species  of  scarf  of  an  oblong 
shape,  which  is  usually  composed  of  the 
same  material  as  the  vestments,  and  is 
called  Veil.  In  the  primitive  ages  of  the 
Church,  the  number  of  those  who  partook 
of  the  Blessed  Eucharist  every  Sunday,  to- 
gether with  the  priest  was  very  great,  and, 
in  consequence,  the  paten  or  sacred  disc, 
from  which  the  sacred  species  used  to  be 
distributed,  was  so  large  in  its  dimensions 
that  convenience  required  it  to  be  removed 
from  the  altar  as  soon  as  the  oblation  had 
been  made,  and  not  brought  back  until  the 
time  for  giving  the  communion  to  the 
Faithful.  The  ''Liber  Pontificalis"  enu- 
merates several  of  these  patens  or  discs  of 
gold  and  silver,  which  weighed  as  much  as 
twenty-five  or  thirty  pounds.     See  Paten. 

Veronica  (St.).  —  A  Jewish  woman  who 
wiped  the  face  of  our  Saviour  on  His 
journey  to  Calvary,  with  a  linen  which  re- 
tained our  Lord's  imprint.  This  is  the 
chief  picture  of  the  Saviour  which  they 
call  the  "  Holy  Face  "  or  Veronica.  It  is 
preserved  in  the  basilica  of  the  Vatican. 
According  to  tradition,  St.  Veronica  came 
into  Gaul  with  St.  Martial  and  St.  Ama- 
tor;  assisted  them  in  their  apostolic  la- 
bors, and  died  at  Soulac  (Gironde),  in  the 
year  70.     F.  Feb.  3d. 

Vespers  are  the  sixth  part  of  the  canon- 
ical hours.  Vespers,  in  the  primitive  Church, 
were  the  prayers  which  answered  to  the  sac- 
rifice which,  under  the  law  of  Moses,  they 
offered  at  Jerusalem  at  sunset,  and  during 
which  they  burned  incense.  The  Church 
does  not  oblige,  in  a  strict  manner,  the 
Faithful  to  assist  at  Vespers  on  Sunday ;  but 
they  should  make  it  a  duty  not  to  miss  Ves- 
pers, if  they  wish  to  keep  the  Sunday  holy. 
Vespers,  undoubtedly,  go  back  to  great 
antiquity  in  the  Church,  which  has  insti- 
tuted them,  according  to  grave  authors, 
to  honor  the  burial  of  our  Lord  and  to 
give  an  occasion  to  the  Faithful  to  praise 
God  and  to  thank  Him  for  the  benefits 
with  which  He  overwhelms  us  every  day. 
The  ancient  canons  required  the  Faithful  to 
assist  at  Vespers,  as  at  Mass,  and  during 
many  centuries  the  Faithful  assisted  at  the 


Vestments 


701 


Vestments 


evening  office  as  well  as  at  the  morning 
office.  To-day,  there  is  no  precept  in  this 
regard,  and  it  is  no  sin  in  itself  not  to  as- 
sist at  Vespers ;  but  there  may  be  a  venial 
sin  in  virtue  of  an  ancient  and  general  cus- 
tom among  us,  if  one  omits  them  without 
sufficient  reason,  through  negligence  or 
sloth.  Also,  the  Faithful  who  are  anxious 
to  sanctify  the  day  of  the  Lord,  make  it  a 
duty  not  to  miss  Vespers.  We  cannot 
praise  enough  the  conduct  of  a  great  num- 
ber of  Faithful  who,  finding  it  impossible 
to  assist  at  Vespers,  recite  them  at  home. 
Although  they  are  not  obliged  to  do  this, 
they  cannot  fail  in  acting  thus,  to  draw 
down  upon  themselves  the  blessings  of 
heaven.  The  Vespers  of  Sunday,  and 
ordinary  holy  days  of  the  year,  are  com- 
posed of  five  Psalms  and  five  antiphons, 
a  chapter,  hymn,  Magnificat,  and  a 
prayer. 

Vestments  {Sacred). — From  the  con- 
current testimony  of  writers  who  have  be- 
stowed much  laborious  research  upon  the 
investigation  of  this  subject,  it  appears, 
that  during  the  infancy  of  the  Church,  the 
garments  worn  by  her  priesthood  when 
employed  in  offering  up  the  holy  Eucha- 
ristic  Sacrifice,  were  identically  the  same 
in  form  and  composed  of  similar  materials 
with  those  corresponding  articles  of  dress 
in  the  ordinary  apparel,  adopted  by  persons 
of  that  period.  One  distinction,  however, 
was  observed.  The  garments  once  em- 
ployed in  the  celebration  of  the  sacred 
mysteries  were  forever  afterwards  exclu- 
sively appropriated  to  the  same  holy  pur- 
pose ;  and  it  was  regarded  as  highly  inde- 
corous, if  not  a  profanation,  to  alienate 
them  from  the  service  of  the  altar,  and  to 
wear  them  when  otherwise  engaged.  In 
ancient,  as  in  modern  days,  fashion  had 
her  waywardness,  though  her  changes 
were  not  so  sudden  nor  so  capricious  as 
at  present.  But  her  innovations  were  not 
permitted  to  invade  the  precincts  of  the 
sanctuary,  and  the  ecclesiastical  vestments 
retained  their  original  form,  while  the  cos- 
tume of  civil  society  underwent  a  perfect 
but  gradual  transformation.  In  process  of 
time  those  garments,  which  once  were  uni- 
versally worn,  without  regard  to  age,  sta- 
tion, or  employment,  by  the  more  respect- 
able members  of  society,  became  peculiar 
to  the  servants  of  the  altar.  This  began  to 
be  discernible  about  the  close  of  the  fourth 
century.  From  the  moment  that  Con- 
stantine  declared  himself  a  Christian,  the 


ceremonies  of  the  Church  were  performed 
with  splendor,  and  regal  magnificence 
throughout  the  sacred  ritual.  Before  this 
period,  the  vestments  of  the  priesthood  at 
the  altar,  though  not  always,  were  more 
frequently  composed  of  the  less  expensive 
materials,  and  decorated  merely  with  a 
scarlet  stripe,  which  was  then  denominated 
latus  clavus.  This  was  now  exchanged  for 
a  vesture  the  same,  indeed,  in  form,  but 
manufactured  of  the  richest  stuff.  Re- 
ligion suggests,  and  propriety  insists  on 
the  appropriation  of  a  distinctive  habit  to 
the  priest  and  his  attendants  at  the  al- 
tar while  occupied  in  the  public  functions 
of  their  ministry.  That  amid  the  other 
members  of  the  commonwealth  its  public 
functionaries  should  be  distinguished  by 
some  appropriate  costume  is,  and,  from 
time  immemorial,  has  been  everywhere 
acknowledged.  For  in  every  government, 
whether  it  be  a  republic  or  a  monarchy,  a 
distinctive  uniform  is  assigned  to  a  soldier, 
a  magistrate,  a  judge  seated  on  his  tribunal 
of  justice,  and  an  advocate  while  pleading 
at  bar.  Similar  motives  of  propriety  have 
influenced  the  Church  in  ordering  her 
ministers  to  array  themselves  in  certain 
vestments  while  employed  in  the  public 
celebration  of  her  liturgy  and  the  adminis- 
tration of  her  sacraments.  In  the  Old 
Law  we  find  that  the  Almighty  instructed 
Moses  with  minute  precision,  relative  to 
the  sacred  vestments  (Ex.  xxviii.  2-6,33; 
Ezech.  xlii.  14).  The  peculiarities  of 
style  in  building  will  help  to  fix  the  era  in 
which  an  edifice  was  erected ;  the  form  of 
character,  together  with  the  material  on 
which  it  is  written,  will  materially  assist 
the  antiquary  in  detecting  the  date  of  an 
inscription ;  the  costume  of  a  state  or  the 
accessories  of  a  picture,  will  serve  to  as- 
certain the  period  when  the  individual 
represented  flourished,  as  well  as  to  an- 
nounce his  rank  or  condition.  So  it  is 
with  the  Catholic  Church.  Both  her  vast 
and  spiritual  edifice  declare  that  her  archi- 
tect was  Christ,  while  the  Apostles  were 
the  builders ;  her  language  proclaims  what 
tongues  were  common  to  the  world  at 
that  period  of  her  birth,  and  have  ever 
been  familiar  to  her  from  her  infancy  up- 
wards; while  the  antiquated  fashion  of 
those  garments  which  her  ministers  put  on 
when  officiating,  not  only  speaks  to  us  of 
centuries  gone  by,  and  can  alone  furnish 
us  with  remnants  of  the  dress  of  republi- 
can or  imperial  Rome,  but  announces  to 
us  her  jealousy,  not  only  of  guarding  the 


Viaticum 


702 


Victor 


deposit  of  faith,  but  of  retaining  the  use  of 
things  indifferent  in  themselves. 

Viaticum.  —  Holy  communion  given  to 
those  in  danger  of  death.  We  call  it  Vi- 
aticum because  it  strengthens  and  fortifies 
in  the  painful  voyage  from  time  to  eternity. 
One  can  communicate  as  Viaticum  even 
without  fasting,  when  the  danger  of  death 
continues.  One  can  repeat  the  administra- 
tion of  the  Viaticum  during  the  same  sick- 
ness. The  Church  makes  it  an  obligation 
to  receive  holy  communion,  if  this  can  be 
done,  when  one  is  in  danger  of  death,  even 
when  one  has  fulfilled  the  duty  of  Easter 
communion  before  becoming  dangerously 
iU. 

Vicar  Apostolic.  —  Name  given  to  bish- 
ops which  the  Pope  names  to  ancient  sees 
situated  now  in  infidel  countries,  such  as 
Turkey,  Africa,  and  to  whom  he  gives  au- 
thority in  any  country,  under  the  title  as 
immediate  vicars  of  the  Holy  See  on  which 
they  depend  directly,  while  the  local 
bishops,  in  a  country  hierarchically  organ- 
ized, depend  on  the  metropolitans.  There 
are  vicars  apostolic  in  the  missions,  the 
colonies,  in  heretical  States,  as  formerly  in 
England  and  in  the  United  States.  The 
Vicar  Apostolic  is  instituted  by  the  Pope 
to  exercise  in  his  name  certain  functions 
which  His  Holiness  alone  can  perform. 
The  Pope  gives  the  title  of  Vicar  Apostolic 
to  bishops  which  he  sends  into  the  Oriental 
missions;  and  they  are  mostly  all  bishops 
in  partibus;  many  have  coadjutors. 

Vicar  {Capitular).  —  When  a  bishopric 
or  an  archbishopric  becomes  vacant,  either 
by  the  death  of  the  one  who  occupied  it,  or 
by  his  being  transferred  to  another  see,  or 
by  any  other  circumstance,  the  Chapter, 
according  to  the  Council  of  Trent,  is  ex- 
pressly bound  to  elect,  within  eight  days,  an 
official  or  vicar,  or  to  confirm  the  one  who 
is  established.  The  vicar  thus  elected  by 
the  Chapter  (cap itulum),  is  called  Capitu- 
lar Vicar.  Should  they  neglect  to  do  so, 
this  duty  will  devolve  on  the  metropoli- 
tan, or  in  case  that  the  metropolitan  see  is 
vacant,  then  this  duty  devolves  on  the 
most  ancient  bishop  among  the  sufifragans. 

Vicar  General. —  Name  given  to  the  ec- 
clesiastic, who  is  named  by  the  bishop  to 
exercise  his  voluntary  and  gracious  juris- 
diction, for  the  contentious  jurisdiction  is 
exercised  by  the  official  especially  ap- 
pointed by  tlie  bishop.  The  origin  of 
Vicar  Generals,  such  as  they  are  consti- 


tuted to-day,  does  not  appear  to  be  very 
ancient,  because  we  find  no  trace  thereof 
in  the  ancient  canons.  Their  powers  reg- 
ulate themselves,  on  the  one  hand,  accord- 
ing to  the  general  dispositions  of  canon 
law,  and  on  the  other,  according  to  the 
content  of  his  commission,  which  supplies 
what  the  law  does  not  express  and  some- 
times curtails  what  the  law  expresses  ;  for 
the  bishop  can,  in  his  commission,  limit 
the  power  of  the  Vicar  General,  and  forbid 
him  to  take  knowledge  of  certain  affairs, 
which  are,  moreover,  comprised  in  the  gen- 
eral commission.  The  common  practice  of 
the  Church  and  the  texts  of  canon  law  seem 
to  authorize  only  one  Vicar  General  for  a 
diocese. 

Vicar  or  Assistant. —  Name  given  to  the 
priest  who  assists  a  curate  in  the  pastoral 
functions.  He  has  for  title  only  the  mis- 
sion or  approbation  of  the  bishop,  who, 
consequently,  can  change  him  or  revoke 
him  at  will.  It  belongs  to  the  bishops  to 
judge  of  the  necessity  there  may  be  to  ap- 
point assistants  in  parishes.  The  Council 
of  Trent  attributes  this  power  to  them. 

Victor.  —  Bishop  of  Vita  in  Africa,  was 
exiled  by  the  Arian  King  Huneric.  He  is 
the  author  of  a  History  of  the  Vandalic 
Persecution  which  he  wrote  in  487,  and  is 
one  of  the  principal  sources  of  the  history 
of  the  Vandals. 

Victor  (name  of  three  Popes). —  Vic- 
tor I. —  Pope  from  192  to  201.  A  native 
of  Africa,  exerted  his  zeal  particularly  in 
the  controversy  relating  to  the  celebration 
of  Easter.  For  the  settling  of  this  ques- 
tion he  held  a  synod  at  Rome,  and  called 
upon  the  bishops  everywhere  to  meet  in 
Councils  for  the  same  purpose.  He  ex- 
communicated Theodotus  of  Byzantium 
and  decided  that  common  water  might,  in 
case  of  necessity,  be  used  in  baptism. 
Victor  II.  —  Pope  from  1054  to  1057.  A 
native  of  Germany.  He  continued  the 
reforms  begun  by  his  predecessors.  Held 
a  Council  in  the  presence  of  Emperor 
Henry  IH.  at  Florence,  in  which  decrees 
were  enacted  against  the  alienation  of 
Church  property,  and  the  prevailing  vices. 
Victor  III.  —  Pope  from  1086  to  1087. 
Owing  to  machinations  of  the  imperialists, 
he  dared  not  remain  long  in  Rome;  he  re- 
tired to  Lower  Italy.  In  1087,  he  held  a 
Council  at  Beneventum,  which  renewed 
the  excommunication  of  the  antipope, 
Guibert  of  Ravenna,  and  the  condemna- 
tion of  simony  and  lay  investiture. 


Victor 


703 


Vincent 


Victor  (St.).  —  Martyr  at  Marseilles. 
Soldier  in  the  Roman  armies,  upheld  the 
courage  of  the  Christians  during  persecu- 
tion, and  was  beheaded,  under  Diocletian 
and  Maximian  (290) .  With  him  suffered 
three  other  soldiers  whom  he  had  con- 
verted :  Alexander,  Felician,  and  Longinus. 
F.  July  2ist. 

Victorinus  (surnamed  Petaviensis  or 
Pictaviensis).  —  Latin  ecclesiastical 
writer,  bishop  of  Petavium  (Styria),  mar- 
tyr under  Diocletian,  about  303.  His 
works,  praised  by  St.  Jerome,  have  not 
reached  us;  they  confounded  him  often 
with  the  next. 

Victorinus  (Fabius  Marius)  (surnamed 
the  African).  —  A  famous  rhetorician, 
who  had  the  honor  of  having  a  statue  set 
up  in  the  Roman  Forum.  He  was  ad- 
vanced in  age,  when,  to  the  amazement  of 
the  pagans  and  the  joy  of  the  Christians, 
he  embraced  Christianity,  in  361.  He 
wrote  several  works  against  the  Arians 
and  Manicheans,  and  commentaries  on 
three  of  St.  Paul's  Epistles. 

Vienna  is  a  city  in  the  department  of 
Isere,  France,  sixteen  miles  south  of 
Lyons.  It  was  the  earliest  center  of  Chris- 
tianity in  Gaul.  The  Archbishop  of  Vi- 
enne  was  the  Primate  of  Gaul  until  the 
French  Revolution.  Several  ecclesiastical 
councils  were  held  there,  of  which  the 
most  important  is  that  of  1311-12,  in 
which  Pope  Clement  V.  suspended  the 
order  of  the  Templars  (Bull  of  May  2d, 
1312). 

Vigil,  we  call  the  day  that  immediately 
precedes  a  feast.  We  call  it  vigil  or 
watch,  because  in  ancient  times  the  Faith- 
ful assembled  in  the  churches  on  the  eve  of 
the  solemnities,  and  passed  therein  a  part 
of  the  night  in  praising  God  by  singing 
Psalms  and  reading  Holy  Scripture.  Sev- 
eral abuses  having  crept  into  these  noc- 
turnal assemblies,  the  Church  suppressed 
them,  with  the  exception  of  the  vigil  of 
Christmas.  The  office  commenced  gen- 
erally about  nine  o'clock  in  the  evening, 
and  ended  about  one  o'clock  in  the  morn- 
ing. The  Church  has  instituted  the  fast 
of  the  vigils  of  certain  great  feasts,  in  or- 
der that  detaching  ourselves  through  pen- 
ance and  mortification,  from  the  inordinate 
love  which  we  have  for  our  body,  we  may 
elevate  ourselves  more  easily  to  spiritual 
and   divine    things,   and    celebrate    more 


worthily  the  great  mysteries  of  religion. 
If  the  vigil  of  a  feast  falls  on  a  Sunday,  as, 
according  to  the  apostolic  constitutions,  it 
is  not  permitted  to  fast  on  this  day,  because 
it  is  a  day  of  rejoicing,  the  fast  is  advanced 
and  kept  on  Saturday.  Some  vigils  are 
celebrated  without  fasting,  like  that  of 
Epiphany  and  of  the  Ascension ;  the  rea- 
son why  the  Church  has  not  prescribed 
fasting  on  these  days,  is  because  it  appears 
incompatible  with  the  joy  with  which  the 
birth  and  resurrection  of  Christ  inspire 
us.  The  vigils  of  feasts  are  fast  days  of 
obligation.  They  are:  the  vigils  of  Eas- 
ter, Pentecost,  Assumption  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin,  All-Saints,  and  Christmas. 

Vigilantius  (Heretic  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury).—  A  priest  of  Barcelona,  Spain;  ac- 
companied St.  Jerome  into  Palestine  and, 
at  his  return  into  Gaul,  attacked  fasting 
and  the  veneration  of  saints  and  relics 
which  he  declared  a  pagan  superstition, 
celibacy  of  the  priests,  the  monks,  etc. 
He  was  refuted  by  St.  Jerome. 

Vigilius. —  Pope  from  540  to  555.  Born 
at  Rome;  papal  apocrisiary  in  Constanti- 
nople, was  forced  upon  the  Romans  as 
Pope  by  the  Empress  Theodora  in  536, 
against  the  legitimately  elected  Silverius. 
After  the  death  of  the  latter,  in  540,  Vigilius 
resigned  the  papal  dignity  which  he  had 
usurped,  but  was  then  canonically  re- 
elected, after  which  he  defended  the 
orthodox  doctrine,  and  declared  himself 
against  the  Monophysites.  Called  to  Con- 
stantinople by  Emperor  Justinian  (546), 
on  account  of  the  dispute  of  The  Three 
Chapters,  he  only  gave,  after  illtreatment, 
imprisonment  and  exile,  his  consent  to  the 
decrees  of  the  synod  of  Constantinople 
(Fifth  General  Council)  and  died  while  re- 
turning to  Syracuse,  in  555.  See  Chap- 
ters {The  Three). 

Vigilius.  —  Bishop  of  Thapsus,  in  Africa, 
about  the  end  of  the  fifth  century.  Per- 
secuted by  Huneric,  king  of  the  Vandals, 
he  retired  to  Constantinople.  He  wrote 
against  the  Arians,  Eutychians,  and  Nes- 
torians,  and  published  his  works  under 
the  name  of  St.  Augustine  and  St.  Athana- 
sius,  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  determine 
those  which  properly  belong  to  him. 

Vincent  (St.).  —  Deacon  and  martyr  of 
Saragossa  (304).  By  his  heroic  courage  in 
suffering  the  most  cruel  torments,  he  con- 
verted his  tormenter.     F.  Jan.  22d. 


Vincent  of  Beauvais 


704 


Virtues 


Vincent  of  Beauvais  (Lat.  Vincentius 
Bellovacensis). — A  Dominican  monk  of 
the  thirteenth  century,  friend  and  precep- 
tor of  Louis  IX.,  died  in  1264.  His  chief 
work  is  Speculum,  i.  e.,  Mirror,  encyclo- 
paedia of  universal  knowledge  in  his  time, 
and  contains  more  that  2,000  extracts  from 
works,  mostly  lost.  It  was  first  printed  at 
Strassburg,  1473. 

Vincent  of  Lerins  (St.).  —  Born  at  Toul, 
France,  died  about  450.  Monk  of  Lerins; 
rendered  himself  famous  by  his  admirable 
Commonitory  against  Heretics,  which  he 
composed  to  guard  the  Faithful  against 
the  snares  of  false  teachers.     F.  May  24th. 

Vincent  of  Paul  (St.).     Se^PAUL. 

Virginity  (state  of  being  a  virgin).  —  In 
religion,  the  state  of  a  person  that  has  re- 
nounced marriage  to  consecrate  herself  to 
God.  At  all  times,  and  in  all  nations,  this 
state  has  been  an  object  of  respect.  Sev- 
eral deities,  according  to  the  ideas  of  pa- 
gans, were  virgins.  Minerva,  Diana  were 
virgins ;  the  poets  call  Justitia  or  Themis 
the  virgin  par  excellence.  We  know  of  the 
veneration  the  Romans  had  for  the  vestals, 
that  of  the  Peruvians  for  the  virgins  con- 
secrated to  the  sun.  The  Chinese,  the 
savage  tribes  of  both  North  and  South 
America  also  honored  virginity.  Our 
Lord,  not  only  insisted  on  the  indissolu- 
bility of  marriage,  but  He  went  further, 
and  enjoined  under  certain  circumstances, 
complete  continence.  "  For  there  are  eu- 
nuchs who  have  made  themselves  eunuchs 
for  the  kingdom  of  heaven.  He  that  can 
take,  let  him  take  it"  (Matt.  xix.  12). 
No  sane  man  would  suggest  here  a  literal 
interpretation,  but  the  spiritual  interpreta- 
tion will  lead  of  necessity  to  the  doctrine 
of  voluntary  restraint,  for  the  sake  of  the 
kingdom  of  heaven.  It  does  not  con- 
travene the  doctrine  of  the  sacredness  of 
marriage,  but  it  suggests  a  higher  state  of 
perfection  for  those  to  whom  it  isgiven  by 
God  to  pass  their  lives  wholly  in  the  service 
of  the  Lord,  and  to  take,  as  their  model  not 
Martha  with  her  homely  carefulness  about 
many  things,  but  the  contemplative  Mary. 
The  God  —  Man  set  the  example  Him- 
self. The  disciples  copied  it  in  their  way ; 
for  we  are  not  aware  that  any  of  them  mar- 
ried after  entering  the  service  of  our  Lord  ; 
but  we  know  that  every  one  of  them  left 
all  things  and  followed  Him  ;  and  what  Jesus 
meant  by  "all  things"  we  learn  from  His 
own   words :   •'  Every  one   that  hath    left 


house,  or  brethren,  or  sisters,  or  father,  or 
mother,  or  wife,  or  children,  or  lands  for  my 
name's  sake,  shall  receive  a  hundred  fold, 
and  shall  possess  life  everlasting."  (Matt. 
xix.  29).  The  "  woman  "  or  "  sister  "  men- 
tioned in  I.  Cor.  ix.  5,  does  not  prove  that  the 
Apostles  went  on  their  missionary  journey's 
with  their  wives.  All  the  ancient  writers 
took  for  granted  that  John,  whom  the  Lord 
loved,  was  a  virgin.  Concerning  virgins, 
St.  Paul  gives  a  counsel  not  a  command  of 
the  Lord,  but  thinks  that  he  has  received 
from  the  Lord  the  grace  to  be  faithful.  The 
drift  of  the  counsel  is  that  it  is  good  for 
man  to  be  able  to  remain  even  as  he  is,  and 
that  the  married  should  live  as  unmarried. 
The  undivided  service  of  God  is  above 
earthly  considerations.  "  It  is  indisputa- 
ble," says  Weizacker,  "that  the  Apostle 
sets  out  with  the  conviction  that  virginity 
ranks  higher  than  the  married  state." 
Voluntary  continence  is  to  be  esteemed 
holy,  and  hence  the  glorious  state  of  vir- 
ginity is  to  be  honored.  In  the  course  of 
time,  virginity,  like  widowhood,  became  a 
widespread  institution  in  the  Church. 
Anyone  reading  the  spiritual  panegyrics 
of  the  Fathers :  Chrysostom,  Basil,  Am- 
brose, and  others  on  virgins  consecrated 
to  God,  must  feel  convinced  that  the 
Church  has  in  this,  solved  not  only  a  re- 
ligious and  moral,  but  even  a  great  social 
problem.  How  powerful  is  the  contrast 
drawn  by  St.  Ambrose  between  the  vestal 
virgins  of  Symmachus,  and  the  choir  of 
Christian  virgins. 

Virtue.  —  Virtue  is  that  habit  or  quality 
which  enables  and  inclines  us  to  do  good 
works ;  in  other  words,  it  is  the  facility 
and  constant  inclination  of  doing  the  will 
of  God.  Virtue  implies  more  than  a  single 
action.  He  who  has  performed  a  good  ac- 
tion is  not,  therefore,  virtuous ;  and  he  who 
has  done  an  evil  deed  may  still  be  virtuous. 
Virtue  denotes  a  permanent  quality,  a  last- 
ing fitness  and  facility  to  do  good.  As 
there  are  natural  and  supernatural  good 
works,  so  there  are  also  natural  and  super- 
natural virtues,  according  as  the  fitness 
and  facility  of  doing  good  has  been  natu- 
rally acquired  by  the  repetition  of  good 
actions  or  proceeds  from  a  supernatural 
source. 

Virtues  {Cardinal).  —  So  called  be- 
cause they  are  exercised  in  the  sphere  of 
moral  action^,  as  the  four  cardinal  points 
{car dines  coeli).  They  are  in  the  number 
of  four  and  contain  all  the  others :     i.  Pru- 


Virtues 


705 


Vision 


dence  :  moral  state  in  which  the  intelligence 
enables  the  understanding  of  what  is 
morally  good  to  do  or  to  avoid ;  a  virtue 
which  has  its  foundation  in  the  will,  which 
determines  the  direction  of  the  intellectual 
faculties.  It  comprehends  foresight,  cir- 
cumspection, suppleness,  modesty,  dis- 
trust. 2.  Justice :  it  consists  in  rendering 
to  each  what  belongs  to  him.  It  is  accom- 
panied with  piety,  devotion,  obedience,  re- 
spect, probity,  moderation,  gratitude, 
disinterestedness.  3.  Temperance:  it  con- 
sists in  the  control,  which  one  exercises 
over  his  affections,  passions,  and  instincts, 
which  he  subordinates  to  more  elevated 
purposes,  which  the  will  endeavors  to  at- 
tain. It  is  accompanied  with  sobriety, 
benevolence,  mildness,  humility  in  a  strict 
sense,  chastity  and  continence.  4.  Strength 
or  Courage,  which  reveals  itself  in  the 
moral  firmness  with  which  we  surmount 
obstacles,  opposed  to  the  consummation 
of  good.  With  courage  are  associated  pa- 
tience, perseverance,  magnanimity.  The 
Stoics  have  the  merit  of  being  the  first  to 
formulate  these  virtues  into  theory  and 
some  among  them  almost  put  them  into 
practice.  These  virtues  are  in  themselves 
the  accomplishment  of  the  natural  law. 
The  theological  virtues  are,  on  the  con- 
trary, especially  Christian  virtues. 

Virtues  (  Theological) .  —  Theological 
virtues  we  call :  Faith,  Hope,  and  Charity. 
These  virtues,  whether  considered  in 
themselves,  or  in  their  effects,  or  in  their 
growth  and  perfection,  occupy  the  first 
place  in  Christian  life.  If  compared  with 
the  moral  virtues,  the  theological  virtues 
occupy  the  place  of  the  end,  to  which  the 
former  are  a  means.  For,  by  the  moral 
virtues  we  are  inclined  so  to  regulate  our 
actions,  as  to  remove  all  obstacles  from  our 
union  with  God,  and  to  procure  the  means 
towards  our  union  with  Him.  By  the  di- 
vine virtues,  on  the  other  hand,  we  are 
actually  united  with  God  —  the  all-truthful, 
by  faith,  with  God  the  all-faithful,  by  hope, 
with  God  the  chief  good,  by  love.  In  the 
same  proportion,  therefore,  as  the  end  is 
superior  to  the  means,  the  divine  virtues 
are  superior  to  the  moral.  The  object  of 
the  Christian  life  is  to-  prepare  us  for  the 
future  possession  of  God,  our  supernatural 
end.  Now,  this  end  is  chiefly  attained  by 
the  three  theological  virtues.  For  faith 
teaches  us  to  know  God  as  our  super- 
natural end ;  hope  arouses  in  us  the  long- 
ing to  possess  Him ;  love  unites  us  with 
45 


Him  as  far  as  this  is  possible  here  on 
earth.  The  three  divine  virtues  comprise 
the  entire  Christian  life.  For  faith  is  the 
beginning  of  salvation,  the  foundation 
and  root  of  justice;  the  hope  of  the  posses- 
sion of  God,  as  the  object  of  eternal  hap- 
piness urges  us  to  implore  God's  grace 
and  to  make  use  of  the  means  of  grace ; 
charity  insures  the  observance  of  God's 
commandments,  since  it  is  active  in  its 
very  nature,  and  cannot  exist  without  the 
fulfillment  of  the  law.  The  growth  and 
perfection  of  the  three  divine  virtues  im- 
ply at  the  same  time  the  increase  and  per- 
fection o^  the  whole  internal  spiritual  life. 
Since  the  divine  virtues  are  infused  into 
the  soul  as  permanent  habits  to  enable  us 
to  perform  the  functions  of  supernatural 
life,  it  follows  that  in  proportion  as  the 
supernatural  life  itself,  or  sanctifying 
grace,  is  augmented,  those  virtues  them- 
selves are  increased  and  perfected.  The 
theological  virtues  are,  consequently,  in- 
creased by  the  same  means  as  sanctifying 
grace  itself. 

Vision  {Intuitive)  or  Beatific  Vision  we 

call  the  vision  by  which  the  Bles.sed  see 
God  in  heaven.  Some  heretics  have  pre- 
tended that  man,  through  the  sole  power 
of  nature,  can  arrive  at  the  intuitive  vision 
of  God ;  this  error  has  been  condemned  by 
the  Council  of  Vienne  (1311).  It  is  evi- 
dent, indeed,  that  for  the  meritorious 
works,  which  are  the  means  of  salvation, 
man  is  in  need  of  grace,  with  much  more 
reason  is  he  in  need  of  supernatural  help 
for  salvation  itself,  which  is  in  itself  noth- 
ing but  the  beatific  vision.  The  Church 
teaches  that  the  just  who  are  free  from  all 
sin  and  all  punishment  due  to  sin  enjoy 
beatific  vision  immediately  after  death. 
Pope  John  XXII.  had,  speaking  in  his  per- 
sonal name  and  as  individual  doctor, 
taught  that,  until  the  day  of  resurrection, 
the  souls  would  not  see  the  face  of  God, 
and  that  the  Blessed  enjoy  only  the  vision 
of  the  humanity  of  Christ.  If  he  did  not 
teach  this,  as  received  doctrine,  in  the 
Latin  Church,  it  was  at  least  his  desire, 
that  this  opinion  should  be  considered  as 
problematical.  But  he  never  decided  any- 
thing about  the  subject,  and,  at  the  ap- 
proach of  death  he  retracted  all  he  might 
have  said  and  believed  about  the  question. 
This  doctrine,  borrowed  from  the  Greeks, 
and  which  apparently  could  not  be  recon- 
ciled with  that  of  the  invocation  of  saints, 
excited  the  minds  a  good  deal.     The  Paris 


Visit  ad  Limina 


706 


SS.  Apostolorum 


University  declared  it  erroneous;  twenty- 
four  theologians  of  the  theological  faculty 
of  Paris,  assembled  by  King  Philip  the 
Fair,  decided  that  the  souls  of  the  Blessed 
are  admitted  to  a  clear,  intuitive,  beatific 
and  immediate  vision  of  the  divine  essence, 
a  vision  which  the  Apostle  calls  "  face  to 
face."  Pope  Benedict  XI.  and  the  Coun- 
cil of  Florence  decided  the  question  like 
the  doctors  of  the  Paris  University  did. 
The  Council  of  Trent  confirmed  these  de- 
cisions. Protestants  have  made  use  of  this 
circumstance  to  argue  against  the  infalli- 
bility of  the  Pope;  they  refuse  to  admit 
that  Pope  John  XXII.  spoke  here  only  in 
his  individual  name  and  not  ex  cathedra 
and  as  head  of  the  Church.  This  truth 
had  not  yet  been  defined  as  an  article  of 
faith.  This  was  done  only  in  the  Council 
of  Florence  (1439). 

In  what  does  the  intuitive  vision  consist? 
It  is  not  an  ideal  representation  of  the 
Deity,  such  as  we  have  in  this  life,  but  an 
immediate  manifestation  which  God  makes 
of  Himself  to  the  Blessed.  St.  Paul  speaks 
of  this  vision  when  he  says :  "  We  see 
now  through  a  glass  in  a  dark  manner; 
but  then  face  to  face"  (I.  Cor.  xiii.  12). 
And  we  read  in  the  Gospel:  "The  angels 
in  heaven  always  see  the  face  of  my 
Father  who  is  in  heaven "  (Matt,  xviii. 
10).  Moreover,  the  theologians  say  that 
the  Blessed  see  all  things  in  the  Word,  as 
in  a  (concentric)  looking-glass  wherein  all 
things  reflect  themselves,  for  it  is  in  His 
Word  that  God  has  the  ideas  of  all  things. 
The  beatific  vision  is  not  for  all  alike : 
"  There  are  several  mansions  in  the  house 
of  my  Father,"  .says  our  Lord  (John  xiv. 
2).  And  the  Apostle  says:  "One  star 
differs  in  brightness  from  another  star " 
(I.  Cor.  xiv.  41).  This  vision,  although 
intuitive,  will  not,  on  this  account,  be 
completive,  that  is,  the  created  spirit,  al- 
though assisted  by  the  light  of  glory,  will 
nevertheless  not  be  capable  of  embracing 
the  whole  extent  of  the  divine  essence,  and 
the  creature  is  essentially  limited.  Al- 
though it  is  not  absolutely  repugnant  that 
God  may  grant,  in  the  present  life,  to  a 
man,  the  beatific  vision,  nevertheless, 
theologians  generally  agree  that  God 
never  did  grant  this  to  any  creature. 

Visit    ad     Limina    SS.     Apostolorum 

(visiting  the  place  where  the  Pope  re- 
sides).—  The  Pope  has  supreme  and 
unappealable  jurisdiction,  not  only  in 
matters   of  faith  and   morals,  but  also  of 


discipline.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  sovereign 
Pontiff  to  watch  over  the  discipline  of  the 
entire  Church.  He  must,  therefore,  know 
the  condition  of  all  the  churches  or 
dioceses  in  the  world.  Hence,  he  must 
have  the  right  to  demand  from  bishops  an 
account  of  the  state  of  the  dioceses. 
Bishops,  therefore,  are  obliged  to  visit 
Rome  in  person  at  certain  intervals,  and 
report  the  exact  state  of  their  dioceses. 
The  bishops  of  Italy  and  Greece  must  go  to 
Rome  once  every  three  years ;  the  bishops 
of  Germany,  France,  Spain,  Portugal, 
Belgium,  England,  Scotland,  once  every 
four  years ;  the  bishops  of  Ireland,  of  the 
rest  of  Europe,  of  North  Africa,  once 
every  five  years;  finally,  the  bishops  of 
America,  once  every  ten  years.  From 
this  right  of  supreme  direction,  inherent 
in  the  Pontiff,  there  follows  to  him  the 
right,  in  the  exercise  of  this  his  office,  of 
freely  communicating  with  the  pastors 
and  flocks  of  the  whole  Church. 

Visitation  (Episcopal). — A  bishop,  in 
order  to  be  able  to  properly  govern  his  dio- 
cese, and  report  correctly  to  the  Holy 
See,  when  he  pays  his  visit  ad  sacra  limina, 
should  be  well  informed  of  the  state  of  his 
diocese.  Now,  he  can  best  inform  himself 
on  this  head  by  traveling  over  his  diocese, 
and  thus  personally  inspect  the  condi- 
tion of  its  various  churches.  In  the  East, 
bishops  from  the  earliest  times  deputed 
priests  to  make  the  visitation ;  while  in  the 
West  bishops  were,  in  the  sixth  century, 
obligated  to  personally  traverse  or  visit 
their  dioceses.  These  visitations  which 
had  to  some  extent,  fallen  into  desuetude, 
were  re-established  by  the  Council  of  Trent, 
and  made  obligatory  on  bishops  and  others 
having  the  right  to  make  visitations.  The 
object  of  visitations  is  chiefly  to  maintain 
sound  doctrine  and  preserve  good  morals, 
correct  abuses,  etc. 

Visitation  (i^.eaj/  of  the).  —  Festival  in- 
stituted in  commemoration  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin  visiting  her  cousin,  St.  Elisabeth. 
It  is  celebrated  on  July  2d.  Established  by 
St.  Bona  venture,  in  1263,  for  the  Order  of 
St.  Francis,  it  was  extended  to  the  univer- 
sal Church  by  Urban  VI.  in  1379. 

Visitation  ( Order  of  the).  — A  religious 
order  founded  by  the  joint  efforts  of  two 
devout  souls,  viz.,  St.  Francis  de  Sales 
(see  this  subject)  and  Madame  Frances  de 
Chantal,  at  Annecy,  in  1610.  The  mem- 
bers of  the  congregation  were  not  at  first 


VlTALIANUS 


707 


Vulgate 


strictly  bound  to  observe  the  rules  of  the 
religious  bodies  living  in  common,  the 
chief  aim  of  the  good  ladies  being  pri- 
marily to  serve  the  sick.  Some  time  later, 
St.  Francis  enjoined  upon  them  the  ob- 
servance of  the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine,  to 
which  he  added  some  particular  constitu- 
tions of  his  own;  and  in  1618  Pope  Paul  V. 
raised  the  congregation  to  the  rank  of  a 
religious  order,  under  the  title  of  the  "  Or- 
der of  the  Visitation  of  the  Blessed  Vir- 
gin." To  their  original  purpose,  that  of 
educating  the  youth  of  their  own  sex  was 
now  added.  Before  the  death  of  St.  Francis, 
the  Order  counted  eighty-seven  houses  in 
France  and  Savoy  alone,  and  since  that 
time  they  have  become  numerous  in  Italy, 
Germany,  Poland,  and  North  America. 

Vitalianus.  —  Pope  from  657  to  672. 
Born  at  Segni  in  Campania;  had  to  com- 
bat the  Monothelites  as  well  as  the  schism  cf 
Ravenna.  He  insisted  on  the  ecclesiastical 
discipline,  and  introduced  into  England 
the  ecclesiastical  hierarchy  (668)  through 
Theodore,  archbishop  of  Canterbury.  He 
has  left  eleven  Letters. 

Voltaire  (FRANgois  Marie  Arouet 
de)  (1694-1778).  —  French  writer  and 
poet;  was  born  at  Paris,  and  when  ten 
years  old  entered  the  Jesuit  College.  Be- 
fore he  was  out  of  college  he  began  writ- 
ing poetry.  His  wit  as  well  as  the 
iniluence  of  his  godfather,  the  Abb^  de 
Chateauneuf,  secured  for  him  an  intro- 
duction into  the  most  aristocratic  circles 
of  Parisian  society.  But  the  freedom  of 
his  utterances  soon  brought  him  into  trou- 
ble. Between  1716  and  1726  he  was  twice 
exiled  from  Paris,  and  twice  thrown  a 
prisoner  into  the  Bastille.  In  1725  he  had 
to  leave  the  country  and  then  went  to 
England,  where  he  stayed  three  years.  In 
1729  he  returned  to  France,  and  in  1750 
'we  find  Voltaire  at  the  court  of  Berlin, 
where  he  stayed  three  years,  the  result  be- 
ing a  quarrel  with  Frederick  II.,  king  of 
Prussia.  Soon  after  this  he  settled  at 
Ferney,  where  the  rest  of  his  life  was 
spent.  His  literary  works  embrace  70  oc- 
tavo volumes.  Voltaire  was  the  chief  of 
the  French  philosophers  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  who  had  entered  a  systematic 
warfare  against  Christianity.  Voltaire's 
watchword  was:  Ecrassez  Vinfa7ne'. 
(Crush  ilie  infamous  thing'!)  thereby 
meaning  Christianity.  His  glowing  and 
fervent  hate  speaks  out  in  his  witty  and 
obscene  pages.     He  calls  the  narrative  of 


Holy  Writ  imitations  of  the  mythological 
fables,  and  revives  the  calumnies  of  Cel- 
sus  against  the  Apostles  and  the  first  Chris- 
tians. He  overwhelms  the  ceremonies  of 
the  Church,  the  bishops  and  priests,  with 
a  stream  of  insults  and  vile  suspicions. 

Vo^y. —  A  vow  is  a  solemn  and  deliberate 
promise,  given  with  full  understanding  of 
the  gravity  of  the  obligation  and  duty  en- 
tered upon,  and  with  free  consent,  by  which 
we  make  some  formal  engagement  with 
God,  and  in  His  service,  from  which  we  can- 
not release  ourselves  without  sin,  either 
mortal  or  venial,  according  to  the  character 
of  the  vow  made.  '*  If  any  man  make  a 
vow  to  the  Lord,  or  bind  himself  by  an  oath  : 
he  shall  not  make  his  word  void  but  shall 
fulfill  all  that  he  promised  "  (Num.  xxx.  3). 
A  vow  may  be  positive,  that  is,  uncondi- 
tional; conditional,  that  is,  to  be  executed 
under  certain  circumstances;  personal, 
that  is,  binding  no  other  person;  real, 
that  is,  concerning  the  gift  of  some  object, 
an  obligation  which  may  descend  to  suc- 
cessors ;  temporary,  that  is,  for  a  time  only ; 
perpetual,  that  is,  forever;  private,  that 
is,  peculiar  to  one's  self;  of  religion,  that 
is,  a  vow  made  to  enter  a  religious  order. 
A  vow  ceases  to  be  binding,  only,  when  a 
change  of  circumstances  renders  its  ac- 
complishment impracticable,  or  so  exceed- 
ingly difficult  as  to  cause  undue  detriment 
to  the  person  concerned.  Also,  when  the 
obligation  is  annulled  or  suspended  by  a 
superior,  to  whom  the  person  taking  the 
vow  is  really  subject.  Also,  when  dispen- 
sation or  commutation  is  obtained  by  ec- 
clesiastical authority  in  the  power  our 
Lord  gave  His  Church  to  "bind"  and  to 
"loose"  (Matt.  xvi.  19;  xviii.  18).  Avow 
should  never  be  undertaken  without  mature 
reflection,  ample  time  for  consideration, 
and  advice  from  a  spiritual  director  who 
knows  all  the  circumstances  and  conditions 
involved,  and  who  has  full  power  to  judge 
and  counsel. 

Vulgate.  —  Latin  version  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  which  is  in  use  in  the  Catholic 
Church.  It  replaced,  in  the  Latin  Church, 
the  ancient  version  called  Italic,  and  has 
always  enjoyed  a  great  authority.  The 
Council  of  Trent  has  declared  it  authentic 
and  prescribed  its  usage  in  controversies, 
public  readings,  preaching  and  in  explain- 
ing the  Scriptures,  by  giving  to  it  the  pref- 
erence over  all  the  other  versions,  and  by 
declaring  expressly  that  nobody,  under 
whatever  pretext  it  might  be,  should  have 


Waldenses 


708 


Walsh 


the  audacity  or  presnmption  to  reject  it. 
The  Vulgate  comprises:  i.  The  proto- 
canonical  books  of  the  Old  Testament, 
translated  by  St.  Jerome  from  the  Hebrew, 
and  the  Books  of  Tobias  and  Judith,  trans- 
lated from  the  Chaldaic.  2.  Books  of  the 
Old  Testament,  such  as  they  were  found  in 
the  ancient  Italic,  that  is  the  Book  of  Wis- 
dom, Ecclesiasticus,  Baruch,  the  first  and 
second  of  the  Machabees,  and  the  letter  of 
Jeremias.  St.  Jerome,  it  is  true,  had  trans- 
lated the  whole  Psalter  from  the  Hebrew ; 
but  this  version  has  not  been  adopted,  on 
account  of  the  long  usage  one  had  made  in 
the  Church  of  the  Psalter  of  the  ancient 
Italic.  3.  The  Books  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment of  the  ancient  Italic,  corrected  from 
the  Greek  text  by  the  same  Father,  accord- 
ing to  the  request  of  Pope  Damasus.  St. 
Isidore  of  Sevilla,  affirmed,  about  the  year 
630,  that  the  version  of  the  Sacred  Scrip- 


tures, made  from  the  Hebrew  into  Latin 
by  St.  Jerome,  was  generally  in  use  in  all 
the  Churches.  It  is  certain  that,  shortly 
after  the  time  of  St.  Isidore,  all  the  Laun 
Churches  made  use  exclusively  of  the  new 
Vulgate,  with  the  exception  of  the  Psalter 
according  to  the  Septuagint,  which  has 
been  preserved.  Thus  the  force  of  custom, 
as  well  as  the  unanimous  consent  of  the 
Churches  by  introducing  the  Vulgate,  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  decrees  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Trent.  The  famous  Protestant 
interpreter  Drusius  praises  the  Council 
for  having  given  to  the  Vulgate  the  sanc- 
tion of  its  authority,  "  because,"  he  says, 
"  the  new  versions  are  no  better  and  have 
perhaps  greater  defects."  As  to  the  di- 
verse editions  of  our  Vulgate,  we  limit 
ourselves  here  to  point  out  that  of  the 
learned  Barnabite  Father  Charles  Vercel- 
lonne,  Rome,  1861. 


w 


Waldenses  (a  sect  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury). —  The  Waldenses  derive  their 
name  from  their  founder,  Peter  Waldo,  a 
rich  merchant  of  Lyons.  The  sudden 
death  of  a  near  relative  caused  him  to  re- 
tire from  the  world  and  to  dedicate  him- 
self to  a  life  of  poverty  and  to  the 
instruction  of  the  people.  He  conceived 
the  design  of  bringing  back  the  Church, 
which,  in  his  opinion,  by  its  wealth  and 
temporal  possessions,  had  become  corrupt, 
to  primitive  and  apostolical  simplicity. 
He  gathered  disciples  around  him  and 
sent  them  two  by  two  into  the  neighboring 
villages  to  preach  the  Gospel.  They  were 
known  as  the  "  Poor  Men  of  Lyons," 
while  they  styled  themselves  the  "  Humble 
Ones"  from  their  affected  humility.  The 
earlier  Waldenses  probably  contemplated 
no  secession  from  the  universal  Church, 
and  were  treated  at  first  as  Schismatics,  for 
usurping  the  functions  of  the  priesthood 
and  refusing  obedience  to  the  ecclesias- 
tical authorities.  Although  mere  laymen 
they  presumed  to  preach,  notwithstanding 
they  had  been  interdicted  by  their  ordi- 
nary, and  by  Pope  Alexander  III.  Pope 
Lncias  III.,  in  1184,  formerly  excommuni- 
cated them  together  with  other  heretics. 
But  they  refused  to  submit,  and  persisted 
in  preaching,  claiming  that  they  had  a 
divine  mission  therefor,  and  that,  conse- 
quently, they  must  obey  God  rather  than 


man.  Their  rebellion  against  the  Church 
naturally  led  the  Waldenses  into  heresy. 
The  Church  of  Rome,  they  asserted, 
ceased  to  be  the  true  Church,  from  the 
time  it  possessed  temporalities.  They  re- 
pudiated the  priesthood  and  the  entire 
ritual  system,  except  communion  and 
preaching,  rejected  prayers  for  the  dead, 
purgatory,  festivals,  and  the  invocation  of 
the  saints;  they  claimed  the  right  to 
preach  and  administer  the  sacraments  for 
laymen,  and  even  for  women.  They  de- 
voted much  of  their  time  to  the  reading 
of  the  Bible,  of  which  they  admitted  only 
a  literal  interpretation.  Peter  Waldo  is 
said  to  have  died  in  Bohemia.  His  sect 
spread  throughout  Southern  France,  Upper 
Italy,  Bohemia,  and  even  Spain.  The  Wal- 
denses have  maintained  themselves  in  the 
mountains  of  Dauphine  and  the  Pied- 
montese  Alps,  down  to  the  present  day. 
They  count  about^ 20,000  members.  In  the 
sixteenth  century,  they  united  in  Bohemia 
with  the  Hussites,  and  in  France  with  the 
Calvinists. 

Walsh  (William  J.).  —  A  Roman  Cath- 
olic prelate  and  Primate  of  Ireland ;  born 
in  Dublin,  1841 ;  educated  at  St.  Lawrence, 
O'Toole's  Seminary  in  Dublin,  at  the 
Catholic  University  of  Ireland,  at  May- 
nooth  College,  and  at  the  Dunboyne  Es- 
tablishment.    In  1867  he  was  professor  of 


Washing  of  Feet 


709 


Water 


theology  at  Maynooth;  in  1878  vice-presi- 
dent of  the  college,  and  in  1880  its  presi- 
dent. In  1885  he  was  appointed  archbishop 
of  Dublin.  He  interested  himself  in  the 
political  and  industrial  condition  of  Ire- 
land; advocated  some  system  of  arbitra- 
tion for  the  settlement  of  disputes  between 
landlords  and  tenants ;  urged  an  equality 
between  Catholics  and  Protestants  in  Ire- 
land in  educational  privileges ;  and  actively 
intervened  in  the  settlement  of  strikes  in 
Dublin  and  on  the  Great  Southern  and 
Western  railway  in  1890.  His  work  in  the 
cause  of  sobriety  resulted  in  temperance 
organizations  in  all  the  dioceses  of  his  offi- 
cial province.  He  contributed  to  the  Con- 
temporary RevieTV,  the  Dublin  Revietv, 
and  to  the  Irish  Ecclesiastical  Record. 
Among  his  published  works  are  :  Human 
Acts;  Harmony  of  the  Gospel  Narrative 
of  the  Passion;  Plai?i  Exposition  of  the 
Land  Act  of  1881;  A  Statement  of  the 
Chief  Grievances  of  the  Catholics  of 
Ireland  in  the  Matter  of  Education,  Pri- 
mary, Intermediate,  and  University;  Bi- 
metallism and  Monometallism  (1894). 

Washing  of  Feet.  —  The  magnificent 
office  of  Holy  Thursday  concludes,  in 
some  churches,  with  the  washing  of  feet. 
This  ceremony  is  founded  on  the  action  of 
our  Saviour,  washing  the  feet  of  His  Apos- 
tles (John  xiii.  13).  The  early  Christians 
practiced  it,  not  only  to  renew  the  memory 
of  what  the  Saviour  had  done,  but  also  to 
perform  an  act  of  humility  and  charity. 
Hence,  among  them,  the  universal  and  sa- 
cred custom  of  washing  the  feet  of  guests. 
In  the  course  of  time,  when  people  of 
the  world  had  ceased  to  wash  the  feet  of 
their  guests,  the  Church,  not  wishing  to 
part  with  a  custom  so  pious  and  instructive, 
made  it  a  regular  practice,  intended  to 
perpetuate  the  memory  of  our  Lord's  act 
from  generation  to  generation.  She  wished 
that  her  principal  ministers  should  wash 
the  feet  of  the  clergy,  representing  the 
Apostles,  or  of  the  poor,  as  subjects  to- 
wards whom  it  was  proper  to  exercise  that 
humility  which  the  Saviour  so  much  rec- 
ommended by  His  abasement.  And  be- 
hold !  for  so  many  ages  the  world,  on 
Holy  Thursday  every  year,  sees  Popes, 
bishops,  emperors,  kings,  and  queens, 
humbly  prostrate  before  some  poor  people, 
washing  their  feet  and  kissing  them  re- 
spectfully, and  considering  themselves 
highly  honored  in  being  allowed  to  walk 
thus  in  the  footsteps  of  the  Man  —  God. 


Washing  of  Hands.  —  Before  he  robes 
himself  in  the  eucharistic  vestments,  the 
priest,  clad  in  his  cassock,  washes  the  tips 
of  his  fingers.  It  has  been  invariably  the 
custom,  at  all  times,  and  in  every  nation, 
for  the  ministers  of  the  altar  to  wash  their 
hands  previous  to  offering  the  sacrifice. 
The  old  Law  expressly  commanded  this 
observance  (Ex.  xxx.  18-20).  Though  re- 
spect alone  for  the  decorum  of  religion, 
would  inspire  such  a  practice,  however, 
the  Church  attaches  a  spiritual  meaning  to 
it,  and  studies  to  convey  to  her  ministers, 
by  the  symbol  of  exterior  ablution,  in- 
structions to  cleanse  the  heart  by  an  in- 
terior piety,  which  she  teaches  them  to 
solicit  in  prayer  particularly  adapted  to 
the  purpose. 

Water  {Holy).  —  The  use  of  holy  water 
is  an  act  of  piety  instituted  by  the  Church, 
common  among  the  Faithful,  and  em- 
ployed in  all  religious  ceremonies.  Holy 
water  is  used  to  drive  away  all  that  is  evil 
and  impure,  and  to  draw  down  divine  aid 
upon  us,  whether  for  the  good  of  our  soul 
or  body.  That  holy  water  is  productive 
of  these  effects  we  know  from  the  prayers 
of  the  Church  while  blessing  it,  which 
asks  of  God  all  that  is  beneficial  to  the 
bodies  and  souls  of  those  who  make  use  of 
it,  and  the  banishment  of  what  is  foul  and 
corrupt.  These  prayers  are  efficacious 
from  the  promises  made  in  favor  of  faith, 
and  the  power  given  to  the  Church.  We 
also  know  that  holy  water  avails  to  pro- 
cure the  remission  of  sins,  if  those  who 
employ  it  are  rightly  disposed.  It  is  a 
customary  practice  to  make  the  sign  of 
the  cross  with  holy  water  on  entering  or 
quitting  a  church ;  and  at  home  in  illness, 
temptation,  or  danger;  a  practice  we 
should  ever  keep  up  in  a  spirit  of  faith 
and  penitence,  that  we  may  derive,  there- 
from, all  the  salutary  effects  it  meant  to 
produce.  Holy  water  is  also  used  by  the 
priest  in  the  sprinkling  of  the  altar,  and 
the  Faithful,  whether  living  or  dead,  and 
of  any  object  of  piety  blessed  by  the 
Church. 

Both  the  Jews  and  pagans  made  use  of 
water  in  the  ceremonies  of  worship,  by 
giving  to  it  the  symbolical  meaning  of 
cleansing  the  soul.  The  pagans  sprinkled 
themselves  with  lustral  water  in  entering 
the  temple  or,  sometimes,  the  priests 
made  this  aspersion  by  using  a  green 
branch.  The  Jews  employed  the  hyssop. 
In  the  temple,  between  the  tabernacle  and 


Weights  and  Measures 


710 


Westphalia 


altar,  there  was  a  brazen  basin  for  the 
purification  of  the  priests.  The  Greek, 
like  the  Latin  Church,  blesses  holy  water 
and  sprinkles  it  around  the  church  and 
upon  the  congregation,  just  as  we  do. 
Once  a  year,  on  the  feast  of  Epiphany,  the 
Greeks,  Armenians,  and  other  Oriental 
Christians  perform  a  more  solemn  bless- 
ing of  the  holy  water  in  commemoration 
of  the  Baptism  of  Christ  in  the  river  Jor- 
dan. 

Vases  containing  holy  water  are  placed 
on  the  right  side  of  all  entrances  to  churches 
and  chapels.  Into  these  the  Faithful  dip 
the  tips  of  the  fingers  of  their  right  hand, 
and  afterwards  make  the  sign  of  the  cross. 
It  is  in  this  manner  that  the  Church  en- 
deavors to  address  her  children  at  the 
very  threshold  of  the  tabernacle,  and  to 
exhort  them  to  understand,  bj'  the  water 
which  she  holds  out  to  them,  that  they 
must  bring  purity  and  cleanness  of  heart  to 
the  sanctuary,  and  thus  comply  with  the 
exhortations  of  St.  Paul,  and  "  lift  up  pure 
hands  "  to  the  throne  of  Him  whose  cross 
they  have  just  figured  on  their  foreheads, 
and  through  the  merit  of  whose  death  and 
suflFering  they  can  alone  expect  to  receive 
the  pardon  of  their  sins  and  obtain  eternal 
life. 

Weights  and  Measures.  —  The  ancient 
Hebrews  weighed  all  the  gold  and  silver 
used  in  trade.  The  shekel,  the  mineh,  the 
talent,  were  all  original  names  of  weights. 
The  "shekel  of  the  sanctuary"  (Ex.  xxx. 
13)  was  the  standard  weight,  preserved  in 
some  apartment  of  the  sanctuary.  The 
weights  of  the  Jews  were  the  shekel  (Amos 
viii.  5),  half  an  ounce  avoirdupois;  the 
mineh  or  mina  (Ezech.  xlv.  12),  100  shekels 
or  50  ounces  =  3  pounds,  2  ounces  avoir- 
dupois; and  the  talent  (II.  Ki.  xii.  30), 
3,000  shekels,  30  maneh,  1,500  ounces  =  93 
pounds,  12  ounces  avoirdupois.  The  Ro- 
man money  mentioned  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment is  thus  valued  in  the  U.  S.  coinage 
mite  =  $1.87 ;  2  mites  =  i  farthing  =  $3.75 ; 
4  farthings  =1  penny  ^15  cts. ;  100 
pence  =  i  pound  =  $15.00. 

Measures  of  Length  were  derived  from 
the  human  body,  «.  e.,  from  the  finger, 
hand,  and  arm,  not  the  foot  or  pace.  The 
hand-breadth  (III.  Ki.  vii.  26)  was  the 
breadth  of  four  fingers,  from  3  to  3)^ 
inches.  The  span  (Lam.  ii.  20)  was  the 
distance  from  the  extremity  of  the  thumb 
to  that  of  the  little  finger,  stretched  as  far 
apart  as  possible,  say  9  to  10  inches.     The 


i  cubit,  the  distance  from  the  elbow  to  the 
!  end  of  the  middle  finger,  about  18  inches. 
The  cubit,  however,  varied  somewhat. 
The  fathom  (Acts  xxvii.  28)  was  from  6  to 
6)^  feet.  The  measuring  reed  (Ezech. 
xlii.  16)  was  6  cubits,  or  from  10  to  ir  feet. 
The y"«r/o«^  (Luke  xxiv.  13)  was  a  Greek 
measure  =  one-eighth  of  a  mile  or  40  rods. 
The  mile,  mentioned  only  once  (Matt. 
V.  41),  was  the  Roman  miliarium,  which 
contained  1,000  paces  =  1618  yards;  but 
the  Jewish  mile  was  longer  or  shorter  ac- 
cording to  the  pace  in  use  in  the  various 
parts  of  the  country.  The  Sabbath  Day's 
journey  (Acts  i.  12)  was  the  distance  tra- 
dition said  one  might  travel  on  the  rest- 
day  without  breaking  the  law,  about  seven- 
eighths  of  a  mile.  '  A  day's  journey  (Num. 
xi.  31 ;  Luke  ii.  44)  indicated  the  distance 
which  a  person  ordinarily  accomplishes  on 
foot  or  on  a  camel,  about  20  miles. 

Measures  of  Capacity. — The  dry  meas- 
ures were  the  cab  or  kab  {hollow)  (IV.  Ki. 
vi.  25),  one-third  of  an  omer  or  2  pints; 
the  omer  (a  sheaf),  the  tenth  of  an  ephah 
or  6  pints  (Ex.  xvi.  36);  the seah  {measure), 
one-third  of  an  ephah  or  20  pints  (Gen. 
xviii.  6;  Matt.  xiii.  33;  Luke  xiii.  21), 
the  ordinary  measure  for  household  pur- 
poses; the  homer  or  cor  (Is.  v.  10),  the 
largest  dry  measure  of  the  Hebrews,  100 
omers  or  600  pints,  about  8  of  our  bushels. 
The  Roman  modius,  translated  "  bushel  " 
(Matt.  v.  15),  was  nearly  the  same  as  the 
English  peck. 

The  liquid  measures  were  the  log  {basin), 
which  was  the  smallest,  and  contained  one- 
twelfth  of  a  hin  or  about  five-sixths  of  a 
pint  (Lev.  xiv.  10);  the  hin,  one-sixth  of  a 
bath,  the  largest,  and  containing  one-tenth 
of  a  homer,  7)^  gallons  or  60  pints  (III.  Ki. 
vii.  26).  The  firkin  (John  ii.  6)  was  a 
Greek  measure  containing  7^  gallons. 

Wesel  (John).  —  German  theologian, 
died  in  1481.  Vice  rector  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Erfurt.  He  is  regarded  as  one  of 
the  precursors  of  Reformation.  He  in- 
veighed against  the  hierarchy,  rejected 
transubstantiation  and  indulgences,  and 
denied  the  right  of  the  Church  to  expound 
the  Scriptures,  which  he  asserted  belonged 
to  Christ.  He  was  sentenced  to  confine- 
ment in  the  Augustinian  monastery  at 
Mentz,  in  1479,  where  he  died  two  years 
later. 

Wesley  (John).     See  Methodists. 

Westphalia  (Peace  of).    See  Peace. 


Whitefield 


711 


William  of  Tyre 


Whitefield  (Gborgk).  See  Metho- 
dists. 

Whitsunday.  —  The  common  English 
name  for  Pentecost. 

Wilfrid  (St.)  (634-709).  —  English  Pre- 
late, born  in  Northumberland.  Of  noble 
origin,  monk  of  Lindisfarne,  founder  of  the 
monastery  of  Stamford  (661)  of  that  of 
Ripon,  of  which  he  became  abbot.  Arch- 
bishop of  York  in  669,  he  was  banished  on 
account  of  his  zeal  for  the  defense  of 
ecclesiastical  laws  against  the  powerful  of 
that  time  (677-686,  689).  He  was  cast,  the 
first  time,  on  the  shores  of  Friesland; 
evangelized  that  country  and  thus  prepared 
the  ground  for  St.  Wilibrord,  and  on  the 
return  to  his  country,  •died  in  the  mon- 
astery of  Oundla.     F.  Oct.  12th. 

Wilibrord  (St.)  (658 (?)-738).  — Apostle 
of  the  Frisians.  He  was  a  native  of  North- 
umbria  and  was  educated  in  the  monas- 
tery of  Ripon.  To  prepare  himself  for  his 
mission,  he  went  to  Ireland,  where  he  had 
as  masters  the  monks  Egbert  and  Wig- 
bert,  who  had  spent  two  years  preaching 
the  Gospel  in  Friesland.  In  691,  with 
eleven  associates,  Wilibrord  entered  upon 
his  mission  and  labored  with  wonderful 
success  in  that  part  of  Friesland  which 
had  been  conquered  by  the  Franks.  In 
696,  he  repaired  to  Rome  and  was  made 
bishop  by  Pope  Sergius  I.  over  all  the 
converted  Frisians.  He  fixed  his  see  at 
Utrecht  and  extended  his  mission  as  far 
as  Denmark.    F.  Nov.  7th. 

Will  ( Free)  and  Grace.    See  Grace. 

Wills  in  Christ.  —  Our  Lord  had  two 
wills  :  the  human  will  and  the  divine  will. 
His  human  will  was  free  like  our  own,  but 
had  not,  as  in  our  case,  to  contend  against 
sin,  nor  was  it  exposed,  as  ours,  to  prefer 
evil  to  good.  The  perfection  of  His  soul, 
especially  through  its  union  with  the  God- 
head, made  evil  repugnant  to  Him.  Our 
Saviour  Himself  spoke  of  His  human  will 
when  saying:  "Father,  if  Thou  wilt,  re- 
move this  chalice  from  Me :  but  yet  not 
My  will,  but  Thine  be  done"  (Luke  xxii. 
42;  Matt.  xxvi.  29).  Thus  the  human  will 
was  entirely  subordinate  to  the  divine  will ; 
nevertheless,  it  was  a  human  will  by  nature 
and  essence,  so  that  Jesus  Christ  did  not 
perform  the  divine  actions  only  as  being 
God,  nor  the  human  actions  only  as  being 
man,  but  performed  both,  as  being  God 
and  man  together.     Hence,  these  opera- 


tions are  called  by  theologians  "  theandric 
operations."  The  distinction  of  the  two 
wills  in  Jesus  Christ  is  an  article  of  faith 
supported  by  Holy  Scripture  and  on  the 
constant  doctrine  of  the  universal  Church. 
Thus  the  Council  of  Constantinople,  Sixth 
General  Council,  condemned  the  error  of 
the  Monothelites,  that  is,  those  who  ad- 
mitted only  one  will  in  Jesus  Christ. 

William  of  Champeaux.  —  Scholastic 
philosopher,  born  in  the  village  of  Cham- 
peaux, France,  about  the  end  of  the  eleventh 
century.  Disciple  of  Anselm  of  Laon,  he 
taught  theology  in  the  school  of  Notre 
Dame  of  Paris,  had  for  disciple  and  adver- 
sary the  famous  Abelard.  Founded  in 
1113  the  celebrated  abbey  of  St.  Victor. 
Bishop  of  Chalons-sur-Marne  in  11 16;  en- 
tered (in  1 1 19)  the  Order  of  Citeaux,  where 
he  died.  His  principal  works  are :  Moralia 
abreviata  and  De  origine  animae. 

William  of  Malmesbury  (1066  ?-i  1 50  ?) . — 
Anglo-Norman  chronicler  and  Benedictine. 
Wrote:  Historia  regum  Anglorum  (His- 
tory of  the  English  Kings),  a  continuation 
of  De  Gestis,  bringing  the  history  down  to 
1 142  (these  books  have  been  the  foundation 
of  all  the  more  recent  histories  of  Eng- 
land) ;  De  Gestis  Pontificum  Angelorum 
( History  of  the  Prelates  of  England) ;  De 
Antiquitate  Glastoniensis  Ecelesice  (His- 
tory of  the  Church  of  Glastonbury) ;  lives 
of  St.  Patrick,  St.  Dunstan,  St.  Wulfstan 
(from  the  Anglo-Saxon) ;  several  books  on 
miracles ;  and  the  Itinerary  of  John, Ab- 
bot, of  Malmesbury,  to  Rome. 

William  of  Orange.  See  Nether- 
lands. 

William  of  St.  Amour.  —  French  canon, 
born  at  St.  Amour,  died  in  1272.  Doctor 
of  theology,  canon  of  Beauvais.  The 
Paris  University,  which  felt  offended  by 
the  privileges  granted  to  the  mendicant 
religious  orders,  sent  him  to  Rome ;  here 
he  fulfilled  his  mission  with  fanaticism. 
His  book  De  fericulis  novissimorum  tern- 
forum,  composed  on  this  occasion,  is  a 
violent  diatribe  against  the  Dominicans. 
Alexander  IV.  deprived  him  of  all  his 
benefices,  forbidding  him,  in  spite  of  skill- 
ful defense,  to  return  to  France,  to  teach  or 
preach. 

William  of  Tyre  (1127-1190).  —  Arch- 
bishop of  Tyre,  born  at  Jerusalem.  He 
made  his  studies  in  Paris.  On  his  return 
to  his  country,  he  became  archdeacon  of 


Williams 


712 


Witchcraft 


the  Church  of  Tyre  ( 1 167) ,  then  chancellor 
of  the  king  (1173),  finally  archbishop  of 
Tyre.  Charged  with  several  missions 
at  Rome  and  Constantinople,  William 
fulfilled  them  all  with  success.  He  as- 
sisted at  the  Lateran  Council  of  ii79i 
drew  up  its  acts,  and  died  of  poison,  it  is 
believed,  by  order  of  Heraclius,  patriarch 
of  Jerusalem.  He  has  left:  History  of  the 
Arabs,  which  is  lost,  and  History  of 
the  Crusades,  remarkable  for  its  exacti- 
tude, equity  of  judgment,  real  erudition, 
and  sufficient  geographical  knowledge. 

Williams  (David)  (1738-I816). —  An- 
glican ecclesiastic  and  publisher.  Founder 
of  a  religious  sect  which  had  many  rela- 
tions with  that  founded  later  on  at  Paris 
by  Abbe  Chatel ;  it  was  a  new  worship, 
the  •'  Worship  of  the  Priests  of  Nature," 
conformable  to  Deism  and  to  the  princi- 
ples of  education  of  J.  J.  Rousseau,  to  the 
ideas  of  Helvetius,  Voltaire,  and  Fred- 
erick, king  of  Prussia, 

Windthorst  (Ludwig).  —  A  German 
statesman;  born  at  Kaldenhof,  Hanover, 
Jan.  17th,  1812;  educated  at  the  Carolinum 
Gymnasium  and  in  law  at  Gottingen  and 
Heidelberg;  was  attorney  for  Catholic  so- 
cieties, and  in  1848  was  appointed  chief 
judge  of  the  Court  of  Appeals  at  Celle.  In 
1849  he  entered  the  Second  Chamber  of 
Hanover  as  leader  of  the  Ministerial  party, 
became  president  of  that  house  in  1851, 
and  was  Minister  of  Justice  in  the  cabinet 
from  1851  to  1853.  As  leader  of  the  Cath- 
olic or  Center  party  he  was  prominent  in 
the  North  German  Parliament  and  the 
Prussian  House  of  Deputies  from  1867  un- 
til the  opening  of  the  German  Reichstag 
in  1871,  Windthorst  was  Bismarck's  most 
powerful  opponent,  fighting  against  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  so-called  May  Laws,  the 
expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  and  other  religious, 
dictatorial  rule  in  Alsace-Lorraine,  the  is- 
sue of  the  anti-socialist  laws  and  other 
propositions  of  the  prince,  though  he  sus- 
pended his  opposition  upon  the  com- 
promise between  the  German  government 
and  the  Holy  See,  but  renewed  his  resist- 
ance upon  the  refusal  of  the  government  to 
grant  certain  concessions.  He  died  in  Ber- 
lin, March  14th,  1891, 

Winebrenner(JoHN)  (1797-1860). —  Born 
in  Frederick  county,  Maryland ;  died  at 
Harrisburg,  Pennsylvania.  An  American 
clergyman,  pastor  of  a  German  Reformed 
Church  in  Harrisburg.    He  separated  from 


that  denomination  and  organized,  in  1830, 
the  new  sect  called  **  The  Church  of  God," 
or  Winebrennarians.  The  organization 
met  with  remarkable  success,  especially  in 
the  Central  Eastern  and  Middle  Western 
States,  in  1889  having  522  ministers,  479 
organizations,  22,511  communicants,  and 
338  church  edifices  valued  at  $643,185,  be- 
sides a  domestic  and  foreign  missionary  so- 
ciety, a  book  repository,  and  a  printing 
establishment  at  Harrisburg,  Pennsylvania. 
"  The  Church  of  God "  maintains  three 
positive  ordinances :  Baptism  by  immer- 
sion, the  washing  of  feet,  and  the  Lord's 
Supper, 

Wiafrid.     See  Bonifacb. 

Wisdom  {Book  of).  —  Canonical  book 
of  the  Old  Testament.  In  this  work,  by 
striking  examples  taken  from  early  Jewish 
history,  kings  and  others  in  power,  are 
urged  to  study  wisdom  and  the  fear  of 
God.  It  is  styled  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon, 
but  St.  Jerome  and  St.  Augustine  think  it 
was  the  work  of  some  other  person,  now 
unknown. 

Wiseman  (Nicholas  Patrick). —  Eng- 
lish Catholic  prelate,  offspring  of  an  Irish 
family,  born  at  Seville  in  1802 ;  died  at 
London  in  1865.  Educated  in  England  in 
the  Catholic  college  of  St.  Guthbert, 
studied  theology  in  Rome,  where  he  re- 
ceived holy  orders  and  became  professor 
of  theology.  In  1827,  he  occupied  the 
chair  of  oriental  literature  in  the  college 
of  St,  Guthbert,  and  was  named  its  vice 
rector.  Under  the  Pontificate  of  Gregory 
XVI.,  he  suggested  to  the  Holy  See,  to 
increase  the  number  of  prelates  in  Eng- 
land. He,  himself,  was  appointed  coad- 
jutor to  Bishop  Walsh.  In  1847,  he  took 
new  steps  to  obtain  the  complete  restora- 
tion of  the  hierarchy  in  England,  which 
was  realized  by  Pius  IX.  in  1850,  after  it 
had  been  suppressed  for  nearly  three  hun- 
dred years.  Then  Wiseman  was  desig- 
nated as  archbishop  of  Westminster  and 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  cardinal.  He 
proceeded  with  the  greatest  prudence,  in 
order  not  to  hurt  or  prejudice,  and  to  per- 
mit public  opinion  to  get  over  its  emotion, 
if  not  hostility.  His  public  conferences, 
books,  moderation,  and  his  qualities  as  a 
man  of  the  world,  reconciled  the  spirits 
and  caused  him  to  be  greatly  admired. 

Witchcraft  (the  belief  in  a  compact 
with  the  devil  to  do  harm).  —  The  belief 
in  witchcraft  became  general  only  in  the 


WOLSEY 


713 


Works 


fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries.  We 
find  it  more  firmly  established  and  deeply 
rooted  in  Germany  than  elsewhere,  and  it 
accompanies  the  moral  decay  caused, 
chiefly,  by  the  forerunners  of  Reforma- 
tion in  this  country.  But  witchcraft  did 
not  limit  itself  to  Germany,  and  it  has  been 
the  belief  of  serious  minds  that  the  suits  of 
w^itchcraft  contributed  a  good  deal  to  the 
propagation  of  the  belief  in  witches. 
Those  who  deny  the  reality  of  witchcraft, 
seeing  therein  nothing  else  but  a  very  dan- 
gerous and  much  spread  illusion,  treat 
the  facts  according  to  their  manner  of  see- 
ing. The  formal  and  absolutely  positive 
avowals  of  a  large  number  accused  of 
witchcraft,  would  be  solely  due  to  the  tor- 
ments they  had  to  endure.  Leibnitz  quotes 
Father  Spec,  a  Jesuit,  who  had  accom- 
panied to  the  place  of  execution,  a  great 
number  of  condemned  as  witches,  and 
these  unfortunates,  justly  punished  for 
many  crimes,  he  still  remained  convinced 
that  none  of  them  were  really  sorcerers. 
For  others,  the  belief  in  sorcerers  was  a  real 
state  of  disease,  both  a  mental  and  phys- 
ical epidemic,  peculiar  to  men  at  an  ap- 
pointed time.  In  every  case,  not  only  the 
Church  pursued  and  condemned  the  sor- 
cerers ;  the  civil  power,  bound  to  main- 
tain order  in  society,  did  not  show  itself 
less  zealous,  not  less  persevering  in  the 
same  direction. 

Wolsey  (Thomas)  (1471-1530).  —  Eng- 
lish prelate  and  statesman.  Born  at  Ips- 
wich ;  young  Wolsey  was  educated  at 
Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  where  he  ob- 
tained his  degree  when  hardly  fifteen. 
Wolsey  soon  secured  the  notice  of  Henry 
VII.,  who  made  him  dean  of  London.  His 
advancement,  under  Henry  VIII.,  was  rapid 
and  brilliant.  He  became  almoner  to  the 
king,  and  in  quick  succession  was  promoted 
to  the  bishopric  of  Lincoln,  the  arch- 
bishopric of  York,  and  the  office  of  Lord 
Chancellor,  which  dignities  were  crowned 
in  15 1 5,  by  the  reception  of  a  cardinal's  hat 
from  Pope  Leo  X.  and  the  appointment  to 
be  Legatus  a  latere  for  England.  He  was 
devoted  to  the  interest  of  the  king,  more 
so,  perhaps,  than  to  those  of  the  Church, 
and  was  bent  upon  exalting  the  royal  au- 
thority. But  Wolsey  fell  into  disgrace; 
Henry  VIII.  accused  him  of  having  be- 
trayed him  in  his  cause  of  divorce  with 
Catharine  of  Aragon,  and  of  having  squan- 
dered the  finances  of  the  kingdom.  Pros- 
ecuted   in    1529,   under   the   "  Statute    of 


Praemunire,"  Wolsey  was  deprived  of  the 
Great  Seal,  and  all  his  personal  property, 
which  was  declared  forfeited  to  the  Crown. 
Parliament  declared  Wolsey  not  guilty. 
Hereupon,  the  cardinal  withdrew  into  his 
archbishopric  and  delivered  himself  en- 
tirely to  the  administration  of  his  Church. 
One  year  after,  Wolsey  was  again  arrested, 
because  he  refused  to  recognize  Henry  as 
head  of  the  Church.  On  his  way  to  Lon- 
don, the  fallen  minister  died  at  Leicester, 
uttering,  a  little  before  his  death,  these  re- 
markable words:  "Had  I  but  served  my 
God  as  faithfully  as  I  have  served  my  king, 
He  would  not  have  thus  abandoned  me  in 
my  grey  hairs.  But  this  is  my  just  reward 
for  my  pains  and  study,  not  regarding  my 
service  to  God,  but  only  my  duty  to  my 
prince." 

Wood  (James  Frederick).  —  An 
American  Catholic  prelate ;  born  in  Phila- 
delphia, Pennsylvania,  April  27th,  1813; 
in  1836  was  a  bank  cashier  in  Cincinnati, 
Ohio,  and  that  year  was  admitted  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  went  to 
Rome  to  prepare  himself  for  the  priest- 
hood. He  was  ordained  in  1844;  assistant 
rector  of  the  Cincinnati  cathedral  from 
1844  to  1854;  appointed  bishop  of  Gra- 
tianopolis  in  1857,  and  sent  to  Philadelphia 
as  coadjutor  to  Bishop  Newman ;  and  in 
i860  became  bishop  of  Philadelphia.  He 
was  made  an  archbishop  in  1875.  To  him 
are  due  many  of  the  Church  institutions 
in  Philadelphia,  and  to  his  energy  the 
strength  of  the  Church  in  Pennsylvania. 
He  died  in  Philadelphia,  June  20th,  1883. 

Works  (  Necessity  of  Good) .  See  Merit. 

Works  of  Supererogation.  See  Super- 
erogation. 

Works  (Satisfactory) .  —  Works  by 
which  we  satisfy  God  for  our  sins,  like 
prayer,  alms,  and  fasting,  especially  desig- 
nated in  Scripture,  and  recommended  by 
the  holy  Fathers.  We  understand  here 
by  prayer,  all  the  exercises  of  piety  and  of 
religion,  like  Mass,  the  divine  office,  medi- 
tation, pilgrimages,  etc.  Fasting  em- 
braces all  kinds  of  corporal  and  spiritual 
punishments,  such  as  abstinence,  poverty, 
labor,  mortifications,  etc.  Alms  comprise 
all  the  good  deeds  rendered  to  our  neigh- 
bor in  his  corporal  or  spiritual  needs. 
But,  we  have  to  remark,  in  order  that 
these  works  may  be  meritorious  and  satis- 
factory to  God,  it  is  not  necessary  that  they 
are  performed  in  the  state  of  grace,  because 


Works 


714 


Worship 


they  formerly  imposed  them,  and  still  im- 
pose them  quite  often  upon  the  penitents, 
long  before  reconciling  them  with  God  by 
absolution,  which  they  would  not  have 
done,  and  which  they  would  not  do,  if  they 
judged  them  entirely  useless  and  without 
value.  They  must  be  done,  if  not  in  the 
state  of  habitual  grace,  at  least  without 
afJection  to  mortal  sin ;  or,  which  is  the 
same  thing,  in  a  state  of  commenced  justice 
and  with  an  actual  love  of  God,  produced 
by  an  impulse  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  who,  not 
yet  dwelling  in  the  soul,  but  exciting  it, 
makes  it  seek  the  friendship  of  God  above 
everything,  even  before  it  is  reconciled 
with  Him. 

Works  {Servile). —  On  Sundays  and 
holy  days,  servile  works  are  forbidden. 
By  servile  works  are  understood  such  as 
are  performed  chiefly  by  physical  strength, 
and  have  for  their  object  bodily  comfort, 
such  as  are  performed  by  servants,  trades- 
men and  laborers  in  general.  From  serv- 
ile works  are  to  be  distinguished  the  so- 
called  liberal  pursuits,  which  occupy  the 
mind  more  than  the  body  and  have  for 
their  chief  object  the  benefit  of  the  mind 
(writing,  teaching,  etc.).  These  latter  as 
also  physical  exercises  (walking,  riding, 
etc.),  are  not  prohibited.  A  servile  work 
does  not  cease  to  be  such  by  the  fact,  that 
it  is  performed  for  the  sake  of  recrea- 
tion ;  but  the  exercise  of  a  liberal  pursuit, 
though  it  may  be  undertaken  for  pay,  does 
not  therefore  become  servile  and  forbid- 
den. The  obligation  to  abstain  from  serv- 
ile works  extends  only  to  those  who  are 
baptized  and  have  attained  the  years  of 
discretion ;  for  the  baptized,  only,  are  sub- 
ject to  the  authority  of  the  Church ;  and 
those,  only,  who  have  the  use  of  reason 
are  capable  of  obligation.  The  obligation 
may  cease  in  certain  cases  by  dispensation, 
necessity,  or  charity.  Certain  secular 
transactions  and  occupations  are  also  for- 
bidden on  Sundays  and  holy  days,  because 
they  obstruct  the  religious  celebration  of 
Sundays  and  holy  days.  Such  are,  for  in- 
stance, legal  and  judicial  proceedings, 
public  negotiations,  political  deliberations, 
etc.  Sinful  and  dangerous  amusements, 
though  not  formally  opposed  to  the  com- 
mandment to  keep  holy  Sundays  and  holy 
days,  are  contrary  to  its  purpose,  which  is 
the  honor  of  God  and  our  own  sanctifica- 
tion.  Recreation  and  lawful  amusements, 
however,  are  not  of  themselves  opposed  to 
the  object  of  the  Sunday  observance,  pro- 


vided they  are  not  carried  on  at  the  time 
of  divine  service  and  divert  the  Faithful 
from  their  religious  duties. 

Worms  (  Concordat  of) .  —  Agreement 
(1 122)  between  Pope  Calixtus  II.  and  Henry 
v.,  emperor  of  Germany,  which  put  an 
end,  after  a  period  of  more  than  fifty  years, 
to  the  contest  of  ecclesiastical  investitures. 
By  this  compact  the  emperor  resigned  for- 
ever all  pretense  to  invest  bishops  by  ring 
and  crosier,  and  recognized  the  liberty  of 
ecclesiastical  election.  In  return,  the  Pope 
conceded  that  elections  should  be  made  in 
the  presence  of  imperial  officers,  without 
violence  or  simony,  and  that  the  new 
bishop  should  receive  investiture  of  their 
fiefs  from  the  emperor  by  the  sceptre. 

Worship.  —  The  word  worship  is  used 
in  various  senses.  Often  it  refers  to  honor 
rendered  by  one  man  to  another  on  purely 
civil  or  personal  grounds,  having  no  con- 
nection with  religion ;  often  it  means  the 
honor  due  from  a  creature  to  his  Creator. 
Both  these  are  legitimate  uses ;  but  we 
contend  that  there  is  a  third  true  sense, 
where  worship  is  rendered  to  creature,  out 
of  a  motive  of  religion.  That  this  may  be 
understood,  we  must  make  an  analysis  of 
the  idea  of  worship. 

All  worship  is  based  on  a  conviction  of 
the  worthiness  of  the  object  of  the  wor- 
ship :  that  from  some  point  of  view  he  is 
worthy  that  we  should  judge  him  superior 
to  ourselves.  Again,  there  must  be  the 
will  to  assume  the  position  in  regard  to 
him  which  our  intellect  has  shown  us  to 
be  suitable.  Thirdly,  there  must  be  some 
external  act  signifying  the  presence  of  this 
interior  conviction  and  will.  The  worship 
oflFered  will  vary  in  kind  according  to  the 
ground  of  the  conviction  from  which  it 
starts.  When  the  ground  is  some  superior- 
ity in  personal  qualities  or  in  some  office 
held  in  the  society  to  which  we  belong,  the 
word  respect  is  more  usual  than  worship, 
but  the  meaning  is  the  same;  wefiavehere 
civil  worship.  If  the  ground  is  the  sense  of 
the  infinite  superiority  of  the  Creator  over 
the  creature,  this  worship  is  of  the  highest 
possible  nature,  and  receives  the  special 
name  of  Latria,  a  Greek  word  equivalent 
to  the  Latin  Culfus,  or  worship,  but  re- 
stricted by  usage  to  the  worship  due  to  God 
alone.  But  the  conviction  may  depend 
upon  our  sense  that  some  person  is  far  su- 
perior to  us  in  holiness  and  union  with 
God,  and  we  are  willing  to  honor  God  by 
outward  signs  of  our  regard  for  this  person ; 


Worship  and 


715 


Its  Development 


this  worship  is  a  religious  act,  and  yet  is 
totally  different  from  Latria;  it  is  called 
Dulia,  which  also  is  a  Greek  word  mean- 
ing service,  but  appropriated  to  mean  the 
worship  given  to  the  saints.  In  the  case 
of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  her  dignity  and 
closeness  to  God  are  so  transcendently 
higher  and  closer  than  what  any  other 
creature  will  ever  enjoy,  that  the  worship 
rendered  to  her  is  of  a  higher  kind  than 
that  rendered  to  the  saints,  and  is  distin- 
guished as  Hyperdulia,  for  it  is  something 
beyond  Dulia,  though  still  infinitely  short 
of  Latria. 

Worship  (^Ancestor).  —  Ancestor  wor- 
ship is  a  form  of  worship  of  the  dead,  still 
existing  in  uncivilized  countries  and  is- 
lands of  Africa  and  Oceanica.  Among 
the  Amazulus,  for  instance,  a  hierarchy 
has  established  itself  in  the  category  of 
their  ancestors ;  they  distinguish  between 
those  they  have  seen  live  and  die,  as  their 
immediate  ancestors,  and  those,  whose 
memory  is  still  preserved  in  the  family, 
tribe,  or  nation ;  one  of  these  ancestors, 
Unkulukulu,  has  become  the  national  god 
of  the  race.  The  same  worship  of  ances- 
tors has  existed  among  the  aborigines  of 
South  America.  The  Peruvians  distin- 
guished the  immediate  ancestors,  gods  of 
the  family  home,  and  the  remote  ances- 
tors, gods  of  the  village  and  nation. 
Then,  above  all  local  protectors  stood  the 
Inas,  the  first  civilizers  and  supreme  an- 
cestors. Among  the  Chinese,  the  an- 
cestors have  not  ceased  to  have  their 
temples  and  offerings. 

The  worship  of  the  dead  existed  also 
among  the  Chaldeans,  Assyrians,  ancient 
Arabs,  Egyptians,  and  diverse  branches  of 
the  Aryan  race.  The  deified  ancestors 
were  to  their  adorers,  perfectly  material, 
who  nourished  themselves  and  made  use 
of  the  meats,  animals,  arms,  captives  of- 
fered or  immolated  on  their  tombs,  who 
dwelled  for  a  more  or  less  time  in  their 
sepulchres,  and  continually  came  to  claim 
the  honors  and  nourishment  that  were  due 
to  them.  The  belief  in  their  returning  is 
perhaps  a  remainder  of  these  antique  be- 
liefs. M.  Fustel  of  Coulanges,  in  his 
beautiful  book  The  Antique  City,  draws 
from  this  primitive  worship  of  the  an- 
cestors, every  organization  of  the  antique 
family  and  city  of  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans. From  this  work  we  get  a  summary 
of  the  author's  opinion;  from  this  com- 
mon   belief  in   the   Aryan  race,  that  the 


soul  after  death,  remained  near  the  men 
and  continued  to  live  under  the  earth,  de- 
rived the  necessity  of  the  burial ;  the  soul 
which  had  no  tomb,  had  no  dwelling.  Un- 
fortunately she  became  malicious.  The 
dead  passed  as  sacred  beings  (demons  or 
heroes  at  the  Greeks,  lares,  manes,  genii 
at  the  Latins),  whose  tombs  were  the 
temples.  The  house  of  a  Greek  or  of  a 
Roman  contained  an  altar,  whose  fire  was 
kept  up  day  and  night.  The  fire  of  the 
hearthwastheprovidenceofthefamily;  fam- 
ily extinguished  and  hearth  extinguished 
were  synonymous  expressions.  It  is  prob- 
able that  the  dead  were  anciently  buried  in 
the  house  and  that  the  worship  of  the  hearth 
was  at  the  beginning  only  the  symbol  of  the 
worship  of  the  dead.  These  beliefs  formed 
the  domestic  religions,  anterior  to  the  na- 
tional religions,  when  each  god  could  be 
adored  only  by  a  family,  for  the  offering 
to  the  dead  should  be  made  only  by  his 
descendants.  This  religion  of  the  hearth 
and  of  the  ancestors  has  constituted  the 
antique  family  which  is  before  all  a  re- 
ligious association. — We  have  to  remark 
that  this  worship  of  the  ancestors  is  far 
from  resting  on  the  same  ideas  as  the  ven- 
eration of  the  saints  in  theCatholic  Church, 
and  also  that  the  prayers  which  we  address 
to  God  for  the  repose  of  the  souls  of  the 
dead,  are  based  upon  different  grounds. 

Worship   and    Its    Development.  —  By 

worship  we  understand  the  honor  we  ren- 
der to  God  by  both  internal  and  external 
acts  of  worship.  Worship  or  Cultus  and 
liturgy  of  the  Church  furnish  an  instance 
of  doctrinal  development,  not  indeed  di- 
rectly, but  only  indirectly,  because  of  their 
connection  with  the  doctrines  they  sym- 
bolize. Nevertheless,  as  is  easily  under- 
stood, development  in  this  sphere  is  natu- 
rally greater  and  more  notable  than  in  the 
domain  of  faith  and  doctrine,  because  be- 
sides being  the  worship  of  God,  liturgy  is 
intended  to  raise  man  up  to  God,  by  bring- 
ing into  play  the  elements  of  sense  and 
reason,  and  thus  stirring  up  the  spiritual 
influences  lying  dormant  within  him. 
Christian  liturgy  has  its  foundations  laid 
deep  down  in  Scripture  and  tradition. 
Our  Lord  Himself  taught  the  disciples 
how  to  pray;  He  Himself  instituted  the 
sacrifice  of  the  new  and  eternal  Testament, 
and  commanded  His  Apostles  to  do  it  in 
memory  of  Him;  He  Himself  instituted 
the  sacraments,  some  of  which  Baptism 
and  Confirmation,  for  examplej  used  to  be 


Worship  and 


716 


Its  Development 


administered  with  the  holy  Eucharist. 
Again,  Christ's  words :  "  Give  not  that 
which  is  hoi  J  to  dogs ;  neither  cast  ye  your 
pearls  before  swine"  (Matt.  vii.  6),  be- 
sides prompting  the  disciples  to  withdraw 
sacred  things  from  the  profane,  also  taught 
them  to  treat  these  sacred  things  with  the 
greatest  reverence. 

The  Faithful  in  Jerusalem,  we  learn  from 
the  Acts,  assembled  together  to  break 
bread.  This  breaking  of  bread  became  to 
them  a  solemn  divine  service,  in  other 
words,  a  liturgical  action.  St.  Paul's  di- 
rections about  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's 
Supper  point  to  a  regular  divine  ser\nce. 
Furthermore,  from  his  Epistles  it  would 
seem  that  hymns  and  edifying  discourses 
added  to  the  solemnity.  .  .  .  "  Be  ye 
filled,"  he  says,  "with  the  holy  spirit. 
Speaking  to  yourselves  in  psalms  and 
hymns,  and  spiritual  canticles,  singing  and 
making  melody  in  your  hearts  to  the  Lord : 
Giving  thanks  always  for  all  things  in  the 
name  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  to  God 
and  the  Father"  (Eph.  v.  18-20;  Col.  iii. 
16).  Do  not  the  following  words  also 
sound  like  part  of  a  liturgical  hymn  ?  "And 
evidently  great  is  the  mystery  of  godli- 
ness which  was  manifested  in  the  flesh,  was 
justified  in  the  spirit,  appeared  unto  angels, 
hath  been  preached  unto  the  gentiles,  is  be- 
lieved in  the  world,  is  taken  up  in  glory" 
(I.  Tim.  iii.  16). 

From  these  indications  we  may  fairly  in- 
fer that,  even  in  Apostolic  times,  the  lit- 
urgy had  been  considerably  developed  not 
only  in  the  communities  of  Jewish  Chris- 
tians, who  retained  their  own  usages  and 
forms  of  prayer,  but  also  among  gentile 
Christians.  In  the  post-apostolic  churches 
these  ordinances  of  the  Apostles  continued 
in  force,  and  received  still  further  devel- 
opment, as  we  learn  from  several  historical 
documents  and  from  the  old  liturgies, 
which  emanated  in  substance  from  the 
Apostles  whose  names  they  bear.  Pliny 
the  Younger,  in  his  letter  to  Trajan,  dis- 
tinctly asserts  that  the  Christians  met  on  a 
certain  day  before  sunrise  and  sang  hymns 
to  Christ  their  God.  Eusebius  also  states 
that,  in  his  time,  the  Faithful  were  still 
wont  to  sing  canticles,  handed  down  from 
the  early  Christians,  in  which  they  honored 
Christ  as  God  (H.  E.  v.  28,  32,  5). 

From  the  writings  of  Justin,  and  the  re- 
cently discovered  Didache,  we  gather  that 
divine  worship  centered  in  the  reading  of 
Scripture  and  celebration  of  the  holy 
Eucharist.     The  liturgical  prayer  of  thanks 


{eucharistia)  contained  the  Apostolic  rule 
of  faith,  and  hence  was  called  the  Canon. 
Speaking  of  the  liturgy  of  his  time,  Ter- 
tullian  invokes  tradition  on  its  behalf,  say- 
ing that  what  originated  in  tradition,  was 
obser^•ed  in  faith,  and  was  ratified  by  con- 
stant use.  The  Fathers  by  affirming  that 
usages  in  the  Church,  not  historically 
traceable  to  positive  institution,  have  come 
down  from  the  Apostles,  recognize  tradi- 
tion as  their  leading  principle.  Not  that 
they  were  unaware  that  cultus  and  liturgy 
had  undergone  development  since  Apos- 
tolic times.  But  they  knew  that  they  were 
a  natural  growth  from  the  seeds  sown 
by  the  Apostles.  From  the  fundamental 
Christian  mysteries,  as  it  were  from  a  root, 
have  sprung  up  the  many  branches  and 
fragrant  flowers  of  the  liturgy,  as  these 
mj-steries  bear  chiefly  on  our  Lord's  life, 
they  naturally  issued  in  a  corona  of  feasts, 
which  as  the  year  runs  its  course,  call  to 
mind  Christ  and  the  redemption  that  He 
accomplished.  In  this  way  arose  feasts  in 
honor  of  our  Lord  and  the  martyrs,  to 
which  were  added  others  in  honor  of  the 
Apostles  and  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  which 
gave  new  life  and  solemnity  to  the  liturgy. 
And  here  we  may  be  allowed  to  point 
out  how  the  Catholic  Church  differs  from 
other  communions  in  this  matter.  The 
first  great  liturgical  dispute,  that,  namely, 
concerning  the  celebration  of  Easter,  seems 
to  show  that  the  Eastern  Church  began  to 
regard  tradition  as  a  dead  principle.  No- 
where had  the  liturgy  developed  so  rapidly 
and  so  richly  as  in  the  Greek  Church.  But 
the  vigorous  life  that  at  first  pulsated  in 
her  liturgical  veins  soon  ceased  to  flow, 
and  then  she  became  listless  and  shrivelled 
up  into  a  skeleton  of  antique  forms.  What 
avails  her  boast  of  having  preserved  the 
most  ancient  traditions,  if  life  and  energy 
have  gone  out  of  them  ?  The  conservative 
principle,  as  understood  or  rather  nxisun- 
derstood  by  her,  has  dammed  the  stream 
of  progress  in  theology,  worship,  and  dis- 
cipline. What  a  different  sight  meets  our 
eyes  in  the  Catholic  Church.  How  beauti- 
fully the  old  blends  with  the  new  in  her 
worship !  Like  an  evergreen  planted  by 
the  side  of  the  running  waters,  the  living 
Church  is  ever  sending  forth  new  offshoots. 
But,  however  varied  its  manifestations, 
however  new  at  first  blush  they  often  seem, 
they  have  all  grown  out  of  the  tree  planted 
by  the  Apostles,  and  have  derived  their 
nourishment  from  the  life-force  that  has 
animated  Catholic  worship  for  centuries. 


Writers 


717 


Wycliffe 


Of  a  truth,  in  comparing  modern  worship 
with  the  worship  of  the  first  two  centuries, 
or  in  tracing  modern  liturgy  to  its  rise 
and  early  growth,  we  cannot  fail  to  notice 
a  manifold  diversity  side  by  side  with  re- 
semblance in  the  main  outline.  But  in  this, 
even  more  than  in  doctrinal  development, 
we  must  beware  of  cutting  down  to  the 
roots  the  great  tree  that,  in  the  course  of 
centuries,  has  overspread  the  whole  earth. 
If  the  Holy  Spirit  abides  in  the  Church, 
her  whole  life  must  expand  under  His 
guidance. 

Writers  {Ecclesiastical).  —  In  a  general 
sense,  the  name  of  "  Ecclesiastical  Writer," 
as  distinguished  from  inspired  writer,  may 
be  given  to  all  those  who,  ever  since  the 
days  of  the  Apostles,  have  written  in  ex- 
planation or  defense  of  the  Christian  doc- 
trine. But  in  the  narrower  or  specific 
sense,  ecclesiastical  writers  differ  from 
those  who  are  called  Fathers  or  Doctors  of 
the  Church.  The  difference  derives  from 
the  character  of  their  lives  and  writings. 
Ecclesiastical  writers  are  called  those  men 
who,  though  living  in  the  communion  of 
the  Church,  have  yet  not  always  in  their 
lives  and  writings  expressed  her  pure  and 
genuine  traditional  doctrine,  as,  for  in- 
stance, Clement  of  Alexandria,  Origen, 
Tertullian,  Lactantius,  Eusebius,  Rufinus, 
Cassian,  Thodoret  of  Cyrus,  and  others. 
If  St.  Irenaeus,  in  spite  of  his  chiliastic 
opinions,  and  St.  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  in 
spite  of  his  Origenistic  ideas,  are  counted 
among  the  Fathers,  it  is  because  they  did 
not  propound  their  opinions  apodictically 
as  the  teaching  of  the  Church.  Those 
Christians  who  have  left  behind  writings 
on  matters  of  faith,  but  did  not  live  in  the 
communion  of  the  Church,  as,  for  instance, 
Novatian,  are  called  Christian  -writers. 

Wulfram  (St.)  (647-720). —  French  Pre- 
late, born  at  Milly,  France,  died  in  the  mon- 
astery at  Fontenelle,  whither  he  had  retired. 
Counselor  of  Clotaire  III.  and  of  Thierry 
III.  Archbishop  of  Sens  (693),  resigned 
his  see  (695),  in  order  to  become  one  of  the 
apostles  of  the  Frieslanders.  F.  March  20th. 

Wycliffe  (John)  (1324-1387).  —  Heresi- 
arch,  born  at  Hipswell  (Yorkshire). 
Rector  of  the  College  of  Baliol  at  Oxford 
(1361),  then  of  the  College  of  Canterbury 
(1365);  but  deposed  by  the  archbishop  of 
Canterbury  (1367),  he  commenced  to  at- 
tack the  mendicant  monks  and  the  funda- 
mental institutions  of  the  Church.  He 
gained  to  his  party  the  princess  of  Wales, 


mother  of  the  young  prince  Richard,  and 
grandson  of  the  king.  To  give  his  doc- 
trine more  authority,  he  wished  to  preach 
by  example ;  he  went  barefooted  and 
poorly  dressed,  accompanied  by  young 
priests,  his  disciples,  who  showed  an  in- 
credible zeal  and  ardor  to  propagate  his 
doctrine.  They  spread  themselves  all 
over  the  provinces,  preaching  everywhere 
against  the  riches  of  the  clergy,  the  lux- 
ury and  abuses  which,  according  to  Wy- 
cliffe, had  introduced  themselves  into  the 
Church  since  the  time  of  Pope  Sylvester. 
Pope  Gregory  XI.  wrote  to  the  king  and 
to  the  bishops,  in  order  to  put  an  end  to 
the  revolt.  The  number  of  his  adherents 
was  so  great  at  the  University  of  Oxford, 
that  they  had  difficulty  to  receive  the 
Brief  of  the  Pope.  Finally  the  University 
accepted  the  Bulls,  but  decided  to  annul 
their  effect  by  delays.  The  archbishop  of 
London  and  the  bishop  of  Canterbury 
pressed  the  chancellor  and  cited  Wycliffe 
before  their  tribunal  (1378).  He  pre- 
sented himself  with  boldness,  feeling  him- 
self supported  by  the  people  and  powerful 
protectors.  The  bishops  did  not  dare 
to  condemn  him  and  contented  themselves 
by  imposing  silence  upon  him.  But  he, 
nevertheless,  continued  to  dogmatize. 
Meanwhile^he  wrote  to  Pope  Urban  VI., 
lately  elected,  in  order  to  belabor  him  in  his 
favor.  Inlthe  meantime,  the  schism  having 
formed  itself  in  the  Church,  by  the  nom- 
ination of  Clement  VII.,  they  suspended 
the  pursuits  against  Wycliffe.  The  heresi- 
arch  profited  by  all  these  circumstances 
to  propagate  his  heresy.  Besides  the 
eight  hundred  errors  which  some  authors 
pretend  of  having  drawn  from  his  writ- 
ings, besides  what  he  had  written  against 
the  primacy  of  the  Pope  and  authority 
of  the  Church,  he  abolished  the  religious 
orders,  the  monastic  vows,  the  venera- 
tion of  the  saints,  the  ecclesiastical  hier- 
archy, the  ceremonies  of  the  Church,  and 
confession  ;  he  attacked  the  liberty  of  man, 
tradition,  the  decisions  of  the  councils,  the 
authority  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Church, 
and  the  authority  of  the  temporal  princes. 
He  established  equality  and  independence 
among  men.  His  disciples  spread  his 
doctrines  among  the  people  during  the 
years  1379-1380  and  incited  the  peasants, 
who,  according  to  the  laws  of  England, 
were  then  subject  to  a  kind  of  slavery.  An 
army  of  more  than  100,000  men  ravaged 
several  provinces,  advanced  to  London 
and  murdered  the  archbishop  of  Canter- 


Xaverian  Brothers 


718 


Yves 


bury.  The  king  was  forced  to  grant  them 
the  liberty  they  asked  for.  This  troop  of 
revolters  was  dispersed  by  the  death  of 
their  chief,  Wat  Tyler,  whom  the  mayor 
of  London  killed  with  his  sword.  The 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  in  the  quality 
of  papal  legate,  convoked  at  London  (1382) 
a  national  council,  wherein  they  con- 
demned twenty-two  propositions  drawn 
from  the  books  of  Wycliffe.  King  Rich- 
ard caused  the  publication  of  a  declaration 


to  support  the  decisions  of  the  council  and 
to  command  the  University  of  Oxford  to 
expel  therefrom  Wycliffe,  and  all  his  fol- 
lowers. During  this  time,  Wycliffe  pre- 
tending that  he  did  not  favor  the  revolt, 
had  retired  into  his  parish  of  Luterword. 
After  the  death  of  Wycliffe,  two  councils 
held  in  London  (1390  and  1408),  con- 
demned his  doctrine.  The  Council  of 
Constance  (May  4th,  1415),  confirmed  and 
renewed  all  the  anterior  condemnations. 


Xaverian  Brothers.  —  A  religious  com- 
munity, founded  at  Bruges,  Belgium,  by 
Brother  Francis  Xavier  (Thomas  James 
Ryken)  in  1839,  and  introduced  into  the 
United  States  by  Bishop  Spalding,  of 
Louisville,  Kentucky,  in  1854.  They  have 
under  their  charge,  besides  parochial 
schools,  several  colleges. 

Xavier  (Francis).     See  Francis. 

Xavier  (Jerome).  —  Spanish  Jesuit  and 
missionary,  kinsman  of  St.  Francis  Xavier, 
born  in  Navarre,  departed  for  Goa  in  1571, 
became  there  director  of  the  novices ;  after- 
wards went  into  Mogul,  wrought  several 
conversions  at  the  court  of  King  Lahore, 
and  died  at  Goa,  in  1617,  at  the  moment 
when  King  Philip  IIL  named  him  arch- 
bishop of  Angamale. 

Ximenes  de  Cisneros  (Francis)  (1436- 
15^7)- — Cardinal  and  regent  of  Spain, 
born  at  Torrelaguna,  Castile.  He  re- 
ceived holy  orders,  lived  in  Rome  from 
1455  to  1461,  and  received  from  Pope  Six- 
tus  V.  a  bull  of  expectancy  for  the  first 
vacant  benefice  at  Toledo ;  but  the  arch- 
bishop, far  from  granting  him  right,  pur- 
sued him  and  even  kept  him  a  prisoner  at 
San-Torcaz.     In    14S0,  the   bishop   of   Si- 


guenza  chose  him  for  his  vicar  general.  To 
escape  the  world,  he  entered  the  Francis- 
cans (1484);  Queen  Isabella  took  him  for 
her  confessor  and  intimate  counselor. 
Named  Provincial  of  the  Franciscans 
(1492),  he  energetically  arose  against 
abuses,  and  pursued  his  projects  of  re- 
form, in  spite  of  the  resistance  of  the 
general  of  the  Order  himself.  Forced  by 
an  order  of  the  Pope,  to  accept  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Toledo  (1495),  he  continued 
in  his  monastic  severity.  Isabella  con- 
siderably followed  his  counsels,  and  verj' 
probably  Christopher  Columbus  owes  it 
to  him  that  his  propositions  were  ac- 
cepted. When  the  Queen  died  (1504), 
Ximenes  knew  how  to  keep  order  in  Cas- 
tile. After  the  death  of  Philip  the  Fair, 
he  assured  the  regency  of  the  kingdom  to 
Ferdinand  the  Catholic  (1506).  The  king 
procured  for  him  the  cardinal's  hat  (1507). 
In  order  that  the  Moors  might  abandon  all 
hope  to  reconquer  Grenada,  Ximenes  re- 
solved to  carry  the  war  into  Africa. 
Ximenes  founded  several  libraries,  the 
college  of  Siquenza,  the  university  of  Al- 
cala,  and  printed  the  Complutensian  Poly- 
glot Bible  at  his  own  expense  (1502-1517), 
4  vols,  in  fol. 


Year  {Ecclesiastical).  —  The  ecclesias- 
tical or  liturgical  year  is  the  regular  return 
in  the  course  of  a  year  of  the  days,  more 
especially  appointed  for  worship,  with  the 
time  of  preparation  (Advent,  Lent,  etc.) 
and  their  sequels  (Octaves,  Sundays  after 
Epiphany,  after  Easter,  after  Pentecost). 
The  ecclesiastical  year  is  divided  into  three 
great  cycles :  that  of  Christmas,  Easter, 
and  Pentecost. 

Young  (Brigham).     See  Mormons. 


Yves  (St.)  (Lat. /wo)  (io4o(?)-i|i6).— 
Bishop  of  Chartres.  Born  in  Beauvais, 
died  at  Chartres.  Gloriously  directed  the 
abbey  of  St.  Quentin  of  Beauvais.  Bishop 
of  Chartres  in  1091,  he  highly  disapproved 
of  the  marriage  of  Philip  I.  with  Bertrada. 
The  king,  irritated,  kept  him  a  prisoner 
during  two  years  and  confiscated  the  goods 
of  his  Church.  Protector  of  letters,  he  in- 
creased the  celebrity  of  the  schools  of 
Chartres,  in  procuring  skillful  professors, 
and  embellished  the  cathedral.  F.May  28th. 


Zabulon 


719 


Zambri 


Zabulon.  —  City  of  the  tribe  of  Aser, 
near  Ptolemaid;  was  given,  during  the  di- 
vision of  the  Promised  Land,  to  the  tribe 
of  Zabulon ;  it  was  one  of  the  most  popu- 
lated cities  of  Palestine. 

Zabulon.  —  Sixth  son  of  Jacob  and  of 
Lia.  Gave  his  name  to  one  of  the  twelve 
tribes  of  the  Old  Testament.  The  tribe  of 
Zabulon  extended  from  Lake  Tiberias  on 
the  east,  to  the  Mediterranean  on  the  west, 
limited  on  the  north  by  the  tribes  of 
Aser  and  Nephtali,  and  on  the  south  by 
that  of  Issachar.  It  formed  the  southern 
part  of  Galilee.  Principal  cities  :  Bethu- 
lia,  Sephoris,  Jezrael,  Nazareth,  Cana,  and 
Tiberiades. 

Zacharias. — King  of  Israel,  succeeded 
his  father  Jeroboam  II.  (767  b.  c.)  and 
reigned  only  six  months.  Having  done 
evil  in  the  eyes  of  the  Lord,  he  was  killed 
by  Selum,  son  of  Jabes,  who  reigned  in  his 
place. 

Zacharias.  —  Son  of  Joiada,  high-priest 
of  the  Jews ;  was  stoned  by  the  order  of 
Joas.     He  is  also  called  Azarias. 

Zacharias.  —  The  eleventh  of  the  minor 
prophets,  son  of  Barachias  and  grandson 
of  Addo;  lived  in  the  sixth  century  b.  c. 
He  returned  from  Babylon  together  with 
Zorobabel  and  commenced  to  prophesy  the 
second  year  of  the  reign  of  Darius,  son  of 
Hystaspes  (520B.  c).  Thus  like  Aggeus, 
he  encouraged  the  people  to  resume  the 
work  of  the  temple.  His  prophecy,  which 
is  composed  of  fourteen  chapters,  com- 
mences with  an  exhortation  in  which  he 
tells  the  Jews  to  do  penance,  and  not  to 
imitate  the  hard-heartedness  of  their  fa- 
thers. Then  he  foretells  several  great 
events,  either  in  regard  to  Jerusalem, 
or  of  the  four  principal  monarchies. 
Finally  he  speaks  of  the  coming  of  the 
Messiah,  the  establishment  and  grandeur 
of  the  Christian  Church,  the  persecutions 
she  will  have  to  suffer,  the  chastisement 
she  will  exercise  against  her  enemies  and 
particularly  the  misfortunes  that  will  befall 
the  Jews  for  having  killed  the  Messiah.  It 
was  this  Zacharias,  and  not  the  next,  whom 
Jesus  Christ  reproached  the  Jews  of  having 
killed,  between  the  temple  and  the  altar. 

Zacharias. —  Priest  of  the  family  of 
Abia,  father  of  St.  John  the  Baptist.     He 


was  already  advanced  in  years,  and  with- 
out child,  when  the  angel  Gabriel  came  to 
him  to  announce  the  birth  of  a  son ;  and 
as  he  showed  some  incredulity,  the  angel 
struck  him  with  dumbness  until  the  fulfill- 
ment of  the  prophecy.  Some  Fathers 
believed  that  Zacharias  was  high-priest, 
but  this  does  not  appear  in  the  Gospel. 
The  Proto- gospel  of  St.  James  relates  sev- 
eral circumstances  of  his  death ;  and  upon 
these  foundations,  undoubtedly,  they  be- 
lieved that  he  had  been  put  to  death  for 
having  announced  the  coming  of  the  Mes- 
siah. The  Greeks  celebrate  his  feast  on 
September  5th,  the  Latins  on  November 
5th,  with  that  of  St.  Elisabeth,  his  wife. 

Zacharias  (St.). — Pope  from  741  to  752. 
Born  in  Syria,  canon  regular,  Benedic- 
tine, successor  of  Gregory  III.,  became  the 
umpire  of  princes  and  sovereigns,  suc- 
ceeded in  conciliating  the  Lombards,  and 
saved  the  Roman  Duchy  from  their  further 
invasions.  By  a  visit  to  King  Luitprand, 
he  obtained  peace  for  the  Exarch  of  Ra- 
venna and  the  restoration  of  the  captured 
town  to  the  emperor.  Upon  Rachis,  suc- 
cessor of  Luitprand,  the  dignified  appear- 
ance of  the  Pope  made  such  an  impression, 
that  the  king  relinquished,  not  only  his 
conquests,  but  also  the  world,  and  became 
a  monk  in  the  monastery  of  Monte  Cas- 
sino.  Pope  Zacharias,  appointed  Boniface 
archbishop  of  Mentz  and  Primate  of  Ger- 
many. By  order  of  the  same  Pope,  the 
saint,  in  752,  crowned  Pepin  the  Short, 
king  of  the  Franks. 

Zacheus.  —  Chief  of  the  publicans  he 
had  the  great  honor  to  receive  our  Saviour 
into  his  house.  According  to  an  ancient 
tradition,  confirmed  by  the  authority  of 
Pope  Martin  V.  (Bull  of  1427)  and  the 
recent  hagiographal  discoveries,  the 
Zacheus  of  the  Gospel  came  into  Gaul,  re- 
tired into  a  solitude  of  Quercy  (Lot),  and 
the  people  gave  to  him  the  name  Amator, 
changed  later  on  into  that  of  Amadour ; 
he  is  therefore  regarded  as  the  founder  of 
Roc-Amadour. 

Zambri.  —  King  of  Israel ;  usurped  the 
throne  after  having  assassinated  Ela,  in  918 
B.  c.  He  exterminated  the  whole  family 
of  his  victim  and  all  his  followers ;  thus 
was  realized  what  the  Lord  said  to  Baasa, 


Zeno 


720 


Zoroaster 


father  of  Ela,  through  the  Prophet  Jehu. 
These  massacres  did  not  firmly  establish 
his  power,  for  he  only  reigned  seven  days. 
Besieged  in  Thersa,  the  place  of  his  crime, 
by  the  army  returning  from  the  siege  of 
Gebethon  and  commanded  by  his  general 
Amri  proclaimed  king,  Zambri  burned 
himself  in  his  palace  with  all  his  riches. 

Zeno  (St.).  —  Bishop  of  Verona,  his  na- 
tive place,  in  362.  He  is  honored  as  a  con- 
fessor of  the  faith,  and,  by  St.  Gregory  the 
Great,  is  styled  a  martyr,  on  account  of  the 
persecutions  he  drew  upon  himself  though 
the  zeal  he  displayed  in  opposing  Arianism 
and  in  the  conversion  of  heathen.  He 
died  in  380.  There  are  extant  ninety -three 
of  his  Treatises,  a  title  given  in  that  age  to 
familiar  discourses  made  to  the  people. 
He  is  the  first  among  the  Latin  Fathers, 
whose  sermons  were  collected  and  pub- 
lished.    F.  April  I2th. 

Zephyrinus  (St.). — Pope,  born  in 
Rome,  died  in  217.  Successor  of  Victor 
I.  in  197.  Governed  the  Church  with  as 
much  prudence  as  holiness  and  had  for 
successor  Calixtus  I.  Having  lived  under 
pagan  emperors  he  is  counted  among  the 
martyrs.     F.  Aug.  26th. 

Zinzendorf.     See  Herknhutbrs. 

Ziska.     See  Hussites. 

Zoroaster  or  Zarathustra.  —  Prophet 
and  legislator  of  the  ancient  Persians, 
lived  in  the  seventh  century  b.  c.  He 
studied  under  the  prophet  Daniel  and,  af- 
ter having  lived  twenty  years  in  retreat, 
he  went  forth  to  prophesy  and  give  his 
laws  under  the  reign  of  Darius.  He  knew 
certain  plants  whose  sap  had  the  pecul- 
iarity to  harden  the  skin  against  the  action 
of  fire.  Hence,  he  went  to  see  the  king 
and  presented  to  him  the  Zend-Avesta,  a 
book  which  he  had  composed  in  his  retreat 
and  in  which  his  whole  doctrine  was  con- 
tained. The  king,  in  order  to  believe, 
asked  him  for  miracles.  Zoroaster  kindled 
a  great  fire  around  himself  and  went  forth 
from  its  flames,  his  book  in  hand,  without 
the  least  harm.  Hereupon,  Darius 
adopted  the  new  doctrine.  But  the  Sages, 
whose  influence  Zoroaster  came  to  de- 
stroy, united  to  destroy  him  and  to  accuse 
him  of  magic.  They  succeeded  to  change 
the  king's  mind  in  such  a  manner,  that 
the  latter  caused  Zoroaster  to  be  im- 
prisoned. But  Zoroaster  performed  other 
prodigies.    The  king  convinced,  embraced 


the  doctrine  of  the  Zend-Avesta  and 
caused  it  to  be  adopted  by  his  people.  The 
doctrine  of  Zoroaster,  contained  in  the 
Zend-Avesta,  admits  first  one  principle, 
which  is  eternal,  invisible,  spiritual,  from 
which  arose,  before  time,  the  two  pri- 
mordial beings :  Ahura-Mazda  (Ormuzd), 
the  good  principle  of  light,  and  Anra- 
Mainyn  (Ahriman),  the  evil  principle  of 
darkness.  Ormuzd  created  at  first  the 
Amschaspands,  that  is,  the  immortal 
saints,  his  co-operators,  in  the  number  of 
six;  then  the  Izeds,  that  is,  the  adored, 
who  are  at  the  head  of  the  natural  things, 
the  sun,  the  fire,  etc. ;  the  others,  who  are 
personifications  of  metaphysical  ideas,  like 
truth,  purity,  law,  etc.  The  most  important 
of  the  Izeds  is  Mithra,  god  of  the  sun,  and 
as  the  setting  sun  divides  the  world  be- 
tween the  light  and  darkness,  and  conse- 
quently between  Ormuzd  and  Ahriman,  he 
is  called  mediator.  Finally,  Ormuzd  cre- 
ated the  fervors,  the  tutelary  genii  of  men. 
Ahriman  created  the  devas  or  evil  spirits, 
to  whom  especially  belongs  the  kingdom 
of  the  dead,  and  upon  whom  depends  all 
kinds  of  magic  and  sorcery.  Ormuzd 
reigned  alone  3,000  years ;  during  this  time 
he  created  the  material  world ;  he  con- 
cealed the  seed  of  life  in  an  ox;  but  the 
time  had  arrived ;  Ahriman  introduced 
himself  into  the  world  and  killed  the  ox. 
The  Izeds  saved  a  great  part  of  the  seed 
of  life,  which  they  spread  in  the  world, 
but  Ahriman  infected  the  whole  with  his 
poison.  And  from  that  time,  the  good  and 
evil,  light  and  darkness,  became  mingled 
and  are  in  perpetual  warfare.  When  maij 
has  faithfully  served  Ormuzd,  he  enters 
after  his  death,  into  eternal  happiness, 
while  the  servants  of  Ahriman  are  cast 
into  hell.  The  war  between  the  two  prin- 
ciples is  fixed  for  12,000  years.  The  su- 
preme victory  is  reserved  to  Ormuzd.  The 
wicked,  if  once  purified,  will  be  delivered 
from  their  sufferings.  The  fire  will  purify 
all ;  Ahriman  himself  and  his  devas  will 
enter  the  kingdom  of  light.  From  these 
two  principles  quite  a  moral  code  proceeds ; 
man  must  combat  the  evil  and  keep  himself 
pure  in  thought,  word,  and  action.  The 
doctrine  of  the  Parsees  has  never  been 
dualistic,  at  least  in  the  sense  of  the  two 
equal  deities  opposed  to  one  another. 
Ormuzd  alone  is  adored  as  the  supreme 
god.  The  moral  doctrine  of  Zoroaster 
is  conformable  to  his  metaphysics:  the 
moral  good  is  truth,  whose  expression  is 
the  sincerity  of  the  words  and  the  purity 


ZOSIMUS 


721 


ZWINGLE 


of  the  actions.  Hence  the  respect  of  the 
Parsees  for  truth,  sincerity,  and  purity, 
pictures  of  the  visible  light,  and  of  the  in- 
visible light,  which  they  adore  under  the 
symbol  of  fire  and  which  will  disperse,  at 
the  end  of  time,  the  darkness  and  the  lie, 
as  the  day  disperses  the  night.  We  find, 
in  the  religion  of  Zoroaster,  among  the 
errors,  certain  truths  borrowed  from  primi- 
tive revelation. 

Zosimus  (St.). —  Pope,  Greek  by  birth, 
died  in  Rome  in  418.  Successor  of  Inno- 
cent I.  in  417.  Pelagius  and  CcElestius, 
condemned  by  Synod  of  Carthage,  had 
succeeded  by  imposing  upon  him ;  but 
soon  he  recognized  their  errors  and  an- 
nounced them  to  the  Christian  world. 
That  Pope  Zosimus  taught  a  doctrine  dif- 
ferent from  that  of  his  predecessors  in  the 
Pelagian  controversy,  as  is  asserted  by  the 
opponents  of  papal  infallibility,  is  utterly 
false  and  distinctly  denied  by  St.  Augus- 
tine. His  controversy  with  the  African 
bishops  regarded  not  the  doctrine,  but 
solely  the  personal  orthodoxy  of  Coelestius. 

Z^ckau  {Prophets  of). —  "Visionary 
prophets  "  at  Zwickau,  Saxony,  so  called 
from  the  visions  which  they  claimed  to 
receive  from  heaven,  after  the  manner  of 
the  ancient  prophets.  Thomas  Miinzer, 
a  priest,  and  Nicholas  Storch,  a  weaver, 
were  their  leaders.  Gathering  around 
them  twelve  apostles  and  seventy  disci- 
ples, Miinzer  and  Storch  organized  a  new 
society,  which  developed  into  the  sect  of 
Anabaptists,  or  rebaptizers.  They  re- 
jected infant  baptism,  as  contrary  to  Scrip- 
ture; believed  in  the  millennium,  and 
c&mmenced  the  establishment  of  a  new 
Kingdom  of  Christ  on  earth.  Expelled 
from  Zwickau,  they  proceeded  to  Witten- 
berg, where  Carlstadt,  Didymus,  and 
others  joined  them.  Boasting  of  interior 
teaching  by  the  Divinity,  the  new  prophets 
rejected  all  human  science.  Didymus  ad- 
vised parents  to  withdraw  their  sons  from 
studies,  and  Carlstadt  required  the  candi- 
dates of  theology  to  apply  themselves  to 
manual  labor,  rather  than  to  studies  in 
order  not  to  impede  the  inward  inspira- 
tions of  the  Holy  Ghost.  He  was  seen 
visiting  workshops,  with  the  Bible  in  his 
hands,  to  be  instructed  by  simple  artisans 
in  the  true  sense  of  Holy  Writ.  Many  of 
the  clergy  at  Wittenberg  being  opposed 
to  the  new  doctrines,  Carlstadt  and  Didy- 
mus, raising  a  mob,  attacked  churches  and 
monasteries  and  destroyed  altars  and  im- 
46 


ages  of  Christ  and  the  saints.  Similar 
scenes  were  enacted  elsewhere.  The 
troublesome  prophets,  including  Carlstadt, 
were  compelled  to  leave  the  city.  Carl- 
stadt, especially,  aroused  the  wrath  of  Lu- 
ther, by  attacking  his  teaching  on  the  real 
presence  of  Christ  in  the  sacrament  of  the 
altar.  From  that  time  the  two  "Re- 
formers" remained  unrelenting  enemies, 
and  Luther  did  not  cease  to  pursue  his 
former  teacher,  till  he  was  banished  from 
the  country.  Carlstadt,  after  leading  for 
several  years,  an  unsteady  nomadic  life, 
betook  himself  to  Switzerland,  where  he 
was  received  and  assisted  by  Zwingle.  He 
was  appointed  preacher  and  professor  of 
theology  in  Basle,  where  he  died  in  1541. 

Zwingle  and  Zwinglians.  —  U  1  r  i  c  h 
Zwingle  (1484-1531),  was  born  at  Wilde- 
hausen,  Switzerland.  Named,  in  1502, 
regent  at  Basle,  then  curate  of  Glarus 
(1506),  he  delivered  himself  to  the  study 
of  languages.  In  1516,  he  was  appointed 
pastor  of  Notre  Dame  at  Einsiedeln ;  and 
lastly,  he  became  preacher  in  the  cathe- 
dral at  Ziirich.  Twice  he  went  to  Rome, 
in  151 1  and  1515,  accompanying,  as  chap- 
lain, the  Swiss  troops  in  the  Italian  wars. 
In  his  sermons,  he  expounded  the  various 
books  of  the  Bible,  chapter  by  chapter. 
Zwingle  would  not  acknowledge  himself  a 
disciple  of  Luther;  he  boasted  that  he  had 
preached  the  true  doctrine  of  Christ, 
which  he  had  learned  from  God's  word, 
even  before  Luther,  and  that,  while  the 
name  of  the  Saxon  "  Reformer"  was  still 
unknown  in  Switzerland,  he  had  "  relied 
upon  the  Bible,  and  the  Bible  alone." 
Already  in  Einsiedeln,  Zwingle  had  given 
great  oflFense  both  by  his  immoral  conduct 
and  his  preaching  against  the  priesthood, 
invocation  of  the  saints,  monastic  vows, 
and  other  Catholic  institutions  and  prac- 
tices. Like  Luther,  he  assailed  the  preach- 
ing of  the  indulgences  granted  by  Leo  X., 
which  he  caused  to  be  interdicted  by  the 
bishop  of  Constance.  In  1520,  Zwingle 
obtained  a  decree  from  the  Council  of 
Zurich,  forbidding  anything  to  be 
preached  except  what  could  be  proved 
from  Holy  Writ.  Two  years  later  he  pre- 
sented a  petition,  signed  by  himself  and 
several  other  priests,  to  the  bishop,  re- 
questing that  the  law  of  clerical  celibacy 
be  abolished.  Without  waiting  for  an 
answer  from  the  bishop,  who  sent  the 
question  to  Rome,  Zwingle,  severing 
his  connection  with   the  Church,  openly 


ZWINGLE 


722 


ZWINGLE 


rejected  the  authority  of  the  Popes  and 
Ecumenical  Councils  in  matters  of  faith, 
as  tyrannical,  and  stigmatized  the  celib- 
acy of  the  clergy  as  an  invention  of  the 
devil.  The  paternal  remonstrances  of  Pope 
Adrian  VI.  failed  to  make  any  impression 
on  the  erring  priest.  In  1523,  Zwingle  pre- 
vailed on  the  Council  of  Ziirich  to  appoint 
a  religious  conference,  in  which  also,  the 
bishop  of  Constance  was  invited  to  take  part. 
The  theses,  sixty-five  in  number,  which 
Zwingle  presented  for  discussion  at  the 
conference,  were  substantially  the  same 
as  those  defended  by  Luther.  The  Coun- 
cil of  Zurich,  favoring  the  "  reformed 
doctrines,"  declared  Zwingle  victorious, 
notwithstanding  the  latter's  pointed  con- 
futation by  John  Faber,  vicar  general  of 
Constance.  Encouraged  by  the  Council, 
Zwingle  now  completed  his  separation 
from  the  Catholic  Church  by  marrying 
Anna  Reinhard,  a  widow,  with  whom  for 
some  years,  he  had  entertained  criminal 
relations.  His  example  was  followed  by 
other  ill  famed  priests.  Zwingle  named 
rector  of  the  gymnasium,  he  reorganized 
the  studies  of  this  city.  The  heresy  rap- 
idly established  itself  at  Ziirich.  They 
successively  abolished  all  the  religious 
practices  condemned  by  Zwingle.  Mass 
was  the  last  suppressed.     On   Holy  Thurs- 


day (1524)  they  celebrated  for  the  first 
time  the  Last  Supper  according  to  the 
doctrine  of  Zwingle,  that  is,  as  a  simple 
act  of  commemoration  of  the  death  of 
Jesus  Christ.  Then  the  heresiarch  pro- 
posed to  put  the  clergy  under  the  common 
law  and  place  the  goods  of  the  Church  at 
the  disposition  of  the  State.  However, 
the  Diet  of  I^ucerne  showed  itself  opposed 
to  the  pretended  reform  and  a  conference 
held  at  Basle  condemned  it.  But  the 
Great  Council  of  Berne  approved  of  the 
doctrine  of  Zwingle  and  proclaimed  the 
adoption  of  the  reform  (1528).  Zwingle 
expected  that  it  would  spread  over  Swit- 
zerland, but  the  Catholic  cantons  were 
opposed  to  it,  and  war  broke  out  between 
the  Catholics  and  the  reformers ;  this  war, 
smothered  by  a  peace  (1529),  broke  out 
anew.  Zwingle  lost  his  life  in  the  battle  of 
Cappel,  where  his  party  was  beaten  (1531). 
He  addressed,  at  the  Diet  of  Augsburg  and 
to  Francis  I.  his  confession,  in  which  he 
places  Hercules  and  Thereus  among  the 
saints.  Shortly  after  his  death,  his  follow- 
ers joined  the  Calvinists.  Alteration,  the 
weakening  of  both  the  religious  and  Chris- 
tian sense,  the  crushing  of  the  unity  of 
the  Helvetic  Confederation,  behold  what 
Zwingle  bequeathed  to  his  country.  This 
alone,  must  render  his  name  odious. 


INDEX    OF    ARTICLES 


PAGE 

Aachen 

Aaron 

Abaddon 

Abarbanel 

Abarim 

Abasement  of  Christ 

Abba 2 

Abbadie   (James) 2 

Abbe 2 

Abbess 2 

Abbey 2 

Abbo  of  Fleury  (St.) 2 

Abbot 2 

Abbreviator 3 

Abdenago 3 

Abdias 3 

Abdon  and  Sennen 3 

Abecedarians 3 

Abecedarian  Psalms 3 

A  Becket  (Thomas) 3 

Abel 3 

Abelard  (Peter) 3 

Abelites 4 

Abgar 4 

Abia 4 

Abiathar 4 

Abib 4 

Abigail 4 

Abilene 4 

Abimelech 4 

Abiu 5 

Abjuration 5 

Ablution 5 

Abner 5 

Abortion 5 

Abraham 6 

Abraham  a  Sancta-Clara 6 

Abrahamites 6 

Abraxas 6 

Absalom 6 

Absolon  or  Axel 6 

Absolution 6 

Abstainers 7 

Abstinence 7 

Abstinents 7 

Abucara  (Theodore) 7 

Abuna 7 

Abyssinia 7 


PAGE 

Acacians 7 

Acaron 8 

Acceptants 8 

Access 8 

Accidents  (Eucharistic) 8 

Accho _ 8 

Accolti  (Pietro) 8 

Accommodation 8 

Accommodation  (Controversy  of).  .  . .  8 

Acephali 8 

Achab 8 

Achaia 9 

Achaz 9 

Achimelech , . . .  9 

Achitophel 9 

Acoemeti 9 

Acolyte 9 

Acre 9 

Actor  Ecclesise 9 

Acts  of  the  Apostles 9 

Acts  of  the  Martyrs 9 

Acts  of  the  Saints  or  BoUandists 9 

Adalbert  (St.)  of  Prague ^ 10 

Adalbert  of  Bremen id 

Adam 10 

Adamites i 

Adelbert  or  Aldebert i 

Adelheid  (St.) i 

Adelm  or  Aldhelm   (St. ) r 

Adelphians i 

Ademar  of  Chabannes i 

Adeodat  (St.) i 

Adiaphorists i 

Adonai i 

Adoptionism i 

Adoration 12 

Adoration  (Perpetual) 12 

Adoration   (Religious  of  the) 12 

Adramelech 12 

Adrian  (name  of  6  Popes) 12 

Adollam 12 

Adultery 12 

Advent 13 

Adventists 13 

Advocate  of  the  Devil 13 

Advocates  of  St.  Peter 13 

^desius    13 

yEgidius  Colonna 13 

yElana 14 


(723) 


724 


INDEX  OF  ARTICLES 


PAGE 

^neas  Sylvius 14 

Brians 14 

^tius 14 

Affinity   14 

AfFre   (Denis-Auguste) 14 

Africa  (Evangelization  of) 14 

Agag 14 

Agapae 15 

Agapetae 15 

Agapetae 15 

Agapetus  (name  of  2  Popes 15 

Agareneans 15 

Agatha  (St.) 15 

Agatho  (St.) 15 

Age  (canonical) 15 

Agelli  (Anthony) 15 

Agenda 15 

Aggeus 15 

Agnes  (St.) 15 

Agnoetae 16 

Agnus  Dei   16 

Agobard  (St.)  of  Lyons 16 

Agonistici 16 

Agricius  (St.) 16 

Agricola  (John) 16 

Agrippa 16 

Aguirre  (Joseph  Saenz) i6 

Aidan  (St.) 16 

Aileranus 16 

Ailly  (Peter  d') 17 

Aix-la-Chapelle 17 

A-Kempis  (Thomas) 17 

Akiba-Ben-Joseph ; . .  17 

Alanus-ab-Insulis 17 

Alanus  (  Anglicus) 17 

Alb 17 

Alban(St.) 18 

Albanians 18 

Albert  the  Great 18 

Albigenses 18 

Alcantara  (Knights  of) 19 

Alcuin 19 

Alexander  (name  of  8  Popes) 19 

Alexander  of  Alexandria  (St.) 20 

Alexander  of  Hales 20 

Alexander  (St.)  the  "coal-seller".  ...  20 

Alexander  (St.)  of  Constantinople...  20 

Alexander  (St.)  of  Jerusalem 20 

Alexandria  (Councils  of) 20 

Alexandria  (Patriarchate  of) 21 

Alexandrian  Christian  School 21' 

Alexandrian  Library 21 

Alexandrian  Schools 21 

Alexians  or  Cellites 22 

Alfred  the  Great 22 

Algiers  (The  Church  in) 22 

Allatius  (Leo) 22 

Allegorical 22 


PAGE 

Alleluia   22 

Allen  (Cardinal) 23 

Allies  (Thomas  W.) 23 

Allioli   (Joseph  F.) 23 

All-Saints'  Day 23 

All-Souls'  Day 23 

Almoner   23 

Alms 23 

Alogi 24 

Alpha  and  Omega 24 

Altar 24 

Altar  Bread 25 

Altar  Cards 25 

Altar  Cloths 25 

Altar  ( Main ) 25 

Altar  (Mosaic) 25 

Altar  of  Holocausts 25 

Altar  of  Incense 26 

Altar  of  the  Show  Breads 26 

Altar  (Portable) 26 

Altar  (Privileged) 26 

Altar  Stone 26 

Alvarez  (Diego) 26 

Alzog  (J.  Baptist) 26 

Amalecites 26 

Aman 27 

Amasa 27 

Amasias 27 

Ambo 27 

Ambrose  (St.) 27 

Ambrosian  Chant 27 

Amen 27 

America  (The  Church  in)   27 

Amice 27 

Ammonites 28 

Ammonius  Saccas 28 

Ammonius  (St.)   28 

Amorites ; . .  28 

Amort  (Eusebius) 28 

Amos 28 

Amphilochius 28 

Amphipolis    28 

Ampulla 28 

Amri 29 

Amsdorfians 29 

Amula 29 

Amulets 29 

Anabaptists 29 

Anabolagium 31 

Anacletus  (St.) 31 

Anagnost 31 

Anamelech  and  Adramelech j .  .  31 

Ananias 31 

Anaphora 32 

Anastasia  (name  of  several  saints)   ...  32 

Anastasius  (name  of  4  Popes) 32 

Anastasius  the  Librarian 32 

Anastasius  of  Constantinople 32 


INDEX  OF  ARTICLES 


725 


PAGE 

Anastasius  (St.)  of  Antioch 32 

Anastasius  Sinaita  (St.) 32 

Anathema 32 

Anatolius  (St.) 33 

Anchor -. 33 

Anchorite 33 

Ancient 33 

Ancyra 33 

Andrew  of  Crete 33 

Andrew  ( St. )  the  Apostle 34 

Angel 34 

Angela  de  Mericia  (St.) 35 

Angelicals 35 

Angelics 35 

Angelic  Salutation 35 

Angelites 35 

Anglicanism  or  Anglican  Church.  ...  35 

Angustia  Loci 37 

Anicetus  (St.) 37 

Animals  (pure  and  impure) 37 

Animism 38 

Anna  (St. ) 39 

Annas 39 

Annats 39 

Anna  the  Prophetess 39 

Anniversary 39 

Annunciade 39 

Annunciation  (Feast  of  the) 39 

Anomceans .• 39 

Anscharius  (St.) 40 

Anselm  (St.) 40 

Antependium 40 

Anterus  (St.) 40 

Anthem 40 

Anthonists 41 

Anthony  ( St. ) 41 

Anthony  of  Padua  (St.) 41 

Anthropomorphism 41 

Anthropophagy 41 

Antichrist 42 

Antidicomarianites 42 

Antidoron 42 

Antimensium 42 

Antinomians 43 

Antioch a-^ 

Antiochus  (name  of  12  kings) 43 

Antiochus  (Monk) 43 

Antipaedo-Baptists 43 

Antipas  (St.) 43 

Antipatris 44. 

Antiphon aa 

Antiphonarium 44 

Antipope 44 

Antisabbatarian 44 

Antitactes 44 

Antitrinitarian 44 

Antitype 45 

Antonius  (St. ) 45 


PAGE 

Aod 45 

Apelles,  a  Gnostic 45 

Apelles  the  Christian 45 

Aphec 45 

Aphraates   (James) 45 

Aphthartodocetae 45 

Apis 45 

Apocalypse 45 

Apocalypse  of  Moses 46 

Apocalyptic  Number •. 46 

Apocrisarius 46 

Apocryphal  Writings 46 

Apodipne 47 

Apokatastasis 47 

Apollinaris   (St. ) 47 

Apollinaris  the  Apologist 47 

Apollinarists 47 

Apollo 47 

Apollonia 47 

Apollonius   47 

Apollonius  of  Tyana 47 

Apologetic 48 

Apologist 49 

Apolyctic  Prayer 49 

Apostate 49 

Apostle 49 

Apostles'  Creed 50 

Apostles  (Doctrine  of  the  Twelve)..  .  50 

Apostleship  of  Prayer 51 

Apostolate  (Catholic) 51 

Apostolate  of  the  Press 51 

Apostolians 51 

Apostolic  Canons 52 

Apostolic  Council 52 

Apostolic  Fathers 52 

Apostolic  King 52 

Apostolic  Majesty 52 

Apostolic  Notaries 52 

Apostolic  Nuncio 52 

Apostolic  Prefects 52 

Apostolic  Sees 52 

Apostolic  Succession 52 

Apostolic  Times 52 

Apostolicse  Sedis 52 

Apostolicity 53 

Apostolicity  of  the  Church 53 

Apotheosis 53 

Apparitions 53 

Appeal 55 

Appeal  as  Abuse 55 

Approbation 56 

Aquarians 56 

Aquila  and  Priscilla 56 

Aquileia 56 

Arabia 56 

Arabici 57 

Aram 57 

Ararat 57 


726 


INDEX  OF  ARTICLES 


PAGE 

Arator 57 

Arbela 57 

Arbrissel  ( Robert  of ) 58 

Archangel 58 

Archbishop 58 

Archbishopric 58 

Archchaplain 58 

Archconfraternity 58 

Archdeacon 58 

Archelaus,   King 58 

Archelaus,  Bishop 59 

Archimandrite 59 

Architecture  (Early  Church) 59 

Archives 60 

Archontics 60 

Archpriest 60 

Aretas 60 

Arianism  ....    60 

Arias  Montanus 63 

Ariel 63 

Arimathea 63 

Arioch 63 

Aristides  (St.) 63 

Aristo  of  Pella 63 

Aristobolus 63 

Ark  of  the  Covenant 63 

Aries 64 

Armenia 64 

Armenia  (Christianity  in) 64 

Arminius  and  Arminians 64 

Arnauld  (Angelica) 64 

Arnauld    (Antoine) 65 

Arnauld   (Antoine) 65 

Arnobius 65 

Arnoldists 615 

Arnon 65 

Arphaxad 65 

Art   (Christian) 65 

Artemon  and  Artemonites 66 

Articles  of  Perth   67 

Articles  of  Schmalkald 67 

Articles  (The  Lambeth) 67 

Articles  (The  Six) 67 

Articles  (The  Thirty-Nine) 67 

Asa 68 

Asael 68 

Asaph 68 

Ascalon 68 

Ascension  Day 68 

Ascetic 69 

Ascetical 69 

Asceticism 69 

Ashdod 69 

Ashima 69 

Ashtoreth 69 

Ash  Wednesday 69 

Asia    70 

Asia  Minor 70 


P.AGE 

Asiongaber 70 

Asmodeus 70 

Asmoneans 70 

Asor 70 

Aspersion 70 

Assar-Haddon 71 

Assemani 71 

Assuerus 71 

Assumption ^  71 

Assyria 72 

Astarte 73 

Asterius  of  Emesa 73 

Asterius  (Urbanus) 73 

Astrology 73 

Astronomy 73 

Asylum 75 

Athanasian  Creed 76 

Athanasius  (St.) 76 

Atheism 76 

Athenagoras 77 

Athos 77 

Atomism 77 

Atonement 78 

Attila  .    78 

Attributes  of  God 78 

Attrition 78 

Audians 78 

Audients 78 

Augsburg  Confession 78 

Augsburg  Peace 78 

Augustine   (St.) 78 

Augustine  or  Austin  (St.) 79 

Augustinian  Hermits 79 

Aureola  Sanctorum 79 

Auricular  Confession 79 

Australia 79 

Australia  (The  Church  in) 80 

Austria  (Christianity  in) 80 

Austria  (Worship  in) 80 

Authenticity  (Holy  Scripture) 81 

Authority 81 

Autocephali 81 

Auto  Da  Fe 81 

Ave  Maria 81 

Avignon  (The  Popes  at) 82 

Aviz  (Order  of  St.  Benedict) 82 

Azarias 82 

Azimites 82 

B 

Baader  (Franz  X.) 82 

Baal  or  Bel 82 

Baalah 82 

Baanites 82 

Babel 82 

Babylon 82 

Babylonian  Captivity 83 


INDEX  OF  ARTICLES 


727 


PAGE 

Bacon  or  Baconthorp  (John) 83 

Bacon  ( Rof?er)    83 

Baden  ( Worship  in ) 83 

Baius  (Michael) 83 

Balaam 83 

Baldachin 83 

Ballerini  (Anthony) 83 

Ballerini  ( Jerome) 84 

Ballerini  (Peter) 84 

Balmes  ( Jaime  L. ) 84 

Balsam 84 

Balthasar 84 

Baltimore  Councils 84 

Baltimore  (Lord) 84 

Banner 85 

Banns  of  Marriage 85 

Baptism 85 

Baptism  (Ceremonies  of) 88 

Baptistery 89 

Baptistines 89 

Baptists 89 

Barac 90 

Barabbas 90 

Baraga  (Frederick) 90 

Barbara   (St. ) 90 

Bar-Cochebas 90 

Bardesanes 90 

Barnabas   (St.) .-^ 90 

Barnabites 90 

Baronius  (Caesar) 91 

Barsabas  (Joseph) 91 

Barsabas    , .  91 

Barsanians 91 

Bartholomew's  Day 91 

Bartholomew  (St.) 91 

Bartholomites 91 

Baruch 92 

Baruli 92 

Basan  or  Batanea 92 

Baselian  Manuscript 92 

Basil  of  Ancyra 92 

Basil  the  Great  (St.) 92 

Basil  the  Heretic 92 

Basilians 92 

Basilica *  93 

Basilidians 93 

Basle  (Council  of) 93 

Bassians 94 

Bath  or  Ephah 94 

Bautain  (Louise  E.  M.)    94 

Bavaria  (Christianity  in) 94 

Bavaria  (Worship  in) 95 

Bayley  ( James  R.) 95 

Bdellium 95 

Beads 95 

Beatific  Vision 95 

Beatification 95 

Beatitudes  (The  Eight) 95 


PAGE 

Beaton  (Cardinal) 96 

Bee 96 

Becket  (Thomas  a) 96 

Bede,  The  Venerable 96 

Beelphegor 97 

Beelsamen 97 

Beelzebub , 97 

Beghards 97 

Beguines 97 

Bel 97 

Belgium   (Christianity  in) 97 

Belgium  (Worship  in) 97 

Bellarmin  (Robert) 98 

Bells 98 

Belphegor 98 

Benedict  (name  of  14  Popes) 98 

Benedict  Biscop. 99 

Benedict  of  Aniane  (St.) 99 

Benedict  (St.) 99 

Benediction 106 

Benefice  (Ecclesiastical) 100 

Benignus  (St. ) 100 

Benjamin 100 

Berengarius  (Heresy  of) loi 

Bernard  (St. ) loi 

Bernardin  (St.)  of  Siena 102 

Bernardines 102 

Bernice 102 

Beryl 102 

Beryllians 102 

Besor 102 

Bessarion  (John) 102 

Bethany 102 

Beth-Arab 102 

Bethel 102 

Beth-Horon 102 

Bethlehem 102 

Bethlehemites 103 

Bethphage 103 

Bethsaida 103 

Bethsan 103 

Bethsur 103 

Bethulia 103 

Beza  (Theodore)   103 

Bible 103 

Bible  (Canon  of  the) 106 

Bible  (Geneva  or  Breeches) 106 

Bible  ( King  James's) 107 

Bible  Societies 107 

Biblia  Pauperum 107 

Bigamist  and  Bigamy 107 

Bination 108 

Biretta 108 

Birgit  (St.) 108 

Bishop 108 

Bishop  (Auxiliary) 109 

Bishop  (SuflFragan) 109 

Bishops(Appointmentof,in  the  U.  S.).  109 


728 


INDEX  OF  ARTICLES 


Bishop's  Coadjutor   

Bithynia  (The  Faith  in) 

Black  Friars 

Blanc  (Anthony) 

Blanchet  (Francis  N. ) 

Blasius  (St.) 

Blasphemy 

Blessing 

Blood- Avenger.  .    

Blood  (Congregation  of  the  Most  Pre- 
cious)   

Blue  Laws 

Bockhold  ( John) 

Boehme    (James) 

Boethiixs 

Bogomiles 

Bohemian  Brethren 

Boleyn  ( Anne ) 

Bollandists 

Bolsena  (Mass  of) 

Bona  (Giovanni) 

Bonaventure  (St.) 

Boniface  (name  of  9  Popes) 

Boniface  (St.) 

Bonosians 

Book  of  Common  Discipline 

Book  of  Comn>on  Prayer 

Borborites 

Borromeo  (St.  Charles) 

Borromeo  Union 

Bossuet  ( Jacques  B. ) 

Bourdaloue  (Louis) 

Bourignists 

Bradwardine  (Thomas) 

Brahmanism 

Bread    (Liturgical) 

Breads  of  Proposition 

Brebeuf  (Jean  de) 

Brendan  (St.) 

Brethren  and  Sisters  of  the  Free  Spirit 

Brethren  (Apostolic) 

Brethren  of  Our  Lord 

Brethren  (Plymouth) 

Breviary 

Brethren  (United) 

Brethren  (White) 

Bridget  (St.) 

Bridgittines  (Religious) 

Brief  (Apostolic ) 

Brothers  (Congregations  of) 

Brothers  of  Charity 

Brothers  of  the  Common  Life 

Brown  (Robert) 

Brownson  (Orestes  A.) 

Bruno  (Giordano) 

Bruno  (St.) 

Bruys  (Peter) 

Buchanites 


PAGE 

Buddhism 122 

Bugenhagen  ( John) 125 

Bull 126 

BuUarium 126 

Burgundians  (Conversion  of  the) 126 

Burial  ( Christian ) 126 

Bursa 126 

Busenbaum  (Hermann) 126 

Butler  (Alban) 127 

Byrne  (Andrew) 127 

c 

Cab 127 

Cabala 127 

Cades    , .  127 

Caecilia  (St.) 127 

Caelestius 127 

Caesar 127 

Csesarea 127 

Caesarius  of  Aries  (St.) 128 

Cahenslianism 128 

Cain 128 

Ca,inan 128 

Cainites 128 

Caiphas 128 

Caius  or  Gaius 128 

Caius  (St.) 128 

Cajetan  (Cardinal) 128 

Cajus 129 

Calatrava  (Order  of) 129 

Calderon  de  la  Barca  (Pedro) 129 

Caleb 129 

Calendar  (Ecclesiastical) 129 

Calendar  (Gregorian) 129 

California  (Missions  in) 129 

Calixtines 129 

Calixtus  (name  of  3  Popes) 129 

Calmet  (Augustine) 130 

Calotte 130 

Caloyers 130 

Calumny  and  Slander 130 

Calvary  or  Golgotha 130 

Calvary  (Daughters  of) 130 

Calvary  (Priests  of) 130 

Calvin  and  Calvinism 130 

Camaldolites 131 

Camerarius 131 

Camerlengo 131 

Cameronians 131 

Camillians 131 

Camisards 131 

Campbellites 132 

Campeggio  (Lawrence) 132 

Cana 132 

Canada  (Missions  in) 132 

Canada  (The  Church  in) 132 

Candace 132 


INDEX  OF  ARTICLES 


729 


PAGE 

Candle  (Paschal) 132 

Candle  (Triple) 132 

Candlemas 133 

Candles  Used  in  Church 133 

Canisius   (Peter) 133 

Canonical  Hours 134 

Canonist I34 

Canonization 134 

Canon i35 

Canon  Law 135 

Canon  of  the  Mass 136 

Canon  of  the  Scriptures 136 

Canons  (Cathedral) 137 

Canons  (Penetential) 138 

Canticle  of  Canticles 138 

Cantor 138 

Canus  (Melchior) 138 

Capharnaum 138 

Caphtor 138 

Capital  Sins 138 

Capitularies 138 

Cappadocia 138 

Captivity  of  the  Jews 138 

Captivity  of  the  Popes 139 

Capuchins 139 

Capuciati 139 

Carchemis 139 

Cardinals 139 

Cardinal  Virtues 139 

Carmel 139 

Carmelites 139 

Caroline  Books 140 

Carpocratians 140 

Carroll  ( John) 140 

Cartesianism 140 

Carthage 141 

Carthagh  (St.) 141 

Carthusians 141 

Casas  (Las) 141 

Cassianus  (John) 141 

Cassiodorus 141 

Cassock 141 

Castelnau  (Peter  of) 141 

Casuistry 142 

Catabaptists 142 

Catacombs 142 

Catafalque 143 

Cataphrygians 143 

Catechism 143 

Catechism  of  the  Council  of  Trent. .  .  144 

Catechumenate 144 

Catena 144 

Catharine  of  Alexandria  (St.) 144 

Catherine  of  Siena  (St.) 144 

Catharists 145 

Cathedra 145 

Cathedral 145 

Cathedral  Schools 145 


PAGE 

Catholic 14s 

Cathdlic  Emancipation  Act 145 

Catholic  Epistles 145 

Catholicos 145 

Catholic  (Roman)  Relief  Act 145 

Catholics  (German) 145 

Catholics  (Number  of) 145 

Catholics  (Old) 146 

Cecilia 146 

Cedron 146 

Celebrant 146 

Celebret 146 

Celestine  (name  of  5  Popes) 146 

Celestinians  (ReligiousCongregation)  147 

Celibacy  (Clerical) 147 

Cellites 148 

Celsus 148 

Cemetery 148 

Cenites 149 

Cenobite 149 

Censer 149 

Censure   (Ecclesiastical) 149 

Censure  of  Books 149 

Central  America  (Missions  in) 150 

Centuries  of  Magdeburg 150 

Centurion 150 

Cerdonians 150 

Ceremonial  or  Ceremonies 150 

Cerinthus 151 

Cerularius  (Michael) 151 

Cesarini  (Julianus) 151 

Cesena  (Michael) ...  151 

Cetura 151 

Chair  of  St.  Peter 151 

Chalcedon  (Council  of) 151 

Chalice 151 

Challoner  (Richard) 152 

Chanaan 152 

Chanaanites 152 

Chancel 152 

Chancellor  and  Chancery 152 

Chancery  ( Roman) 153 

Chant 153 

Chapel 153 

Chaplain 153 

Chapter 153 

Chapters  (The  Three) 153 

Charity 154 

Charity  (Sisters  of) 154 

Charlemagne 154 

Chastity 155 

Chasuble 155 

Chateaubriand  (Francois  A.) 155 

Chatel  (Francis) 155 

Chemos 155 

Cherubim 155 

Cheverus,  Cardinal 155 

Chili  (Missions  in) ,. . . .  156 


730 


INDEX  OF  ARTICLES 


PAGE 

Chiliasm 156 

China  (Christianity  in) 156 

Chodorlahomor 156 

Choir 156 

Choir  Bishops 156 

Chosroes  II 156 

Chrism 156 

Christ 156 

Christian -' 156 

Christian  Alliance 156 

Christian  Brothers    I57 

Christian  Endeavor  (Society  of) 157 

Christianity 157 

Christianity  in  America 160 

Christians 161 

Christians  (Chaldean) 161 

Christians  of  St.  Thomas 161 

Christmas 161 

Christology 161 

Christolytes 161 

Christopher  (St.) 161 

Chrodegang  (St.) 161 

Chronicles 161 

Chronology 161 

Chronology  (Biblical) 162 

Chrysologus  (St.  Peter) 177 

Chrysostom  (St.  John) 177 

Church 178 

Church  (Greek) 179 

Church  (The,  in  the  United  States) .  .   179 

Church  (The)  and  Basilica 179 

Church  and  Civilization 182 

Church  History 186 

Churching  of  Women 186 

Ciborium 186 

Cingulum 186 

Circumcelliones 186 

Circumcision  (Feast  of) 186 

Cistercians 187 

Clarendon  (Constitutions  of) 187 

Clares  (Poor) 187 

Claudius  of  Turin 187 

Claudius  Apollinaris  (St.) 187 

Claver  (Peter) 187 

Clemangis  (Nicholas  of) 187 

Clement  (Heretic) 187 

Clement  (name  of  14  Popes) 187 

Clementinae 188 

Clement  of  Alexandria 188 

Cleobians 188 

Clergy  and  Laity 189 

Clerks  Regular 189 

Cletus 189 

Clinic  Baptism 189 

Cloister 189 

Clovis  and  (St.)  Clotilda 190 

Cluny  (Abbey  of) 190 

Coadjutor  Bishop 190 


PAGE 

Coat  (The  Holy) 190 

Codex 191 

Coele-Syria 191 

Coena  Domini  (In) 191 

Coenobites 191 

Collation 191 

Collect 191 

Colleges 191 

Collegiants 191 

Collegiate  Churches 191 

Collydrians 191 

Color  of  Vestments 191 

Columba  or  Columkil  (St.) 192 

Columbanus  (St.) 192 

Columbus  (Christopher) 193 

Commandments 193 

Commemoration  in  Liturgy 193 

Commodianus 194 

Communion  (Eucharistic) 194 

Communion   (Liturgical) 195 

Communion  of  Saints 195 

Communion  under  Both  Kinds 195 

Communism 196 

Competentes 196 

Compline 196 

Concanen  (Richard  L.) 196 

Conception  (Immaculate) 196 

Conceptualism 196 

Conclave 196 

Concomitance  (Sacramental) 196 

Concordance . .    196 

Concordats 196 

Concupiscence 196 

Concursus 196 

Condignity,  Congruity 197 

Conferences 197 

Confession  (Sacramental) 197 

Confession  (Liturgical) 198 

Confessional 198 

Confession  of  Augsburg 198 

Confessor  198 

Confirmation 198 

Confiteor 199 

Confraternities 199 

Congregationalism 201 

Congregations   (Sacred) 201 

Congruity 203 

Conon 203 

Consanguinity 203 

Conscience 203 

Conscience  (Liberty  of) 203 

Consecration 204 

Consecration  of  Churches 204 

Consistentes 204 

Consistory 204 

Consolamentum 204 

Constance  (Council  of) 205 

Constantine 205 


INDEX  OF  ARTICLES 


731 


PAGE 

Constantine  the  Great 205 

Constantinople  (Councils  of) 205 

Constitution  (Civil)  of  the  Clergy..  .  205 

Constitutions  (Apostolic) 205 

Consubstantial 206 

Constitutum 206 

Consubstantiation 206 

Consultors  or  Bishop's  Council 206 

Contemplation 206 

Contrition 207 

Convents 207 

Conversion  of  St.  Paul 207 

Convulsionaries 207 

Cope 207 

Copernicus 208 

Copiates 208 

Copts 208 

Coran 208 

Corban 208 

Cordeliers 208 

Core 208 

Corinth 208 

Corinthians  (Epistles  to  the) 208 

Cornelius  the  Centurion 209 

Cornelius,  Pope 209 

Cornelius  i  Lapide 209 

Corozain 209 

Corporal .• 209 

Corpus  Christi 209 

Corrigan  (Michael  A.) 210 

Corrupticolae 210 

Cosmas  and  Damianus  (Sts.) 210 

Cosmogony  (The  Mosaic) 210 

Councils  (Ecumenical) 222 

Cowl 223 

Cranmer  (Thomas) 223 

Creation 224 

Creationism 224 

Credence 226 

Creed 226 

Cremation 227 

Crib 228 

Crosier 228 

Cross 228 

Cross  (Congregation  of  the  Holy).  . .  .  228 

Cross  (Daughters  of  the) 228 

Cross  (Finding  of  the) 228 

Cross  (Sign  of  the) 229 

Cross  (Way  of  the) 229 

Crucifix 229 

Crusades 229 

Crypt 230 

Crypto-Calvinists 230 

Cubit 231 

Culdees 231 

Cullen  (Paul) 231 

Cultus 231 

Cummian  (St.) 231 


Curate 231 

Curia  Romana 231 

Cusa  (Nicholas  of ) 231 

Cush 231 

Cuthbert  (St.) 232 

Cutheans 232 

Cycle  ( Easter)   232 

Cycle  (Dionysian) 232 

Cyprian  (St.) 232 

Cyprus 232 

Cyrene 232 

Cyriacus  (St.) 232 

Cyril  (St.)  of  Alexandria 232 

Cyril  (St.)  of  Jerusalem 233 

Cyril  and  Methodius  (Sts.).  . .  .* 233 

Cyrillus  Lucaris 233 

Cyrinus 233 

Cyrus  of  Alexandria 233 

Cyrus,   King 233 


Dabir 233 

Dagon 233 

Dalmanutha 233 

Dalmatia 233 

Dalmatic 234 

Damasus  (name  of  2  Popes) 234 

Damianists 234 

Damianus 234 

Damianus  (St.  Peter) 234 

Damien  de  Veuster  (Joseph) 234 

Dan 234 

Dance  of  Death 235 

Dancers 235 

Dancing 235 

Daniel 235 

Dante-Alighieri 235 

Darboy  (George) 236 

Darby  (John) 236 

Darius 236 

Darwinism 236 

Dataria 236 

David 236 

Deacon 236 

Deaconess 237 

Dean 237 

Death 237 

Debora 237 

Decalogue 238 

Decapolis 239 

Decius 239 

Decretals 239 

Dedication 239 

Defender  of  the  Faith 239 

Defensor  Matrimonii 239 

Degradation,  Deposition 239 

Deism 239 


732 


INDEX  OF  ARTICLES 


Delegate 239 

Deluge  (the  Noachian) 239 

Demas 250 

Demiurge 250 

Demon 250 

Denarius 250 

Denmark  (Christianity  in) 250 

Denmark  (the  Church  in) 250 

Deo  Gratias 251 

Deposition 251 

Derbe 251 

Descartes 251 

Desecration 251 

Desert 251 

Deusdedit  (name  of  2  Popes) 251 

Deuterocanonicals 251 

Deuteronomy 252 

Devil 252 

Devolution 254 

Diaconium 254 

Diana  of  the  Ephesians 254 

Diatessaron 254 

Didache 254 

Didon  (Henry) 354 

Didymus  the  Blind 255 

Dies  Irae 255 

Dimissorial 255 

Diocese 255 

Diocletian 255 

Diodorus  of  Tarsus 255 

Diognetus  (Letter  to) 255 

Dionysius  (St. ) 256 

Dionysius  Exiguus 256 

Dionysius  of  Alexandria 256 

Dionysius  of  Paris  (St.) 256 

Dionysius  the  Areopagite 256 

Dioscorus  of  Alexandria 256 

Diptychs 256 

Discalced 257 

Disciples  of  Christ 257 

Discipline  ( Ecclesiastical) 257 

Discipline  (Penitential) 257 

Discipline  of  the  Secret 257 

Dispensation 257 

Dissenters 258 

Ditheism 258 

Divination 258 

Divorce 258 

Docetae 262 

Doctor 262 

Doctors  of  the  Church   262 

Dogmas  and  Matters  of  Opinion 263 

Dolcino  (Fra) 264 

Dollinger  (Johann  Joseph  I.) 264 

Dominic  (St.)  and  Dominicans 264 

Dominica  in  Albis 264 

Dominical  or  Linteum  Dominicale. .  .   264 
Dominical  or  Sunday  Letter 264 


PAGE 

Dominus  Vobiscum 265 

Donation  of  Constantine 265 

Donatists 265 

Donus  or  Domnus  (name  of  2  Popes).  265 

Dor 265 

Dositheus 265 

Douay  Bible 265 

Dove 265 

Doxology 265 

Dream 266 

Druids 266 

Druses 266 

Drusilla 266 

Du  Bois  (John) 266 

Duel 266 

Dulia 266 

Dungal 266 

Dunkers 266 

Duns  Scotus  (John) 267 

Dunstan  (St.) 267 

Dupanloup  ( Felix  A.  P. ) 267 

Durandus  of  Saint- Pouryain 267 

E 

Eadmer  or  Edmur 267 

Easter 267 

Easter  (Computation  of) 268 

Easter  Communion 269 

Easter  Confession 269 

Ebionites 269 

Ecce   Homo 269 

Ecclesiarch 269 

Ecclesiastes 269 

Ecclesiasticus 269 

Eccleston  (Samuel) 269 

Eck  (John) 270 

Eclectics 270 

Ecthesis 270 

Ecumenical 270 

Eden 270 

Edessa 270 

Edmund  (St.) 270 

Edom 270 

Edrai 270 

Education. 270 

Edward  the  Confessor 271 

Edward  the  Martyr 271 

Eglon 271 

Einsiedeln 271 

Ela 271 

Elam 271 

Elath  or  Ailath 271 

Eleazar .^ 271 

Eleutheropolis 271 

Eleutherus  (St.)  Pope 271 

Eleutherus  (St. ) 271 

Eleutherus  (St.)  of  Tournai 271 

Elevation 27' 


INDEX  OF  ARTICLES 


733 


PAGE 

Eliachim 272 

Elias 272 

Eligius  (St.) 272 

Elim 272 

Elipandus 272 

Eliseus 272 

Elishe  (Elisaeus) 272 

Elizabeth,  Queen 272 

Elizabeth  { St.) 273 

Elizabeth   (St.)  Queen 273 

Elizabeth  (St.)  Queen 273 

Elkesaites 273 

Eloham 273 

Elohim 273 

Eloquence  (Sacred) 273 

Emancipation  (Catholic) 274 

Ember  Days 275 

Eminence 275 

Emmaus 275 

Emmeran  (St.) 275 

Emperors  and  Kings .  275 

Empire  (The  Holy  Roman) 279 

Empiricism 279 

Ems  (Congress  of) 279 

Emser  ( Jerome) 279 

Encratites 280 

Encyclical 280 

Encyclion 280 

Endor 280 

Energumens 280 

Engadi     280 

England  (Evangelization  of) 280 

England  (John) 280 

England  (Protestantism  in) 281 

England  (The  Church  in) 281 

Ennodius  (Magnus  F.) 281 

Enoch 282 

Eon  or  Eudo  de  Stella 282 

Epaphras    (St.) 282 

Eparchy 282 

Ephesians  (Epistle  to  the) 282 

Ephesus 282 

Ephesus  (Councils  of) 282 

Ephod ; 282 

Ephraim 282 

Ephrem  (St. ) 283 

Epicureans 283 

Epiphanius  (St.)  of  Salamis 283 

Epiphanius  (St.)  of  Pavia 283 

Epiphanius  the  Scholastic "283 

Epiphany 283 

Episcopacy 284 

Episcopals 284 

Epistle 284 

Era 284 

Erasmus  (Desiderius) 284 

Erasmus  (St.) 284 

Erastians 284 


PAGE 

Erigena  (John  Scotus) 284 

Esau 284 

Esdraelon 284 

Esdras  (Books  of) 284 

Essenes    ^ 285 

Esther 285 

Ethelbert 285 

Ethelwold 285 

Ethiopia -. 285 

Ethnarch 285 

Eucharist 285 

Eucherius  (St.) 287 

Euchites  or  Euphemites 287 

Euchology 287 

Eudists 287 

Eudo  de  Stella 287 

Eugenius  (name  of  4  Popes) 287 

Eulogiag 288 

Eunomians 288 

Eunuch 288 

Eusebius  (St.) 288 

Eusebius  of  Csesarea 288 

Eusebius  of  Nicomedia 288 

Eusebius  of  Vercelli  (St.) 288 

Eustathiens .' 288 

Eusthatius  of  Antioch 288 

Eutyches  and  Eutychians 288 

Eutychianus  (St.) 288 

Evagrius 288 

Evangeliarium 288 

Evangelical  Alliance 288 

Evangelical  Association 289 

Evangelical  Counsels 289 

Evangelical  Church   2S9 

Evangelist 289 

Eve 289 

Evil  (Origin  of) 289 

Evil-Merodach 290 

Evodius 290 

Evolution  (Theory  of) 290 

Exaltation  of  the  Cross 291 

Exarch 291 

Ex  Cathedra 291 

Excommunication 291 

Exeat 292 

Exegesis 293 

Exile 293 

Exodus 293 

Exorcism  and  Exorcists 293 

Extasy 293 

Extreme  Unction 293 

Ezechias 293 

Ezechiel 293 

Eznik 294 

F 

Faber  (Frederick  W.) 294 

Faber  (John) 294 


734 


INDEX  OF  ARTICLES 


PAGE 

Fabian  (St.) 294 

Facundus 294 

Faith 294 

Faith  (Rule  of) 294 

Faithful 295 

Faldstool 296 

False  Decretals 296 

Familists 296 

Fast  Days 296 

Fathers  (Apostolic) 296 

Fathers  of  the  Christian  Doctrine.  .  .  .   296 

Fathers  of  the  Church 296 

Faustinus 297 

Feasts  of  Fools  and  Asses 297 

Feasts  of  the  Church 297 

Feasts  of  the  Jews 298 

Febronianism 298 

Feehan  (Patrick  A.) 298 

Felicissimus 298 

Felix,  Heretic 298 

Felix  (name  of  4  Popes) 298 

Felix  of  Valois 299 

Fenelon  (Francois) 299 

Fenwick  (Benedict  Joseph) 299 

Fenwick  (Edward  D.) 299 

Feria 299 

Ferrara  (Council  of) 299 

Festus  Portius 299 

Fetishism 299 

Feuillants 300 

Final  Perseverance 300 

Finding  of  the  Cross 300 

Firmilian  (St.) 300 

First  Fruits 300 

Fish 300 

Fisher  (John)  ...    300 

Fitzgerald  (Edward) 300 

Flagellants 301 

Flaget  (Benedict  Joseph) 301 

Flavian  (St.)  of  Constantinople .   301 

Flavian  (St.)  of  Antioch 301 

Flavius  Josephus 301 

Fleury  (Claude) 301 

Florence  (Council  of) 301 

Flotte  (Peter) 302 

Flowers 302 

Font  (Baptismal) 302 

Fontevrault  (Order  of) 302 

Formosus 302 

Forty  Hours'  Devotion 302 

Fossarians 303 

France  (Evangelization  of) 303 

France   (Worship  in) 303 

Frances  of  Chantal  (St.) 303 

Francis  Borgia  (St.) 303 

Francis  of  Assisi  (St.) 303 

Francis  of  Paul  (St. ) 303 

Francis  of  Sales  (St.) 303 


PAGE 

Francis-Xavier  (St.) 303 

Franciscans 304 

Frankfort  (Council  of) 304 

Fratricelli 304 

Free  Church  of  England 304 

Freemasons 305 

Freppel  (Charles  fimile) 305 

Friday   (Good) 305 

Fridolin   (St.) 306 

Friends 306 

Frisians  (Conversion  of  the) 306 

Frumentius 306 

Fulbert  of  Chartres 306 

Fulgentius  (St.) 306 

G 

Gabaa 306 

Gabaon 306 

Gabbatha 306 

Gabriel 306 

Gabrielites 307 

Gad 307 

Gadara 307 

Gage  (Thomas) 307 

Gajus 307 

Galaad 307 

Galatia 307 

Galileans 307 

Galilee 307 

Galileo 307 

Gall  (St.) 308 

Gallandius  (Andrew) 308 

Gallicanism 308 

Galilean  Liberties 308 

Gallitzin  (Demetrius) 308 

Gamala 309 

Gamaliel 309 

Gardiner  (Stephen) 309 

Garizim 309 

Garnet  (Henry) 309 

Gaza 310 

Gedeon 310 

Gehenna 310 

Gehon 310 

Gelasius  (name  of  2  Popes) 310 

Gelboe 310 

General 310 

Generatianism 310 

Genesareth  (Sea  of) 310 

Genesis 310 

Gennadius,  Priest 310 

Gennadius  (George) 311 

Gentiles 311 

Gentilis  (Valentine) 311 

Genuflectentes 311 

Genuflection 311 

George  (St.) 311 


INDEX  OF  ARTICLES 


735 


PAGE 

Gerah .• 311 

Gerara 311 

Gerard  (Segarelli) 311 

Gerasa 311 

Gerbert 3ri 

German  Catholics 311 

Germanus  of  Constantinople 311 

Germanus  (St.) 311 

Germany  (Christianity  in) 311 

Germany  (Worship  in) 311 

Gerson  (Jean  Charlier  de) 312 

Gertrude  (St.) 312 

Gervase  or  Gervaise 312 

Gervasius  and  Protasius  (Sts.) 312 

Gessur 312 

Geth 312 

Gethsemani 312 

Ghost  (Gifts  of  the  Holy) 312 

Ghost  (Holy) 312 

Gibbons   (James) 312 

Gihon 313 

Gilbert 313 

Gilbert  de  la  Poree 313 

Gilbertines 313 

Gilmour  (Richard) 313 

Gioberti  (Vincenzo) 313 

Girdle 313 

Gloria  in  Excelsis 314 

Gloria  Patri 314 

Gnosticism 314 

Goch  (John  van) 315 

God 315 

Godfrey  of  Bouillion 315 

Godparents 315 

Goethe  (John  W.) 315 

Gog 315 

Golden  Bull 315 

Golden  Calf 316 

Golden  Number 316 

Golden  Rose 316 

Golgotha 316 

Goliath 316 

Gomarists 316 

Good  Friday 316 

Gorden  (George) 316 

Gortonians 316 

Gospel 316 

Gospel  (The)  in  Liturgy   318 

Goths 318 

Gottschalk 318 

Grace 318 

Gradual 320 

Gradual  Psalms 320 

Grammont  (Order  of) 320 

Gratian 320 

Greece  (The  Church  in) 321 

Greek  Schism 321 

Greenland  (Evangelization  of) 321 


PAGE 

Gregorian  Chant 321 

Gregorian  Calendar 321 

Gregory  (name  of  16  Popes) 321 

Gregory  Nazianzen  (St.) 324 

Gregory  of  Nyssa  (St.) 325 

Gregory  of  Tours  (St.) 325 

Gregory  Thaumaturgus  (St.) 325 

Gregory  the  Illuminator  (St.) 325 

Grey  Nims 325 

Grosseteste  (Robert) 325 

Grotius  (Hugo) 325 

Gualbert  (John) 326 

Guardian  Angel 326 

Gunpowder  Plot t 326 

Giintherianism 326 

Gustavus  Vasa 326 

Guyon  (Jeanne  M.  B.) 326 

Gyrovagi 326 

H 

Habacuk 327 

Hadrian 327 

Hail  Mary 327 

Hales  (Alexander  of) 327 

Halo ". 327 

Haman 327 

Hamilton  (Patrick) 327 

Haran 327 

Hardouin  (Jean) 327 

Harmonies  of  the  Gospels 327 

Harmonists 327 

Haydn   (Francis  Joseph) 327 

Heart  (Sacred)  of  Jesus 328 

Heart  (Immaculate)  of  Mary 328 

Heaven 328 

Heber 329 

Hebrews  (Epistle  to  the) 329 

Hebron    329 

Hecker  (Isaac  Thomas) 329 

Hefele  (Karl  Joseph  von) 329 

Hegesippus 329 

Heiss  (Michael) 329 

Helena  (St.) 330 

Heli 330 

Hell 330 

Hellenists 330 

Helvidius 330 

Hemerobaptists 330 

Henni  (John  M.) 330 

Henoch 330 

Henoticon 330 

Henricians 331 

Henry  IV 331 

Henry  VIII 331 

Heracleon 331 

Heresy 331 

Hergenrother  (Joseph) 331 


736 


INDEX  OF  ARTICLES 


PAGE 

Herman 332 

Hermas 332 

Hermeneutic 332 

Hermes  (George) 332 

Hermias  the  Heretic 333 

Hermias  the  Philosopher 333 

Hermits 333 

Hermogenes 333 

Hermon 333 

Herod 333 

Herodians 333 

Herrnhuters 333 

Hesychasts 334 

Hesychius  (St.) 334 

Hetheans 334 

Hexaemeron 334 

Hieracites 334 

Hierarchy   334 

Hierarchy  of  the  Church 334 

Hierocles 337 

Hieronymites 337 

Hieronymus  (St.) 337 

High-Priest 337 

Hilarion  (St.) 337 

Hilary,  Pope 337 

Hilary  of  Aries 337 

Hilary  of  Poitiers 337 

Hillel 338 

Hincmar  of  Laon 338 

Hincmar  of  Rheims 338 

Hippolytus 338 

Hiram 338 

Holiness 338 

Holiness  of  the  Church 338 

Holland  (Church  in) 339 

Holy  Coat 339 

Holy  Family 339 

Holy  Fire 339 

Holy  Ghost    339 

Holy  Ghost  (Orders  of  the) 339 

Holy  Office 339 

Holy  Orders 339 

Holy  Places 339 

Holy  Water 339 

Holy  Week 339 

Homily 341 

Homoosion 341 

Honoratus  (St.)    341 

Honorius  (name  of  4  Popes) 341 

Honorius  I.  (Condemnation  of) 342 

Hontheim  (Nicholas  von) 342 

Hope 342 

Hor 342 

Horeb 342 

Horebites 342 

Hormisdas 342 

Hosanna 342 

Hosius 342 


Hospital '. 342 

Hospitalers 343 

Host 343 

Hours  (Canonical) 343 

Hubert  (St.) 343 

Hughes  (John) 343 

Hugh  of  St.  Victor 344 

Huguenots 344 

Humanists 344 

Humiliati 344 

Huss  and  Hussites 345 

Hyacinth  (St.) 346 

Hyacinth  (Charles  Loyson) 346 

Hyacintha  (St.) 346 

Hyginus  (St.) 346 

Hylozoism 346 

Hymeneus 346 

Hymn 346 

Hyperdulia 347 

Hypnotism 347 

Hypostasis 348 

Hyssop 348 

I 

bas 348 

birians  (Conversion  of  the) 348 

celand  (Christianity  in)   348 

conium 349 

conoclasm 349 

conostasis 349 

dioms  (Communication  of) 349 

dolatrj' 349 

dumea 349 

gnatius  (St.)  of  Antioch 350 

gnatius  (St.)  of  Constantinople 350 

gnatius  of  Loyola  (St.) 350 

gnorantines 350 

•  H.S 350 

Idefonsus  (St ) 350 

lluminati ^ 350 

lluminati  (Sect  of  the) 350 

llyricum 351 

mages 351 

mages  (Controversy  on) 351 

mmaculate  Conception 351 

mmortality  of  the  Soul 351 

mmunities 353 

mpanation 353 

mpediments  of  Matrimony 353 

mposition  of  Hands 353 

mproperia 353 

mputation ^.  .   353 

ncarnate  Word 354 

ncarnation  (Mystery  of  the) 354 

ncense 354 

n  Ccena  Domini 354 

ndex  Librorum  Prohibitorum 355 


INDEX  OF  ARTICLES 


717 


PAGE 

India  and  China  (Christianity  in) 355 

India  and  China  (Worship  in) 355 

Indians  in  America 355 

Indulgence 355 

Indulgence  (Jubilee) 35^ 

Indulgences  (Sale  of) 357 

Indult 358 

Infallibility  of  the  Church  and  Pope.     358 

Infidels 359 

Infralapsarians 359 

Inneity 359 

Innocent  (name  of  13  Popes) 360 

Innocents  (Feast  of  the  Holy) 361 

Inquisition 3^^ 

Inspiration 3^2 

Installation 3^3 

Intelligence 3^3 

Interdict 3^4 

Interim 3^4 

Interpretation  of  Scripture 364 

Introit 368 

Investiture 3^8 

Ireland  (Christianity  in) 368 

Ireland  (Protestantism  in) 368 

Ireland  (The  Church  in) 369 

Ireland  (John) 369 

Irenaeus  (St.) 3^9 

Irene 370 

Irregularity 370 

Irvingites 37^ 

Isaac 371 

Isaac  of  Antioch 371 

Isaac  the  Parthian 371 

Isaias 37^ 

Isboseth 371 

Isidore  (St.) 371 

Isidore  Mercator 371 

Isidore  of  Alexandria 372 

Isidore  of  Pelusium 372 

Ismael 372 

Islam 372 

Israel  (Kingdom  of) 372 

Issachar 372 

Itala 372 

Italy  (Worship  in) 372 

Ite  Missa  Est 372 

Ithacius 372 

Itinerary 372 

Ituraea 373 

Ivo  (St.) 373 

J 

Jabbok 373 

Jabes-Galaad 373 

Jabin 373 

Jachin 373 

Jacob 373 

47 


PAGE 

Jacobins 373 

Jacobites 373 

Jacob's  Well 373 

Jahel 373 

Jamblichus 373 

James  the  Elder 374 

James  the  Less .  .  ^ 374 

Jansenius  and  Jansenism 374 

Janssen  (John) 375 

Januarius  (St.) 375 

Japan  (Christianity  in) 375 

Japhet 375 

Jason 375 

Javan 375 

Jebusites 375 

Jechonias 375 

Jehovah 376 

Jehu 376 

Jephte 376 

Jeremias 376 

Jericho. . . .  r 376 

Jeroboam 377 

Jerome  (St. ) 377 

Jerome  of  Prague 377 

Jeronymites 377 

Jerusalem 377 

Jerusalem  (Council  of) 378 

Jerusalem  (Church  of  the  New) 378 

Jesuats 378 

Jesuits 378 

Jesuits  and  Their  Suppression. 379 

Jesus    ....    380 

Jesus  Christ  • 380 

Jews  *^istory  of  the) 381 

Jethro 384 

Jezabel 384 

Jezrael 384 

Joab 384 

Joachaz 384 

Joachim  (St.) 384 

Joachimites 384 

Joachim  of  Fiore 384 

Joakim 384 

Joan  ( Fable  of  the  Popess) 384 

Joan  of  Arc 385 

Joas 385 

Joatham 385 

Job 385 

Jocques  (Isaac) 386 

Joel 386 

John  (name  of  23  Popes) 386 

John  (Knights  of  St.) 387 

John  Capistran  (St.) 387 

John  Chrysostom  (St.) 387 

John  Climacus 387 

John  Gualbert 388 

John  of  Antioch 388 

John  of  Damascus  (St.) 388 


738 


INDEX  OF  ARTICLES 


PAGE 

John  of  God  (St.) 388 

John  of  Matha 388 

John  of  Nepomucene  (St.) 388 

John  of  the  Cross  (St.) 389 

John  the  Almoner  (St. ) 389 

John  the  Baptist  (St.) 389 

John  the  Evangelist  (St.J 389 

Jonas 389 

Jonathas  or  Jonathan ...    389 

Joppe  or  Jaffa 390 

Joram 390 

Jordan 390 
osaphat 390 

Josaphat  (Valley  of) 390 

Joseph .^ 390 

Joseph  (St.) 390 

Joseph  (Congregations  of  St.) 390 

Josephinum 391 

Josephism 391 

Joseph  of  Arimathea 391 

Josephus  Flavius 391 

Josias 391 

Josue 391 

Journalism  (Catholic) 392 

Jovinian 396 

Jubilee  (The  Year  of) 396 

Jubilee  Year 396 

Juda 396 

Juda  (Kingdom  of) 396 

Judaea  or  Judea 396 

Judaizers 397 

Judas 397 

Jude  (St.) 397 

Judgment  (The  Last) 397 

Judgment  (The  Particular) 397 

Judges  (Book  of) 398 

Judges  of  Israel 398 

Judicatum 398 

Julian  the  Apostate 398 

Julianists 398 

Julius  (name  of  3  Popes) 398 

Julius  Africanus 399 

Jurisdiction 399 

Jus  Primae  Noctis 400 

Just 400 

Justice 400 

Justification 400 

Justin  (St. ) 401 

Juvencus 401 

K 

Kaaba v . .  .  402 

Kabala 402 

Kant  (Immanuel) 402 

Karaites 402 

Keane  (John  Joseph) 402 

Kempis  (Thomas  a) 402 


PAGE 

Kenrick  (Francis  P.) 402 

Kentigren  (St.) 403 

Kilian  (St.) 403 

Kings  (Books  of) 403 

Kings  and  Emperors 403 

Kissing  the  Altar 403 

Kiss  of  Peace 403 

Knights 403 

Know-Nothingism 404 

Knox  (John ) 404 

Koran 404 

Kultur-Kampf 404 

Kyrie  Eleison 404 

L 

Labadie  (John) 405 

Laban 405 

Labarum 405 

Labre  (Benedict  Jos.,  St.) 405 

Lachis 405 

Lacordaire  (J.  B.  H.) 405 

Lactantius 405 

Lacticinia 406 

Laetare  Sunday 406 

Lainez  (James) 406 

Laity 406 

Lamaism 406 

Lamech 406 

Lamennais  (H.-F.  R.  de) 406 

Lamentations 406 

Lance  (The  Sacred) 407 

Lando 407 

Lanf  ranc 407 

Langton  (Stephen) 407 

Language 407 

Laodicea 408 

Lapsi 408 

La  Salle  (J.  B.)   408 

Las  Casas  (Bartholomew) 408 

Lateran  (The) 408 

Latimer  (Hughes) 409 

Latin  Language  (Use  of  the) 409 

Latitudinarians 410 

Latria 410 

Latrocinium 410 

Lauds. . 410 

Laura 410 

Lavabo 410 

Lavigerie  (Chas.  M.  A.) 410 

Law 4»o 

Lawrence  or  Laurentius  Justinianus.  .  412 

Lawrence  (St.) 4" 

Lawrence  O'Toole  (St.) 4^2 

Lazarists 4^^ 

Lazarus 413 

League  (Holy) 4^3 

Leander  (St.) 413 


INDEX  OF  ARTICLES 


739 


PAGE 

Lectionary 413 

Lector 413 

Ledochowski  (M.  H.,  Count  de) 413 

Legate 4^4 

Legio  Fulminatrix 414 

Legion  (Theboan) 414 

Leibnitz  (G.  W.  von) 414 

Lent 415 

Leo  (name  of  13  Popes) 416 

Leviticus 419 

Lia 419 

Libanon 419 

Libellatici 420 

Liberius  (St.) 420 

Liberties  (Gallican) 421 

Libertines 421 

Life 421 

Lights  at  Divine  Service 421 

Liguori  (M.  A.  of) 422 

Limbo 422 

Limbo  Puerorum 422 

Litany 422 

Liturgy 423 

Livinus  (St.) .  .   423 

Llorente  (Don  Juan  A.) 423 

Logothete 424 

Lollards 424 

Lombard  (Peter) 424 

Lord's  Prayer 424 

Lord's  Supper 424 

Loreto 424 

Lot 424 

Louis  (St. ) 424 

Louis  Bertrand  (St.) 424 

Louis  of  Gonzagua  (St.) 425 

Lourdes 425 

Low  Sunday 425 

Lucia  (St.) 425 

Lucian 425 

Lucianus  (St.) 425 

Lucidus,  Heretic 426 

Luciferians 426 

Lucius  (name  of  3  Popes) 426 

Ludmilla  (St. ) 426 

Lugo  (John  de) 426 

Luitprand 426 

Luke  (St.) 426 

Lust 426 

Luther  (Martin) 427 

Lydia 430 

Lying 430 

Lyons  (Councils  of) 430 

Lystra 430 

M 

Maacha 43 1 

Mabillon  (John) 431 

Macarius  (St.) 431 


PAGE 

Macedonia 431 

Macedonius 431 

Machabees  (Books  of  the) 431 

Machabees  (The) 431 

Machabeus  (Jonathas) 432 

Machabeus  (Judas) 432 

Machabeus  (Simon) 432 

Madianites 432 

Magdala 432 

Magdalen  (St.  Mary) 432 

Magdalen  de  Pazzi  (St.  Mary) 432 

Mageddo 433 

Magi 432 

Magic 432 

Magnificat 433 

Magog  and  Gog 433 

Mahomet 433 

Mai  (Angelo) 433 

Maid  of  Orleans 433 

Malachias 433 

Malachy  (St.) 433 

Malchus 433 

Maldonatus  (John) 433 

Mambre 433 

Mamertus  (St.) 433 

Mammon 433 

Man  and  Science 434 

Manahem 446 

Manasses 446 

Mandseans 446 

Manichaeanism 446 

Maniple 447 

Mankind  (Unity  of) 447 

Manna 455 

Manning  (Henry  E.) 455 

Maranatha 455 

Marcellina  (St.) 455 

Marcellinus  (St.) 456 

Marcellus  (name  of  2  Popes) 456 

Marcion  and  Marcionites 456 

Marechal  (Ambrose) 456 

Marists 456 

Mark 456 

Mark  (St.),  Evangelist 456 

Mark  (St. ),  Pope 457 

Mark's  Day 457 

Maronites 457 

Marquette  (Jacques) 457 

Marriage 457 

Marriage  (Civil) 457 

Marriage  (Mixed) 458 

Martha 458 

Martha  (Religious  of  St.) 458 

Martial  (St.) 458 

Martin  (name  of  5  Popes) 458 

Martin  of  Tours  (St.) 458 

Martinelli  (Sebastian) 459 

Martyrologium 459 


740 


INDEX  OF  ARTICLES 


PAGE 

Martyrs 459 

Maruthas 460 

Mary  (Brothers  of) 460 

Mary  Immaculate  (Oblates  of) 460 

Mary  (The  Blessed  Virgin) 460 

Mary  (Feasts  of) 461 

Mary  (Prerogatives  of) 461 

Maspha 461 

Mass 461 

Mass  of  Bolsena 462 

Mass  of  the  Presanctified 462 

Massilians 463 

Massillon  ( J.  B.) 463 

Massorah 463 

Materialism 463 

Matha  (St.  John  of) 464 

Mathew  (Theobald) 464 

Mathurins 464 

Matins 464 

Matrimony 464 

Matrimony  (Unity  of) 465 

Matthew  (St.) 466 

Matthias  (St.) 466 

Maundy  Thursday 466 

Maurice  (St.) 466 

Maurists 466 

Maximus  of  Jerusalem  (St.) 466 

Maximus  the  Confessor  (St.) 466 

Maximus  of  Turin  (St.) 466 

McCloskey  (John) 466 

McGlynn  (Edward) 467 

Measures ^ 467 

Mechitarists 467 

Media 467 

Meditation 467 

Melanchthon  (Philip) 467 

Melania  (St. ) 467 

Melchiades  (St.) 467 

Melchisedech 467 

Melchisedechians 467 

Melchites 467 

Meletius  of  Sebaste 467 

Meletius  the  Heresiarch 468 

Melita 468 

Melito  (St.) 468 

Memento 468 

Menander 46S 

Mendicant  Orders 468 

Mennonites 468 

Menologium 469 

Mercy  (Order  of) 469 

Mercy  (Sisters  of) 469 

Merit 469 

Merodach-Baladan 469 

Merom  ( Waters  of) 469 

Mesa 469 

Mesopotamia 470 

Mesraim 470 


PAGE 

Mesrop  (St.) 470 

Messalians 470 

Messias 470 

Methodism 470 

Methodists  in  the  United  States 471 

Methodius  (St.)  the  Confessor 472 

Methodius  (St.)  of  Olympus 472 

Methodius  (St.) 473 

Metrophanes 473 

Metropolitan 473 

Mexico  (The  Church  in) 473 

Mezzofanti  (Joseph) 473 

Michael  (St. ) 473 

Michael  Cerularius 473 

Micheas 473 

Michol , .  473 

Miletus 473 

Millennium 473 

Milner  (John) 474 

Miltiades  (St.) 474 

Miltiades 474 

Minims 474 

Minor  Orders 474 

Minucius  Felix 474 

Miracle 475 

Miriam 477 

Missal 477 

Mission 477 

Missions  and  Missionary  Institutes. .  .  477 

Missions   (Protestant) 478 

Missions  in  India,  China,  Japan,  etc.  .  479 

Missions  in  South  America 480 

Missions  (Early)  in  the  United  States 

and  Canada 480 

Mission  Work  (Statistics  of) 481 

Mitre 483 

Mitylene 483 

Mixed  Marriages 483 

Mizraim 483 

Moab 483 

Mohammedanism 483 

Mohler  (John  A.) 484 

Molinism 484 

Molinos  (Michael  of) 484 

Monarchians 484 

Monastery 484 

Monasticism 484 

Monk 485 

Monogram 485 

Monophysites 485 

Monothelites 486 

Monseigneur 486 

Monstrance 486 

Montalembert  (Charles  F.) 486 

Montanists 486 

Month  (Hebrew) 487 

Morality  of  Human  Actions 487 

Moravian  Brethren 487 


INDEX  OF  ARTICLES 


741 


PAGE 

More  (Sir  Thomas) 488 

Moria 488 

Mormons 488 

Mortal  Sin 488 

Mosaic  Cosmogony 488 

Mosaism 488 

Moses 489 

Mozarabic  Liturgy 489 

Mozart  (Wolfgang  A.) 489 

Muratori  (Ludovico  A.) 490 

Muratorian  Fragment 490 

Murder 490 

Music  (Sacred) 490 

Mysia 491 

Mystery  491 

Mysticism 491 

Myth •. 491 

N 

Naama 492 

Naaman 492 

Naas 492 

Nabal 492 

Nabataneans 492 

Nabopolassar 492 

Naboth 492 

Nabuchodonosor  1 492 

Nabuchodonosor  II 492 

Nadab 492 

Nahum 493 

Naim 493 

Nantes  (Edict  of) 493 

Nathan , 493 

Nathinites 493 

Nativity 493 

Nazarenes 493 

Nazareth 493 

Nazarites 493 

Neale  (Leonard) 493 

Neapolis 494 

Nebo 494 

Nechao 494 

Necrology 494 

Necromancy 494 

Nectarius 494 

Nehemias 494 

Nemesius 494 

Neophytes 494 

Nephtali 494 

Nepomuk  ( John  of) 495 

Nergel   495 

Neri  (St.  Philip) 495 

Nero 495 

Nestorianism 495 

Netherlands  (Protestantism  in  the)..  495 

Netherlands  (Worship  in) 496 

Neumann  (John  N.) 496 


PAGE 

Newman  (John  H.) 496 

New  Mexico  Missions 497 

New  Zealand  (The  Church  in) 497 

Nicanor 497 

Nice  (Councils  of) 497 

Nicephorus  (St.) 497 

Nicholas  (name  of  5  Popes) 497 

Nicholas  (St.) 498 

Nicholas  of  Clemanges 498 

Nicholas  of  Cusa 498 

Nicodemus 498 

Nicolaitans 498 

Nicopolis 498 

Nilus  (St.) 498 

Nimbus 499 

Ninian  (St.). .  . .- 499 

Ninive 499 

Nisan 499 

No 499 

Nobili  (Robert  de) 499 

Nocturn 499 

Nod 499 

Noe 499 

Noemi 500 

Noetius 500 

Nominalism 500 

Nomocanon 500 

Nonconformists 500 

None 500 

Nonjurors 500 

Norbert   (St.) 500 

North-American  Missions 500 

Norway  (The  Church  in) 500 

Notker 500 

Notre  Dame 500 

Novatian 500 

Novatians 501 

Novena 501 

Novice 501 

Numbers  (Book  of) 501 

Nun 501 

Nunc   Dimittis 501 

Nuncio 501 

o 

Gates   (Titus) 502 

Oath 502 

Oblates 502 

Oblation 503 

Occam  or  Ockam  (William) 503 

Ochozias 503 

O'Connell    (Daniel) 503 

Octavarium 503 

Octave 503 

CEcolampadius  (John) 503 

CEcumenical  Council 503 

Offertory 503 


742 


INDEX  OF  ARTICLES 


PAGE 

Office  (The  Divine)    503 

Og 503 

Oils  (Holy) 503 

Olaf  (St.)' 504 

Old  Catholics 504 

Olier   (Jacques) 504 

Olives  (Mount  of) 504 

Olivetans 504 

Omer  (St.) 504 

Omophorion 5**4 

Onkelos 504 

Ontology  and  Ontologism 504 

Ophir 505 

Ophites 505 

Optatus  (St.) 505 

Optimism *• 505 

Opus  Operatum 506 

Orangemen 506 

Orarium 506 

Orate  Fratres 506 

Oratorians 506 

Oratory 507 

Oratory  (The)  of  Jesus 507 

Ordeals 507 

Order  (Holy) 507 

Order  (Third) 509 

Orders  (Anglican) 509 

Orders  (Military) 509 

Orders  (Minor) 509 

Orders  (Monastic) 510 

Ordinary 510 

Ordination 510 

Organ 510 

Ordo 511 

Origen 511 

Oriental  Rites  and  Churches 511 

Original  Sin 514 

Orosius  (Paul) 514 

Osee,  Prophet 514 

Osee,  King 514 

Osiander  (Andreas) 514 

Ostiary 514 

Oswald  (St.) 514 

Otho  (St.) 514 

Othoniel 515 

Ozias 515 

P 

Pacca  (Bartholomew) 515 

Paccanarists 515 

Pachomius  (St.)   515 

Pacianus  (St.) 515 

Paganism 515 

Painting 516 

Palamites 516 

Palestine 516 

Palestrina  (Giovanni  P.  da) 517 


PAGE 

Pall 517 

Pall  (Funeral) 517 

Palladius  (St.) 1^17 

Palladius  of  Galatia 517 

Pallavicini  (Pietro  S.) 517 

Pallium 517 

Palm  Sunday 518 

Palmyra 518 

Pamphylia 518 

Pamphylus  (St.) 518 

Pange  Lingua 518 

Pantaenus  (St.) 518 

Pantheism 519 

Pantheon 520 

Papa 520 

Papal  States  520 

Papebroch  ( Daniel ) , 520 

Paphnutius   (St.) 520 

Paphos 520 

Papias  (St.) 520 

Parable 520 

Parabolani 520 

Paraclete 520 

Paracleticon 520 

Paradise   (Earthly) 521 

Paralipomena 523 

Parasceve 523 

Parents   (Duties  of    Children   toward 

Their) 523 

Parents  (Duties  of,  to  Their  Children)  523 

Parish  and  Parish  Priest 524 

Parker  (Matthew) 524 

Parsism 524 

Parthia 524 

Paschal  (name  of  2  Popes) 524 

Paschal  Candle 525 

Paschal  Precept 525 

Paschasius  Radbertus 525 

Passionists 525 

Passion  Play 525 

Passion   Sunday 525 

Passover 526 

Pastor ; 526 

Pastoral  Letter 526 

Pastoral  Staff 526 

Patara 526 

Patarini 526 

Paten 526 

Pater  Noster 527 

Patmos 527 

Patriarchs 527 

Patriarchs  (Ancient) 527 

Patrick  (St.) 527 

Patrimony  of  St.  Peter 528 

Patripassians 528 

Patrology   528 

Patron  Saint 529 

Paul  (name  of  5  Popes) 529 


INDEX  OF  ARTICLES 


743 


Paul  (St.)  the  Apostle 529 

Paul  (St.),  Hermit 530 

Paul  (St.)  of  Constantinople 530 

Paul  of  the  Cross 530 

Paul  of  Samosata 530 

Paul  (Vincent  de) 530 

Paula  (St.) 530 

Paulianists '. 53^ 

Paulicians 53^ 

Paulinus  (St.) 53^ 

Paulinus  (St.)  of  Treves 531 

Paulinus  (St.)  of  Acquileia 531 

Paulist  Fathers 53' 

Pax 531 

Pax  Vobis 531 

Pectoral  Cross 531 

Pelagius  (name  of  2  Popes) 531 

Pelagius  and  Pelagianism 531 

Penance  (Sacrament  of) 532 

Penance  Books 533 

Penitential   Discipline 533 

Penitential   Psalms 533 

Penitentiary 534 

Penitentiary's  Court 534 

Pentateuch  (Authenticity  of  the)....   534 

Pentecost 548 

Pepin  the  Short 548 

Pepuzians 548 

Pergamum 548 

Perge 548 

Persecutions 548 

Perseverance 549 

Persia 550 

Persia  (Christianity  in) 550 

Peschito 551 

Pessimism 551 

Petavius 551 

Peter  (St.)  the  Apostle 551 

Peter  (Epistles  of  St.) 551 

Peter  (St.)  of  Alexandria 551 

Peter  Chrysologus  (St.) 551 

Peter  de  Bruys ^51 

Peter  in  Rome 551 

Peter  Lombard 552 

Peter  Nolasco  (St.) 552 

Peter  of  Alcantara  (St.) 552 

Peter's  Pence 552 

Peter  the  Hermit 552 

Peter  the  Venerable 553 

Petrines 553 

Petrobusians 553 

Phacee 553 

Phaceia 553 

Phaleg 553 

Pharan 553 

Pharao 554 

Pharisees 554 

Pheresites 554 


PAGE 

Philadelphia 554 

Philastrius   (St.) 554 

Philemon 554 

Philip  (St.)  the  Apostle 554 

Philip  (St.)  the  Deacon 554 

Philippians  (Epistle  to  the) 554 

Philippine  Islands  (Church  in  the) 554 

Philip  the  Fair 555 

Philip  the  Tetrarch 555 

Philistines 555 

Philo  the  Jew 555 

Philosophy 555 

Philostratus 556 

Phoenicia 556 

Photinus 557 

Photius 557 

Phrygia 557 

Phul 557 

Phylacteries 557 

Piarists 557 

Picpus 557 

Pietism 557 

Pilate  (Pontius) 557 

Pilgrim  and  Pilgrimages 557 

Pirkheimer  (Wilibald  ) 558 

Pisa  (Council  of) 558 

Piscina 558 

Pistoja  (Synod  of) 558 

Pistorius  (John) 558 

Pitra  (John  Baptist) 558 

Pius  (name  of  9  Popes) 559 

Placet 561 

Placidus  (St.) 561 

Plagues  of  Egypt 561 

Plain   Chant 561 

Platonism 561 

Pliny  the  Younger 5^^ 

Plotinus 562 

Plymouth  Brethern 562 

Poland  (Christianity  in) 562 

Pole  (Reginald) 562 

Polycarp   (St.) 562 

Polychronius 563 

Polygamy 563 

Polyglot  Bibles 563 

Polynesia  (Missions  in) 564 

Polytheism 564 

Pombal  (Marquis  de) '564 

Pontianus  (St.) 564 

Pontifical 564 

Pontus 564 

Poor  Man  of  Lyons 564 

Pope 564 

Pope  (Election  of  the) 565 

Pope  (Temporal  Power  of  the) 567 

Pope  (Prerogatives  of  the) 567 

Popes  (Future) 569 

Popes  (List  of) 569 


744 


INDEX  OF  ARTICLES 


PAGE 

Porphyrius 572 

Portiuncula 573 

Port  Royal  (Monastery  of) 573 

Portugal   (Worship  in) 573 

Possession  (Diabolical) 573 

Post- Communion 574 

Postulant 574 

Pothinus   (St.) 574 

Power   (Temporal   and  Spiritual) 574 

Pragmatic  Sanction 575 

Prayer 575 

Prayer  (The  Lord's)    577 

Prayer  (Mental) 577 

Praxeans 577 

Preacher 578 

Preaching  Friars 578 

Preadamites 578 

Precious  Blood  (Congregation  of  the 

Most) 578 

Preconization 578 

Predestination 578 

Predestined  (Number  of  the) 579 

Predetermination 579 

Pre-existence  of   Souls 579 

Preface 580 

Prefect  Apostolic 580 

Prelates 580 

Premonstratensians 580 

Presanctification  (Mass  of) 581 

Presbyterians 581 

Presbytery 581 

Prescience 581 

Presence  (Real) 582 

Presentation 582 

Presentation  (Feast  of  the) 582 

Preston  (Thomas  S.) 5S2 

Priest 582 

Primate 582 

Prior 583 

Priscillianists 583 

Probabilism 583 

Processions 584 

Proclamation 585 

Proclus  (St.) 585 

Profanation  of  a  Church  or  Cemetery  585 

Profession  (Religious) 585 

Profession  of  Faith 586 

Promise  (Divine) 586 

Propoganda  of  the  Faith 586 

Propoganda    of    Lyons 587 

Prophets  and  Prophecies 587 

Prophets  (Chronological  Table  of  the)  589 

Prophets  (False) 590 

Prophets  of  Holland 590 

Property 590 

Proselytes 592 

Prosper(  St.) 592 

Protestantism  (Causes  and  Effects  of)  592 


PAGE 

Prothesis 593 

Protocanonicals 593 

Protomartyr 593 

Protonotaries 593 

Proverbs 593 

Providence 594 

Provincial 594 

Prudentius e^ 

Psalms   ggj^ 

Psalter 595 

Pulcheria  (St.) 595 

Punishment  (Eternal) 595 

Purcell  (John  Baptist) : 595 

Purgatory 595 

Purification \ 595 

Purification  ( Feast  of  the) 596 

Piirim 596 

Puritans 596 

Puteoli 596 

Puseysm 596 

Pyx 596 

Q 

Quadragesima 596 

Quadratus  (St.) 596 

Quakers 597 

Quartodecimans 597 

Quesnel  (Pasquier) 597 

Quietism 597 

Quinisextum  Concilium 597 

Quinquagesima 597 

Quirinius 597 

R 

Rabanus  Maurus 597 

Rabbath  or  Rabbath-Ammon 597 

Rabbi T . . .   597 

Rab-mag  or  Reb-mag 598 

Rab-saces 598 

Rab-saris 598 

Rabulas   (St.) 598 

Raca 598 

Rachel 598 

Radbertus  Paschasius 598 

Rages 598 

Rahab 598 

Rama 598 

Ramathaim-Sophim 598 

Raphael 598 

Raphia 598 

Raphidim 598 

Rappe  (Amadeus) 598 

Raskolniks 599 

Rationalism 599 

Ratisbonne  (Alphonse  M.) 600 

Ratisbonne  (Maria  Theodor) 600 


INDEX  OF  AR  TICLES 


745 


PAGE 

Ratramus 600 

Ravignan  (Gustave  X.  L.) 600 

Raymond  of  Pennaforte 600 

Realism 600 

Reason  and  Faith 600 

Recollects 600 

Rector 601 

Redeemer  and  Redemption 601 

Redemptorists 602 

Reformation  (Causes  and  Effects  of).   602 

Regalia 602 

Regeneration 602 

Regina  Coeli 602 

Reifenstuel  (Anaclet) 602 

Relics 602 

Religion  and  Virtue  of  Religion 602 

Religion  and  History 603 

Religions  (Approximate  State  of ).  . .  .  605 

Remigius  (St.) 605 

Remonstrants 606 

Renan  (Joseph   E.) 606 

Reprobation 606 

Rescripts 607 

Reservation  of  Cases 607 

Residence  (Duty  of) 607 

Resignation 607 

Responsory 607 

Restitution : 607 

Resurrection 608 

Retreat 609 

Reuch  (Francis  H. ) 609 

Reuchlin  (John) 609 

Revelation 609 

Revelation    (Primitive) 610 

Revolution  (The  French) 61 1 

Rhodes 611 

Rhodon 6i  i 

Ricci(Lavifrence) 611 

Ricci  (Matthew) 612 

Ricci  (Scipio) 612 

Richard  of  St.  Victor 612 

Richelieu  ( Armand  de) 6i3 

Rimini  (Council  of) 612 

Ring  (Episcopal) 612 

Ring  (Fisherman's) 612 

Ritual 612 

Robert  of  Abrissel 612 

Robert  of  Molesme 612 

Roboam 612 

Rochet 612 

Rogation  Days 612 

Romans  (Epistle  to  the) 613 

Romanus   (St. ) 613 

Romuald  (St.) 613 

Ronge  ( John) 613 

Rosary 613 

Rasati  (  Joseph) 614 

Roscelin  ( John) 614 


'PAGE 

Rose  (St.)  of  Lima 614 

Rosicrucians 614 

Rosmini-Serbati 614 

Rota 614 

Rubrics 614 

Rufinus  (Tyrannius) 615 

Rule  of  Faith 615 

Rupertus   (St. ) 615 

Russian  Church * 615 

Ruth 615 

Ruthenian  Catholics 615 

Ryan  (Patrick  J.) 615 

s 

Saba 616 

Sabaoth 616 

Sabas  (St. ) 616 

Sabatine  Bull 616 

Sabbath 616 

Sabbathians 6j6 

Sabeans 616 

Sabellius 616 

Sabina  (St.) 616 

Sabinianus  (St.) 616 

Sackcloth 617 

Sacraments 617 

Sacrament     (Congregations      of     the 

Blessed) 618 

Sacramentals 618 

Sacramentarians 618 

Sacramentary . . .  .• 618 

Sacred  Heart 619 

Sacrifice 619 

Sacrifices  of  the  Old  Law 620 

Sacrilege 621 

Sacristan 621 

Sacristy 621 

Sadducees 621 

Sadoc 621 

Sainte  Anne  de  Beaupre 622 

Saints  (Veneration  of  the) 622 

Salem    623 

Sales  (St.  Francis  of)    623 

Salesians > 623 

Salle  (The  Abbe  de  la) 623 

Salmanasar 623 

Salome 623 

Salomon 623 

Salvation  Army 623 

Salvation  (No)  Outside  the  Church. .  .  623 

Salve  Regina 625 

Salvianus 625 

Samaria 625 

Samaritan  Pentateuch 626 

Samaritans 626 

Samos 626 

Samosathians 626 

Samothracia 626 


746 


INDEX  OF  ARTICLES 


PAGE 

Samson 626 

Samuel 626 

Sanbenito 627 

Sanchez  (Thomas) 627 

Sanctuary 627 

Sanctus 627 

Sanhedrin 627 

San  Jago  (Order  of) .627 

Sara ' 627 

Sarabites 627 

Sardica 627 

Sarepta 627 

Sargon 627 

Satan 627 

Satisfaction 628 

Satolli  (Francis) 628 

Saturday  (Holy) .     628 

Saul 629 

Saviour 629 

Savonarola  (Jerome) 629 

Scapular  of  Mount  Carmel 629 

Scepticism    631 

Schism 631 

Schism  of  England 631 

Schism  of  the  East 632 

Schism  of  the  West 633 

Scholastica  ( St.) 633 

Schools  (Brothers  of  the  Christian) .  .  633 

Schools  and  Universities 633 

Science  and  Revelation 635 

Science  and  the  Formation  of  the  Uni- 
verse    638 

Scotland  (Evangelization  of) 640 

Scotland  (Protestantism  in) 640 

Scotland  (The  Church  in) 640 

Scotus  ( John) 640 

Scribe 640 

Sebastian  (St. ) 640 

Sebueans  or  Sebuseans 641 

Secret  Discipline 641 

Secret  of  Confession 641 

Secret  Societies 642 

Secular  Clergy 642 

Secularization 642 

Sedecias 642 

Sedulius  (Coelius) 642 

Seleucia 642 

Sem 642 

Semi-Arians 642 

Seminary 642 

Semi-Pelagians 643 

Sennaar 643 

Sennacherib • 643 

Sensualism 643 

Separatists .   644 

Sepharvaim 644 

Sephora 644 

Septuagesima  Sunday 644 


PAGE 

Septuagint 644 

Sequence 644 

Seraphim 645 

Sergius  (name  of  4  Popes) 645 

Sergius  Paulus 645 

Sermon 645 

Serpent 646 

Serra  ( Junipero) 646 

Servetus  (Michael) 646 

Servites 646 

Servus  Sers'orum  Dei 647 

Severians 647 

Severinus  (St.) 647 

Severinus  (St.),  Pope 647 

Sexagesima   Sunday 647 

Shakers 647 

Shalmaneser  III.  and  V ...   647 

Sheol 647 

Shepherd  (Sisters  of  the  Good) 647 

Shrine 647 

Shrovetide 647 

Sichem ■  .  647 

Sidon 647 

Sidonius  Apollinaris  (St.) 648 

Sign  of  the  Cross 648 

Sila  or  Silo 648 

Silas  or  Silvanus 648 

Siloe 6.^8 

Silverius  (St.) 648 

Simeon 648 

Simeon  (St.),  aged  Jew 648 

Simeon  (St.),  Disciple 648 

Simeon  Stylites 648 

Simon  (St.) 648 

Simon  Magus 648 

Simon  Stock    649 

Simony 649 

Simplicius  (St.) 649 

Sin 649 

Sin  (Original) 651 

Sins  (Capital) 653 

Sinai 653 

Sion 654 

Sion  (Missionary  Priests  of) 654 

Sion  (Notre  Dame  of) 654 

Siricius  (St.) 654 

Sirmium  (Councils  of) 654 

Sisara 654 

Sisinnius ^54 

Sisterhood 654 

Sisters  of  the  Free  Spirit 657 

Sixtus  (name  of  5  Popes) 657 

Slavery  and  the  Church 657 

Slippers  and  Stockings 658 

Smet  (Peter  J.  de) 659 

Socialism 659 

Societies  (Secret) 659 

Socinianism ,   659 


INDEX  OF  ARTICLES 


7A7 


PAGE 

Socrates 660 

Sodom 660 

Solomon 660 

Somaschians 660 

Sophonias 660 

Sophronius  (St. ) 660 

Sorbonne ,. 660 

Sorin  (Edouard) 660 

Soter  (St.) 661 

Soul 661 

South  Africa  (Catholicity  in) 661 

Sozomenus  (Hermias) 663 

Spain  (Worship  in) 663 

Spalding  (Martin  J.) 663 

Spener  (Philip  J.) 663 

Spiritualists 663 

Sponsors 663 

Stabat  Mater 663 

Staff  or  Crosier 663 

Station 663 

Stations  or  Way  of  the  Cross 664 

Stephen  (name  of  10  Popes) 664 

Stephen  (St.),  Deacon 665 

Stephen  (St.),  King 665 

Stephen  Harding  (St.) 665 

Stigmata 665 

Stole 665 

Stylites 666 

Suarez  (Francis) 666 

Subdeacon 666 

Subunists 666 

Suffragan 666 

Suicide 666 

Sulpicians 667 

Sulpicius  Severus 667 

Sunday 667 

Supererogation  (Works  of) 667 

Superstition 667 

Supralapsarians 667 

Surplice 667 

Susanna 668 

Suspension 668 

Sweden  (The  Church  in) 668 

Swedenborg  (Emanuel  of) 668 

Swithin  (St.) 668 

Switzerland  (Christianity  in) 668 

Switzerland  (Worship  in) 668 

Syllabus 669 

Sylvester  (name  of  3  Popes) 669 

Symachus,  Pope ^ 669 

Symachus,  Writer 669 

Symbol 669 

Synagogue 669 

Synaxis 669 

Syncellus  (George) 669 

Synesius 669 

Synod  (Diocesan) 669 

Syrian  Christians 670 


T 

PAGE 

Tabernacle 670 

Tabernacle  (Eucharistic) 670 

Tabor 670 

Taborites 670 

Tache  (Alexandre  A.) 670 

Tadmor 671 

Tanchelin 671 

Tantum  Ergo 671 

Tarasius  (St.) 671 

Taschereau  (Elzear  A.) 671 

Tatian 671 

Taxa  Innocentiana 671 

Te  Deum 672 

Teglath-Phalasar 672 

Telesphorus  (St. ) 672 

Temperance 673 

Templars 672 

Templ%  of  Jerusalem 672 

Temporal  Power  of  the  Pope 672 

Tenebrse 672 

Tertiary • 673 

Tertullian 673 

Testament 673 

Tetrarch 673 

Tetzel  (John) 673 

Teutonic  Knights 673 

Thabor 673 

Thaddeus 673 

Thanksgiving  Day 673 

Theatines 673 

Theban  Legion 674 

Thecla  (St.) ' 674 

Theiner  (Augustin) 674 

Theism 674 

Theocatognosts 674 

Theocracy 674 

Theodicy 674 

Theodore  (name  of  2  Popes) 675 

Theodore  Ascidas 675 

Theodore  of  Canterbury  (St.) 676 

Theodore  of  Heraclea 676 

Theodore  of  Mopsuestia 676 

Theodore  of  Pharan    676 

Theodore  the  Reader 676 

Theodoret  of  Cyrus 676 

Theodosius  the  Great 676 

Theodotus 676 

Theology 677 

Theophanes  (Isaurus) 679 

Theophilus  (St. ) 679 

Theophilus  of  Alexandria 679 

Theosophy 679 

Theotokos 679 

Therapeutae 679 

Theresa  (St.) 679 

Thessalonians  (Epistle  to  the) 680 

Thomas  Didymus 680 


748 


INDEX  OF  ARTICLES 


PAGE 

Thomas  Aquinas  (St.) 680 

Thomas  a  Becket  (St.) 680 

Thomas  a  Kempis 681 

Thomas  of  Celano 681 

Thomas  of  Villanova  (St.) 681 

Thomism  (Doctrine  of  St.  Thomas).  .  681 

Thomism 683 

Three  Chapter  Controversy 683 

Thummim 683 

Thurible 683 

Thurificati 683 

Thursday  (Holy) 683 

Thyatira 683 

Tiara 683 

Tiberias 683 

Tiberias  (Sea  of) 684 

Timothy  (St.) 684 

Tithes 684 

Title  (Catholic) .*  . .  684 

Titular  Bishop 684 

Titus  (St.) 684 

Tobias 685 

Tobias  (Book  of) 685 

Toleration  (Religious) 685 

Tonsure 688 

Tractarians 688 

Tractus 688 

Tradition 688 

Traditionalism 689 

Traditores 690 

Transubstantiation 690 

Trappists 691 

Trent  (Council  of) 691 

Trinitarians 692 

Trinity  (The  Most  Holy) 692 

Trinity  Sunday 694 

Trisagion 694 

Troas 694 

Truce  of  God 694 

Trullan  Synods 694 

Tunic 694 

Turibius  (St.) 694 

u 

Ubiquitarians 694 

Umias 694 

Unigenitus  (Bull) 695 

Unitarians 695 

United  Armenians,  etc 695 

United  Brethren  in  Christ 695 

Unity  of  God 695 

Unity  of  the  Church   696 

Universalists  ...    696 

Universities 696 

Ur 696 

Urban  (name  of  8  Popes) 696 

Urias 697 


PAGE 

Urim  and  Thummim ^ 69'/ 

Ursula  (St.) 697 

Ursulines 697 

Utraquists 698 

V 

Valentinians 698 

Valentinus gog 

Valesians gog 

Vallombrosa  (Order  of) 698 

Vatican  Council 698 

Vatican  Palace.  .  , 699 

Vaughan  (Herbert) 700 

Veil  of  the  Religious 700 

Veil  (The)  in  Liturgy 700 

Veronica  (St.) .  700 

Vespers 700 

Vestments  (Sacred) 701 

Viaticum 702 

Vicar  Apostolic 702 

Vicar  (Capitular) 702 

Vicar  General ^02 

Vicar  or  Assistant 702 

Victor  of  Africa 702 

Victor  (name  of  3  Popes) 702 

Victor  (St. )    703 

Victorinus  Petaviensis. 703 

Victorinus  (Fabius  M.) 703 

Vienne 703 

Vigil 703 

Vigilantius 703 

Vigilius,  Pope 703 

Vigilius  of  Thapsus 703 

Vincent  (St.) 703 

Vincent  of  Beauvais 704 

Vincent  of  Lerins  (St. ) 704 

Vincent  of  Paul  (St. ) 704 

Virginity  ...    704 

Virtue 704 

Virtues  (Cardinal) 704 

Virtues  (Theological) 705 

Vision  (Intuitive) 705 

Visit  ad  Limina  SS.  Apostolorum. . . ,  706 

Visitation  (Episcopal) 706 

Visitation  (Feast  of  the) 706 

Visitation  (Order  of  the) 706 

Vitalianus 707 

Voltaire  ( Franjois  M.  A.  de) 707 

Vow 707 

Vulgate 707 

w 

Waldenses 708 

Walsh  (William) 708 

Washing  of  Feet. 709 

Washing  of  Hands 709 

Water  (Holy) 709 


INDEX  OF  ARTICLES 


749 


Weights  and  Measures 710 

Wesel  (John) 710 

Wesley  (John) 710 

Westphalia  (Peace  of) 710 

Whitefield  (George) 1^ 

Whitsunday 7' 

Wilfrid  (St.) 7^ 

Wilibrord  (St.) .7^ 

Will  (Free)  and  Grace 71 

Wills  in  Christ 71 

William  of  Champeaux 71 

William  of  Malmesbury 71 

William  of  Orange 7^ 

William  of  St.  Amour 71 

William  of  Tyre 71 

Williams  (David)    712 

Windthorst  (Ludwig) 712 

Winebrenner  (John) 712 

Winfrid 712 

Wisdom  (Book  of)..  .  .  , 712 

Wiseman  (Nicholas  P. ) 712 

Witchcraft 712 

Wolsey  (Thomas) 713 

Wood  (James  F.) 713 

Works  (Necessity  of  Good) 713 

Works  of  Supererogation 713 

Works  (Satisfactory) 713 

Works  (Servile) 714 

Worms  (Concordat  of) 7^4 

Worship 714 

Worship  (Ancestor) 715 

Worship  and  Its  Development 71.S 

Writers  (Ecclesiastical) 717 


PAGE 

Wulfram  (St.) 717 

Wycliffe  (John) 717 

X 

Xaverian  Brothers 718 

Xavier  (Francis) 718 

Xavier  (Jerome) 718 

Ximenes  de  Cisneros  (Francis) 718 

Y 

Year  (Ecclesiastical) 718 

Young  (Brigham) 718 

Yves  (St.) 718 

z 

Zabulon,  City 719 

Zabulon 719 

Zacharias,  King 719 

Zacharias 7^9 

Zacharias,  Prophet 7^9 

Zacharias,  Priest ...   719 

Zacharias  (St.),  Pope 719 

Zacheus 719 

Zambri 719 

Zeno  (St.) 720 

Zephyrinus  (St.) 720 

Zinzendorf 720 

Ziska 720 

Zoroaster  or  Zarathustra 720 

Zosimus  (St.) 721 

Zwickau  (Prophets  of) 721 

Zwingle  and  Zwinglians 721 


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